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Bengalis

March 14, 2023

This article is about ethnic Bengalis from various countries. For the citizens of Bangladesh who are overwhelmingly Bengalis, see Bangladeshis.

Bengalis (singular Bengali Bengali: বাঙালি, বাঙ্গালী [baŋali, baŋgali] (listen)), also rendered as Bangalee[16] or the Bengali people,[17] are an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group originating from and culturally affiliated with the Bengal region of South Asia. The current population is divided between the independent country Bangladesh and the Indian states of West Bengal and Tripura, Barak Valley, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Jharkhand and part of Meghalaya and Manipur.[18] Most of them speak Bengali, a language from the Indo-Aryan language family.

Bengalis
  • বাঙ্গালী
  • বাঙালি
Total population
c. 285 million[1][2][3]
Regions with significant populations
 Bangladesh166,840,302[4][5]
 India107,228,917[6][7]
 Pakistan3,000,000[8]
Languages
Bengali and its dialects
Religion
[9][10][11][12][13][14][15]
Related ethnic groups
Indo-Aryan peoples
This article contains Bengali text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols.

Bengalis are the third-largest ethnic group in the world, after the Han Chinese and Arabs.[19] Thus, they are the largest ethnic group within the Indo-Europeans and the largest ethnic group in South Asia. Apart from Bangladesh and the Indian states of West Bengal, Tripura, Manipur, and Assam's Barak Valley, Bengali-majority populations also reside in India's union territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, with significant populations in the Indian states of Arunachal Pradesh, Delhi, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Mizoram, Nagaland and Uttarakhand as well as Nepal's Province No. 1.[20] The global Bengali diaspora (Bangladeshi Bengalis and Indian Bengalis) have well-established communities in the Middle East, Pakistan, Myanmar, the United Kingdom, the United States, Malaysia, Italy, Singapore, Maldives, Canada, Australia, Japan and South Korea.

Bengalis are a diverse group in terms of religious affiliations and practices. Today, approximately 67% are adherents of Islam with a large Hindu minority and sizable communities of Christians and Buddhists. Bengali Muslims, who live mainly in Bangladesh, primarily belong to the Sunni denomination. Bengali Hindus, who live primarily in West Bengal, Tripura, Assam's Barak Valley, Jharkhand and Andaman and Nicobar Islands, generally follow Shaktism or Vaishnavism, in addition to worshipping regional deities.[21][22][23] There also exist small numbers of Bengali Christians, a large number of whom are descendants of Portuguese voyagers, as well as Bengali Buddhists, the bulk of whom belong to the Bengali-speaking Baruas in Chittagong and Rakhine (who should not be confused with other Buddhists of Bangladesh that belong to different ethnic groups).

Like every large culture group in history, Bengalis have greatly influenced and contributed to diverse fields, notably the arts and architecture, language, folklore, literature, politics, military, business, science and technology.

Etymology

Main article: Names of Bengal
 
The ancient political divisions of the Ganges delta.

The term Bengali is generally used to refer to someone whose linguistic, cultural or ancestral origins are from Bengal. The Indo-Aryan Bengalis are ethnically differentiated from the non-Indo-Aryan tribes inhabiting Bengal. Their ethnonym, Bangali, along with the native name of the language and region Bangla, are both derived from Bangālah, the Persian word for the region. Prior to Muslim expansion, there was no unitary territory by this name as the region was instead divided into numerous geopolitical divisions. The most prominent of these were Vaṅga (from which Bangālah is thought to ultimately derive from) in the south, Rāṛha in the west, Puṇḍravardhana and Varendra in the north, and Samataṭa and Harikela in the east. In ancient times, the people of this region identified themselves with respect to these divisions. Vedic texts such as the Mahābhārata makes mention of the Puṇḍra people.

The historic land of Vaṅga (bôngô in Bengali), situated in present-day Barisal,[24] is considered by early historians of the Abrahamic and Dharmic traditions to have originated from a man who had settled in the area though it is often dismissed as legend. Early Abrahamic genealogists had suggested that this man was Bang, a son of Hind who was the son of Ham (son of Noah).[25][26][27] In contrast, the Mahabharata, Puranas and the Harivamsha state that Vaṅga was the founder of the Vaṅga Kingdom and one of the adopted sons of King Vali. The land of Vaṅga later came to be known as Vaṅgāla (Bôngal) and its earliest reference is in the Nesari plates (805 CE) of Govinda III which speak of Dharmapāla as its king. The records of Rajendra Chola I of the Chola dynasty, who invaded Bengal in the 11th century, speak of Govindachandra as the ruler of Vaṅgāladeśa (a Sanskrit cognate to the word Bangladesh, which was historically a synonymous endonym of Bengal).[28][29] 16th-century historian Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak mentions in his ʿAin-i-Akbarī that the addition of the suffix "al" came from the fact that the ancient rajahs of the land raised mounds of earth 10 feet high and 20 in breadth in lowlands at the foot of the hills which were called "al".[30] This is also mentioned in Ghulam Husain Salim's Riyāz us-Salāṭīn.[25]

In 1352 CE, a Muslim nobleman by the name of Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah united the region into a single political entity known as the Bengal Sultanate. Proclaiming himself as Shāh-i-Bangālīyān,[31] it was in this period that the Bengali language also gained state patronage and corroborated literary development.[32][33] Thus, Ilyas Shah had effectively formalised the socio-linguistic identity of the region's inhabitants as Bengali, by state, culture and language.[34]

 
Parts of the Charyapada, a collection of ancient Buddhist hymns which mention the Bengalis, in display at the Rajshahi College Library.

History

Main articles: History of Bengal, History of Bangladesh, and History of West Bengal

Ancient history

 
Depiction of Gangaridai on a map by 11th-century polymath Ptolemy.
Further information: Anga, Gangaridai, Magadha, Pundra, Suhma and Vanga

Archaeologists have discovered remnants of a 4,000-year-old Chalcolithic civilisation in the greater Bengal region, and believe the finds are one of the earliest signs of settlement in the region.[35] However, evidence of much older Palaeolithic human habitations were found in the form of a stone implement and a hand axe in Rangamati and Feni districts of Bangladesh.[36]

Artefacts suggest that the Wari-Bateshwar civilisation, which flourished in present-day Narsingdi, date as far back as 1100 BC. Not far from the rivers, the port city was believed to have been engaged in foreign trade with Ancient Rome, Southeast Asia and other regions. The people of this civilisation live in bricked homes, walked on wide roads, used silver coins and iron weaponry among many other things. It is thought to be the oldest city in Bengal and in the eastern part of the subcontinent as a whole.[37]

It is thought that a man named Vanga settled in the area around 1000 BCE founding the Vanga Kingdom in southern Bengal. The Atharvaveda and the Hindu epic Mahabharata mentions this kingdom, along with the Pundra Kingdom in northern Bengal. The spread of Mauryan territory and promotion of Buddhism by its emperor Ashoka cultivated a growing Buddhist society among the people of present-day Bengal from the 2nd century BCE. Mauryan monuments as far as the Great Stupa of Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh mentioned the people of this region as adherents of Buddhism. The Buddhists of the Bengal region built and used dozens of monasteries, and were recognised for their religious commitments as far as Nagarjunakonda in South India.[38]

One of the earliest foreign references to Bengal is the mention of a land ruled by the king Xandrammes named Gangaridai by the Greeks around 100 BCE. The word is speculated to have come from Gangahrd ('Land with the Ganges in its heart') in reference to an area in Bengal.[39] Later from the 3rd to the 6th centuries CE, the kingdom of Magadha served as the seat of the Gupta Empire.

Middle Ages

 
Atiśa is recognised as one of the greatest figures of classical Buddhism, having inspired Buddhist thought from Tibet to Sumatra.
See also: Pala Empire, Sena dynasty, and Bengal Sultanate

One of the first recorded independent kings of Bengal was Shashanka,[40] reigning around the early 7th century, who is generally thought to have originated from Magadha, Bihar, just west of Bengal.[41] After a period of anarchy, a native ruler called Gopala came into power in 750 CE. He originated from Varendra in northern Bengal,[42] and founded the Buddhist Pala Empire.[43] Atiśa, a renowned Buddhist teacher from eastern Bengal, was instrumental in the revival of Buddhism in Tibet and also held the position of Abbot at the Vikramashila monastery in Bihar.

The Pala Empire enjoyed relations with the Srivijaya Empire, the Tibetan Empire, and the Arab Abbasid Caliphate. Islam first appeared in Bengal during Pala rule, as a result of increased trade between Bengal and the Middle East.[44] The people of Samatata, in southeastern Bengal, during the 10th century were of various religious backgrounds. Tilopa was a prominent Hindu priest from modern-day Chittagong, though Samatata was ruled by the Buddhist Chandra dynasty. During this time, the Arab geographer Al-Masudi and author of The Meadows of Gold, travelled to the region where he noticed a Muslim community of inhabitants residing in the region.[45] In addition to trade, Islam was also being introduced to the people of Bengal through the migration of Sufi missionaries prior to conquest. The earliest known Sufi missionaries were Syed Shah Surkhul Antia and his students, most notably Shah Sultan Rumi, in the 11th century. Rumi settled in present-day Netrokona, Mymensingh where he influenced the local ruler and population to embrace Islam.

 
Ghazi Pir is thought to have lived in the Sundarbans some time between the 12th to 13th century.

The Pala dynasty was later followed by a shorter reign of the Hindu Sena Empire. Subsequent Muslim conquests helped spread Islam throughout the region.[46] Bakhtiyar Khalji, a Turkic general, defeated Lakshman Sen of the Sena dynasty and conquered large parts of Bengal. Consequently, the region was ruled by dynasties of sultans and feudal lords under the Bengal Sultanate for the next few hundred years. Many of the people of Bengal began accepting Islam through the influx of missionaries following the initial conquest. Sultan Balkhi and Shah Makhdum Rupos settled in the present-day Rajshahi Division in northern Bengal, preaching to the communities there. A community of 13 Muslim families headed by Burhanuddin also existed in the northeastern Hindu city of Srihatta (Sylhet), claiming their descendants to have arrived from Chittagong.[47] By 1303, hundreds of Sufi preachers led by Shah Jalal, who some biographers claim was a Turkistan-born Bengali,[48] aided the Muslim rulers in Bengal to conquer Sylhet, turning the town into Jalal's headquarters for religious activities. Following the conquest, Jalal disseminated his followers across different parts of Bengal to spread Islam, and became a household name among Bengali Muslims.

 
16th-century Portuguese painting of "Bengalis".

The establishment of a single united Bengal Sultanate in 1352 by Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah finally gave rise to a "Bengali" socio-linguistic identity.[31] The Ilyas Shahi dynasty acknowledged Muslim scholarship, and this transcended ethnic background. Usman Serajuddin, also known as Akhi Siraj Bengali, was a native of Gaur in western Bengal and became the Sultanate's court scholar during Ilyas Shah's reign.[49][50][51] Alongside Persian and Arabic, the sovereign Sunni Muslim nation-state also enabled the language of the Bengali people to gain patronage and support, contrary to previous states which exclusively favoured Sanskrit, Pali and Persian.[32][33] The born-Hindu Sultan Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah funded the construction of Islamic institutions as far as Mecca and Madina in the Middle East. The people of Arabia came to know these institutions as al-Madaris al-Bangaliyyah (Bengali madrasas).

Mughal era

Main article: Bengal Subah
Further information: Muslin trade in Bengal and Mughal Empire
 
The Bengali artillery at the Battle of Plassey in 1757.
 
A painting by Shaikh Muhammad Amir of Karraya displaying a syce of Bengal holding two carriage horses.

The Mughal Empire conquered Bengal in the 16th century, ending the independent Sultanate of Bengal and defeating Bengal's rebellion Baro-Bhuiyan chieftains. Mughal general Man Singh conquered parts of Bengal including Dhaka during the time of Emperor Akbar and a few Rajput tribes from his army permanently settled around Dhaka and surrounding lands, integrating into Bengali society.[52] Akbar's preaching of the syncretic Din-i Ilahi, was described as a blasphemy by the Qadi of Bengal, which caused huge controversies in South Asia. In the 16th century, many Ulama of the Bengali Muslim intelligentsia migrated to other parts of the subcontinent as teachers and instructors of Islamic knowledge such as Ali Sher Bengali to Ahmedabad, Shah Manjhan to Sarangpur, Usman Bengali to Sambhal and Yusuf Bengali to Burhanpur.[53]

By the early 17th century, Islam Khan I had conquered all of Bengal and was integrated into a province known as the Bengal Subah. It was the largest subdivision of the Mughal Empire, as it also encompassed parts of Bihar and Odisha, between the 16th and 18th centuries.[citation needed] Described by some as the "Paradise of Nations"[54] and the "Golden Age of Bengal",[55][56] Bengalis enjoyed some of the highest living standards and real wages in the world at the time.[57] Singlehandedly accounting for 40% of Dutch imports outside the European continent,[58][59] eastern Bengal was globally prominent in industries such as textile manufacturing and shipbuilding,[60] and was a major exporter of silk and cotton textiles, steel, saltpeter, and agricultural and industrial produce in the world.[59]

Mughal Bengal eventually became a quasi-independent monarchy state ruled by the Nawabs of Bengal in 1717. Already observing the proto-industrialization, it made direct significant contribution to the first Industrial Revolution[61][62][63][64] (substantially textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution).

