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Wikipedia

Hijab

January 08, 2023

In modern usage, hijab (Arabic: حجاب, romanized: ḥijāb, pronounced [ħɪˈdʒaːb]) generally refers to headcoverings worn by Muslim women. Many Muslims believe it is obligatory for every female Muslim who has reached the age of puberty to wear a head covering. While such headcoverings can come in many forms, hijab often specifically refers to a cloth wrapped around the head, neck and chest, covering the hair and neck but leaving the face visible.[1]

A Tunisian woman wearing a headscarf

The term ḥijāb was originally used to denote a partition, a curtain, or was sometimes used for the Islamic rules of modesty.[1][2] This is the usage in the verses of the Qur'an, in which the term hijab sometimes refers to a curtain separating visitors to Muhammad's main house from his wives' residential lodgings. This has led some to claim that the mandate of the Qur'an applied only to the wives of Muhammad, and not to the entirety of women.[3][4] Another interpretation can also refer to the seclusion of women from men in the public sphere, whereas a metaphysical dimension may refer to "the veil which separates man, or the world, from God".[5] For some, the term for headscarf in the Qur'an is khimār (Arabic: خِمار).[1][6][2][7][8]

When pre-Islamic Arabs went to war, Arab women would open their breasts while fighting or to encourage men to fight, as exemplified by the behavior exhibited by Meccan women in the Battle of Uhud.[9] In many traditional societies, it is not shameful for women to expose their breasts, for example, during breastfeeding. Considering the verse in Qur'an 24:31, which states that they should cover their "adornments" and not show them to strangers outside the family, it can be thought that the Qur'an introduces a new scale of chastity in the public sphere.[10][9] Such behavior is seen by Islamic scholars and the Muslim public as a symbol of ignorance.

The Qur'an instructs Muslim women and men to dress modestly,[11] and for some, the hijab is worn by Muslim girls and women to maintain modesty and privacy from unrelated males. According to the Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World, modesty concerns both men's and women's "gaze, gait, garments, and genitalia".[12]

According to the understanding of the "oldest legal systems", only the wives of Muhammad were those who were instructed to hijab with the verse (33:59), and none of them had a condition for women to cover.[10][9] Despite this, all orthodox sharia schools ordered that parts of the body, especially the neck, ankles, and under the elbows, be covered in public. There is no consensus among those who consider the subject as a necessity, such as how much of the veil is a necessity. Some legal systems accept the hijab as an order to cover everything except the face and hands[13][5] while others accept it as an order that covers the whole body, including the face and hands.[14]

These guidelines are found in texts of hadith and fiqh developed after the revelation of the Qur'an. Some believe these are derived from the verses (ayahs) referencing hijab in the Qur'an;[12] others believe that the Qur'an does not mandate that women need to wear a hijab.[15][16] According to hadith[which?] a woman must cover her full body along with face and hands, but it is permissible for a woman to keep her hands and face uncovered. In addition, the dress code of concubines in Sharia law is completely different from that of free women.

Some religious groups consider the issue of veiling in Islam only as a recommendation made according to the conditions of the past, and they believe that giving it as a necessity is an imposition of an Islamist ideology. The Muslim Reform Movement emphasized that the jilbāb and khimar mentioned in the Qur'an are pre-Islamic clothing, they were not brought by the Qur'an, the hijab of the Qur'an never means a headscarf, and the Qur'an only advises on how to wear them.[17]

The hijab is currently required by law to be worn by women in Iran, Afghanistan and the Indonesian province of Aceh.[18] It is no longer required by law in Saudi Arabia since 2018, although Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman has stated that women, similar to other Gulf countries,[19] must still wear "decent and respectful attire".[20][21][22][23][24] In Gaza, Palestinian jihadists belonging to the Unified Leadership (UNLU) have rejected a hijab policy for women.[25] They have also targeted those who seek to impose the hijab.[25] Other countries, both in Europe and in the Muslim world, have passed laws banning some or all types of hijab in public or in certain types of locales. Women in different parts of the world have also experienced unofficial pressure to wear or not wear a hijab. The Muslim Reform Movement holds that hijab of the Qur'an simply meant "barrier" and that it was used in the context of both men and women; the jilbab and the khimar were pre-Islamic clothes and the Qur'an simply recommended how to wear these, rather than imposing a new clothing requirement.[17]

In Islamic scripture

Qur'an

Qur'anic verses relating to dress codes use the terms khimār (according to some, a headcovering[26][27]) and jilbāb (a dress or cloak) rather than ḥijāb.[2][nb 1] About six verses refer specifically to the way a woman should dress and walk in public;[28] Muslim scholars have differed as to how these verses should be applied, with some stating that a headscarf is required and others saying that a headscarf is not required.[17]

The clearest verses on the requirement of modest dress are Surah 24:30–31, telling both men and women to dress and act modestly, with more detail about modest dress focused on women.[29][30]

Say to the believing men they should lower from their gaze and they should guard their chastity. That (is) purer for them. Indeed, Allah (is) All-Aware of what they do. And say to the believing women that they should lower their gaze and guard their private parts; that they should not display their adornments "zīnatahunna" except what (must ordinarily) appear thereof; that they should draw their khimār over their breasts and not display their beauty except to their husband, their fathers, their husband's fathers, their sons, their husbands' sons, their brothers or their brothers' sons, or their sisters' sons, or their women, or the slaves whom their right hands possess, or male servants free of physical needs, or small children who have no sense of the shame of sex; and that they should not strike their feet in order to draw attention to their hidden ornaments.

— Quran 24:30-31

The word khimar, in the context of this verse, is sometimes translated as "head coverings".[26][31][27] Such head coverings were worn by women in Arabia at the advent of Islam.[32]

The verse in Luxenberg's reading of Syro-Aramaic reading instructed women to "fasten their belts around their waists" metaphorically instead. The belt had a symbolic meaning for chastity in the Christian world at that time.

Qur'an 33:59, tells Muhammad ask his family members and other Muslim women to wear outer garments when they go out, so that they are not harassed:[30]

O Prophet! Enjoin your wives, your daughters, and the believing women that they should cast their outer garments over their persons (when abroad): That is most convenient, that they may be distinguished and not be harassed.

— Quran 33:59

The Islamic commentators generally agree this verse refers to sexual harassment of women of Medina. It is also seen to refer to a free woman, for which Tabari cites Ibn Abbas. Ibn Kathir states that the jilbab distinguishes free Muslim women from those of Jahiliyyah, so other men know they are free women and not slaves or prostitutes, indicating covering oneself does not apply to non-Muslims. He cites Sufyan al-Thawri as commenting that while it may be seen as permitting looking upon non-Muslim women who adorn themselves, it is not allowed in order to avoid lust. Al-Qurtubi concurs with Tabari about this ayah being for those who are free. He reports that the correct view is that a jilbab covers the whole body. He also cites the Sahabah as saying it is no longer than a rida (a shawl or a wrapper that covers the upper body). He also reports a minority view which considers the niqab or head-covering as jilbab. Ibn Arabi considered that excessive covering would make it impossible for a woman to be recognised which the verse mentions, though both Qurtubi and Tabari agree that the word recognition is about distinguishing free women.[33]

Some scholars like Ibn Hayyan, Ibn Hazm and Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani questioned the ayah's common explanation. Hayyan believed that "believing women" referred to both free women and slaves as the latter are bound to more easily entice lust and their exclusion is not clearly indicated. Hazm too believed that it covered Muslim slaves as it would violate the law of not molesting a slave or fornication with her like that with a free woman. He stated that anything not attributed to Muhammad should be disregarded.[34]

The word ḥijāb in the Qur'an refers not to women's clothing, but rather a spatial partition or curtain.[2] Sometimes its use is literal, as in the verse which refers to the screen that separated Muhammad's wives from the visitors to his house (33:53), while in other cases the word denotes separation between deity and mortals (42:51), wrongdoers and righteous (7:46, 41:5), believers and unbelievers (17:45), and light from darkness (38:32).[2]

The interpretations of the ḥijāb as separation can be classified into three types: as visual barrier, physical barrier, and ethical barrier. A visual barrier (for example, between Muhammad's family and the surrounding community) serves to hide from sight something, which places emphasis on a symbolic boundary. A physical barrier is used to create a space that provides comfort and privacy for individuals, such as elite women. An ethical barrier, such as the expression purity of hearts in reference to Muhammad's wives and the Muslim men who visit them, makes something forbidden.[28]

Hadith

Main article: Women's prayer in Islam

The hadith sources specify the details of hijab (Islamic rules of dress) for men and women, exegesis of the Qur'anic verses narrated by sahabah, and are a major source which Muslim legal scholars used to derive their rulings.[35][36][37] It was narrated by Aisha, that when Quran 24:31 was revealed,

...the men of Ansar went to the women of Ansar and recited to them the words Allah had revealed. Each man recited to his wife, his daughter, his sister and other female relatives. Each woman among them got up, took her decorated wrapper and wrapped herself up in it out of faith and belief in what Allah had revealed. They appeared behind the Messenger of Allah wrapped up, as if there were crows on their heads.[38]

A similar hadith is Abū Dawud , which describes that, in response to the verses, "the women of Ansar came out as if they had crows hanging down over their heads." Although these narrations refers to black clothing ("crows on their heads"), other narrations indicate wives of the prophet also wore other colours like yellow or rose.[39][40] Other hadith on hijab include:

  • Narrated Safiya bint Shaiba: "Aisha used to say: 'When (the Verse): "They should draw their veils (khimaar) over their breasts (juyyub)," was revealed, (the ladies) cut their waist sheets at the edges and veiled themselves (Arabic: فَاخْتَمَرْنَ, lit. 'to put on a hijab') with the cut pieces.'" Sahih al-Bukhari, , . This hadith is often translated as "...and covered their heads and faces with the cut pieces of cloth,"[41] as the Arabic word used in the text (Arabic: فَاخْتَمَرْنَ) could include or exclude the face and there was ikhtilaf on whether covering the face is farḍ, or obligatory. The most prominent sharh, or explanation, of Sahih Bukhari is Fatḥ al-Bārī which states this included the face.
  • Yahya related to me from Malik from Muhammad ibn Zayd ibn Qunfudh that his mother asked Umm Salama, the wife of the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, "What clothes can a woman wear in prayer?" She said, "She can pray in the khimār (headscarf) and the diri' (Arabic: الدِّرْعِ, lit. 'shield, armature', transl. 'a woman's garment') that reaches down and covers the top of her feet." Muwatta Imam Malik book 8 hadith 37.
  • Aishah narrated that Allah's Messenger said: "The Salat (prayer) of a woman who has reached the age of menstruation is not accepted without a khimār." Jami` at-Tirmidhi 377.

Dress code

See also: Awrah

Modern Muslim scholars usually require women to cover everything but their hands and face in public,[5] but do not require the niqab (a face covering worn by some Muslim women). In nearly all Muslim cultures, young girls are not required to wear a ħijāb.

Sunni

 
Women wearing tudongs (the Malay term for hijab) in Brunei

The four major Sunni schools of thought (Hanafi, Shafi'i, Maliki and Hanbali) hold by consensus that it is obligatory for women to cover their hair,[42] and the entire body except her hands and face, while in the presence of people of the opposite sex other than close family members.[43][44][45] A difference of opinion does exist in which some scholars believe[who?] that the hijab is not obligatory and there not enough evidence to make it so[citation needed].

According to Hanafis and other scholars[which?], these requirements extend to being around non-Muslim women as well, for fear that they may describe her physical features to unrelated men.[46] The Sunni Permanent Committee for Islamic Research and Issuing Fatwas in Saudi Arabia,[47] and Muhammad ibn Adam Al-Kawthari[48] also believe women should cover their head.