 
A Bengali woman in Dhaka clad in fine Bengali muslin, 18th century.

Bengal became the basis of the Anglo-Mughal War.[65][66] After the weakening of the Mughal Empire with the death of Emperor Aurangzeb in 1707, Bengal was ruled independently by three dynasties of Nawabs until 1757, when the region was annexed by the East India Company after the Battle of Plassey.

British colonisation

Main article: Bengal Presidency
Further information: Company rule in India and British Raj
 
W.C. Bonnerjee, co-founder and first president of Indian National Congress.

In Bengal, effective political and military power was transferred from the Afshar regime to the British East India Company around 1757–65.[67] Company rule in India began under the Bengal Presidency. Calcutta was named the capital of British India in 1772. The presidency was run by a military-civil administration, including the Bengal Army, and had the world's sixth earliest railway network. Great Bengal famines struck several times during colonial rule, notably the Great Bengal famine of 1770 and Bengal famine of 1943, each killing millions of Bengalis.

Under British rule, Bengal experienced deindustrialisation.[63] Discontent with the situation, numerous rebellions and revolts were attempted by the Bengali people. The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was initiated on the outskirts of Calcutta, and spread to Dhaka, Jalpaiguri and Agartala, in solidarity with revolts in North India. Havildar Rajab Ali commanded the rebels in Chittagong as far as Sylhet and Manipur. The failure of the rebellion led to the abolishment of the Mughal court completely and direct rule by the British Raj.

Many Bengali laborers were taken as coolies to the British colonies in the Caribbean during the 1830s. Workers from Bengal were chosen because they could easily assimilate to the climate of British Guyana, which was similar to that of Bengal.

Swami Vivekananda is considered a key figure in the introduction of Vedanta and Yoga in Europe and America,[68] and is credited with raising interfaith awareness, and bringing Hinduism to the status of a world religion during the 1800s.[69] On the other hand, Ram Mohan Roy led a socio-Hindu reformist movement known as Brahmoism which called for the abolishment of sati (widow sacrifice), child marriage, polytheism and idol worship.[70][71] In 1804, he wrote the Persian book Tuḥfat al-Muwaḥḥidīn (A Gift to the Monotheists) and spent the next two decades attacking the Kulin Brahmin bastions of Bengal.[72]

Independence movement

 
 
 
 
See also: Independence fighters from Bengal

Bengal played a major role in the Indian independence movement, in which revolutionary groups such as Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar were dominant. Many of the early proponents of the independence struggle, and subsequent leaders in the movement were Bengalis such as Shamsher Gazi, Chowdhury Abu Torab Khan, Hada Miah and Mada Miah, the Pagal Panthis led by Karim Shah and Tipu Shah, Haji Shariatullah and Dudu Miyan of the Faraizi movement, Titumir, Ali Muhammad Shibli, Alimuddin Ahmad, Prafulla Chaki, Surendranath Banerjee, Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani, Bagha Jatin, Khudiram Bose, Sarojini Naidu, Aurobindo Ghosh, Rashbehari Bose, and Sachindranath Sanyal.

Leaders such as Subhas Chandra Bose did not subscribe to the view that non-violent civil disobedience was the best way to achieve independence, and were instrumental in armed resistance against the British. Bose was the co-founder and leader of the Japanese-aligned Indian National Army (distinct from the army of British India) that challenged British forces in several parts of India. He was also the head of state of a parallel regime, the Azad Hind. A number of Bengalis died during the independence movement and many were imprisoned in the notorious Cellular Jail in the Andaman Islands.

Partitions of Bengal

Main articles: 1905 Partition of Bengal and 1947 Partition of Bengal
 
Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani, the co-founder and inaugural president of the Awami League.

The first partition in 1905 divided the Bengal region in British India into two provinces for administrative and development purposes. However, the partition stoked Hindu nationalism. This in turn led to the formation of the All India Muslim League in Dhaka in 1906 to represent the growing aspirations of the Muslim population. The partition was annulled in 1912 after protests by the Indian National Congress and Hindu Mahasabha.

The breakdown of Hindu-Muslim unity in India drove the Muslim League to adopt the Lahore Resolution in 1943, calling the creation of "independent states" in eastern and northwestern British India. The resolution paved the way for the Partition of British India based on the Radcliffe Line in 1947, despite attempts to form a United Bengal state that was opposed by many people.

Bangladesh Liberation War

Main article: Bangladesh Liberation War

The rise of self-determination and Bengali nationalism movements in East Bengal, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. This eventually culminated in the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War against the Pakistani military junta. The war caused millions of East Bengali refugees to take shelter in neighboring India, especially the Indian state of West Bengal, with Calcutta, the capital of West Bengal, becoming the capital-in-exile of the Provisional Government of Bangladesh. The Mukti Bahini guerrilla forces waged a nine-month war against the Pakistani military. The conflict ended after the Indian Armed Forces intervened on the side of Bangladeshi forces in the final two weeks of the war, which ended with the surrender of East Pakistan and the liberation of Dhaka on 16 December 1971. Thus, the newly independent People's Republic of Bangladesh was born from what was previously the East Pakistan province of Pakistan.

Geographic distribution

See also: Bangladeshi diaspora
 
Dean Mahomed is credited for introducing shampoo to the Europeans.
 
Large numbers of Bengalis have settled and established themselves in Banglatown.
 
I'tisam-ud-Din was the first educated Bengali and South Asian to have travelled to Europe.

Bengalis constitute the largest ethnic group in Bangladesh, at approximately 98% of the nation's inhabitants.[73] The Census of India does not recognise racial or ethnic groups within India,[74] the CIA Factbook estimated that there are 100 million Bengalis in India constituting 7% of the country's total population. In addition to West Bengal, Bengalis form the demographic majority in Assam's Barak Valley and Lower region as well as parts of Manipur.[18] The state of Tripura as well as the Andaman and Nicobar Islands union territory, which lies in the Bay of Bengal, are also home to a Bengali-majority population, most of whom are descendants of Hindus from East Bengal (now Bangladesh) that migrated there following the 1947 Partition of India.[75]: 3–4 [76][77] Bengali migration to the latter archipelago was also boosted by subsequent state-funded Colonisation Schemes by the Government of India.[78][79]

Bengali ethnic descent and emigrant communities are found primarily in other parts of the subcontinent, the Middle East and the Western World. Substantial populations descended from Bengali immigrants exist in Saudi Arabia, Pakistan and the United Kingdom where they form established communities of over 1 million people. The majority of the overseas Bengali diaspora are Muslims as the act of seafaring was traditionally prohibited in Hinduism; a taboo known as kala pani (black/dirty water).[80]

The introduction of Islam to the Bengali people has generated a connection to the Arabian Peninsula, as Muslims are required to visit the land once in their lifetime to complete the Hajj pilgrimage. Several Bengali sultans funded Islamic institutions in the Hejaz, which popularly became known by the Arabs as Bengali madrasas. As a result of the British conquest of Bengal, some Bengalis decided to emigrate to Arabia.[81] Notable examples include Mawlana Murad, an instructor of Islamic sciences based in Mecca in the early 1800s,[82] and Najib Ali Choudhury, a participant of the Battle of Shamli.[83] Notable people of Bengali-origin in the Middle East include the renowned author and journalist Ahmad Abd al-Ghafur Attar of Saudi Arabia and Qur'an translator Zohurul Hoque from Oman. The family of Princess Sarvath al-Hassan, wife of Jordanian prince Hassan bin Talal, are descended from the Suhrawardy family of Midnapore.[84]

Earliest records of Bengalis in the European continent date back to the reign of King George III of England during the 16th century. One such example is I'tisam-ud-Din, a Bengali Muslim cleric from Nadia in western Bengal, who arrived to Europe in 1765 with his servant Muhammad Muqim as a diplomat for the Mughal Empire.[85] Another example during this period is of James Achilles Kirkpatrick's hookah-bardar (hookah servant/preparer) who was said to have robbed and cheated Kirkpatrick, making his way to England and stylising himself as the Prince of Sylhet. The man, presumably from Sylhet in eastern Bengal, was waited upon by the Prime Minister of Great Britain William Pitt the Younger, and then dined with the Duke of York before presenting himself in front of the King.[86] Today, the British Bangladeshis are a naturalised community in the United Kingdom, running 90% of all South Asian cuisine restaurants and having established numerous ethnic enclaves across the country – most prominent of which is Banglatown in East London.[87]

Language

Main article: Bengali language

An important and unifying characteristic of Bengalis is that most of them use Bengali as their native tongue, believed to belong to the Indo-Iranian language family.[88] With about 226 million native and about 300 million total speakers worldwide, Bengali is one of the most spoken languages, ranked sixth in the world,[89][90] and is also used a lingua franca among other ethnic groups and tribes living within and around the Bengal region. Bengali is generally written using the Bengali script and evolved circa 1000–1200 CE from Magadhi Prakrit, thus bearing similarities to ancient languages such as Pali. Its closest modern relatives may include other Eastern Indo-Aryan languages such as Assamese, Odia and the Bihari languages. Though Bengali may have a historic legacy of borrowing vocabulary from languages such as Persian and Sanskrit,[88] modern borrowings primarily come from the English language.

 
Regional dialects form one of the determiners to the social stratification of Bengalis.

Various forms of the language are in use today and provide an important force for Bengali cohesion. These distinct forms can be sorted into three categories. The first is Classical Bengali (সাধু ভাষা Śadhu Bhaśa), which was a historical form restricted to literary usage up until the late British period. The second is Standard Bengali (চলিত ভাষা Čôlitô Bhaśa or শুদ্ধ ভাষা Śuddho Bhaśa), which is the modern literary form, and is based upon the dialects of the divided Nadia region (partitioned between Nadia and Kushtia). It is used today in writing and in formal speaking, for example, prepared speeches, some radio broadcasts, and non-entertainment content. The third and largest category by speakers would be Colloquial Bengali (আঞ্চলিক ভাষা Añčôlik Bhaśa or কথ্য ভাষা Kôththô Bhaśa). These refer to informal spoken language that varies by dialect from region to region.

Social stratification

 
Bengali schoolboys in the port city of Chittagong.

Bengali people may be broadly classified into sub-groups predominantly based on dialect but also other aspects of culture:

  • Bangals: This is a term used predominantly in Indian West Bengal to refer to East Bengalis – i.e. Bangladeshis as well as those whose ancestors originate from Eastern Bengal. The East Bengali dialects are known as Bangali. This group constitutes the majority of ethnic Bengalis. They originate from the mainland Bangladeshi regions of Dhaka, Mymensingh, Comilla and Barisal as well as Bengali-speaking areas in Lower Assam and Tripura.
  • Ghotis: This is the term favoured by the natives of West Bengal to distinguish themselves from other Bengalis.
    • The people of Purulia, and greater Manbhum, reside in far-western Bengal and have some regional differences with the mainland Ghotis via language and culture.
  • The region of North Bengal, which hosts Varendri and Rangpuri speakers, is divided between both West Bengal and Bangladesh, and they are normally categorised into the former two main groups depending on which side of the border they reside in even though they are culturally similar to each other regardless of international borders. The categorisation of North Bengalis into Ghoti or Bangal is contested. Rangpuri speakers can also be found in parts of Lower Assam, and the Shershahabadia community extend into Bihar.