Men must cover from their belly buttons to their knees, though the schools differ on whether this includes covering the navel and knees or only what is between them.[49][50][51][52]

It is recommended that women wear clothing that is not form fitting to the body, such as modest forms of Western clothing (long shirts and skirts), or the more traditional jilbāb, a high-necked, loose robe that covers the arms and legs. A khimār or shaylah, a scarf or cowl that covers all but the face, is also worn in many different styles.[citation needed]

Shia

 
Women wearing chadors; Shiraz, Iran, 2019

The major and most important Shia hadith collections such as Nahj Al-Balagha and Kitab Al-Kafi for the most part do not give any details about hijab requirements. However, a quotation from Man La Yahduruhu al-Faqih Musa al-Kadhim in reply to his brother, makes reference to female hijab requirements during the salat (prayer), stating "She covers her body and head with it then prays. And if her feet protrude from beneath, and she doesn't have the means to prevent that, there is no harm".[53] In Shia jurisprudence, by consensus, it is obligatory for women to cover their hair, and the entire body except her hands and face, while in the presence of people of the opposite sex other than close family members.

Miscellaneous

In private, and in the presence of close relatives (mahrams), rules on dress relax. However, in the presence of the husband, most scholars stress the importance of mutual freedom and pleasure of the husband and wife.[54]

Traditional scholars had differences of opinion on covering the hands and face. The majority adopted the opinion that the face and hands are not part of their nakedness.[citation needed] Some held the opinion that covering the face is recommended if the woman's beauty is so great that it is distracting and causes temptation or public discord.[citation needed]

Alternative views

Along with scriptural arguments, Leila Ahmed argues that head covering should not be interpreted as being compulsory in Islam because the veil predates the revelation of the Qur'an. Head-covering was introduced into Arabia long before Muhammad, primarily through Arab contacts with Syria and Iran, where the hijab was a sign of social status. After all, only a woman who need not work in the fields could afford to remain secluded and veiled.[3][55]

Among Ahmed's arguments is that while some Qur'anic verses enjoin women in general to "draw their Jilbabs (overgarment or cloak) around them to be recognized as believers and so that no harm will come to them"[Quran 33:58–59] and "guard their private parts ... and drape down khimar over their breasts [when in the presence of unrelated men]",[Quran 24:31] they urge modesty. The word khimar refers to a piece of cloth that covers the head, or headscarf.[56] While the term "hijab" was originally anything that was used to conceal,[57] it became used to refer to concealing garments worn by women outside the house, specifically the headscarf or khimar.[58]

According to at least three authors (Karen Armstrong, Reza Aslan and Leila Ahmed), the stipulations of the hijab were originally meant only for Muhammad's wives, and were intended to maintain their inviolability. This was because Muhammad conducted all religious and civic affairs in the mosque adjacent to his home:

 
Afghan army and police officials wearing hijabs in Kandahar

People were constantly coming in and out of this compound at all hours of the day. When delegations from other tribes came to speak with Prophet Muhammad, they would set up their tents for days at a time inside the open courtyard, just a few feet away from the apartments in which Prophet Muhammad's wives slept. And new emigrants who arrived in Yatrib would often stay within the mosque's walls until they could find suitable homes.[3]

According to Ahmed:

By instituting seclusion Prophet Muhammad was creating a distance between his wives and this thronging community on their doorstep.[4]

They argue that the term darabat al-hijab ('taking the veil') was used synonymously and interchangeably with "becoming Prophet Muhammad's wife", and that during Muhammad's life, no other Muslim woman wore the hijab. Aslan suggests that Muslim women started to wear the hijab to emulate Muhammad's wives, who are revered as "Mothers of the Believers" in Islam,[3] and states "there was no tradition of veiling until around 627 C.E." in the Muslim community.[3][4]

Another interpretation differing from the traditional states that a veil is not compulsory in front of blind men and men lacking physical desire (i.e., asexuals and hyposexuals).[59][60]

Many scholars argue that these contemporary views and arguments, however, contradict the hadith sources, the classical scholars, exegesis sources, historical consensus, and interpretations of the companions (such as Aisha and Abdullah ibn Masud).[citation needed] Some traditionalist Muslim scholars accept the contemporary views and arguments as those hadith sources are not sahih and ijma would no longer be applicable if it is argued by scholars (even if it is argued by only one scholar). Notable examples of traditionalist Muslim scholars who accept these contemporary views include the Indonesian scholar Buya Hamka.[citation needed]

Contemporary practice

Further information: Types of hijab and Hijab by country

The styles and practices of hijab vary widely across the world.

Wearing or not wearing a hijab can also be an act of protest. In August 2014 a mother of one of the Camp Speicher massacre victims threw her headscarf at the Iraqi parliament speaker, Salim al-Jabouri.

An opinion poll conducted in 2014 by The University of Michigan's Institute for Social Research asked residents of seven Muslim-majority countries (Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Tunisia, Turkey, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia) which style of women's dress they considered to be most appropriate in public.[61] The survey found that the headscarf (in its tightly- or loosely-fitting form) was chosen by the majority of respondents in Egypt, Iraq, Tunisia and Turkey.[61] In Saudi Arabia, 63% gave preference to the niqab face veil; in Pakistan the niqab, the full-length chador robe and the headscarf, received about a third of the votes each; while in Lebanon half of the respondents in the sample (which included Christians and Druze) opted for no head covering at all.[61][62] The survey found "no significant difference" in the preferences between surveyed men and women, except in Pakistan, where more men favoured conservative women's dress.[62] However, women more strongly support women's right to choose how to dress.[62] People with university education are less conservative in their choice than those without one, and more supportive of women's right to decide their dress style, except in Saudi Arabia.[62]

 
Emine Erdoğan wearing a türban

Some fashion-conscious women have been turning to non-traditional forms of hijab such as turbans.[63][64] While some regard turbans as a proper head cover, others argue that it cannot be considered a proper Islamic veil if it leaves the neck exposed.[63]

 
Muna AbuSulayman wearing a turban

According to a Pew Research Center survey, among the roughly 1 million Muslim women living in the U.S., 43% regularly wear headscarves, while about a half do not cover their hair.[65] In another Pew Research Center poll (2011), 36% of Muslim American women reported wearing hijab whenever they were in public, with an additional 24% saying they wear it most or some of the time, while 40% said they never wore the headcover.[66]

In Iran, where wearing the hijab is legally required, many women push the boundaries of the state-mandated dress code, risking a fine or a spell in detention.[67] The former Iranian president Hassan Rouhani had vowed to rein in the morality police and their presence on the streets has decreased since he took office, but the powerful conservative forces in the country have resisted his efforts, and the dress codes are still being enforced, especially during the summer months.[68] After Ebrahim Raisi became president, he started imposing hijab laws strictly, announcing use of facial recognition in public transport to enforce hijab law.[69] An Iranian woman, Mahsa Amini, died in custody of 'morality police' after they arrested her on new stricter hijab laws, which led to widespread protests.[70]

In Turkey the hijab was formerly banned in private and state universities and schools. The ban applied not to the scarf wrapped around the neck, traditionally worn by Anatolian peasant women, but to the head covering pinned neatly at the sides, called türban in Turkey, which has been adopted by a growing number of educated urban women since the 1980s. As of the mid-2000s, over 60% of Turkish women covered their head outside home, though only 11% wore a türban.[71][72][73][74] The ban was lifted from universities in 2008,[75] from government buildings in 2013,[76] and from schools in 2014.[77]

History

Pre-Islamic veiling practices

Further information: Veil
 
Greek bronze statuette of a veiled and masked dancer, 2nd–3rd century BC.

Veiling did not originate with the advent of Islam. Statuettes depicting veiled priestesses date back as far as 2500 BC.[78] Elite women in ancient Mesopotamia and in the Byzantine, Greek, and Persian empires wore the veil as a sign of respectability and high status.[79] In ancient Mesopotamia, Assyria had explicit sumptuary laws detailing which women must veil and which women must not, depending upon the woman's class, rank, and occupation in society.[79] Female slaves and prostitutes were forbidden to veil and faced harsh penalties if they did so.[2] Veiling was thus not only a marker of aristocratic rank, but also served to "differentiate between 'respectable' women and those who were publicly available".[2][79]

Strict seclusion and the veiling of matrons were also customary in ancient Greece. Between 550 and 323 BCE, prior to Christianity, respectable women in classical Greek society were expected to seclude themselves and wear clothing that concealed them from the eyes of strange men.[80] Roman pagan custom included the practice of the head covering worn by the priestesses of Vesta (Vestal Virgins).[81]

 
Pre-Islamic relief showing veiled women, Temple of Baal, Palmyra, Syria, 1st century CE.

It is not clear whether the Hebrew Bible contains prescriptions with regard to veiling, but rabbinic literature presents it as a question of modesty (tzniut).[81] Modesty became an important rabbinic virtue in the early Roman period, and it may have been intended to distinguish Jewish women from their non-Jewish counterparts in Babylonian and later in Greco-Roman society.[81] According to rabbinical precepts, married Jewish women have to cover their hair (cf. Mitpaḥat). The surviving representations of veiled Jewish women may reflect general Roman customs rather than particular Jewish practices.[81] According to Fadwa El Guindi, at the inception of Christianity, Jewish women were veiling their heads and faces.[2]

 
Roman statue of a Vestal Virgin

The best-known view on Christian headcovering is delineated in the Bible within the passage in 1 Corinthians 11:4-7, which states that "every woman who prays or prophesies with her head uncovered dishonors her head".[81] The early Church Fathers, including Tertullian of Carthage, Clement of Alexandria, Hippolytus of Rome, John Chrysostom and Augustine of Hippo attested in their writings that Christian women should wear a headcovering, while men should pray with their heads uncovered.[82][83] There is archaeological evidence demonstrating that headcovering was observed as an ordinance by women in early Christianity,[84][81] and the practice of Christian headcovering continues among female adherents of many Christian denominations today, especially among Anabaptist Christians, as well as among certain Eastern Orthodox Christians, Oriental Orthodox Christians and Reformed Christians, among others.[85][83]

In the Indian subcontinent, Hindu women cover their heads with a veil in a practice known as ghoonghat.[86][87]

Intermixing of populations resulted in a convergence of the cultural practices of Greek, Persian, and Mesopotamian empires and the Semitic peoples of the Middle East.[2] Veiling and seclusion of women appear to have established themselves among Jews and Christians before spreading to urban Arabs of the upper classes and eventually among the urban masses.[2] In the rural areas it was common to cover the hair, but not the face.[2]

According to Leila Ahmed, the rigid norms pertaining to veiling and seclusion of women found in Christian Byzantine literature have been influenced by ancient Persian traditions, and there is evidence to suggest that they differed significantly from actual practice.[88] Leila Ahmed argues that "Whatever the cultural source or sources, a fierce misogyny was a distinct ingredient of Mediterranean and eventually Christian thought in the centuries immediately preceding the rise of Islam."[89] Ahmed interprets veiling and segregation of sexes as an expression of a misogynistic view of shamefulness of sex which focused most intensely on shamefulness of the female body and danger of seeing it exposed.[89]

During Muhammad's lifetime

Available evidence suggests that veiling was not introduced into Arabia by Muhammad, but already existed there, particularly in the towns, although it was probably not as widespread as in the neighbouring countries such as Syria and Palestine.[90] Similarly to the practice among Greeks, Romans (Byzantines), Jews, and Assyrians, its use was associated with high social status.[90] In the early Islamic texts, term hijab does not distinguish between veiling and seclusion, and can mean either "veil" or "curtain".[91] The only verses in the Qur'an that specifically reference women's clothing are those promoting modesty, instructing women to guard their private parts and draw their scarves over their breast area in the presence of men.[92] The contemporary understanding of the hijab dates back to Hadith when the "verse of the hijab" descended upon the community in 627 CE.[93] Now documented in Sura 33:53, the verse states, "And when you ask [his wives] for something, ask them from behind a partition. That is purer for your hearts and their hearts".[94] This verse, however, was not addressed to women in general, but exclusively to Muhammad's wives. As Muhammad's influence increased, he entertained more and more visitors in the mosque, which was then his home. Often, these visitors stayed the night only feet away from his wives' apartments. It is commonly understood that this verse was intended to protect his wives from these strangers.[95] During Muhammad's lifetime the term for donning the veil, darabat al-hijab, was used interchangeably with "being Muhammad's wife".[90]