Bengalis Hindus are socially stratified into four castes, called chôturbôrṇô. The caste system derived from Hindu system of bôrṇô (type, order, colour or class) and jāti (clan, tribe, community or sub-community), which divides people into four colours: White, Red, Yellow and Black. White people are Brahmôṇ, who are destined to be priests, teachers and preachers; Red people are Kkhôtriyô, who are destined to be kings, governors, warriors and soldiers; Yellow people are Bôiśśô, who are born to be cattle herders, ploughmen, artisans and merchants; and Black people are Shūdrô, who are born to be labourers and servants to the people of twice-born caste.[93][94] People from all caste denominations exist among Bengali Hindus. Ram Mohan Roy, who was born Hindu, founded the Brahmo Samaj which attempted to abolish the practices of casteism, sati and child marriage among Hindus.[70]

Religion

Main articles: Demographics of Bangladesh, West Bengal § Demographics, Tripura § Demographics, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands § Demographics
See also: Religion in Bangladesh, Hinduism in West Bengal, Bengali Buddhists, and Christianity in West Bengal
Religions among Bengalis[95][96][97][98][99][100][101]
Religions Percent
Islam
 
 71%
Hinduism
 
 28%
others
 
 1%

The largest religions practiced in Bengal are Islam and Hinduism.[102] Among all Bengalis, more than two-thirds are Muslims. The vast majority follow the Sunni denomination though there are also a small minority of Shias. The Bengali Muslims form a 90.4% majority in Bangladesh,[103] and a 30% minority among the ethnic Bengalis in whole India.[104][105][106][107][108] In West Bengal, Bengali Muslims form a 66.88% majority in Murshidabad district, the former seat of the Shia Nawabs of Bengal, a 51.27% majority in Malda, which contains the erstwhile capitals of the Sunni Bengal Sultanate, and they also number over 5,487,759 in the 24 Parganas.[109]

Just less than a third of all Bengalis are Hindus (predominantly, the Shaktas and Vaishnavists),[102] and as per as 2011 census report, they form a 70.54% majority in West Bengal, 50% plurality in Southern Assam's Barak Valley region,[110] 60% majority in the India's North Eastern state of Tripura,[111] 30% plurality in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, 9% significance population in India's Eastern state of Jharkhand[112] and an 8.54% minority in Bangladesh.[113][107] In Bangladesh, Hindus are mostly concentrated in Sylhet Division where they constitute 17.8% of the population, and are mostly populated in Chittagong Division where they number over 3 million. Hindus form a 56.41% majority in Dacope Upazila, a 51.69% majority in Kotalipara Upazila and a 51.22% majority in Sullah Upazila. In terms of population, Bangladesh is the third largest Hindu populated country of the world, just after India and Nepal. The total Hindu population in Bangladesh exceeds the population of many Muslim majority countries like Yemen, Jordan, Tajikistan, Syria, Tunisia, Oman, and others.[114] Also the total Hindu population in Bangladesh is roughly equal to the total population of Greece and Belgium.[115] Bengali Hindus also worship regional deities.[21][22][23]

Other religious groups include Buddhists (comprising around 1% of the population in Bangladesh) and Bengali Christians.[102][108] A large number of the Bengali Christians are descendants of Portuguese voyagers. The bulk of Bengali Buddhists belong to the Bengali-speaking Baruas who reside in Chittagong and Rakhine.

Culture

Further information: Culture of Bengal, Culture of Bangladesh, and Culture of West Bengal

Festivals

Main articles: List of festivals in Bangladesh and List of festivals in West Bengal
 
Harvesting preparation in Bangladesh.

Bengalis commemorate the Islamic holidays or Hindu festivals depending on their religion. People are dressed in their new traditional clothing.[citation needed] During the major Islamic holidays Eid al-Adha and Eid al-Fitr, charity is distributed. Children are given clothes or money. Relatives, friends, and neighbors visit and exchange food and sweets.[116]

Significant cultural events or celebrations are also celebrated by the community annually. Pohela Boishakh is a celebration of the new year and arrival of summer in the Bengali calendar and is celebrated in April. It features a funfair, music and dance displays on stages, with people dressed in colourful traditional clothes, parading through the streets.[117] Festivals like Pahela Falgun (spring) are also celebrated regardless of their faith. The Bengalis of Dhaka celebrate Shakrain, an annual kite festival. The Nabanna is a Bengali celebration akin to the harvest festivals in the Western world.

 
A sculpture of the Nawab of Bengal's Royal Peacock Barge in Murshidabad.

Fashion and arts

Visual art and architecture

Main articles: Bangladeshi art and Arts of West Bengal
 
Traditional way of weaving Jamdani.

The recorded history of art in Bengal can be traced to the 3rd century BCE, when terracotta sculptures were made in the region. The architecture of the Bengal Sultanate saw a distinct style of domed mosques with complex niche pillars that had no minarets. Ivory, pottery and brass were also widely used in Bengali art.

Attire and clothing

 
A Bengali man sporting a simple black sherwani.

Bengali attire is shares similarities with North Indian attire. In rural areas, older women wear the shari while the younger generation wear the selwar kamiz, both with simple designs. In urban areas, the selwar kamiz is more popular, and has distinct fashionable designs. Traditionally Bengali men wore the jama, though the costumes such as the panjabi with selwar or pyjama have become more popular within the past three centuries. The popularity of the fotua, a shorter upper garment, is undeniable among Bengalis in casual environments. The lungi and gamcha are a common combination for rural Bengali men. Islamic clothing is also very common in the region. During special occasions, Bengali women commonly wear either sharis, selwar kamizes or abayas, covering their hair with hijab or orna; and men wear a panjabi, also covering their hair with a tupi, toqi, pagri or rumal.

Mughal Bengal's most celebrated artistic tradition was the weaving of Jamdani motifs on fine muslin, which is now classified by UNESCO as an intangible cultural heritage. Jamdani motifs were similar to Iranian textile art (buta motifs) and Western textile art (paisley). The Jamdani weavers in Dhaka received imperial patronage.[59][118]

The traditional attire of Bengali Hindus is dhoti and kurta for men, and saree for women.

Performing arts

See also: Cinema of West Bengal, Music of West Bengal, Music of Bangladesh, Gaudiya Nritya, and Theatre in Bangladesh
 
Artistes from Purulia district of West Bengal performs Chhau dance
 
Satyajit Ray, eminent film director who has made Bengali films popular all over the world

Bengal has an extremely rich heritage of performing arts dating back to antiquity. It includes narrative forms, songs and dances, performance with scroll paintings, puppet theatre and the processional forms like the Jatra and cinema. Performing of plays and Jatras were mentioned in Charyapada, written in between the 8th and 12th centuries.[119] Chhau dance is a unique martial, tribal and folk art of Bengal. Wearing an earthy and theatrical Chhau mask, the dance is performed to highlight the folklore and episodes from Shaktism, Ramayana – Mahabharata and other abstract themes.[120][121] In 2010 the Chhau dance was inscribed in the UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.[122]

Bengali film is a glorious part of the history of world cinema. Hiralal Sen, who is considered a stalwart of Victorian era cinema, sowed the first seeds of Bengali cinema.[120][123] In 1898, Sen founded the first film production company, named Royal Bioscope Company in Bengal, and possibly the first in India.[124] Along with Nemai Ghosh, Tapan Sinha and others, the golden age of Bengali cinema begins with the hands of Satyajit Ray, Mrinal Sen and Rittwik Ghatak.[125] Chinnamul was recognized as the first neo-realist film in India that deals with the partition of India.[126][127] Ray's first cinema Pather Panchali (1955) achieved the highest-ranking Indian film on any Sight & Sound poll at number 6 in the 1992 Critics' Poll.[128] It also topped the British Film Institute's user poll of Top 10 Indian Films of all time in 2002.[129] In the same year, Titash Ekti Nadir Naam, directed by Ritwik Ghatak with the joint production of India and Bangladesh, got the honor of best Bangladeshi films in the audience and critics' polls conducted by the British Film Institute.[130]

Gastronomy

Main article: Bengali cuisine
 
Paan and supari are a typical meal concluder.
 
A glass of Borhani
 
A plate of Dhakaiya biryani.
 
Shorshe Pabda (Pabo catfish in Mustard paste)

Bengali cuisine is the culinary style of the Bengali people. It has the only traditionally developed multi-course tradition from South Asia that is analogous in structure to the modern service à la russe style of French cuisine, with food served course-wise rather than all at once. The dishes of Bengal are often centuries old and reflect the rich history of trade in Bengal through spices, herbs, and foods. With an emphasis on fish and vegetables served with rice as a staple diet, Bengali cuisine is known for its subtle flavours, and its huge spread of confectioneries and milk-based desserts. One will find the following items in most dishes; mustard oil, fish, panch phoron, lamb, onion, rice, cardamom, yogurt and spices. The food is often served in plates which have a distinct flowery pattern often in blue or pink. Common beverages include shorbot, borhani, ghol, matha, lachhi, falooda, Rooh Afza, natural juices like Akher rosh, Khejur rosh, Aamrosh, Dudh cha, Taler rosh, Masala cha, as well as basil seed or tukma-based drinks.

East and West Bengali cuisines have many similarities, but also many unique traditions at the same time. These kitchens have been influenced by the history of the respective regions. The kitchens can be further divided into the urban and rural kitchens. Urban kitchens in eastern Bengal consist of native dishes with foreign Mughal influence, for example the Haji biryani and Chevron Biryani of Old Dhaka.

Literature

Main articles: Bengali literature and Bengali Renaissance
 
Gitanjali intro featuring its author Rabindranath Tagore

Bengali literature denotes the body of writings in the Bengali language, which has developed over the course of roughly 13 centuries. The earliest extant work in Bengali literature can be found within the Charyapada, a collection of Buddhist mystic hymns dating back to the 10th and 11th centuries. They were discovered in the Royal Court Library of Nepal by Hara Prasad Shastri in 1907. The timeline of Bengali literature is divided into three periods − ancient (650–1200), medieval (1200–1800) and modern (after 1800). Medieval Bengali literature consists of various poetic genres, including Islamic epics by the likes of Abdul Hakim and Syed Sultan, secular texts by Muslim poets like Alaol and Vaishnava texts by the followers of Krishna Chaitanya. Bengali writers began exploring different themes through narratives and epics such as religion, culture, cosmology, love and history. Royal courts such as that of the Bengal Sultanate and the Kingdom of Mrauk U gave patronage to numerous Bengali writers such as Shah Muhammad Saghir, Daulat Qazi and Dawlat Wazir Bahram Khan.

The Bengali Renaissance refers to a socio-religious reform movement during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, centered around the city of Calcutta and predominantly led by upper-caste Bengali Hindus under the patronage of the British Raj who had created a reformed religion known as the Brahmo Samaj. Historian Nitish Sengupta describes the Bengal renaissance as having begun with Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1775–1833) and ended with Asia's first Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941).[64]

Though the Bengal Renaissance was predominantly representative to the Hindu community due to their relationship with British colonisers,[131] there were, nevertheless, examples of modern Muslim littérateurs in this period. Mir Mosharraf Hossain (1847–1911) was the first major writer in the modern era to emerge from the Bengali Muslim society, and one of the finest prose writers in the Bengali language. His magnum opus Bishad Shindhu is a popular classic among Bengali readership. Kazi Nazrul Islam (1899–1976), notable for his activism and anti-British literature, was described as the Rebel Poet and is now recognised as the National poet of Bangladesh. Begum Rokeya (1880–1932) was the leading female Bengali author of this period, best known for writing Sultana's Dream which was subsequently translated into numerous languages.

Marriage

 
The application of mehndi onto one's hand hosts a ceremony of itself during Bengali wedding seasons.
 
A Bengali groom partaking in a supplication during his wedding.

A marriage among Bengalis often consists of multiple events rather than just one wedding. Arranged marriages are arguably the most common form of marriage among Bengalis and are considered traditional in society.[132] Marriage is seen as a union between two families rather than just two people,[133][134] and they play a large part in developing and maintaining social ties between families and villages. The two families are facilitated by Ghotoks (mutual matchmakers), and the first event is known as the Paka Dekha/Dekhadekhi where all those involved are familiarised with each other over a meal at the bride's home. The first main event is the Paan-Chini/Chini-Paan, hosted by the bride's family. Gifts are received from the groom's family and the marriage date is fixed in this event.[135] An adda takes place between the families as they consume a traditional Bengali banquet of food, paan, tea and mishti. The next event is the mehndi (henna) evening also known as the gaye holud (turmeric on the body). This is normally followed by the main event, the walima, hosting thousands of guests. An aqd (vow) takes place, where a contract of marriage (Kabin nama) and is signed. A qazi or imam is usually present here and would also recite the Qur'an and make dua for the couple. The groom is required to pay mohor (dowry) to the bride. The Phirajatra/Phirakhaowa consists of the return of the bride with her husband to her home, which then becomes referred to as Naiyor, and payesh and milk are served. Other post-marriage ceremonies include the Bou Bhat which takes place in the groom's home.

Arranged marriages are arguably the most common form of marriage among Bengalis and are considered traditional in society.[132] Though polygamy is rarity among Bengalis today, it was historically prevalent among both Muslims and Hindus prior to British colonisation and was a sign of prosperity.[136]

Science

Main article: Science and technology in Bangladesh
 
Biomedical physicist Khondkar Siddique-e-Rabbani developed the focused impedance measurement, a technique for quantifying the electrical resistance in tissues of the human body with improved zone localisation.[137][138]
 
Qazi Azizul Haque is recognised for his contributions to the development of modern fingerprint biometrics, a discovery of worldwide importance.
 