Later pre-modern history

The practice of veiling was borrowed from the elites of the Byzantine and Persian empires, where it was a symbol of respectability and high social status, during the Arab conquests of those empires.[96] Reza Aslan argues that "The veil was neither compulsory nor widely adopted until generations after Muhammad's death, when a large body of male scriptural and legal scholars began using their religious and political authority to regain the dominance they had lost in society as a result of the Prophet's egalitarian reforms".[95]

Because Islam identified with the monotheistic religions of the conquered empires, the practice was adopted as an appropriate expression of Qur'anic ideals regarding modesty and piety.[97] Veiling gradually spread to upper-class Arab women, and eventually it became widespread among Muslim women in cities throughout the Middle East. Veiling of Arab Muslim women became especially pervasive under Ottoman rule as a mark of rank and exclusive lifestyle, and Istanbul of the 17th century witnessed differentiated dress styles that reflected geographical and occupational identities.[2] Women in rural areas were much slower to adopt veiling because the garments interfered with their work in the fields.[98] Since wearing a veil was impractical for working women, "a veiled woman silently announced that her husband was rich enough to keep her idle."[99]

By the 19th century, upper-class urban Muslim and Christian women in Egypt wore a garment which included a head cover and a burqa (muslin cloth that covered the lower nose and the mouth).[2] The name of this garment, harabah, derives from early Christian and Judaic religious vocabulary, which may indicate the origins of the garment itself.[2] Up to the first half of the twentieth century, rural women in the Maghreb and Egypt put on a form of niqab when they visited urban areas, "as a sign of civilization".[100]

Modern history

 
A model displaying a fashionable hijab at "Moslema In Style Fashion Show" in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Western clothing largely dominated in Muslim countries the 1960s and 1970s.[101][102] For example, in Pakistan, Afghanistan and Iran, some women wore short skirts, flower printed hippie dresses, flared trousers,[103] and went out in public without the hijab.[citation needed] This changed following the Soviet–Afghan War,[citation needed] military dictatorship in Pakistan, and Iranian revolution of 1979, when traditional conservative attire including the abaya, jilbab and niqab made a comeback.[104][105] There were demonstrations in Iran in March 1979 after the hijab law, decreeing that women in Iran would have to wear scarves to leave the house, was brought in.[106] However, this phenomenon did not happen in all countries with a significant Muslim population; in Turkey there has been a decline on women wearing the hijab in recent years,[107] although under Erdoğan Turkey is becoming more conservative and Islamic, as Turkey repeals the Atatürk-era hijab ban,[108][109] and the founding of new fashion companies catering to women who want to dress more conservatively.[110]

Gamal Abdel Nasser laughing at the Muslim Brotherhood for suggesting in 1953 that women should be required to wear the hijab.

In 1953, Egyptian leader President Gamal Abdel Nasser claimed that he was told by the leader of the Muslim Brotherhood organization that they wanted to enforce the wearing of the hijab, to which Nasser responded, "Sir, I know you have a daughter in college, and she doesn't wear a headscarf or anything! Why don't you make her wear the headscarf? So you can't make one girl, your own daughter, wear it, and yet you want me to go and make ten million women wear it?"[citation needed]

The late-twentieth century saw a resurgence of the hijab in Egypt after a long period of decline as a result of westernization. Already in the mid-1970s some college aged Muslim men and women began a movement meant to reunite and rededicate themselves to the Islamic faith.[111][112] This movement was named the Sahwah,[113] or awakening, and sparked a period of heightened religiosity that began to be reflected in the dress code.[111] The uniform adopted by the young female pioneers of this movement was named al-Islāmī (Islamic dress) and was made up of an "al-jilbāb—an unfitted, long-sleeved, ankle-length gown in austere solid colors and thick opaque fabric—and al-khimār, a head cover resembling a nun's wimple that covers the hair low to the forehead, comes under the chin to conceal the neck, and falls down over the chest and back".[111] In addition to the basic garments that were mostly universal within the movement, additional measures of modesty could be taken depending on how conservative the followers wished to be. Some women choose to also utilize a face covering (al-niqāb) that leaves only eye slits for sight, as well as both gloves and socks in order to reveal no visible skin.[citation needed]

Soon this movement expanded outside of the youth realm and became a more widespread Muslim practice. Women viewed this way of dress as a way to both publicly announce their religious beliefs as well as a way to simultaneously reject western influences of dress and culture that were prevalent at the time. Despite many criticisms of the practice of hijab being oppressive and detrimental to women's equality,[112] many Muslim women view the way of dress to be a positive thing. It is seen as a way to avoid harassment and unwanted sexual advances in public and works to desexualize women in the public sphere in order to instead allow them to enjoy equal rights of complete legal, economic, and political status. This modesty was not only demonstrated by their chosen way of dress but also by their serious demeanor which worked to show their dedication to modesty and Islamic beliefs.[111]

 
Taekwondo medalists from Spain, Britain, Iran and Egypt at Rio Olympics, 2016[114]

Controversy erupted over the practice. Many people, both men and women from backgrounds of both Islamic and non-Islamic faith questioned the hijab and what it stood for in terms of women and their rights. There was questioning of whether in practice the hijab was truly a female choice or if women were being coerced or pressured into wearing it.[111] Many instances, such as the Islamic Republic of Iran's current policy of forced veiling for women, have brought these issues to the forefront and generated great debate from both scholars and everyday people.[citation needed]

As the awakening movement gained momentum, its goals matured and shifted from promoting modesty towards more of a political stance in terms of retaining support for Pan-Islamism and a symbolic rejection of Western culture and norms. Today the hijab means many different things for different people. For Islamic women who choose to wear the hijab it allows them to retain their modesty, morals and freedom of choice.[112] They choose to cover because they believe it is liberating and allows them to avoid harassment. Many people (both Muslim and non-Muslim)[who?] are against the wearing of the hijab and argue that the hijab causes issues with gender relations, works to silence and repress women both physically and metaphorically, and have many other problems with the practice.[citation needed] This difference in opinions has generated a plethora of discussion on the subject, both emotional and academic, which continues today.

After the September 11 attacks, the discussion and discourse on the hijab in Western nations intensified as Islamic traditions and theology came under greater scrutiny.

Iran

Main article: Hijab by country § Iran

In Iran some women act to transform the hijab by challenging the regime subsequently reinventing culture and women's identity within Iran. The female Iranian fashion designer, Naghmeh Kiumarsi, challenges the regime's notion of culture through publicly designing, marketing, and selling clothing pieces that feature tight fitting jeans, and a “skimpy” headscarf.[115] Kiumarsi embodies her own notion of culture and identity and utilizes fashion to value the differences among Iranian women, as opposed to a single identity under the Islamic dress code and welcomes the evolution of Iranian culture with the emergence of new style choices and fashion trends.

Women's resistance in Iran is gaining traction as an increasing number of women challenge the mandatory wearing of the hijab. Smith (2017) addressed the progress that Iranian women have made in her article, “Iran surprises by realizing Islamic dress code for women,”[116] published by The Times, a reputable news organization based in the UK. The Iranian government has enforced their penal dress codes less strictly and instead of imprisonment as a punishment have implemented mandatory reform classes in the liberal capital, Tehran. General Hossein Rahimi, the Tehran's police chief stated, “Those who do not observe the Islamic dress code will no longer be taken to detention centers, nor will judicial cases be filed against them” (Smith, 2017). The remarks of Tehran's recent police chief in 2017 reflect political progress in contrast with the remarks of Tehran's 2006 police chief.[116][117] Iranian women activists have made a headway since 1979 relying on fashion to enact cultural and political change.

Critics of forcing women to wear a headscarf label this practice as Islamofascist.[118]

Around the world

Further information: Hijab by country
 
Map[needs update] showing prevalence of hijab wearing across the world and indicating countries where there are restrictions on wearing it.

Some governments encourage and even oblige women to wear the hijab, while others have banned it in at least some public settings. In many parts of the world women also experience informal pressure for or against wearing hijab, including physical attacks.

Legal enforcement

In Gaza, Palestinian Jihadists belonging to the Unified Leadership (UNLU) have rejected a hijab policy for women.[25] They have also targeted those who seek to impose the hijab.[25]

Iran went from banning all types of veils in 1936, to making Islamic dress mandatory for women following the Islamic Revolution in 1979.[119] In April 1980, it was decided that women in government offices and educational institutions would be mandated to veil.[119] The 1983 penal code prescribed punishment of 74 lashes for women appearing in public without Islamic hijab (hijab shar'ee), leaving the definition of proper hijab ambiguous.[120][121]

The same period witnessed tensions around the definition of proper hijab, which sometimes resulted in vigilante harassment of women who were perceived to wear improper clothing.[119][120] In 1984, Tehran's public prosecutor announced that a stricter dress-code should be observed in public establishments, while clothing in other places should correspond to standards observed by the majority of the people.[119] A new regulation issued in 1988 by the Ministry of the Interior based on the 1983 law further specified what constituted violations of hijab.[122] Iran's current penal code stipulates a fine or 10 days to two months in prison as punishment for failure to observe hijab in public, without specifying its form.[123][124]

The dress code has been subject of alternating periods of relatively strict and relaxed enforcement over the years, with many women pushing its boundaries, and its compulsory aspect has been a point of contention between conservatives and Hassan Rouhani, who served as president from 2013 until 2021.[123][125][126] The United Nations Human Rights Council recently called on Iran to guarantee the rights of those human rights defenders and lawyers supporting anti-hijab protests.[127] In governmental and religious institutions, the dress code requires khimar-type headscarf and overcoat, while in other public places women commonly wear a loosely tied headscarf (rousari).[citation needed] The Iranian government endorses and officially promotes stricter types of veiling, praising it by invoking both Islamic religious principles and pre-Islamic Iranian culture.[128]

The Indonesian province of Aceh requires Muslim women to wear hijab in public.[129] Indonesia's central government granted Aceh's religious leaders the right to impose Sharia in 2001, in a deal aiming to put an end to the separatist movement in the province.[129]

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia formally requires Muslim women to cover their hair and all women to wear a full-body garment but it has not been enforced recently.[130][131][132] Saudi women commonly wear the traditional abaya robe, while foreigners sometimes opt for a long coat.[133] These regulations are enforced by the religious police and vigilantes.[133] In 2002 the Saudi religious police were accused by Saudi and international press of hindering the rescue of schoolgirls from a fire because they were not wearing hijab, which resulted in 15 deaths.[134] In 2018, the Saudi crown prince Mohammad bin Salman told CBS News that Saudi law requires women to wear "decent, respectful clothing", and that women are free to decide what form it should take.[132]

Legal bans

Muslim world

The tradition of veiling hair in Persian culture has ancient pre-Islamic origins,[135] but the widespread custom was ended by Reza Shah's government in 1936, as hijab was considered to be incompatible with modernization and he ordered "unveiling" act or Kashf-e hijab. In some cases the police arrested women who wore the veil and would forcibly remove it. These policies had popular support but outraged the Shi'a clerics, to whom appearing in public without their cover was tantamount to nakedness. Some women refused to leave the house out of fear of being assaulted by Reza Shah's police.[136] In 1941, the compulsory element in the policy of unveiling was abandoned.

Turkey had a ban on headscarves at universities until recently. In 2008, the Turkish government attempted to lift a ban on Muslim headscarves at universities, but were overturned by the country's Constitutional Court.[137] In December 2010, however, the Turkish government ended the headscarf ban in universities, government buildings and schools.[138]

In Tunisia, women were banned from wearing hijab in state offices in 1981 and in the 1980s and 1990s, more restrictions were put in place.[139] In 2017, Tajikistan banned hijabs. Minister of Culture, Shamsiddin Orumbekzoda, told Radio Free Europe Islamic dress was "really dangerous". Under existing laws, women wearing hijabs are already banned from entering the country's government offices.[140][141]

Europe

 
A veil-burning ceremony in USSR as part of Soviet Hujum policies

On 15 March 2004, France passed a law banning "symbols or clothes through which students conspicuously display their religious affiliation" in public primary schools, middle schools, and secondary schools. In the Belgian city of Maaseik, the niqāb has been banned since 2006.[142] On 13 July 2010, France's lower house of parliament overwhelmingly approved a bill that would ban wearing the Islamic full veil in public. It became the first European country to ban the full-face veil in public places,[143] followed by Belgium, Latvia, Bulgaria, Austria, Denmark and some cantons of Switzerland in the following years.

Belgium banned the full-face veil in 2011 in places like parks and on the streets. In September 2013, the electors of the Swiss canton of Ticino voted in favour of a ban on face veils in public areas.[144] In 2016, Latvia and Bulgaria banned the burqa in public places.[145][146] In October 2017, wearing a face veil became also illegal in Austria. This ban also includes scarves, masks and clown paint that cover faces to avoid discriminating against Muslim dress.[143] In 2016, Bosnia-Herzegovina's supervising judicial authority upheld a ban on wearing Islamic headscarves in courts and legal institutions, despite protests from the Muslim community that constitutes 40% of the country.[147][148] In 2017, the European Court of Justice ruled that companies were allowed to bar employees from wearing visible religious symbols, including the hijab. However, if the company has no policy regarding the wearing of clothes that demonstrate religious and political ideas, a customer cannot ask employees to remove the clothing item.[149] In 2018, the Danish parliament passed a law banning the full-face veil in public places.[150]

In 2016, more than 20 French towns banned the use of the burqini, a style of swimwear intended to accord with rules of hijab.[151][152][153] Dozens of women were subsequently issued fines, with some tickets citing not wearing "an outfit respecting good morals and secularism", and some were verbally attacked by bystanders when they were confronted by the police.[151][154][155][156] Enforcement of the ban also hit beachgoers wearing a wide range of modest attire besides the burqini.[151][156] Media reported that in one case the police forced a woman to remove part of her clothing on a beach in Nice.[154][155][156] The Nice mayor's office denied that she was forced to do so and the mayor condemned what he called the "unacceptable provocation" of wearing such clothes in the aftermath of the Nice terrorist attack.[151][156]

A team of psychologists in Belgium have investigated, in two studies of 166 and 147 participants, whether the Belgians' discomfort with the Islamic hijab, and the support of its ban from the country's public sphere, is motivated by the defence of the values of autonomy and universalism (which includes equality), or by xenophobia/ethnic prejudice and by anti-religious sentiments. The studies have revealed the effects of subtle prejudice/racism, values (self-enhancement values and security versus universalism), and religious attitudes (literal anti-religious thinking versus spirituality), in predicting greater levels of anti-veil attitudes beyond the effects of other related variables such as age and political conservatism.[157]

In 2019, Austria banned the hijab in schools for children up to ten years of age. The ban was motivated by the equality between men and women and improving social integration with respect to local customs. Parents who send their child to school with a headscarf will be fined 440 euro.[158] The ban was overturned in 2020 by the Austrian Constitutional Court.[159]

In 2019, Staffanstorp Municipality in Sweden banned all veils for school pupils up to sixth grade.[160]

India

See also: Karnataka hijab controversy

In India, Muslim women are allowed to wear the hijab and/or burqa anytime, anywhere.[161][162][163] However, in January 2022, a number of colleges in the South Indian state of Karnataka stopped female students wearing hijab from entering the campus following which the state government issued a circular banning 'religious clothes' in educational institutions where uniforms are prescribed.[164] On 15 March 2022, the Karnataka High Court, in a verdict, upheld the hijab ban in educational institutions where uniforms are prescribed, arguing that the practice is non-essential in Islam.[165]

Unofficial pressure to wear hijab

See also: Honor killing and Islamization of the Gaza Strip

Muslim girls and women have fallen victim to honour killings in both the Western world and elsewhere for refusing to wearing the hijab or for wearing it in a way considered to be improper by the perpetrators.[166][better source needed]

Successful informal coercion of women by sectors of society to wear hijab has been reported in Gaza where Mujama' al-Islami, the predecessor of Hamas, reportedly used "a mixture of consent and coercion" to "'restore' hijab" on urban educated women in Gaza in the late 1970s and 1980s.[167]

Similar behaviour was displayed by Hamas itself during the First Intifada in Palestinian territories. Though a relatively small movement at this time, Hamas exploited the political vacuum left by perceived failures in strategy by the Palestinian factions to call for a "return" to Islam as a path to success, a campaign that focused on the role of women.[168] Hamas campaigned for the wearing of the hijab alongside other measures, including insisting women stay at home, segregation from men and the promotion of polygamy. In the course of this campaign women who chose not to wear the hijab were verbally and physically harassed, with the result that the hijab was being worn "just to avoid problems on the streets".[169]

Wearing of the hijab was enforced by the Taliban regime in Afghanistan. The Taliban required women to cover not only their head but their face as well, because "the face of a woman is a source of corruption" for men not related to them.[170]

In Srinagar, the capital of the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir, a previously unknown militant group calling itself Lashkar-e-Jabbar claimed responsibility for a series of acid attacks on women who did not wear the burqa in 2001, threatening to punish women who do not adhere to their vision of Islamic dress. Women of Kashmir, most of whom are not fully veiled, defied the warning, and the attacks were condemned by prominent militant and separatist groups of the region.[171][172]

In 2006, radicals in Gaza have been accused of attacking or threatening to attack the faces of women in an effort to intimidate them from wearing allegedly immodest dress.[174]

In 2014 the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant was reported to have executed several women for not wearing niqab with gloves.[175][better source needed]

In April 2019 in Norway, telecom company Telia received bomb threats after featuring a Muslim woman taking off her hijab in a commercial. Although the police did not evaluate the threat likely to be carried out, delivering threats is still a crime in Norway.[176]

Unofficial pressure against wearing hijab

In recent years, women wearing the hijab have been subjected to verbal and physical attacks worldwide, particularly following terrorist attacks.[177][178][179] Louis A. Cainkar writes that the data suggest that women in hijab rather than men are the predominant target of anti-Muslim attacks not because they are more easily identifiable as Muslims, but because they are seen to represent a threat to the local moral order that the attackers are seeking to defend.[178] Some women stop wearing hijab out of fear or following perceived pressure from their acquaintances, but many refuse to stop wearing it out of religious conviction even when they are urged to do so for self-protection.[178]

Kazakhstan has no official ban on wearing hijab, but those who wear it have reported that authorities use a number of tactics to discriminate against them.[180]

In 2015, authorities in Uzbekistan organized a "deveiling" campaign in the capital city Tashkent, during which women wearing hijab were detained and taken to a police station. Those who agreed to remove their hijab were released "after a conversation", while those who refused were transferred to the counterterrorism department and given a lecture. Their husbands or fathers were then summoned to convince the women to obey the police. This followed an earlier campaign in the Fergana Valley.[181]

After the election of Shavkat Mirziyoyev as President of Uzbekistan in December 2016, Muslims were given the opportunity to openly express their religious identity, which, manifested itself in the wider spread of hijabs in Uzbekistan. In July 2021, the state allowed the wearing of the hijab in public places.[182]

In Kyrgyzstan in 2016, the government sponsored street banners aiming to dissuade women from wearing the hijab.[183]

Workplace discrimination against hijab-wearing women

See also: Hijabophobia

The issue of discrimination of Muslims is more prevalent among Hijab-wearing Muslim women due to the hijab being an observable declaration of faith. Particularly after the September 11 attacks and the coining of the term Islamophobia, some of Islamophobia's manifestations are seen within the workplace.[184] Women wearing the hijab are at risk of discrimination in their workplace because the hijab helps identify them for anyone who may hold Islamophobic attitudes.[185][186] Their association with the Islamic faith automatically projects any negative stereotyping of the religion onto them.[187] As a result of the heightened discrimination, some Hijab-wearing Muslim women in the workplace resort to taking off their hijab in hopes to prevent any further prejudice acts.[188]

A number of Hijab-wearing women who were interviewed expressed that perceived discrimination also poses a problem for them.[189] To be specific, Muslim women shared that they chose not to wear the headscarf out of fear of future discrimination.[189]

The discrimination Hijab-wearing Muslim women face goes beyond affecting their work experience, it also interferes with their decision to uphold religious obligations. In result of discrimination Hijab-wearing Muslim women in the United States have worries regarding their ability to follow their religion because it might mean they are rejected employment.[190] Ali, Yamada, and Mahmoud (2015)[191] state that women of color who also follow the religion of Islam are considered to be in what is called “triple jeopardy”, due to being a part of two minority groups subject to discrimination.

A study by Ali et al. (2015)[191] found a relationship between the discrimination Muslims face at work and their job satisfaction. In other words, the discrimination Hijab-wearing Muslim women face at work is associated with their overall feeling of contentment of their jobs, especially compared to other religious groups.[192]

Hijab-wearing Muslim women not only experience discrimination whilst in their job environment, they also experience discrimination in their attempts to get a job. An experimental study conducted on potential hiring discrimination among Muslims found that in terms of overt discrimination there were no differences between Muslim women who wore traditional Islamic clothing and those who did not. However, covert discrimination was noted towards Muslim who wore the hijab, and as a result were dealt with in a hostile and rude manner.[193] While observing hiring practices among 4,000 employers in the U.S, experimenters found that employers who self-identified as Republican tended to avoid making interviews with candidates who appeared Muslim on their social network pages.[194]

One instance that some view as hijab discrimination in the workplace that gained public attention and made it to the Supreme Court was EEOC v. Abercrombie & Fitch. The U.S Equal Employment Opportunity Commission took advantage of its power granted by Title VII and made a case for a young hijabi female who applied for a job, but was rejected due to her wearing a headscarf which violated Abercrombie & Fitch's pre-existing and longstanding policy against head coverings and all black garments.[195]

Discrimination levels differ depending on geographical location; for example, South Asian Muslims in the United Arab Emirates do not perceive as much discrimination as their South Asian counterparts in the U.S.[196] Although, South Asian Muslim women in both locations are similar in describing discrimination experiences as subtle and indirect interactions.[196] The same study also reports differences among South Asian Muslim women who wear the hijab, and those who do not. For non-hijabis, they reported to have experienced more perceived discrimination when they were around other Muslims.[196]

Perceived discrimination is detrimental to well-being, both mentally and physically.[197] However, perceived discrimination may also be related to more positive well-being for the individual.[198] A study in New Zealand concluded that while Muslim women who wore the headscarf did in fact experience discrimination, these negative experiences were overcome by much higher feelings of religious pride, belonging, and centrality.[198]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The term hijab is used in the Qur'an in the sense of "a curtain" or "partition"; verses that use the term (eg. 7:46, 33:53) are not related to dress code.[27][2]