Meghnad Saha, J C Bose, J C Ghosh, Snehamoy Dutt, S N Bose, D M Bose, N R Sen, J N Mukherjee, N C Nag

The contribution of Bengalis to modern science is pathbreaking in the world's context. Qazi Azizul Haque was an inventor who is credited for devising the mathematical basis behind a fingerprint classification system that continued to be used up until the 1990s for criminal investigations. Abdus Suttar Khan invented more than forty different alloys for commercial application in space shuttles, jet engines, train engines and industrial gas turbines. In 2006, Abul Hussam invented the Sono arsenic filter and subsequently became the recipient of the 2007 Grainger challenge Prize for Sustainability.[139] Another biomedical scientist, Parvez Haris, was listed among the top 1% of 100,000 scientists in the world by Stanford University.[140]

 
A sculpture honoring Fazlur Rahman Khan at the Willis Tower

Fazlur Rahman Khan was a structural engineer responsible for making many important advancements in high rise designs.[141] He was the designer of Willis Tower, the tallest building in the world until 1998. Khan's seminal work of developing tall building structural systems are still used today as the starting point when considering design options for tall buildings.[142]

Jagadish Chandra Bose was a polymath: a physicist, biologist, botanist, archaeologist, and writer of science fiction[143] who pioneered the investigation of radio and microwave optics, made significant contributions to plant science, and laid the foundations of experimental science in the subcontinent.[144] He is considered one of the fathers of radio science,[145] and is also considered the father of Bengali science fiction. He first practicalised the wireless radio transmission but Guglielmo Marconi got recognition for it due to European proximity. Bose also described for the first time that "plants can respond", by demonstrating with his crescograph and recording the impulse caused by bromination of plant tissue.

Satyendra Nath Bose was a physicist, specialising in mathematical physics. He is best known for his work on quantum mechanics in the early 1920s, providing the foundation for Bose–Einstein statistics and the theory of the Bose–Einstein condensate. He is honoured as the namesake of the boson. He made first calculations to initiate Statistical Mechanics. He first hypothesised a physically tangible idea of photon. Bose's contemporary was Meghnad Saha, an astrophysicist and politician who contributed to the theorisation of thermal ionization. The Saha ionization equation, which was named after him, is used to describe chemical and physical conditions in stars.[146][147] His work allowed astronomers to accurately relate the spectral classes of stars to their actual temperatures.[148]

Economics and Poverty Alleviation

 
Amartya Sen, winner of the 1998 Nobel Prize in Economics
 
Muhammad Yunus, winner of the 2006 Nobel Peace Prize
 
Abhijit Banerjee, winner of the 2019 Nobel Prize in Economics

Several Bengali Economists and entrepreneurs have made pioneering contributions in economic theories and practices supporting poverty alleviation. Amartya Sen is an economist and philosopher, who has made contributions to welfare economics, social choice theory, economic and social justice, economic theories of famines, decision theory, development economics, public health, and measures of well-being of countries. He was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences[149] in 1998 and India's Bharat Ratna in 1999 for his work in welfare economics. Muhammad Yunus is a social entrepreneur, banker, economist and civil society leader who was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for founding the Grameen Bank and pioneering the concepts of microcredit and microfinance. Abhijit Banerjee is an economist who shared the 2019 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences with Esther Duflo and Michael Kremer "for their experimental approach to alleviating global poverty".[150][151]

Sport and games

Main articles: Sport in Bangladesh and Sports in West Bengal
 
A lathi khela event taking place in Tangail.
 
A Nouka Baich competition taking place in the monsoon season.

Traditional Bengali sports consisted of various martial arts and various racing sports, though the British-introduced sports of cricket and football are now most popular amongst Bengalis.

Lathi khela (stick-fighting) was historically a method of duelling as a way to protect or take land and others' possessions. The Zamindars of Bengal would hire lathials (trained stick-fighters) as a form of security and a means to forcefully collect tax from tenants.[152] Nationwide lathi khela competitions used to take place annually in Kushtia up until 1989, though its practice is now diminishing and being restricted to certain festivals and celebrations.[153] Chamdi is a variant of lathi khela popular in North Bengal. Kushti (wrestling) is also another popular fighting sport and it has developed regional forms such as boli khela, which was introduced in 1889 by Zamindar Qadir Bakhsh of Chittagong. A merchant known as Abdul Jabbar Saodagar adapted the sport in 1907 with the intention of cultivating a sport that would prepare Bengalis in fighting against British colonials.[154][155] In 1972, a popular contact team sport called Kabadi was made the national sport of Bangladesh. It is a regulated version of the rural Hadudu sport which had no fixed rules. The Amateur Kabaddi Federation of Bangladesh was formed in 1973.[156] Butthan, a 20th-century Bengali martial arts invented by Grandmaster Mak Yuree, is now practiced in different parts of the world under the International Butthan Federation.[157]

 
Mohammed Salim, the first South Asian footballer to play for a foreign club. Due to playing in bare feet, he is having them bandaged by Jimmy McMenemy in 1936.

The Nouka Baich is a Bengali boat racing competition which takes place during and after the rainy season when much of the land goes under water. The long canoes were referred to as khel nao (meaning playing boats) and the use of cymbals to accompany the singing was common. Different types of boats are used in different parts of Bengal.[158] Horse racing was patronised most notably by the Dighapatia Rajas in Natore, and their Chalanbeel Horse Races have continued to take place annually for centuries.

 
Cricketer Shakib Al Hasan is currently crowned the world's best all-rounder in all formats for ODI cricket,[159] and one of the greatest of all times.[160][161][162][163][164][165][166]

The oldest native football clubs of Bengal was Mohun Bagan A.C., which was founded in 1889, and Mohammedan SC, founded in 1891. Mohun Bagan's first major victory was in 1911, when the team defeated an English club known as the Yorkshire Regiment to win the IFA Shield. Since then, more and more clubs emerged in West Bengal, such as Mohun Bagan's main rival SC East Bengal, a team of East Bengali Hindus who had migrated to West Bengal following the 1947 Partition of India. The rivalry also portrayed the societal problems at that time as many of the Mohun Bagan fans were Ghotis who hated the East Bengali immigrants, though Hindu. Mohammed Salim of Calcutta became the first South Asian to play for a European football club in 1936.[167] In his two appearances for Celtic F.C., he played the entire matches barefoot and scored several goals.[168] In 2015, Hamza Choudhury became the first Bengali to play in the Premier League and is predicted to be the first British Asian to play for the England national football team.[169]

Bengalis are very competitive when it comes to board and home games such as Pachisi and its modern counterpart Ludo, as well as Latim, Carrom Board, Chor-Pulish, Kanamachi and Chess. Rani Hamid is one of the most successful chess players in the world, winning championships in Asia and Europe multiple times. Ramnath Biswas was a revolutionary soldier who embarked on three world tours on a bicycle in the 19th century.

See also

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Bibliography

  • Eaton, Richard M. (1993). The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760. University of California. ISBN 978-0-520-20507-9. Retrieved 13 July 2017.
  • Sengupta, Nitish (2002). History of the Bengali-Speaking People. UBS Publishers. ISBN 978-81-7476-355-6.
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Further reading

  • Sarkar, Prabhat Ranjan (1988). Bangla O Bangali. Ananda Marga Publications. p. 441. ISBN 978-81-7252-297-1.
  • Sengupta, Nitish (2001). History of the Bengali-speaking People. UBS Publishers' Distributors. p. 554. ISBN 978-81-7476-355-6.
  • Ray, R. (1994). History of the Bengali People. Orient BlackSwan. p. 656. ISBN 978-0-86311-378-9.
  • Ray, Niharranjan (1994). History of the Bengali people: ancient period. University of Michigan: Orient Longmans. p. 613. ISBN 978-0-86311-378-9.
  • Ray, N (2013). History of the Bengali People from Earliest Times to the Fall of the Sena Dynasty. Orient Blackswan Private Limited. p. 613. ISBN 978-81-250-5053-7.
  • Das, S.N. (1 December 2005). The Bengalis: The People, Their History and Culture. p. 1900. ISBN 978-81-292-0066-2.
  • Sengupta, Nitish (2011). Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib. Penguin UK. p. 656. ISBN 978-81-8475-530-5.
  • Nasrin, Mithun B; Van Der Wurff, W.A.M (2015). Colloquial Bengali. Routledge. p. 288. ISBN 978-1-317-30613-9. from the original on 18 November 2022. Retrieved 16 October 2020.
  • Sengupta, Debjani (2016). The Partition of Bengal: Fragile Borders and New Identities. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-06170-5.
  • Chakrabarti, Kunal; Chakrabarti, Shubhra (1 February 2000). Historical Dictionary of the Bengalis (Historical Dictionaries of Peoples and Cultures). Scarecrow Press. p. 604. ISBN 978-0-8108-5334-8.
  • Chatterjee, Pranab (2009). A Story of Ambivalent Modernization in Bangladesh and West Bengal: The Rise and Fall of Bengali Elitism in South Asia. Peter Lang. p. 294. ISBN 978-1-4331-0820-4.
  • Singh, Kumar Suresh (2008). People of India: West Bengal, Volume 43, Part 1. University of Virginia: Anthropological Survey of India. p. 1397. ISBN 978-81-7046-300-9. from the original on 18 November 2022. Retrieved 8 August 2020.
  • Milne, William Stanley (1913). A Practical Bengali Grammar. Asian Educational Services. p. 561. ISBN 978-81-206-0877-1.
  • Alexander, Claire; Chatterji, Joya (10 December 2015). The Bengal Diaspora: Rethinking Muslim migration. Routledge. p. 304. ISBN 978-0-415-53073-6.
  • Chakraborty, Mridula Nath (26 March 2014). Being Bengali: At Home and in the World. Routledge. p. 254. ISBN 978-0-415-62588-3.
  • Sanyal, Shukla (16 October 2014). Revolutionary Pamphlets, Propaganda and Political Culture in Colonial Bengal. Cambridge University Press. p. 219. ISBN 978-1-107-06546-8.
  • Dasgupta, Subrata (2009). The Bengal Renaissance: Identity and Creativity from Rammohun Roy to Rabindranath Tagore. Permanent Black. p. 286. ISBN 978-81-7824-279-8.
  • Glynn, Sarah (30 November 2014). Class, Ethnicity and Religion in the Bengali East End: A Political History. Manchester University. p. 304. ISBN 978-0-7190-9595-5.
  • Ahmed, Salahuddin (2004). Bangladesh: Past and Present. Aph Publishing Corporations. p. 365. ISBN 978-81-7648-469-5.
  • Deodhari, Shanti (2007). Banglar Bow (Bengali Bride). AuthorHouse. p. 80. ISBN 978-1-4670-1188-4.
  • Gupta, Swarupa (2009). Notions of Nationhood in Bengal: Perspectives on Samaj, C. 1867-1905. BRILL. p. 408. ISBN 978-90-04-17614-0. from the original on 18 November 2022. Retrieved 16 August 2019.
  • Roy, Manisha (2010). Bengali Women. University of Chicago Press. p. 232. ISBN 978-0-226-23044-3. from the original on 18 November 2022. Retrieved 16 August 2019.
  • Basak, Sita (2006). Bengali Culture And Society Through Its Riddles. Neha Publishers & Distributors. ISBN 978-81-212-0891-8.
  • Raghavan, Srinath (2013). 1971: A Global History of the Creation of Bangladesh. Harvard University Press. p. 368. ISBN 978-0-674-72864-6.
  • Inden, Ronald B; Nicholas, Ralph W. (2005). Kinship in Bengali culture. Orient Blackswan. p. 158. ISBN 978-81-8028-018-4.
  • Nicholas, Ralph W. (2003). Fruits of Worship: Practical Religion in Bengal. Orient Blackswan. p. 248. ISBN 978-81-8028-006-1.
  • Das, S.N. (2002). The Bengalis: The People, Their History, and Culture. Religion and Bengali culture. volume 4. Cosmo Publications. p. 321. ISBN 978-81-7755-392-5. from the original on 18 November 2022. Retrieved 16 October 2020.
  • Schendel, Willem van (2004). The Bengal Borderland: Beyond State and Nation in South Asia. Anthem Press. p. 440. ISBN 978-1-84331-144-7.
  • Mukherjee, Janam (2015). Hungry Bengal : War, Famine, Riots and the End of Empire. Harper Collins India. p. 344. ISBN 978-93-5177-582-9.
  • Guhathakurta, Meghna; Schendel, Willem van (2013). The Bangladesh Reader: History, Culture, Politics. Duke University Press. p. 568. ISBN 978-0-8223-5318-8.
  • Sengupta, Nitish (19 November 2012). Bengal Divided: The Unmaking of a Nation (1905-1971). Penguin India. p. 272. ISBN 978-0-14-341955-6.

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bengali people.
 
Wikiquote has quotations related to Bengalis.