References

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January 08, 2023
hijab, modern, usage, hijab, arabic, حجاب, romanized, ḥijāb, pronounced, ħɪˈdʒaːb, generally, refers, headcoverings, worn, muslim, women, many, muslims, believe, obligatory, every, female, muslim, reached, puberty, wear, head, covering, while, such, headcoveri. In modern usage hijab Arabic حجاب romanized ḥijab pronounced ħɪˈdʒaːb generally refers to headcoverings worn by Muslim women Many Muslims believe it is obligatory for every female Muslim who has reached the age of puberty to wear a head covering While such headcoverings can come in many forms hijab often specifically refers to a cloth wrapped around the head neck and chest covering the hair and neck but leaving the face visible 1 A Tunisian woman wearing a headscarf The term ḥijab was originally used to denote a partition a curtain or was sometimes used for the Islamic rules of modesty 1 2 This is the usage in the verses of the Qur an in which the term hijab sometimes refers to a curtain separating visitors to Muhammad s main house from his wives residential lodgings This has led some to claim that the mandate of the Qur an applied only to the wives of Muhammad and not to the entirety of women 3 4 Another interpretation can also refer to the seclusion of women from men in the public sphere whereas a metaphysical dimension may refer to the veil which separates man or the world from God 5 For some the term for headscarf in the Qur an is khimar Arabic خ مار 1 6 2 7 8 When pre Islamic Arabs went to war Arab women would open their breasts while fighting or to encourage men to fight as exemplified by the behavior exhibited by Meccan women in the Battle of Uhud 9 In many traditional societies it is not shameful for women to expose their breasts for example during breastfeeding Considering the verse in Qur an 24 31 which states that they should cover their adornments and not show them to strangers outside the family it can be thought that the Qur an introduces a new scale of chastity in the public sphere 10 9 Such behavior is seen by Islamic scholars and the Muslim public as a symbol of ignorance The Qur an instructs Muslim women and men to dress modestly 11 and for some the hijab is worn by Muslim girls and women to maintain modesty and privacy from unrelated males According to the Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World modesty concerns both men s and women s gaze gait garments and genitalia 12 According to the understanding of the oldest legal systems only the wives of Muhammad were those who were instructed to hijab with the verse 33 59 and none of them had a condition for women to cover 10 9 Despite this all orthodox sharia schools ordered that parts of the body especially the neck ankles and under the elbows be covered in public There is no consensus among those who consider the subject as a necessity such as how much of the veil is a necessity Some legal systems accept the hijab as an order to cover everything except the face and hands 13 5 while others accept it as an order that covers the whole body including the face and hands 14 These guidelines are found in texts of hadith and fiqh developed after the revelation of the Qur an Some believe these are derived from the verses ayahs referencing hijab in the Qur an 12 others believe that the Qur an does not mandate that women need to wear a hijab 15 16 According to hadith which a woman must cover her full body along with face and hands but it is permissible for a woman to keep her hands and face uncovered In addition the dress code of concubines in Sharia law is completely different from that of free women Some religious groups consider the issue of veiling in Islam only as a recommendation made according to the conditions of the past and they believe that giving it as a necessity is an imposition of an Islamist ideology The Muslim Reform Movement emphasized that the jilbab and khimar mentioned in the Qur an are pre Islamic clothing they were not brought by the Qur an the hijab of the Qur an never means a headscarf and the Qur an only advises on how to wear them 17 The hijab is currently required by law to be worn by women in Iran Afghanistan and the Indonesian province of Aceh 18 It is no longer required by law in Saudi Arabia since 2018 although Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman has stated that women similar to other Gulf countries 19 must still wear decent and respectful attire 20 21 22 23 24 In Gaza Palestinian jihadists belonging to the Unified Leadership UNLU have rejected a hijab policy for women 25 They have also targeted those who seek to impose the hijab 25 Other countries both in Europe and in the Muslim world have passed laws banning some or all types of hijab in public or in certain types of locales Women in different parts of the world have also experienced unofficial pressure to wear or not wear a hijab The Muslim Reform Movement holds that hijab of the Qur an simply meant barrier and that it was used in the context of both men and women the jilbab and the khimar were pre Islamic clothes and the Qur an simply recommended how to wear these rather than imposing a new clothing requirement 17 Contents 1 In Islamic scripture 1 1 Qur an 1 2 Hadith 2 Dress code 2 1 Sunni 2 2 Shia 2 3 Miscellaneous 2 4 Alternative views 3 Contemporary practice 4 History 4 1 Pre Islamic veiling practices 4 2 During Muhammad s lifetime 4 3 Later pre modern history 4 4 Modern history 4 4 1 Iran 5 Around the world 5 1 Legal enforcement 5 2 Legal bans 5 2 1 Muslim world 5 2 2 Europe 5 2 3 India 5 3 Unofficial pressure to wear hijab 5 4 Unofficial pressure against wearing hijab 5 5 Workplace discrimination against hijab wearing women 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 8 1 Citations 8 2 Sources 9 External linksIn Islamic scripture EditQur an Edit Qur anic verses relating to dress codes use the terms khimar according to some a headcovering 26 27 and jilbab a dress or cloak rather than ḥijab 2 nb 1 About six verses refer specifically to the way a woman should dress and walk in public 28 Muslim scholars have differed as to how these verses should be applied with some stating that a headscarf is required and others saying that a headscarf is not required 17 The clearest verses on the requirement of modest dress are Surah 24 30 31 telling both men and women to dress and act modestly with more detail about modest dress focused on women 29 30 Say to the believing men they should lower from their gaze and they should guard their chastity That is purer for them Indeed Allah is All Aware of what they do And say to the believing women that they should lower their gaze and guard their private parts that they should not display their adornments zinatahunna except what must ordinarily appear thereof that they should draw their khimar over their breasts and not display their beauty except to their husband their fathers their husband s fathers their sons their husbands sons their brothers or their brothers sons or their sisters sons or their women or the slaves whom their right hands possess or male servants free of physical needs or small children who have no sense of the shame of sex and that they should not strike their feet in order to draw attention to their hidden ornaments Quran 24 30 31 The word khimar in the context of this verse is sometimes translated as head coverings 26 31 27 Such head coverings were worn by women in Arabia at the advent of Islam 32 The verse in Luxenberg s reading of Syro Aramaic reading instructed women to fasten their belts around their waists metaphorically instead The belt had a symbolic meaning for chastity in the Christian world at that time Qur an 33 59 tells Muhammad ask his family members and other Muslim women to wear outer garments when they go out so that they are not harassed 30 O Prophet Enjoin your wives your daughters and the believing women that they should cast their outer garments over their persons when abroad That is most convenient that they may be distinguished and not be harassed Quran 33 59 The Islamic commentators generally agree this verse refers to sexual harassment of women of Medina It is also seen to refer to a free woman for which Tabari cites Ibn Abbas Ibn Kathir states that the jilbab distinguishes free Muslim women from those of Jahiliyyah so other men know they are free women and not slaves or prostitutes indicating covering oneself does not apply to non Muslims He cites Sufyan al Thawri as commenting that while it may be seen as permitting looking upon non Muslim women who adorn themselves it is not allowed in order to avoid lust Al Qurtubi concurs with Tabari about this ayah being for those who are free He reports that the correct view is that a jilbab covers the whole body He also cites the Sahabah as saying it is no longer than a rida a shawl or a wrapper that covers the upper body He also reports a minority view which considers the niqab or head covering as jilbab Ibn Arabi considered that excessive covering would make it impossible for a woman to be recognised which the verse mentions though both Qurtubi and Tabari agree that the word recognition is about distinguishing free women 33 Some scholars like Ibn Hayyan Ibn Hazm and Muhammad Nasiruddin al Albani questioned the ayah s common explanation Hayyan believed that believing women referred to both free women and slaves as the latter are bound to more easily entice lust and their exclusion is not clearly indicated Hazm too believed that it covered Muslim slaves as it would violate the law of not molesting a slave or fornication with her like that with a free woman He stated that anything not attributed to Muhammad should be disregarded 34 The word ḥijab in the Qur an refers not to women s clothing but rather a spatial partition or curtain 2 Sometimes its use is literal as in the verse which refers to the screen that separated Muhammad s wives from the visitors to his house 33 53 while in other cases the word denotes separation between deity and mortals 42 51 wrongdoers and righteous 7 46 41 5 believers and unbelievers 17 45 and light from darkness 38 32 2 The interpretations of the ḥijab as separation can be classified into three types as visual barrier physical barrier and ethical barrier A visual barrier for example between Muhammad s family and the surrounding community serves to hide from sight something which places emphasis on a symbolic boundary A physical barrier is used to create a space that provides comfort and privacy for individuals such as elite women An ethical barrier such as the expression purity of hearts in reference to Muhammad s wives and the Muslim men who visit them makes something forbidden 28 Hadith Edit Main article Women s prayer in Islam The hadith sources specify the details of hijab Islamic rules of dress for men and women exegesis of the Qur anic verses narrated by sahabah and are a major source which Muslim legal scholars used to derive their rulings 35 36 37 It was narrated by Aisha that when Quran 24 31 was revealed the men of Ansar went to the women of Ansar and recited to them the words Allah had revealed Each man recited to his wife his daughter his sister and other female relatives Each woman among them got up took her decorated wrapper and wrapped herself up in it out of faith and belief in what Allah had revealed They appeared behind the Messenger of Allah wrapped up as if there were crows on their heads 38 A similar hadith is Abu Dawud 32 4090 which describes that in response to the verses the women of Ansar came out as if they had crows hanging down over their heads Although these narrations refers to black clothing crows on their heads other narrations indicate wives of the prophet also wore other colours like yellow or rose 39 40 Other hadith on hijab include Narrated Safiya bint Shaiba Aisha used to say When the Verse They should draw their veils khimaar over their breasts juyyub was revealed the ladies cut their waist sheets at the edges and veiled themselves Arabic ف اخ ت م ر ن lit to put on a hijab with the cut pieces Sahih al Bukhari 6 60 282 32 4091 This hadith is often translated as and covered their heads and faces with the cut pieces of cloth 41 as the Arabic word used in the text Arabic ف اخ ت م ر ن could include or exclude the face and there was ikhtilaf on whether covering the face is farḍ or obligatory The most prominent sharh or explanation of Sahih Bukhari is Fatḥ al Bari which states this included the face Yahya related to me from Malik from Muhammad ibn Zayd ibn Qunfudh that his mother asked Umm Salama the wife of the Prophet may Allah bless him and grant him peace What clothes can a woman wear in prayer She said She can pray in the khimar headscarf and the diri Arabic الد ر ع lit shield armature transl a woman s garment that reaches down and covers the top of her feet Muwatta Imam Malik book 8 hadith 37 Aishah narrated that Allah s Messenger said The Salat prayer of a woman who has reached the age of menstruation is not accepted without a khimar Jami at Tirmidhi 377 Dress code EditSee also Awrah Modern Muslim scholars usually require women to cover everything but their hands and face in public 5 but do not require the niqab a face covering worn by some Muslim women In nearly all Muslim cultures young girls are not required to wear a ħijab Sunni Edit Women wearing tudongs the Malay term for hijab in Brunei The four major Sunni schools of thought Hanafi Shafi i Maliki and Hanbali hold by consensus that it is obligatory for women to cover their hair 42 and the entire body except her hands and face while in the presence of people of the opposite sex other than close family members 43 44 45 A difference of opinion does exist in which some scholars believe who that the hijab is not obligatory and there not enough evidence to make it so citation needed According to Hanafis and other scholars which these requirements extend to being around non Muslim women as well for fear that they may describe her physical features to unrelated men 46 The Sunni Permanent Committee for Islamic Research and Issuing Fatwas in Saudi Arabia 47 and Muhammad ibn Adam Al Kawthari 48 also believe women should cover their head Men must cover from their belly buttons to their knees though the schools differ on whether this includes covering the navel and knees or only what is between them 49 50 51 52 It is recommended that women wear clothing that is not form fitting to the body such as modest forms of Western clothing long shirts and skirts or the more traditional jilbab a high necked loose robe that covers the arms and legs A khimar or shaylah a scarf or cowl that covers all but the face is also worn in many different styles citation needed Shia Edit Women wearing