March 14, 2023
bengalis, this, article, about, ethnic, from, various, countries, citizens, bangladesh, overwhelmingly, bangladeshis, singular, bengali, bengali, baŋali, baŋgali, listen, also, rendered, bangalee, bengali, people, indo, aryan, ethnolinguistic, group, originati. This article is about ethnic Bengalis from various countries For the citizens of Bangladesh who are overwhelmingly Bengalis see Bangladeshis Bengalis singular Bengali Bengali ব ঙ ল ব ঙ গ ল baŋali baŋgali listen also rendered as Bangalee 16 or the Bengali people 17 are an Indo Aryan ethnolinguistic group originating from and culturally affiliated with the Bengal region of South Asia The current population is divided between the independent country Bangladesh and the Indian states of West Bengal and Tripura Barak Valley Andaman and Nicobar Islands Jharkhand and part of Meghalaya and Manipur 18 Most of them speak Bengali a language from the Indo Aryan language family Bengalisব ঙ গ ল ব ঙ ল Total populationc 285 million 1 2 3 Regions with significant populations Bangladesh166 840 302 4 5 India107 228 917 6 7 Pakistan3 000 000 8 LanguagesBengali and its dialectsReligionIslam 200 million 71 Hinduism 80 million 28 Buddhism 1 5 million 1 Christianity 1 4 million 1 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Related ethnic groupsIndo Aryan peoplesThis article contains Bengali text Without proper rendering support you may see question marks boxes or other symbols Bengalis are the third largest ethnic group in the world after the Han Chinese and Arabs 19 Thus they are the largest ethnic group within the Indo Europeans and the largest ethnic group in South Asia Apart from Bangladesh and the Indian states of West Bengal Tripura Manipur and Assam s Barak Valley Bengali majority populations also reside in India s union territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands with significant populations in the Indian states of Arunachal Pradesh Delhi Odisha Chhattisgarh Jharkhand Mizoram Nagaland and Uttarakhand as well as Nepal s Province No 1 20 The global Bengali diaspora Bangladeshi Bengalis and Indian Bengalis have well established communities in the Middle East Pakistan Myanmar the United Kingdom the United States Malaysia Italy Singapore Maldives Canada Australia Japan and South Korea Bengalis are a diverse group in terms of religious affiliations and practices Today approximately 67 are adherents of Islam with a large Hindu minority and sizable communities of Christians and Buddhists Bengali Muslims who live mainly in Bangladesh primarily belong to the Sunni denomination Bengali Hindus who live primarily in West Bengal Tripura Assam s Barak Valley Jharkhand and Andaman and Nicobar Islands generally follow Shaktism or Vaishnavism in addition to worshipping regional deities 21 22 23 There also exist small numbers of Bengali Christians a large number of whom are descendants of Portuguese voyagers as well as Bengali Buddhists the bulk of whom belong to the Bengali speaking Baruas in Chittagong and Rakhine who should not be confused with other Buddhists of Bangladesh that belong to different ethnic groups Like every large culture group in history Bengalis have greatly influenced and contributed to diverse fields notably the arts and architecture language folklore literature politics military business science and technology Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2 1 Ancient history 2 2 Middle Ages 2 3 Mughal era 2 4 British colonisation 2 4 1 Independence movement 2 4 2 Partitions of Bengal 2 5 Bangladesh Liberation War 3 Geographic distribution 4 Language 5 Social stratification 6 Religion 7 Culture 7 1 Festivals 7 2 Fashion and arts 7 2 1 Visual art and architecture 7 2 2 Attire and clothing 7 2 3 Performing arts 7 3 Gastronomy 7 4 Literature 7 5 Marriage 7 6 Science 7 7 Economics and Poverty Alleviation 7 8 Sport and games 8 See also 9 References 9 1 Bibliography 10 Further reading 11 External linksEtymologyMain article Names of Bengal The ancient political divisions of the Ganges delta The term Bengali is generally used to refer to someone whose linguistic cultural or ancestral origins are from Bengal The Indo Aryan Bengalis are ethnically differentiated from the non Indo Aryan tribes inhabiting Bengal Their ethnonym Bangali along with the native name of the language and region Bangla are both derived from Bangalah the Persian word for the region Prior to Muslim expansion there was no unitary territory by this name as the region was instead divided into numerous geopolitical divisions The most prominent of these were Vaṅga from which Bangalah is thought to ultimately derive from in the south Raṛha in the west Puṇḍravardhana and Varendra in the north and Samataṭa and Harikela in the east In ancient times the people of this region identified themselves with respect to these divisions Vedic texts such as the Mahabharata makes mention of the Puṇḍra people The historic land of Vaṅga bongo in Bengali situated in present day Barisal 24 is considered by early historians of the Abrahamic and Dharmic traditions to have originated from a man who had settled in the area though it is often dismissed as legend Early Abrahamic genealogists had suggested that this man was Bang a son of Hind who was the son of Ham son of Noah 25 26 27 In contrast the Mahabharata Puranas and the Harivamsha state that Vaṅga was the founder of the Vaṅga Kingdom and one of the adopted sons of King Vali The land of Vaṅga later came to be known as Vaṅgala Bongal and its earliest reference is in the Nesari plates 805 CE of Govinda III which speak of Dharmapala as its king The records of Rajendra Chola I of the Chola dynasty who invaded Bengal in the 11th century speak of Govindachandra as the ruler of Vaṅgaladesa a Sanskrit cognate to the word Bangladesh which was historically a synonymous endonym of Bengal 28 29 16th century historian Abu l Fazl ibn Mubarak mentions in his ʿAin i Akbari that the addition of the suffix al came from the fact that the ancient rajahs of the land raised mounds of earth 10 feet high and 20 in breadth in lowlands at the foot of the hills which were called al 30 This is also mentioned in Ghulam Husain Salim s Riyaz us Salaṭin 25 In 1352 CE a Muslim nobleman by the name of Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah united the region into a single political entity known as the Bengal Sultanate Proclaiming himself as Shah i Bangaliyan 31 it was in this period that the Bengali language also gained state patronage and corroborated literary development 32 33 Thus Ilyas Shah had effectively formalised the socio linguistic identity of the region s inhabitants as Bengali by state culture and language 34 Parts of the Charyapada a collection of ancient Buddhist hymns which mention the Bengalis in display at the Rajshahi College Library HistoryMain articles History of Bengal History of Bangladesh and History of West Bengal Ancient history Depiction of Gangaridai on a map by 11th century polymath Ptolemy Further information Anga Gangaridai Magadha Pundra Suhma and Vanga Archaeologists have discovered remnants of a 4 000 year old Chalcolithic civilisation in the greater Bengal region and believe the finds are one of the earliest signs of settlement in the region 35 However evidence of much older Palaeolithic human habitations were found in the form of a stone implement and a hand axe in Rangamati and Feni districts of Bangladesh 36 Artefacts suggest that the Wari Bateshwar civilisation which flourished in present day Narsingdi date as far back as 1100 BC Not far from the rivers the port city was believed to have been engaged in foreign trade with Ancient Rome Southeast Asia and other regions The people of this civilisation live in bricked homes walked on wide roads used silver coins and iron weaponry among many other things It is thought to be the oldest city in Bengal and in the eastern part of the subcontinent as a whole 37 It is thought that a man named Vanga settled in the area around 1000 BCE founding the Vanga Kingdom in southern Bengal The Atharvaveda and the Hindu epic Mahabharata mentions this kingdom along with the Pundra Kingdom in northern Bengal The spread of Mauryan territory and promotion of Buddhism by its emperor Ashoka cultivated a growing Buddhist society among the people of present day Bengal from the 2nd century BCE Mauryan monuments as far as the Great Stupa of Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh mentioned the people of this region as adherents of Buddhism The Buddhists of the Bengal region built and used dozens of monasteries and were recognised for their religious commitments as far as Nagarjunakonda in South India 38 One of the earliest foreign references to Bengal is the mention of a land ruled by the king Xandrammes named Gangaridai by the Greeks around 100 BCE The word is speculated to have come from Gangahrd Land with the Ganges in its heart in reference to an area in Bengal 39 Later from the 3rd to the 6th centuries CE the kingdom of Magadha served as the seat of the Gupta Empire Middle Ages Atisa is recognised as one of the greatest figures of classical Buddhism having inspired Buddhist thought from Tibet to Sumatra See also Pala Empire Sena dynasty and Bengal Sultanate One of the first recorded independent kings of Bengal was Shashanka 40 reigning around the early 7th century who is generally thought to have originated from Magadha Bihar just west of Bengal 41 After a period of anarchy a native ruler called Gopala came into power in 750 CE He originated from Varendra in northern Bengal 42 and founded the Buddhist Pala Empire 43 Atisa a renowned Buddhist teacher from eastern Bengal was instrumental in the revival of Buddhism in Tibet and also held the position of Abbot at the Vikramashila monastery in Bihar The Pala Empire enjoyed relations with the Srivijaya Empire the Tibetan Empire and the Arab Abbasid Caliphate Islam first appeared in Bengal during Pala rule as a result of increased trade between Bengal and the Middle East 44 The people of Samatata in southeastern Bengal during the 10th century were of various religious backgrounds Tilopa was a prominent Hindu priest from modern day Chittagong though Samatata was ruled by the Buddhist Chandra dynasty During this time the Arab geographer Al Masudi and author of The Meadows of Gold travelled to the region where he noticed a Muslim community of inhabitants residing in the region 45 In addition to trade Islam was also being introduced to the people of Bengal through the migration of Sufi missionaries prior to conquest The earliest known Sufi missionaries were Syed Shah Surkhul Antia and his students most notably Shah Sultan Rumi in the 11th century Rumi settled in present day Netrokona Mymensingh where he influenced the local ruler and population to embrace Islam Ghazi Pir is thought to have lived in the Sundarbans some time between the 12th to 13th century The Pala dynasty was later followed by a shorter reign of the Hindu Sena Empire Subsequent Muslim conquests helped spread Islam throughout the region 46 Bakhtiyar Khalji a Turkic general defeated Lakshman Sen of the Sena dynasty and conquered large parts of Bengal Consequently the region was ruled by dynasties of sultans and feudal lords under the Bengal Sultanate for the next few hundred years Many of the people of Bengal began accepting Islam through the influx of missionaries following the initial conquest Sultan Balkhi and Shah Makhdum Rupos settled in the present day Rajshahi Division in northern Bengal preaching to the communities there A community of 13 Muslim families headed by Burhanuddin also existed in the northeastern Hindu city of Srihatta Sylhet claiming their descendants to have arrived from Chittagong 47 By 1303 hundreds of Sufi preachers led by Shah Jalal who some biographers claim was a Turkistan born Bengali 48 aided the Muslim rulers in Bengal to conquer Sylhet turning the town into Jalal s headquarters for religious activities Following the conquest Jalal disseminated his followers across different parts of Bengal to spread Islam and became a household name among Bengali Muslims 16th century Portuguese painting of Bengalis The establishment of a single united Bengal Sultanate in 1352 by Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah finally gave rise to a Bengali socio linguistic identity 31 The Ilyas Shahi dynasty acknowledged Muslim scholarship and this transcended ethnic background Usman Serajuddin also known as Akhi Siraj Bengali was a native of Gaur in western Bengal and became the Sultanate s court scholar during Ilyas Shah s reign 49 50 51 Alongside Persian and Arabic the sovereign Sunni Muslim nation state also enabled the language of the Bengali people to gain patronage and support contrary to previous states which exclusively favoured Sanskrit Pali and Persian 32 33 The born Hindu Sultan Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah funded the construction of Islamic institutions as far as Mecca and Madina in the Middle East The people of Arabia came to know these institutions as al Madaris al Bangaliyyah Bengali madrasas Mughal era Main article Bengal SubahFurther information Muslin trade in Bengal and Mughal Empire The Bengali artillery at the Battle of Plassey in 1757 A painting by Shaikh Muhammad Amir of Karraya displaying a syce of Bengal holding two carriage horses The Mughal Empire conquered Bengal in the 16th century ending the independent Sultanate of Bengal and defeating Bengal s rebellion Baro Bhuiyan chieftains Mughal general Man Singh conquered parts of Bengal including Dhaka during the time of Emperor Akbar and a few Rajput tribes from his army permanently settled around Dhaka and surrounding lands integrating into Bengali society 52 Akbar s preaching of the syncretic Din i Ilahi was described as a blasphemy by the Qadi of Bengal which caused huge controversies in South Asia In the 16th century many Ulama of the Bengali Muslim intelligentsia migrated to other parts of the subcontinent as teachers and instructors of Islamic knowledge such as Ali Sher Bengali to Ahmedabad Shah Manjhan to Sarangpur Usman Bengali to Sambhal and Yusuf Bengali to Burhanpur 53 By the early 17th century Islam Khan I had conquered all of Bengal and was integrated into a province known as the Bengal Subah It was the largest subdivision of the Mughal Empire as it also encompassed parts of Bihar and Odisha between the 16th and 18th centuries citation needed Described by some as the Paradise of Nations 54 and the Golden Age of Bengal 55 56 Bengalis enjoyed some of the highest living standards and real wages in the world at the time 57 Singlehandedly accounting for 40 of Dutch imports outside the European continent 58 59 eastern Bengal was globally prominent in industries such as textile manufacturing and shipbuilding 60 and was a major exporter of silk and cotton textiles steel saltpeter and agricultural and industrial produce in the world 59 Mughal Bengal eventually became a quasi