chadors Shiraz Iran 2019 The major and most important Shia hadith collections such as Nahj Al Balagha and Kitab Al Kafi for the most part do not give any details about hijab requirements However a quotation from Man La Yahduruhu al Faqih Musa al Kadhim in reply to his brother makes reference to female hijab requirements during the salat prayer stating She covers her body and head with it then prays And if her feet protrude from beneath and she doesn t have the means to prevent that there is no harm 53 In Shia jurisprudence by consensus it is obligatory for women to cover their hair and the entire body except her hands and face while in the presence of people of the opposite sex other than close family members Miscellaneous Edit In private and in the presence of close relatives mahrams rules on dress relax However in the presence of the husband most scholars stress the importance of mutual freedom and pleasure of the husband and wife 54 Traditional scholars had differences of opinion on covering the hands and face The majority adopted the opinion that the face and hands are not part of their nakedness citation needed Some held the opinion that covering the face is recommended if the woman s beauty is so great that it is distracting and causes temptation or public discord citation needed Alternative views Edit Along with scriptural arguments Leila Ahmed argues that head covering should not be interpreted as being compulsory in Islam because the veil predates the revelation of the Qur an Head covering was introduced into Arabia long before Muhammad primarily through Arab contacts with Syria and Iran where the hijab was a sign of social status After all only a woman who need not work in the fields could afford to remain secluded and veiled 3 55 Among Ahmed s arguments is that while some Qur anic verses enjoin women in general to draw their Jilbabs overgarment or cloak around them to be recognized as believers and so that no harm will come to them Quran 33 58 59 and guard their private parts and drape down khimar over their breasts when in the presence of unrelated men Quran 24 31 they urge modesty The word khimar refers to a piece of cloth that covers the head or headscarf 56 While the term hijab was originally anything that was used to conceal 57 it became used to refer to concealing garments worn by women outside the house specifically the headscarf or khimar 58 According to at least three authors Karen Armstrong Reza Aslan and Leila Ahmed the stipulations of the hijab were originally meant only for Muhammad s wives and were intended to maintain their inviolability This was because Muhammad conducted all religious and civic affairs in the mosque adjacent to his home Afghan army and police officials wearing hijabs in Kandahar People were constantly coming in and out of this compound at all hours of the day When delegations from other tribes came to speak with Prophet Muhammad they would set up their tents for days at a time inside the open courtyard just a few feet away from the apartments in which Prophet Muhammad s wives slept And new emigrants who arrived in Yatrib would often stay within the mosque s walls until they could find suitable homes 3 According to Ahmed By instituting seclusion Prophet Muhammad was creating a distance between his wives and this thronging community on their doorstep 4 They argue that the term darabat al hijab taking the veil was used synonymously and interchangeably with becoming Prophet Muhammad s wife and that during Muhammad s life no other Muslim woman wore the hijab Aslan suggests that Muslim women started to wear the hijab to emulate Muhammad s wives who are revered as Mothers of the Believers in Islam 3 and states there was no tradition of veiling until around 627 C E in the Muslim community 3 4 Another interpretation differing from the traditional states that a veil is not compulsory in front of blind men and men lacking physical desire i e asexuals and hyposexuals 59 60 Many scholars argue that these contemporary views and arguments however contradict the hadith sources the classical scholars exegesis sources historical consensus and interpretations of the companions such as Aisha and Abdullah ibn Masud citation needed Some traditionalist Muslim scholars accept the contemporary views and arguments as those hadith sources are not sahih and ijma would no longer be applicable if it is argued by scholars even if it is argued by only one scholar Notable examples of traditionalist Muslim scholars who accept these contemporary views include the Indonesian scholar Buya Hamka citation needed Contemporary practice EditFurther information Types of hijab and Hijab by country The styles and practices of hijab vary widely across the world source source source source source source source source Wearing or not wearing a hijab can also be an act of protest In August 2014 a mother of one of the Camp Speicher massacre victims threw her headscarf at the Iraqi parliament speaker Salim al Jabouri An opinion poll conducted in 2014 by The University of Michigan s Institute for Social Research asked residents of seven Muslim majority countries Egypt Iraq Lebanon Tunisia Turkey Pakistan and Saudi Arabia which style of women s dress they considered to be most appropriate in public 61 The survey found that the headscarf in its tightly or loosely fitting form was chosen by the majority of respondents in Egypt Iraq Tunisia and Turkey 61 In Saudi Arabia 63 gave preference to the niqab face veil in Pakistan the niqab the full length chador robe and the headscarf received about a third of the votes each while in Lebanon half of the respondents in the sample which included Christians and Druze opted for no head covering at all 61 62 The survey found no significant difference in the preferences between surveyed men and women except in Pakistan where more men favoured conservative women s dress 62 However women more strongly support women s right to choose how to dress 62 People with university education are less conservative in their choice than those without one and more supportive of women s right to decide their dress style except in Saudi Arabia 62 Emine Erdogan wearing a turban Some fashion conscious women have been turning to non traditional forms of hijab such as turbans 63 64 While some regard turbans as a proper head cover others argue that it cannot be considered a proper Islamic veil if it leaves the neck exposed 63 Muna AbuSulayman wearing a turban According to a Pew Research Center survey among the roughly 1 million Muslim women living in the U S 43 regularly wear headscarves while about a half do not cover their hair 65 In another Pew Research Center poll 2011 36 of Muslim American women reported wearing hijab whenever they were in public with an additional 24 saying they wear it most or some of the time while 40 said they never wore the headcover 66 In Iran where wearing the hijab is legally required many women push the boundaries of the state mandated dress code risking a fine or a spell in detention 67 The former Iranian president Hassan Rouhani had vowed to rein in the morality police and their presence on the streets has decreased since he took office but the powerful conservative forces in the country have resisted his efforts and the dress codes are still being enforced especially during the summer months 68 After Ebrahim Raisi became president he started imposing hijab laws strictly announcing use of facial recognition in public transport to enforce hijab law 69 An Iranian woman Mahsa Amini died in custody of morality police after they arrested her on new stricter hijab laws which led to widespread protests 70 In Turkey the hijab was formerly banned in private and state universities and schools The ban applied not to the scarf wrapped around the neck traditionally worn by Anatolian peasant women but to the head covering pinned neatly at the sides called turban in Turkey which has been adopted by a growing number of educated urban women since the 1980s As of the mid 2000s over 60 of Turkish women covered their head outside home though only 11 wore a turban 71 72 73 74 The ban was lifted from universities in 2008 75 from government buildings in 2013 76 and from schools in 2014 77 History EditPre Islamic veiling practices Edit Further information Veil Greek bronze statuette of a veiled and masked dancer 2nd 3rd century BC Veiling did not originate with the advent of Islam Statuettes depicting veiled priestesses date back as far as 2500 BC 78 Elite women in ancient Mesopotamia and in the Byzantine Greek and Persian empires wore the veil as a sign of respectability and high status 79 In ancient Mesopotamia Assyria had explicit sumptuary laws detailing which women must veil and which women must not depending upon the woman s class rank and occupation in society 79 Female slaves and prostitutes were forbidden to veil and faced harsh penalties if they did so 2 Veiling was thus not only a marker of aristocratic rank but also served to differentiate between respectable women and those who were publicly available 2 79 Strict seclusion and the veiling of matrons were also customary in ancient Greece Between 550 and 323 BCE prior to Christianity respectable women in classical Greek society were expected to seclude themselves and wear clothing that concealed them from the eyes of strange men 80 Roman pagan custom included the practice of the head covering worn by the priestesses of Vesta Vestal Virgins 81 Pre Islamic relief showing veiled women Temple of Baal Palmyra Syria 1st century CE It is not clear whether the Hebrew Bible contains prescriptions with regard to veiling but rabbinic literature presents it as a question of modesty tzniut 81 Modesty became an important rabbinic virtue in the early Roman period and it may have been intended to distinguish Jewish women from their non Jewish counterparts in Babylonian and later in Greco Roman society 81 According to rabbinical precepts married Jewish women have to cover their hair cf Mitpaḥat The surviving representations of veiled Jewish women may reflect general Roman customs rather than particular Jewish practices 81 According to Fadwa El Guindi at the inception of Christianity Jewish women were veiling their heads and faces 2 Roman statue of a Vestal Virgin The best known view on Christian headcovering is delineated in the Bible within the passage in 1 Corinthians 11 4 7 which states that every woman who prays or prophesies with her head uncovered dishonors her head 81 The early Church Fathers including Tertullian of Carthage Clement of Alexandria Hippolytus of Rome John Chrysostom and Augustine of Hippo attested in their writings that Christian women should wear a headcovering while men should pray with their heads uncovered 82 83 There is archaeological evidence demonstrating that headcovering was observed as an ordinance by women in early Christianity 84 81 and the practice of Christian headcovering continues among female adherents of many Christian denominations today especially among Anabaptist Christians as well as among certain Eastern Orthodox Christians Oriental Orthodox Christians and Reformed Christians among others 85 83 In the Indian subcontinent Hindu women cover their heads with a veil in a practice known as ghoonghat 86 87 Intermixing of populations resulted in a convergence of the cultural practices of Greek Persian and Mesopotamian empires and the Semitic peoples of the Middle East 2 Veiling and seclusion of women appear to have established themselves among Jews and Christians before spreading to urban Arabs of the upper classes and eventually among the urban masses 2 In the rural areas it was common to cover the hair but not the face 2 According to Leila Ahmed the rigid norms pertaining to veiling and seclusion of women found in Christian Byzantine literature have been influenced by ancient Persian traditions and there is evidence to suggest that they differed significantly from actual practice 88 Leila Ahmed argues that Whatever the cultural source or sources a fierce misogyny was a distinct ingredient of Mediterranean and eventually Christian thought in the centuries immediately preceding the rise of Islam 89 Ahmed interprets veiling and segregation of sexes as an expression of a misogynistic view of shamefulness of sex which focused most intensely on shamefulness of the female body and danger of seeing it exposed 89 During Muhammad s lifetime Edit Available evidence suggests that veiling was not introduced into Arabia by Muhammad but already existed there particularly in the towns although it was probably not as widespread as in the neighbouring countries such as Syria and Palestine 90 Similarly to the practice among Greeks Romans Byzantines Jews and Assyrians its use was associated with high social status 90 In the early Islamic texts term hijab does not distinguish between veiling and seclusion and can mean either veil or curtain 91 The only verses in the Qur an that specifically reference women s clothing are those promoting modesty instructing women to guard their private parts and draw their scarves over their breast area in the presence of men 92 The contemporary understanding of the hijab dates back to Hadith when the verse of the hijab descended upon the community in 627 CE 93 Now documented in Sura 33 53 the verse states And when you ask his wives for something ask them from behind a partition That is purer for your hearts and their hearts 94 This verse however was not addressed to women in general but exclusively to Muhammad s wives As Muhammad s influence increased he entertained more and more visitors in the mosque which was then his home Often these visitors stayed the night only feet away from his wives apartments It is commonly understood that this verse was intended to protect his wives from these strangers 95 During Muhammad s lifetime the term for donning the veil darabat al hijab was used interchangeably with being Muhammad s wife 90 Later pre modern history Edit The practice of veiling was borrowed from the elites of the Byzantine and Persian empires where it was a symbol of respectability and high social status during the Arab conquests of those empires 96 Reza Aslan argues that The veil was neither compulsory nor widely adopted until generations after Muhammad s death when a large body of male scriptural and legal scholars began using their religious and political authority to regain the dominance they had lost in society as a result of the Prophet s egalitarian reforms 95 Because Islam identified with the monotheistic religions of the conquered empires the practice was adopted as an appropriate expression of Qur anic ideals regarding modesty and piety 97 Veiling gradually spread to upper class Arab women and eventually it