independent monarchy state ruled by the Nawabs of Bengal in 1717 Already observing the proto industrialization it made direct significant contribution to the first Industrial Revolution 61 62 63 64 substantially textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution A Bengali woman in Dhaka clad in fine Bengali muslin 18th century Bengal became the basis of the Anglo Mughal War 65 66 After the weakening of the Mughal Empire with the death of Emperor Aurangzeb in 1707 Bengal was ruled independently by three dynasties of Nawabs until 1757 when the region was annexed by the East India Company after the Battle of Plassey British colonisation Main article Bengal Presidency Further information Company rule in India and British Raj W C Bonnerjee co founder and first president of Indian National Congress In Bengal effective political and military power was transferred from the Afshar regime to the British East India Company around 1757 65 67 Company rule in India began under the Bengal Presidency Calcutta was named the capital of British India in 1772 The presidency was run by a military civil administration including the Bengal Army and had the world s sixth earliest railway network Great Bengal famines struck several times during colonial rule notably the Great Bengal famine of 1770 and Bengal famine of 1943 each killing millions of Bengalis Under British rule Bengal experienced deindustrialisation 63 Discontent with the situation numerous rebellions and revolts were attempted by the Bengali people The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was initiated on the outskirts of Calcutta and spread to Dhaka Jalpaiguri and Agartala in solidarity with revolts in North India Havildar Rajab Ali commanded the rebels in Chittagong as far as Sylhet and Manipur The failure of the rebellion led to the abolishment of the Mughal court completely and direct rule by the British Raj Many Bengali laborers were taken as coolies to the British colonies in the Caribbean during the 1830s Workers from Bengal were chosen because they could easily assimilate to the climate of British Guyana which was similar to that of Bengal Swami Vivekananda is considered a key figure in the introduction of Vedanta and Yoga in Europe and America 68 and is credited with raising interfaith awareness and bringing Hinduism to the status of a world religion during the 1800s 69 On the other hand Ram Mohan Roy led a socio Hindu reformist movement known as Brahmoism which called for the abolishment of sati widow sacrifice child marriage polytheism and idol worship 70 71 In 1804 he wrote the Persian book Tuḥfat al Muwaḥḥidin A Gift to the Monotheists and spent the next two decades attacking the Kulin Brahmin bastions of Bengal 72 Independence movement From Top left to right Subhas Chandra Bose Bipin Chandra Pal Chittaranjan Das and Surya Sen From Top left to right Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy A K Fazlul Huq and Khwaja Salimullah See also Independence fighters from Bengal Bengal played a major role in the Indian independence movement in which revolutionary groups such as Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar were dominant Many of the early proponents of the independence struggle and subsequent leaders in the movement were Bengalis such as Shamsher Gazi Chowdhury Abu Torab Khan Hada Miah and Mada Miah the Pagal Panthis led by Karim Shah and Tipu Shah Haji Shariatullah and Dudu Miyan of the Faraizi movement Titumir Ali Muhammad Shibli Alimuddin Ahmad Prafulla Chaki Surendranath Banerjee Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani Bagha Jatin Khudiram Bose Sarojini Naidu Aurobindo Ghosh Rashbehari Bose and Sachindranath Sanyal Leaders such as Subhas Chandra Bose did not subscribe to the view that non violent civil disobedience was the best way to achieve independence and were instrumental in armed resistance against the British Bose was the co founder and leader of the Japanese aligned Indian National Army distinct from the army of British India that challenged British forces in several parts of India He was also the head of state of a parallel regime the Azad Hind A number of Bengalis died during the independence movement and many were imprisoned in the notorious Cellular Jail in the Andaman Islands Partitions of Bengal Main articles 1905 Partition of Bengal and 1947 Partition of Bengal Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani the co founder and inaugural president of the Awami League The first partition in 1905 divided the Bengal region in British India into two provinces for administrative and development purposes However the partition stoked Hindu nationalism This in turn led to the formation of the All India Muslim League in Dhaka in 1906 to represent the growing aspirations of the Muslim population The partition was annulled in 1912 after protests by the Indian National Congress and Hindu Mahasabha The breakdown of Hindu Muslim unity in India drove the Muslim League to adopt the Lahore Resolution in 1943 calling the creation of independent states in eastern and northwestern British India The resolution paved the way for the Partition of British India based on the Radcliffe Line in 1947 despite attempts to form a United Bengal state that was opposed by many people Bangladesh Liberation War Main article Bangladesh Liberation War The rise of self determination and Bengali nationalism movements in East Bengal led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman This eventually culminated in the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War against the Pakistani military junta The war caused millions of East Bengali refugees to take shelter in neighboring India especially the Indian state of West Bengal with Calcutta the capital of West Bengal becoming the capital in exile of the Provisional Government of Bangladesh The Mukti Bahini guerrilla forces waged a nine month war against the Pakistani military The conflict ended after the Indian Armed Forces intervened on the side of Bangladeshi forces in the final two weeks of the war which ended with the surrender of East Pakistan and the liberation of Dhaka on 16 December 1971 Thus the newly independent People s Republic of Bangladesh was born from what was previously the East Pakistan province of Pakistan Geographic distributionSee also Bangladeshi diaspora Dean Mahomed is credited for introducing shampoo to the Europeans Large numbers of Bengalis have settled and established themselves in Banglatown I tisam ud Din was the first educated Bengali and South Asian to have travelled to Europe Bengalis constitute the largest ethnic group in Bangladesh at approximately 98 of the nation s inhabitants 73 The Census of India does not recognise racial or ethnic groups within India 74 the CIA Factbook estimated that there are 100 million Bengalis in India constituting 7 of the country s total population In addition to West Bengal Bengalis form the demographic majority in Assam s Barak Valley and Lower region as well as parts of Manipur 18 The state of Tripura as well as the Andaman and Nicobar Islands union territory which lies in the Bay of Bengal are also home to a Bengali majority population most of whom are descendants of Hindus from East Bengal now Bangladesh that migrated there following the 1947 Partition of India 75 3 4 76 77 Bengali migration to the latter archipelago was also boosted by subsequent state funded Colonisation Schemes by the Government of India 78 79 Bengali ethnic descent and emigrant communities are found primarily in other parts of the subcontinent the Middle East and the Western World Substantial populations descended from Bengali immigrants exist in Saudi Arabia Pakistan and the United Kingdom where they form established communities of over 1 million people The majority of the overseas Bengali diaspora are Muslims as the act of seafaring was traditionally prohibited in Hinduism a taboo known as kala pani black dirty water 80 The introduction of Islam to the Bengali people has generated a connection to the Arabian Peninsula as Muslims are required to visit the land once in their lifetime to complete the Hajj pilgrimage Several Bengali sultans funded Islamic institutions in the Hejaz which popularly became known by the Arabs as Bengali madrasas As a result of the British conquest of Bengal some Bengalis decided to emigrate to Arabia 81 Notable examples include Mawlana Murad an instructor of Islamic sciences based in Mecca in the early 1800s 82 and Najib Ali Choudhury a participant of the Battle of Shamli 83 Notable people of Bengali origin in the Middle East include the renowned author and journalist Ahmad Abd al Ghafur Attar of Saudi Arabia and Qur an translator Zohurul Hoque from Oman The family of Princess Sarvath al Hassan wife of Jordanian prince Hassan bin Talal are descended from the Suhrawardy family of Midnapore 84 Earliest records of Bengalis in the European continent date back to the reign of King George III of England during the 16th century One such example is I tisam ud Din a Bengali Muslim cleric from Nadia in western Bengal who arrived to Europe in 1765 with his servant Muhammad Muqim as a diplomat for the Mughal Empire 85 Another example during this period is of James Achilles Kirkpatrick s hookah bardar hookah servant preparer who was said to have robbed and cheated Kirkpatrick making his way to England and stylising himself as the Prince of Sylhet The man presumably from Sylhet in eastern Bengal was waited upon by the Prime Minister of Great Britain William Pitt the Younger and then dined with the Duke of York before presenting himself in front of the King 86 Today the British Bangladeshis are a naturalised community in the United Kingdom running 90 of all South Asian cuisine restaurants and having established numerous ethnic enclaves across the country most prominent of which is Banglatown in East London 87 LanguageMain article Bengali language An important and unifying characteristic of Bengalis is that most of them use Bengali as their native tongue believed to belong to the Indo Iranian language family 88 With about 226 million native and about 300 million total speakers worldwide Bengali is one of the most spoken languages ranked sixth in the world 89 90 and is also used a lingua franca among other ethnic groups and tribes living within and around the Bengal region Bengali is generally written using the Bengali script and evolved circa 1000 1200 CE from Magadhi Prakrit thus bearing similarities to ancient languages such as Pali Its closest modern relatives may include other Eastern Indo Aryan languages such as Assamese Odia and the Bihari languages Though Bengali may have a historic legacy of borrowing vocabulary from languages such as Persian and Sanskrit 88 modern borrowings primarily come from the English language Regional dialects form one of the determiners to the social stratification of Bengalis Various forms of the language are in use today and provide an important force for Bengali cohesion These distinct forms can be sorted into three categories The first is Classical Bengali স ধ ভ ষ Sadhu Bhasa which was a historical form restricted to literary usage up until the late British period The second is Standard Bengali চল ত ভ ষ Colito Bhasa or শ দ ধ ভ ষ Suddho Bhasa which is the modern literary form and is based upon the dialects of the divided Nadia region partitioned between Nadia and Kushtia It is used today in writing and in formal speaking for example prepared speeches some radio broadcasts and non entertainment content The third and largest category by speakers would be Colloquial Bengali আঞ চল ক ভ ষ Ancolik Bhasa or কথ য ভ ষ Koththo Bhasa These refer to informal spoken language that varies by dialect from region to region Social stratificationThis section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed June 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message Bengali schoolboys in the port city of Chittagong Bengali people may be broadly classified into sub groups predominantly based on dialect but also other aspects of culture Bangals This is a term used predominantly in Indian West Bengal to refer to East Bengalis i e Bangladeshis as well as those whose ancestors originate from Eastern Bengal The East Bengali dialects are known as Bangali This group constitutes the majority of ethnic Bengalis They originate from the mainland Bangladeshi regions of Dhaka Mymensingh Comilla and Barisal as well as Bengali speaking areas in Lower Assam and Tripura Among Bangals there are four subgroups that maintain distinct identities in addition to having a Eastern Bengali identity 91 92 Chittagonians are natives of the Chittagong region Chittagong District and Cox s Bazar District of Bangladesh and speak Chittagonian The people of Cox s Bazar are closely related to the Rohingyas of the Rakhine State in Myanmar Sylhetis originate from the Sylhet Division of Bangladesh and the Barak Valley in India and they speak Sylheti Noakhailla speakers can be found in greater Noakhali region and southern Tripura The Puran Dhakaiyas are a small urban community residing in Old Dhaka that noticeably differ from the rest of the people of Dhaka Division by language and culture Ghotis This is the term favoured by the natives of West Bengal to distinguish themselves from other Bengalis The people of Purulia and greater Manbhum reside in far western Bengal and have some regional differences with the mainland Ghotis via language and culture The region of North Bengal which hosts Varendri and Rangpuri speakers is divided between both West Bengal and Bangladesh and they are normally categorised into the former two main groups depending on which side of the border they reside in even though they are culturally similar to each other regardless of international borders The categorisation of North Bengalis into Ghoti or Bangal is contested Rangpuri speakers can also be found in parts of Lower Assam and the Shershahabadia community extend into Bihar Bengalis Hindus are socially stratified into four castes called choturborṇo The caste system derived from Hindu system of borṇo type order colour or class and jati clan tribe community or sub community which divides people into four colours White Red Yellow and Black White people are Brahmoṇ who are destined to be priests teachers and preachers Red people are Kkhotriyo who are destined to be kings governors warriors and soldiers Yellow people are Boisso who are born to be cattle herders ploughmen artisans and merchants and Black people are Shudro who are born to be labourers and servants to the people of twice born caste 93 94 People from all caste denominations exist among Bengali Hindus Ram Mohan Roy who was born Hindu founded the Brahmo Samaj which attempted to abolish the practices of casteism sati and child marriage among Hindus 70 ReligionMain articles Demographics of Bangladesh West Bengal Demographics Tripura Demographics and Andaman and Nicobar Islands Demographics See also Religion