became widespread among Muslim women in cities throughout the Middle East Veiling of Arab Muslim women became especially pervasive under Ottoman rule as a mark of rank and exclusive lifestyle and Istanbul of the 17th century witnessed differentiated dress styles that reflected geographical and occupational identities 2 Women in rural areas were much slower to adopt veiling because the garments interfered with their work in the fields 98 Since wearing a veil was impractical for working women a veiled woman silently announced that her husband was rich enough to keep her idle 99 By the 19th century upper class urban Muslim and Christian women in Egypt wore a garment which included a head cover and a burqa muslin cloth that covered the lower nose and the mouth 2 The name of this garment harabah derives from early Christian and Judaic religious vocabulary which may indicate the origins of the garment itself 2 Up to the first half of the twentieth century rural women in the Maghreb and Egypt put on a form of niqab when they visited urban areas as a sign of civilization 100 Modern history Edit A model displaying a fashionable hijab at Moslema In Style Fashion Show in Kuala Lumpur Malaysia Western clothing largely dominated in Muslim countries the 1960s and 1970s 101 102 For example in Pakistan Afghanistan and Iran some women wore short skirts flower printed hippie dresses flared trousers 103 and went out in public without the hijab citation needed This changed following the Soviet Afghan War citation needed military dictatorship in Pakistan and Iranian revolution of 1979 when traditional conservative attire including the abaya jilbab and niqab made a comeback 104 105 There were demonstrations in Iran in March 1979 after the hijab law decreeing that women in Iran would have to wear scarves to leave the house was brought in 106 However this phenomenon did not happen in all countries with a significant Muslim population in Turkey there has been a decline on women wearing the hijab in recent years 107 although under Erdogan Turkey is becoming more conservative and Islamic as Turkey repeals the Ataturk era hijab ban 108 109 and the founding of new fashion companies catering to women who want to dress more conservatively 110 source source source source source source source source track track Gamal Abdel Nasser laughing at the Muslim Brotherhood for suggesting in 1953 that women should be required to wear the hijab In 1953 Egyptian leader President Gamal Abdel Nasser claimed that he was told by the leader of the Muslim Brotherhood organization that they wanted to enforce the wearing of the hijab to which Nasser responded Sir I know you have a daughter in college and she doesn t wear a headscarf or anything Why don t you make her wear the headscarf So you can t make one girl your own daughter wear it and yet you want me to go and make ten million women wear it citation needed The late twentieth century saw a resurgence of the hijab in Egypt after a long period of decline as a result of westernization Already in the mid 1970s some college aged Muslim men and women began a movement meant to reunite and rededicate themselves to the Islamic faith 111 112 This movement was named the Sahwah 113 or awakening and sparked a period of heightened religiosity that began to be reflected in the dress code 111 The uniform adopted by the young female pioneers of this movement was named al Islami Islamic dress and was made up of an al jilbab an unfitted long sleeved ankle length gown in austere solid colors and thick opaque fabric and al khimar a head cover resembling a nun s wimple that covers the hair low to the forehead comes under the chin to conceal the neck and falls down over the chest and back 111 In addition to the basic garments that were mostly universal within the movement additional measures of modesty could be taken depending on how conservative the followers wished to be Some women choose to also utilize a face covering al niqab that leaves only eye slits for sight as well as both gloves and socks in order to reveal no visible skin citation needed Soon this movement expanded outside of the youth realm and became a more widespread Muslim practice Women viewed this way of dress as a way to both publicly announce their religious beliefs as well as a way to simultaneously reject western influences of dress and culture that were prevalent at the time Despite many criticisms of the practice of hijab being oppressive and detrimental to women s equality 112 many Muslim women view the way of dress to be a positive thing It is seen as a way to avoid harassment and unwanted sexual advances in public and works to desexualize women in the public sphere in order to instead allow them to enjoy equal rights of complete legal economic and political status This modesty was not only demonstrated by their chosen way of dress but also by their serious demeanor which worked to show their dedication to modesty and Islamic beliefs 111 Taekwondo medalists from Spain Britain Iran and Egypt at Rio Olympics 2016 114 Controversy erupted over the practice Many people both men and women from backgrounds of both Islamic and non Islamic faith questioned the hijab and what it stood for in terms of women and their rights There was questioning of whether in practice the hijab was truly a female choice or if women were being coerced or pressured into wearing it 111 Many instances such as the Islamic Republic of Iran s current policy of forced veiling for women have brought these issues to the forefront and generated great debate from both scholars and everyday people citation needed As the awakening movement gained momentum its goals matured and shifted from promoting modesty towards more of a political stance in terms of retaining support for Pan Islamism and a symbolic rejection of Western culture and norms Today the hijab means many different things for different people For Islamic women who choose to wear the hijab it allows them to retain their modesty morals and freedom of choice 112 They choose to cover because they believe it is liberating and allows them to avoid harassment Many people both Muslim and non Muslim who are against the wearing of the hijab and argue that the hijab causes issues with gender relations works to silence and repress women both physically and metaphorically and have many other problems with the practice citation needed This difference in opinions has generated a plethora of discussion on the subject both emotional and academic which continues today After the September 11 attacks the discussion and discourse on the hijab in Western nations intensified as Islamic traditions and theology came under greater scrutiny Iran Edit Main article Hijab by country Iran In Iran some women act to transform the hijab by challenging the regime subsequently reinventing culture and women s identity within Iran The female Iranian fashion designer Naghmeh Kiumarsi challenges the regime s notion of culture through publicly designing marketing and selling clothing pieces that feature tight fitting jeans and a skimpy headscarf 115 Kiumarsi embodies her own notion of culture and identity and utilizes fashion to value the differences among Iranian women as opposed to a single identity under the Islamic dress code and welcomes the evolution of Iranian culture with the emergence of new style choices and fashion trends Women s resistance in Iran is gaining traction as an increasing number of women challenge the mandatory wearing of the hijab Smith 2017 addressed the progress that Iranian women have made in her article Iran surprises by realizing Islamic dress code for women 116 published by The Times a reputable news organization based in the UK The Iranian government has enforced their penal dress codes less strictly and instead of imprisonment as a punishment have implemented mandatory reform classes in the liberal capital Tehran General Hossein Rahimi the Tehran s police chief stated Those who do not observe the Islamic dress code will no longer be taken to detention centers nor will judicial cases be filed against them Smith 2017 The remarks of Tehran s recent police chief in 2017 reflect political progress in contrast with the remarks of Tehran s 2006 police chief 116 117 Iranian women activists have made a headway since 1979 relying on fashion to enact cultural and political change Critics of forcing women to wear a headscarf label this practice as Islamofascist 118 Around the world EditFurther information Hijab by country Map needs update showing prevalence of hijab wearing across the world and indicating countries where there are restrictions on wearing it Some governments encourage and even oblige women to wear the hijab while others have banned it in at least some public settings In many parts of the world women also experience informal pressure for or against wearing hijab including physical attacks Legal enforcement Edit In Gaza Palestinian Jihadists belonging to the Unified Leadership UNLU have rejected a hijab policy for women 25 They have also targeted those who seek to impose the hijab 25 Iran went from banning all types of veils in 1936 to making Islamic dress mandatory for women following the Islamic Revolution in 1979 119 In April 1980 it was decided that women in government offices and educational institutions would be mandated to veil 119 The 1983 penal code prescribed punishment of 74 lashes for women appearing in public without Islamic hijab hijab shar ee leaving the definition of proper hijab ambiguous 120 121 The same period witnessed tensions around the definition of proper hijab which sometimes resulted in vigilante harassment of women who were perceived to wear improper clothing 119 120 In 1984 Tehran s public prosecutor announced that a stricter dress code should be observed in public establishments while clothing in other places should correspond to standards observed by the majority of the people 119 A new regulation issued in 1988 by the Ministry of the Interior based on the 1983 law further specified what constituted violations of hijab 122 Iran s current penal code stipulates a fine or 10 days to two months in prison as punishment for failure to observe hijab in public without specifying its form 123 124 The dress code has been subject of alternating periods of relatively strict and relaxed enforcement over the years with many women pushing its boundaries and its compulsory aspect has been a point of contention between conservatives and Hassan Rouhani who served as president from 2013 until 2021 123 125 126 The United Nations Human Rights Council recently called on Iran to guarantee the rights of those human rights defenders and lawyers supporting anti hijab protests 127 In governmental and religious institutions the dress code requires khimar type headscarf and overcoat while in other public places women commonly wear a loosely tied headscarf rousari citation needed The Iranian government endorses and officially promotes stricter types of veiling praising it by invoking both Islamic religious principles and pre Islamic Iranian culture 128 The Indonesian province of Aceh requires Muslim women to wear hijab in public 129 Indonesia s central government granted Aceh s religious leaders the right to impose Sharia in 2001 in a deal aiming to put an end to the separatist movement in the province 129 The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia formally requires Muslim women to cover their hair and all women to wear a full body garment but it has not been enforced recently 130 131 132 Saudi women commonly wear the traditional abaya robe while foreigners sometimes opt for a long coat 133 These regulations are enforced by the religious police and vigilantes 133 In 2002 the Saudi religious police were accused by Saudi and international press of hindering the rescue of schoolgirls from a fire because they were not wearing hijab which resulted in 15 deaths 134 In 2018 the Saudi crown prince Mohammad bin Salman told CBS News that Saudi law requires women to wear decent respectful clothing and that women are free to decide what form it should take 132 Legal bans Edit Muslim world Edit The tradition of veiling hair in Persian culture has ancient pre Islamic origins 135 but the widespread custom was ended by Reza Shah s government in 1936 as hijab was considered to be incompatible with modernization and he ordered unveiling act or Kashf e hijab In some cases the police arrested women who wore the veil and would forcibly remove it These policies had popular support but outraged the Shi a clerics to whom appearing in public without their cover was tantamount to nakedness Some women refused to leave the house out of fear of being assaulted by Reza Shah s police 136 In 1941 the compulsory element in the policy of unveiling was abandoned Turkey had a ban on headscarves at universities until recently In 2008 the Turkish government attempted to lift a ban on Muslim headscarves at universities but were overturned by the country s Constitutional Court 137 In December 2010 however the Turkish government ended the headscarf ban in universities government buildings and schools 138 In Tunisia women were banned from wearing hijab in state offices in 1981 and in the 1980s and 1990s more restrictions were put in place 139 In 2017 Tajikistan banned hijabs Minister of Culture Shamsiddin Orumbekzoda told Radio Free Europe Islamic dress was really dangerous Under existing laws women wearing hijabs are already banned from entering the country s government offices 140 141 Europe Edit A veil burning ceremony in USSR as part of Soviet Hujum policies On 15 March 2004 France passed a law banning symbols or clothes through which students conspicuously display their religious affiliation in public primary schools middle schools and secondary schools In the Belgian city of Maaseik the niqab has been banned since 2006 142 On 13 July 2010 France s lower house of parliament overwhelmingly approved a bill that would ban wearing the Islamic full veil in public It became the first European country to ban the full face veil in public places 143 followed by Belgium Latvia Bulgaria Austria Denmark and some cantons of Switzerland in the following years Belgium banned the full face veil in 2011 in places like parks and on the streets In September 2013 the electors of the Swiss canton of Ticino voted in favour of a ban on face veils in public areas 144 In 2016 Latvia and Bulgaria banned the burqa in public places 145 146 In October 2017 wearing a face veil became also illegal in Austria This ban also includes scarves masks and clown paint that cover faces to avoid discriminating against Muslim dress 143 In 2016 Bosnia Herzegovina s supervising judicial authority upheld a ban on wearing