in Bangladesh Hinduism in West Bengal Bengali Buddhists and Christianity in West Bengal Eid prayers in Dhaka Durga Puja in Kolkata Religions among Bengalis 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 Religions PercentIslam 71 Hinduism 28 others 1 The largest religions practiced in Bengal are Islam and Hinduism 102 Among all Bengalis more than two thirds are Muslims The vast majority follow the Sunni denomination though there are also a small minority of Shias The Bengali Muslims form a 90 4 majority in Bangladesh 103 and a 30 minority among the ethnic Bengalis in whole India 104 105 106 107 108 In West Bengal Bengali Muslims form a 66 88 majority in Murshidabad district the former seat of the Shia Nawabs of Bengal a 51 27 majority in Malda which contains the erstwhile capitals of the Sunni Bengal Sultanate and they also number over 5 487 759 in the 24 Parganas 109 Just less than a third of all Bengalis are Hindus predominantly the Shaktas and Vaishnavists 102 and as per as 2011 census report they form a 70 54 majority in West Bengal 50 plurality in Southern Assam s Barak Valley region 110 60 majority in the India s North Eastern state of Tripura 111 30 plurality in Andaman and Nicobar Islands 9 significance population in India s Eastern state of Jharkhand 112 and an 8 54 minority in Bangladesh 113 107 In Bangladesh Hindus are mostly concentrated in Sylhet Division where they constitute 17 8 of the population and are mostly populated in Chittagong Division where they number over 3 million Hindus form a 56 41 majority in Dacope Upazila a 51 69 majority in Kotalipara Upazila and a 51 22 majority in Sullah Upazila In terms of population Bangladesh is the third largest Hindu populated country of the world just after India and Nepal The total Hindu population in Bangladesh exceeds the population of many Muslim majority countries like Yemen Jordan Tajikistan Syria Tunisia Oman and others 114 Also the total Hindu population in Bangladesh is roughly equal to the total population of Greece and Belgium 115 Bengali Hindus also worship regional deities 21 22 23 Other religious groups include Buddhists comprising around 1 of the population in Bangladesh and Bengali Christians 102 108 A large number of the Bengali Christians are descendants of Portuguese voyagers The bulk of Bengali Buddhists belong to the Bengali speaking Baruas who reside in Chittagong and Rakhine CultureFurther information Culture of Bengal Culture of Bangladesh and Culture of West Bengal Festivals Main articles List of festivals in Bangladesh and List of festivals in West Bengal Harvesting preparation in Bangladesh Bengalis commemorate the Islamic holidays or Hindu festivals depending on their religion People are dressed in their new traditional clothing citation needed During the major Islamic holidays Eid al Adha and Eid al Fitr charity is distributed Children are given clothes or money Relatives friends and neighbors visit and exchange food and sweets 116 Significant cultural events or celebrations are also celebrated by the community annually Pohela Boishakh is a celebration of the new year and arrival of summer in the Bengali calendar and is celebrated in April It features a funfair music and dance displays on stages with people dressed in colourful traditional clothes parading through the streets 117 Festivals like Pahela Falgun spring are also celebrated regardless of their faith The Bengalis of Dhaka celebrate Shakrain an annual kite festival The Nabanna is a Bengali celebration akin to the harvest festivals in the Western world A sculpture of the Nawab of Bengal s Royal Peacock Barge in Murshidabad Fashion and arts Visual art and architecture Main articles Bangladeshi art and Arts of West Bengal Traditional way of weaving Jamdani The recorded history of art in Bengal can be traced to the 3rd century BCE when terracotta sculptures were made in the region The architecture of the Bengal Sultanate saw a distinct style of domed mosques with complex niche pillars that had no minarets Ivory pottery and brass were also widely used in Bengali art Attire and clothing A Bengali man sporting a simple black sherwani Bengali attire is shares similarities with North Indian attire In rural areas older women wear the shari while the younger generation wear the selwar kamiz both with simple designs In urban areas the selwar kamiz is more popular and has distinct fashionable designs Traditionally Bengali men wore the jama though the costumes such as the panjabi with selwar or pyjama have become more popular within the past three centuries The popularity of the fotua a shorter upper garment is undeniable among Bengalis in casual environments The lungi and gamcha are a common combination for rural Bengali men Islamic clothing is also very common in the region During special occasions Bengali women commonly wear either sharis selwar kamizes or abayas covering their hair with hijab or orna and men wear a panjabi also covering their hair with a tupi toqi pagri or rumal Mughal Bengal s most celebrated artistic tradition was the weaving of Jamdani motifs on fine muslin which is now classified by UNESCO as an intangible cultural heritage Jamdani motifs were similar to Iranian textile art buta motifs and Western textile art paisley The Jamdani weavers in Dhaka received imperial patronage 59 118 The traditional attire of Bengali Hindus is dhoti and kurta for men and saree for women Performing arts See also Cinema of West Bengal Music of West Bengal Music of Bangladesh Gaudiya Nritya and Theatre in Bangladesh Artistes from Purulia district of West Bengal performs Chhau dance Satyajit Ray eminent film director who has made Bengali films popular all over the world Bengal has an extremely rich heritage of performing arts dating back to antiquity It includes narrative forms songs and dances performance with scroll paintings puppet theatre and the processional forms like the Jatra and cinema Performing of plays and Jatras were mentioned in Charyapada written in between the 8th and 12th centuries 119 Chhau dance is a unique martial tribal and folk art of Bengal Wearing an earthy and theatrical Chhau mask the dance is performed to highlight the folklore and episodes from Shaktism Ramayana Mahabharata and other abstract themes 120 121 In 2010 the Chhau dance was inscribed in the UNESCO s Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity 122 Bengali film is a glorious part of the history of world cinema Hiralal Sen who is considered a stalwart of Victorian era cinema sowed the first seeds of Bengali cinema 120 123 In 1898 Sen founded the first film production company named Royal Bioscope Company in Bengal and possibly the first in India 124 Along with Nemai Ghosh Tapan Sinha and others the golden age of Bengali cinema begins with the hands of Satyajit Ray Mrinal Sen and Rittwik Ghatak 125 Chinnamul was recognized as the first neo realist film in India that deals with the partition of India 126 127 Ray s first cinema Pather Panchali 1955 achieved the highest ranking Indian film on any Sight amp Sound poll at number 6 in the 1992 Critics Poll 128 It also topped the British Film Institute s user poll of Top 10 Indian Films of all time in 2002 129 In the same year Titash Ekti Nadir Naam directed by Ritwik Ghatak with the joint production of India and Bangladesh got the honor of best Bangladeshi films in the audience and critics polls conducted by the British Film Institute 130 Gastronomy Main article Bengali cuisine Paan and supari are a typical meal concluder A glass of Borhani A plate of Dhakaiya biryani Shorshe Pabda Pabo catfish in Mustard paste Bengali cuisine is the culinary style of the Bengali people It has the only traditionally developed multi course tradition from South Asia that is analogous in structure to the modern service a la russe style of French cuisine with food served course wise rather than all at once The dishes of Bengal are often centuries old and reflect the rich history of trade in Bengal through spices herbs and foods With an emphasis on fish and vegetables served with rice as a staple diet Bengali cuisine is known for its subtle flavours and its huge spread of confectioneries and milk based desserts One will find the following items in most dishes mustard oil fish panch phoron lamb onion rice cardamom yogurt and spices The food is often served in plates which have a distinct flowery pattern often in blue or pink Common beverages include shorbot borhani ghol matha lachhi falooda Rooh Afza natural juices like Akher rosh Khejur rosh Aamrosh Dudh cha Taler rosh Masala cha as well as basil seed or tukma based drinks East and West Bengali cuisines have many similarities but also many unique traditions at the same time These kitchens have been influenced by the history of the respective regions The kitchens can be further divided into the urban and rural kitchens Urban kitchens in eastern Bengal consist of native dishes with foreign Mughal influence for example the Haji biryani and Chevron Biryani of Old Dhaka Literature Main articles Bengali literature and Bengali Renaissance Gitanjali intro featuring its author Rabindranath Tagore Bengali literature denotes the body of writings in the Bengali language which has developed over the course of roughly 13 centuries The earliest extant work in Bengali literature can be found within the Charyapada a collection of Buddhist mystic hymns dating back to the 10th and 11th centuries They were discovered in the Royal Court Library of Nepal by Hara Prasad Shastri in 1907 The timeline of Bengali literature is divided into three periods ancient 650 1200 medieval 1200 1800 and modern after 1800 Medieval Bengali literature consists of various poetic genres including Islamic epics by the likes of Abdul Hakim and Syed Sultan secular texts by Muslim poets like Alaol and Vaishnava texts by the followers of Krishna Chaitanya Bengali writers began exploring different themes through narratives and epics such as religion culture cosmology love and history Royal courts such as that of the Bengal Sultanate and the Kingdom of Mrauk U gave patronage to numerous Bengali writers such as Shah Muhammad Saghir Daulat Qazi and Dawlat Wazir Bahram Khan The Bengali Renaissance refers to a socio religious reform movement during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries centered around the city of Calcutta and predominantly led by upper caste Bengali Hindus under the patronage of the British Raj who had created a reformed religion known as the Brahmo Samaj Historian Nitish Sengupta describes the Bengal renaissance as having begun with Raja Ram Mohan Roy 1775 1833 and ended with Asia s first Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore 1861 1941 64 Though the Bengal Renaissance was predominantly representative to the Hindu community due to their relationship with British colonisers 131 there were nevertheless examples of modern Muslim litterateurs in this period Mir Mosharraf Hossain 1847 1911 was the first major writer in the modern era to emerge from the Bengali Muslim society and one of the finest prose writers in the Bengali language His magnum opus Bishad Shindhu is a popular classic among Bengali readership Kazi Nazrul Islam 1899 1976 notable for his activism and anti British literature was described as the Rebel Poet and is now recognised as the National poet of Bangladesh Begum Rokeya 1880 1932 was the leading female Bengali author of this period best known for writing Sultana s Dream which was subsequently translated into numerous languages Marriage The application of mehndi onto one s hand hosts a ceremony of itself during Bengali wedding seasons A Bengali groom partaking in a supplication during his wedding A marriage among Bengalis often consists of multiple events rather than just one wedding Arranged marriages are arguably the most common form of marriage among Bengalis and are considered traditional in society 132 Marriage is seen as a union between two families rather than just two people 133 134 and they play a large part in developing and maintaining social ties between families and villages The two families are facilitated by Ghotoks mutual matchmakers and the first event is known as the Paka Dekha Dekhadekhi where all those involved are familiarised with each other over a meal at the bride s home The first main event is the Paan Chini Chini Paan hosted by the bride s family Gifts are received from the groom s family and the marriage date is fixed in this event 135 An adda takes place between the families as they consume a traditional Bengali banquet of food paan tea and mishti The next event is the mehndi henna evening also known as the gaye holud turmeric on the body This is normally followed by the main event the walima hosting thousands of guests An aqd vow takes place where a contract of marriage Kabin nama and is signed A qazi or imam is usually present here and would also recite the Qur an and make dua for the couple The groom is required to pay mohor dowry to the bride The Phirajatra Phirakhaowa consists of the return of the bride with her husband to her home which then becomes referred to as Naiyor and payesh and milk are served Other post marriage ceremonies include the Bou Bhat which takes place in the groom s home Arranged marriages are arguably the most common form of marriage among Bengalis and are considered traditional in society 132 Though polygamy is rarity among Bengalis today it was historically prevalent among both Muslims and Hindus prior to British colonisation and was a sign of prosperity 136 Science Main article Science and technology in Bangladesh Biomedical physicist Khondkar Siddique e Rabbani developed the focused impedance measurement a technique for quantifying the electrical resistance in tissues of the human body with improved zone localisation 137 138 Qazi Azizul Haque is recognised for his contributions to the development of modern fingerprint biometrics a discovery of worldwide importance Meghnad Saha J C Bose J C Ghosh Snehamoy Dutt S N Bose D M Bose N R Sen J N Mukherjee N C Nag The contribution of Bengalis to modern science is pathbreaking in the world s context Qazi Azizul Haque was an inventor who is credited for devising the mathematical basis behind a fingerprint classification system that continued to be used up until the 1990s for criminal investigations Abdus Suttar Khan invented more than forty different alloys for commercial application in space shuttles jet engines train engines and industrial gas turbines In 2006 Abul Hussam invented the Sono arsenic filter and subsequently became the recipient of the 2007 Grainger challenge Prize for Sustainability 139 Another biomedical scientist Parvez Haris was listed among the top 1 of 100 000 scientists in the world by Stanford University 140 A sculpture honoring Fazlur Rahman Khan at the Willis Tower Fazlur Rahman Khan was a structural engineer responsible for making many important advancements in high rise designs 141 He was the designer