Islamic headscarves in courts and legal institutions despite protests from the Muslim community that constitutes 40 of the country 147 148 In 2017 the European Court of Justice ruled that companies were allowed to bar employees from wearing visible religious symbols including the hijab However if the company has no policy regarding the wearing of clothes that demonstrate religious and political ideas a customer cannot ask employees to remove the clothing item 149 In 2018 the Danish parliament passed a law banning the full face veil in public places 150 In 2016 more than 20 French towns banned the use of the burqini a style of swimwear intended to accord with rules of hijab 151 152 153 Dozens of women were subsequently issued fines with some tickets citing not wearing an outfit respecting good morals and secularism and some were verbally attacked by bystanders when they were confronted by the police 151 154 155 156 Enforcement of the ban also hit beachgoers wearing a wide range of modest attire besides the burqini 151 156 Media reported that in one case the police forced a woman to remove part of her clothing on a beach in Nice 154 155 156 The Nice mayor s office denied that she was forced to do so and the mayor condemned what he called the unacceptable provocation of wearing such clothes in the aftermath of the Nice terrorist attack 151 156 A team of psychologists in Belgium have investigated in two studies of 166 and 147 participants whether the Belgians discomfort with the Islamic hijab and the support of its ban from the country s public sphere is motivated by the defence of the values of autonomy and universalism which includes equality or by xenophobia ethnic prejudice and by anti religious sentiments The studies have revealed the effects of subtle prejudice racism values self enhancement values and security versus universalism and religious attitudes literal anti religious thinking versus spirituality in predicting greater levels of anti veil attitudes beyond the effects of other related variables such as age and political conservatism 157 In 2019 Austria banned the hijab in schools for children up to ten years of age The ban was motivated by the equality between men and women and improving social integration with respect to local customs Parents who send their child to school with a headscarf will be fined 440 euro 158 The ban was overturned in 2020 by the Austrian Constitutional Court 159 In 2019 Staffanstorp Municipality in Sweden banned all veils for school pupils up to sixth grade 160 India Edit See also Karnataka hijab controversy In India Muslim women are allowed to wear the hijab and or burqa anytime anywhere 161 162 163 However in January 2022 a number of colleges in the South Indian state of Karnataka stopped female students wearing hijab from entering the campus following which the state government issued a circular banning religious clothes in educational institutions where uniforms are prescribed 164 On 15 March 2022 the Karnataka High Court in a verdict upheld the hijab ban in educational institutions where uniforms are prescribed arguing that the practice is non essential in Islam 165 Unofficial pressure to wear hijab Edit See also Honor killing and Islamization of the Gaza Strip Muslim girls and women have fallen victim to honour killings in both the Western world and elsewhere for refusing to wearing the hijab or for wearing it in a way considered to be improper by the perpetrators 166 better source needed Successful informal coercion of women by sectors of society to wear hijab has been reported in Gaza where Mujama al Islami the predecessor of Hamas reportedly used a mixture of consent and coercion to restore hijab on urban educated women in Gaza in the late 1970s and 1980s 167 Similar behaviour was displayed by Hamas itself during the First Intifada in Palestinian territories Though a relatively small movement at this time Hamas exploited the political vacuum left by perceived failures in strategy by the Palestinian factions to call for a return to Islam as a path to success a campaign that focused on the role of women 168 Hamas campaigned for the wearing of the hijab alongside other measures including insisting women stay at home segregation from men and the promotion of polygamy In the course of this campaign women who chose not to wear the hijab were verbally and physically harassed with the result that the hijab was being worn just to avoid problems on the streets 169 Wearing of the hijab was enforced by the Taliban regime in Afghanistan The Taliban required women to cover not only their head but their face as well because the face of a woman is a source of corruption for men not related to them 170 In Srinagar the capital of the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir a previously unknown militant group calling itself Lashkar e Jabbar claimed responsibility for a series of acid attacks on women who did not wear the burqa in 2001 threatening to punish women who do not adhere to their vision of Islamic dress Women of Kashmir most of whom are not fully veiled defied the warning and the attacks were condemned by prominent militant and separatist groups of the region 171 172 In 2006 radicals in Gaza have been accused of attacking or threatening to attack the faces of women in an effort to intimidate them from wearing allegedly immodest dress 174 In 2014 the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant was reported to have executed several women for not wearing niqab with gloves 175 better source needed In April 2019 in Norway telecom company Telia received bomb threats after featuring a Muslim woman taking off her hijab in a commercial Although the police did not evaluate the threat likely to be carried out delivering threats is still a crime in Norway 176 Unofficial pressure against wearing hijab Edit In recent years women wearing the hijab have been subjected to verbal and physical attacks worldwide particularly following terrorist attacks 177 178 179 Louis A Cainkar writes that the data suggest that women in hijab rather than men are the predominant target of anti Muslim attacks not because they are more easily identifiable as Muslims but because they are seen to represent a threat to the local moral order that the attackers are seeking to defend 178 Some women stop wearing hijab out of fear or following perceived pressure from their acquaintances but many refuse to stop wearing it out of religious conviction even when they are urged to do so for self protection 178 Kazakhstan has no official ban on wearing hijab but those who wear it have reported that authorities use a number of tactics to discriminate against them 180 In 2015 authorities in Uzbekistan organized a deveiling campaign in the capital city Tashkent during which women wearing hijab were detained and taken to a police station Those who agreed to remove their hijab were released after a conversation while those who refused were transferred to the counterterrorism department and given a lecture Their husbands or fathers were then summoned to convince the women to obey the police This followed an earlier campaign in the Fergana Valley 181 After the election of Shavkat Mirziyoyev as President of Uzbekistan in December 2016 Muslims were given the opportunity to openly express their religious identity which manifested itself in the wider spread of hijabs in Uzbekistan In July 2021 the state allowed the wearing of the hijab in public places 182 In Kyrgyzstan in 2016 the government sponsored street banners aiming to dissuade women from wearing the hijab 183 Workplace discrimination against hijab wearing women Edit See also Hijabophobia The issue of discrimination of Muslims is more prevalent among Hijab wearing Muslim women due to the hijab being an observable declaration of faith Particularly after the September 11 attacks and the coining of the term Islamophobia some of Islamophobia s manifestations are seen within the workplace 184 Women wearing the hijab are at risk of discrimination in their workplace because the hijab helps identify them for anyone who may hold Islamophobic attitudes 185 186 Their association with the Islamic faith automatically projects any negative stereotyping of the religion onto them 187 As a result of the heightened discrimination some Hijab wearing Muslim women in the workplace resort to taking off their hijab in hopes to prevent any further prejudice acts 188 A number of Hijab wearing women who were interviewed expressed that perceived discrimination also poses a problem for them 189 To be specific Muslim women shared that they chose not to wear the headscarf out of fear of future discrimination 189 The discrimination Hijab wearing Muslim women face goes beyond affecting their work experience it also interferes with their decision to uphold religious obligations In result of discrimination Hijab wearing Muslim women in the United States have worries regarding their ability to follow their religion because it might mean they are rejected employment 190 Ali Yamada and Mahmoud 2015 191 state that women of color who also follow the religion of Islam are considered to be in what is called triple jeopardy due to being a part of two minority groups subject to discrimination A study by Ali et al 2015 191 found a relationship between the discrimination Muslims face at work and their job satisfaction In other words the discrimination Hijab wearing Muslim women face at work is associated with their overall feeling of contentment of their jobs especially compared to other religious groups 192 Hijab wearing Muslim women not only experience discrimination whilst in their job environment they also experience discrimination in their attempts to get a job An experimental study conducted on potential hiring discrimination among Muslims found that in terms of overt discrimination there were no differences between Muslim women who wore traditional Islamic clothing and those who did not However covert discrimination was noted towards Muslim who wore the hijab and as a result were dealt with in a hostile and rude manner 193 While observing hiring practices among 4 000 employers in the U S experimenters found that employers who self identified as Republican tended to avoid making interviews with candidates who appeared Muslim on their social network pages 194 One instance that some view as hijab discrimination in the workplace that gained public attention and made it to the Supreme Court was EEOC v Abercrombie amp Fitch The U S Equal Employment Opportunity Commission took advantage of its power granted by Title VII and made a case for a young hijabi female who applied for a job but was rejected due to her wearing a headscarf which violated Abercrombie amp Fitch s pre existing and longstanding policy against head coverings and all black garments 195 Discrimination levels differ depending on geographical location for example South Asian Muslims in the United Arab Emirates do not perceive as much discrimination as their South Asian counterparts in the U S 196 Although South Asian Muslim women in both locations are similar in describing discrimination experiences as subtle and indirect interactions 196 The same study also reports differences among South Asian Muslim women who wear the hijab and those who do not For non hijabis they reported to have experienced more perceived discrimination when they were around other Muslims 196 Perceived discrimination is detrimental to well being both mentally and physically 197 However perceived discrimination may also be related to more positive well being for the individual 198 A study in New Zealand concluded that while Muslim women who wore the headscarf did in fact experience discrimination these negative experiences were overcome by much higher feelings of religious pride belonging and centrality 198 See also Edit Islam portal Fashion portalIslamic scarf controversy in France Merve Kavakci LetUsTalk List of religious headgear Types of hijab Covering variants cowl paranja purdah tagelmust worn by men tudong yashmak Non Muslim covering ghoonghat Christian headcovering religious habit tichelNotes Edit The term hijab is used in the Qur an in the sense of a curtain or partition verses that use the term eg 7 46 33 53 are not related to dress code 27 2 References EditCitations Edit a b c Mark Juergensmeyer Wade Clark Roof ed 2012 Hijab Encyclopedia of Global Religion Vol 1 SAGE Publications p 516 doi 10 4135 9781412997898 ISBN 9780761927297 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o El Guindi Fadwa Sherifa Zahur 2009 Hijab The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World doi 10 1093 acref 9780195305135 001 0001 ISBN 9780195305135 a b c d e Aslan Reza No God but God Random House 2005 p 65 6 a b c Ahmed Leila 1992 Women and Gender in Islam Historical Roots of a Modern Debate ISBN 9780300055832 Retrieved 20 April 2013 a b c Glasse Cyril 2001 hijab The New Encyclopedia of Islam 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Wellington hdl 10063 1005 Archived PDF from the original on 24 September 2017 Retrieved 28 September 2018 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Sources Edit Ahmed Leila 1992 Women and Gender in Islam Historical Roots of a Modern Debate New Haven CT Yale University Press ISBN 978 0 300 05583 2 Aslan Reza No god but God The Origins Evolution and Future of Islam Random House 2005 Bloom Jonathan Blair Sheila 2002 Islam A Thousand Years of Faith and Power Yale University Press ISBN 978 0 300 09422 0 El Guindi Fadwa 1999 Veil Modesty Privacy and Resistance Oxford Berg ISBN 978 1 85973 929 7 Elver Hilal The Headscarf Controversy Secularism and Freedom of Religion Oxford University Press 2012 265 pages Criticizes policies that serve to exclude pious Muslim women from the public sphere in Turkey France Germany and the United States Esposito John 2003 The Oxford Dictionary of Islam Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 512558 0 Yurdakul Gokce and Anna C Korteweg The Headscarf Debates Conflicts of National Belonging Archived 3 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine Stanford University Press 2014 Media debates on stigmatizing Muslim women and how Muslim women respond to these critics for the country cases of Germany Turkey the Netherlands and France External links Edit Wikiquote has quotations related to Hijab Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hijab In graphics Muslim veils BBC Drawings of different types of Islamic women s clothing ReOrienting the Veil Website discussing global hijab usage by the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Hijab amp oldid 1132121775, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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