of Willis Tower the tallest building in the world until 1998 Khan s seminal work of developing tall building structural systems are still used today as the starting point when considering design options for tall buildings 142 Jagadish Chandra Bose was a polymath a physicist biologist botanist archaeologist and writer of science fiction 143 who pioneered the investigation of radio and microwave optics made significant contributions to plant science and laid the foundations of experimental science in the subcontinent 144 He is considered one of the fathers of radio science 145 and is also considered the father of Bengali science fiction He first practicalised the wireless radio transmission but Guglielmo Marconi got recognition for it due to European proximity Bose also described for the first time that plants can respond by demonstrating with his crescograph and recording the impulse caused by bromination of plant tissue Satyendra Nath Bose was a physicist specialising in mathematical physics He is best known for his work on quantum mechanics in the early 1920s providing the foundation for Bose Einstein statistics and the theory of the Bose Einstein condensate He is honoured as the namesake of the boson He made first calculations to initiate Statistical Mechanics He first hypothesised a physically tangible idea of photon Bose s contemporary was Meghnad Saha an astrophysicist and politician who contributed to the theorisation of thermal ionization The Saha ionization equation which was named after him is used to describe chemical and physical conditions in stars 146 147 His work allowed astronomers to accurately relate the spectral classes of stars to their actual temperatures 148 Economics and Poverty Alleviation Amartya Sen winner of the 1998 Nobel Prize in Economics Muhammad Yunus winner of the 2006 Nobel Peace Prize Abhijit Banerjee winner of the 2019 Nobel Prize in Economics Several Bengali Economists and entrepreneurs have made pioneering contributions in economic theories and practices supporting poverty alleviation Amartya Sen is an economist and philosopher who has made contributions to welfare economics social choice theory economic and social justice economic theories of famines decision theory development economics public health and measures of well being of countries He was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences 149 in 1998 and India s Bharat Ratna in 1999 for his work in welfare economics Muhammad Yunus is a social entrepreneur banker economist and civil society leader who was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for founding the Grameen Bank and pioneering the concepts of microcredit and microfinance Abhijit Banerjee is an economist who shared the 2019 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences with Esther Duflo and Michael Kremer for their experimental approach to alleviating global poverty 150 151 Sport and games Main articles Sport in Bangladesh and Sports in West Bengal A lathi khela event taking place in Tangail A Nouka Baich competition taking place in the monsoon season Traditional Bengali sports consisted of various martial arts and various racing sports though the British introduced sports of cricket and football are now most popular amongst Bengalis Lathi khela stick fighting was historically a method of duelling as a way to protect or take land and others possessions The Zamindars of Bengal would hire lathials trained stick fighters as a form of security and a means to forcefully collect tax from tenants 152 Nationwide lathi khela competitions used to take place annually in Kushtia up until 1989 though its practice is now diminishing and being restricted to certain festivals and celebrations 153 Chamdi is a variant of lathi khela popular in North Bengal Kushti wrestling is also another popular fighting sport and it has developed regional forms such as boli khela which was introduced in 1889 by Zamindar Qadir Bakhsh of Chittagong A merchant known as Abdul Jabbar Saodagar adapted the sport in 1907 with the intention of cultivating a sport that would prepare Bengalis in fighting against British colonials 154 155 In 1972 a popular contact team sport called Kabadi was made the national sport of Bangladesh It is a regulated version of the rural Hadudu sport which had no fixed rules The Amateur Kabaddi Federation of Bangladesh was formed in 1973 156 Butthan a 20th century Bengali martial arts invented by Grandmaster Mak Yuree is now practiced in different parts of the world under the International Butthan Federation 157 Mohammed Salim the first South Asian footballer to play for a foreign club Due to playing in bare feet he is having them bandaged by Jimmy McMenemy in 1936 The Nouka Baich is a Bengali boat racing competition which takes place during and after the rainy season when much of the land goes under water The long canoes were referred to as khel nao meaning playing boats and the use of cymbals to accompany the singing was common Different types of boats are used in different parts of Bengal 158 Horse racing was patronised most notably by the Dighapatia Rajas in Natore and their Chalanbeel Horse Races have continued to take place annually for centuries Cricketer Shakib Al Hasan is currently crowned the world s best all rounder in all formats for ODI cricket 159 and one of the greatest of all times 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 The oldest native football clubs of Bengal was Mohun Bagan A C which was founded in 1889 and Mohammedan SC founded in 1891 Mohun Bagan s first major victory was in 1911 when the team defeated an English club known as the Yorkshire Regiment to win the IFA Shield Since then more and more clubs emerged in West Bengal such as Mohun Bagan s main rival SC East Bengal a team of East Bengali Hindus who had migrated to West Bengal following the 1947 Partition of India The rivalry also portrayed the societal problems at that time as many of the Mohun Bagan fans were Ghotis who hated the East Bengali immigrants though Hindu Mohammed Salim of Calcutta became the first South Asian to play for a European football club in 1936 167 In his two appearances for Celtic F C he played the entire matches barefoot and scored several goals 168 In 2015 Hamza Choudhury became the first Bengali to play in the Premier League and is predicted to be the first British Asian to play for the England national football team 169 Bengalis are very competitive when it comes to board and home games such as Pachisi and its modern counterpart Ludo as well as Latim Carrom Board Chor Pulish Kanamachi and Chess Rani Hamid is one of the most successful chess players in the world winning championships in Asia and Europe multiple times Ramnath Biswas was a revolutionary soldier who embarked on three world tours on a bicycle in the 19th century See alsoBengali nationalism List of Bangladeshis List of Bengalis List of people from West Bengal States of India by Bengali speakersReferences Bangladesh wants Bangla as an official UN language Sheikh Hasina Times of India The Times of India Archived from the original on 30 May 2022 Retrieved 30 May 2022 General Assembly hears appeal for Bangla to be made an official UN language 27 September 2010 Archived from the original on 1 June 2022 Retrieved 1 June 2022 Hasina for Bengali as an official UN language Ummid com Indo Asian News Service 28 September 2010 Archived from the original on 2 November 2022 Retrieved 1 June 2022 Bangladesh Population 2022 Demographics Maps Graphs Archived from the original on 18 July 2021 Retrieved 26 October 2021 South Asia Bangladesh Cia gov Central Intelligence Agency Archived from the original on 30 July 2021 Retrieved 21 June 2020 Census of India Website Office of the Registrar General amp Census Commissioner India Censusindia gov in Archived from the original on 7 March 2022 Retrieved 27 February 2022 Scheduled Languages in descending order of speaker s strength 2011 PDF Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India 29 June 2018 Archived PDF from the original on 14 November 2018 Retrieved 28 June 2018 https www aljazeera com features 2021 9 29 stateless ethnic bengalis pakistan Datta Romita 13 November 2020 The great Hindu vote trick India Today Retrieved 4 October 2022 Hindus add up to about 70 million in Bengal s 100 million population of which around 55 million are Bengalis Ali Zamser 5 December 2019 EXCLUSIVE BJP Govt plans to evict 70 lakh Muslims 60 lakh Bengali Hindus through its Land Policy 2019 in Assam Sabrang Communications Retrieved 4 October 2022 Hence about 70 lakh Assamese Muslims and 60 lakh Bengali speaking Hindus face mass evictions and homelessness if the policy is allowed to be passed in the Assembly https www thenewsweb in india bengali speaking voters may prove crucial in the second phase of assam poll Census 2022 Number of Muslims increased in the country Dhaka Tribune 27 July 2022 Retrieved 1 October 2022 Religions in Bangladesh PEW GRF Khan Mojlum 2013 The Muslim Heritage of Bengal The Lives Thoughts and Achievements of Great Muslim Scholars Writers and Reformers of Bangladesh and West Bengal Kube Publishing Ltd p 2 ISBN 978 1 84774 052 6 Bengali speaking Muslims as a group consists of around 200 million people Religions in Bangladesh PEW GRF Part I The Republic The Constitution of the People s Republic of Bangladesh Ministry of Law Justice and Parliamentary Affairs 2010 Archived from the original on 10 November 2019 Retrieved 9 September 2017 Bangalees and indigenous people shake hands on peace prospects Dhaka Tribune Archived from the original on 31 October 2020 Retrieved 16 April 2017 a b Khan Muhammad Chingiz 15 July 2017 Is MLA Ashab Uddin a local Manipuri Tehelka 14 36 38 roughly 163 million in Bangladesh and 100 million in India CIA Factbook 2014 estimates numbers subject to rapid population growth about 3 million Bangladeshis in the Middle East 2 million Bengalis in Pakistan 0 4 million British Bangladeshi 50th Report of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities in India PDF nclm nic in Ministry of Minority Affairs Archived from the original PDF on 8 July 2016 Retrieved 2 November 2018 a b McDermott Rachel Fell 2005 Bengali religions In Lindsay Jones ed Encyclopedia of Religion 15 Volume Set Vol 2 2nd ed Detroit Mi MacMillan Reference USA p 826 ISBN 0 02 865735 7 a b Frawley David 18 October 2018 What Is Hinduism A Guide for the Global Mind 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Publishers Distributors p 554 ISBN 978 81 7476 355 6 Ray R 1994 History of the Bengali People Orient BlackSwan p 656 ISBN 978 0 86311 378 9 Ray Niharranjan 1994 History of the Bengali people ancient period University of Michigan Orient Longmans p 613 ISBN 978 0 86311 378 9 Ray N 2013 History of the Bengali People from Earliest Times to the Fall of the Sena Dynasty Orient Blackswan Private Limited p 613 ISBN 978 81 250 5053 7 Das S N 1 December 2005 The Bengalis The People Their History and Culture p 1900 ISBN 978 81 292 0066 2 Sengupta Nitish 2011 Land of Two Rivers A History of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib Penguin UK p 656 ISBN 978 81 8475 530 5 Nasrin Mithun B Van Der Wurff W A M 2015 Colloquial Bengali Routledge p 288 ISBN 978 1 317 30613 9 Archived from the original on 18 November 2022 Retrieved 16 October 2020 Sengupta Debjani 2016 The Partition of Bengal Fragile Borders and New Identities Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 107 06170 5 Chakrabarti Kunal Chakrabarti Shubhra 1 February 2000 Historical Dictionary of the Bengalis Historical Dictionaries of Peoples and Cultures Scarecrow Press p 604 ISBN 978 0 8108 5334 8 Chatterjee Pranab 2009 A Story of Ambivalent Modernization in Bangladesh and West Bengal The Rise and Fall of Bengali Elitism in South Asia Peter Lang p 294 ISBN 978 1 4331 0820 4 Singh Kumar Suresh 2008 People of India West Bengal Volume 43 Part 1 University of Virginia Anthropological Survey of India p 1397 ISBN 978 81 7046 300 9 Archived from the original on 18 November 2022 Retrieved 8 August 2020 Milne William Stanley 1913 A Practical Bengali Grammar Asian Educational Services p 561 ISBN 978 81 206 0877 1 Alexander Claire Chatterji Joya 10 December 2015 The Bengal Diaspora Rethinking Muslim migration Routledge p 304 ISBN 978 0 415 53073 6 Chakraborty Mridula Nath 26 March 2014 Being Bengali At Home and in the World Routledge p 254 ISBN 978 0 415 62588 3 Sanyal Shukla 16 October 2014 Revolutionary Pamphlets Propaganda and Political Culture in Colonial Bengal Cambridge University Press p 219 ISBN 978 1 107 06546 8 Dasgupta Subrata 2009 The Bengal Renaissance Identity and Creativity from Rammohun Roy to Rabindranath Tagore Permanent Black p 286 ISBN 978 81 7824 279 8 Glynn Sarah 30 November 2014 Class Ethnicity and Religion in the Bengali East End A Political History Manchester University p 304 ISBN 978 0 7190 9595 5 Ahmed Salahuddin 2004 Bangladesh Past and Present Aph Publishing Corporations p 365 ISBN 978 81 7648 469 5 Deodhari Shanti 2007 Banglar Bow Bengali Bride AuthorHouse p 80 ISBN 978 1 4670 1188 4 Gupta Swarupa 2009 Notions of Nationhood in Bengal Perspectives on Samaj C 1867 1905 BRILL p 408 ISBN 978 90 04 17614 0 Archived from the original on 18 November 2022 Retrieved 16 August 2019 Roy Manisha 2010 Bengali Women University of Chicago Press p 232 ISBN 978 0 226 23044 3 Archived from the original on 18 November 2022 Retrieved 16 August 2019 Basak Sita 2006 Bengali Culture And Society Through Its Riddles Neha Publishers amp Distributors ISBN 978 81 212 0891 8 Raghavan Srinath 2013 1971 A Global History of the Creation of Bangladesh Harvard University Press p 368 ISBN 978 0 674 72864 6 Inden Ronald B Nicholas Ralph W 2005 Kinship in Bengali culture Orient Blackswan p 158 ISBN 978 81 8028 018 4 Nicholas Ralph W 2003 Fruits of Worship Practical Religion in Bengal Orient Blackswan p 248 ISBN 978 81 8028 006 1 Das S N 2002 The Bengalis The People Their History and Culture Religion and Bengali culture volume 4 Cosmo Publications p 321 ISBN 978 81 7755 392 5 Archived from the original on 18 November 2022 Retrieved 16 October 2020 Schendel Willem van 2004 The Bengal Borderland Beyond State and Nation in South Asia Anthem Press p 440 ISBN 978 1 84331 144 7 Mukherjee Janam 2015 Hungry Bengal War Famine Riots and the End of Empire Harper Collins India p 344 ISBN 978 93 5177 582 9 Guhathakurta Meghna Schendel Willem van 2013 The Bangladesh Reader History Culture Politics Duke University Press p 568 ISBN 978 0 8223 5318 8 Sengupta Nitish 19 November 2012 Bengal Divided The Unmaking of a Nation 1905 1971 Penguin India p 272 ISBN 978 0 14 341955 6 External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bengali people Wikiquote has quotations related to Bengalis Bengalis Encyclopaedia Britannica entry Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Bengalis amp oldid 1143843992, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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