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Shia Islam

January 19, 2023

"Shia" and "Shias" redirect here. For other uses, see Shia (disambiguation).

Shīʿa Islam or Shīʿīsm is the second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his successor (khalīfa) and the Imam (spiritual and political leader) after him,[1][2] most notably at the event of Ghadir Khumm,[1] but was prevented from succeeding Muhammad as the leader of the Muslims as a result of the choice made by some of Muhammad's other companions (ṣaḥāba) at Saqifah. This view primarily contrasts with that of Sunnī Islam, whose adherents believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor before his death and consider Abū Bakr, who was appointed caliph by a group of senior Muslims at Saqifah, to be the first rightful (rāshidūn) caliph after Muhammad.[3] Adherents of Shīʿa Islam are called Shīʿa Muslims, Shīʿītes, or simply Shīʿa or Shia.[4]

Shīʿa Islam is based on a ḥadīth report concerning Muhammad's pronouncement at Ghadir Khumm.[1][5][6] Shīʿa Muslims believe that ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, should have been the designated successor to Muhammad as Islam's spiritual and political leader.[1][7] This belief later developed into the concept of Imamah, the idea that certain descendants of Muhammad, the Ahl al-Bayt, are rightful rulers or Imams,[8] whom Shīʿa Muslims believe possess special spiritual and political authority over the Muslim community.[1][9] Although there are many Shīʿa subsects, modern Shīʿa Islam has been divided into two main groupings: Twelvers and Ismāʿīlīs, with Twelver Shīʿas being the largest and most influential group among Shīʿa Muslims.[10][11][12]

Shīʿa Islam is the second largest branch of Islam, followed by 10–15% of all Muslims.[13] Twelver Shīʿīsm is the largest branch of Shīʿa Islam,[14] comprising about 85% of all Shīʿa Muslims.[15]

Terminology

Collectively, adherents of Shīʿa Islam are called the Shīʿah (Arabic: شِيعَة; /ˈʃiːə/), which is short for Shīʿatu ʿAlī (Arabic: شِيعَة عَلِيّ; /ˈʃiːʕatu ˈʕaliː/) meaning "followers of Ali", "faction of Ali", or "partisans of Ali";[16][17] Shīʿī (شِيعِيّ) denotes both the singular noun and the adjective form, while Shīyāʿ (شِيَاع) refers to the plural noun.[18] Shīʿa or Shia and Shīʿīsm/Shīʿīte or Shiism/Shiite are the forms used in English and other European languages for adherents, mosques, traditions, and things associated with the Shīʿa branch of Islam.[19][20]

The term was first used during Muhammad's lifetime.[21] At present, the word refers to the Muslims who believe that the leadership of the Muslim community after Muhammad belongs to ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, and his successors.[1] Nawbakhti states that the term Shīʿa refers to a group of Muslims who at the time of Muhammad and after him regarded ʿAlī as the Imam and caliph.[1][22] Al-Shahrastani expresses that the term Shīʿa refers to those who believe that ʿAlī is designated as the heir, Imam, and caliph by Muhammad[1][23] and that ʿAlī's authority is maintained through his descendants.[1][24] For the adherents of Shīʿa Islam, this conviction is implicit in the Quran and the history of Islam. Shīʿa Muslim scholars emphasize that the notion of authority is linked to the family of the Abrahamic prophets as the Quranic verses 3:33 and 3:34 show: "Indeed, God chose Adam and Noah and the family of Abraham and the family of 'Imran over the worlds – (33) Descendants, some of them from others. And God is Hearing and Knowing. (34)"[25]

Beliefs and practices

Theology

Main article: Shia Islamic beliefs and practices

Shīʿa Islam is the second largest branch of Islam, followed by 10–15% of all Muslims,[13] considered to be vast and inclusive of many different denominations and subgroups.[16] Shīʿa Islam embodies a completely independent system of religious interpretation and political authority in the Muslim world.[26][27] The original Shīʿa identity referred to the followers of Imam ʿAlī,[28] and Shīʿa theology was formulated after the hijra (8th century CE).[29] The first Shīʿa governments and societies were established by the end of the 9th century CE. The 10th century CE has been referred to by the scholar of Islamic studies Louis Massignon as "the Shiite Ismaili century in the history of Islam".[30]

Profession of faith (Shahada)

 
Kalema at Qibla of the Mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo, Egypt, displaying the phrase Ali-un-Waliullah (علي ولي الله: "ʿAlī is the Wali (custodian) of God")

The Shīʿa version of the Shahada, the Islamic profession of faith, differs from that of the Sunnīs.[31] The Sunnī version of the Shahada states "There is no god except God, Muhammad is the messenger of God", but to this declaration of faith Shīʿa Muslims append the phrase Ali-un-Waliullah (علي ولي الله: "ʿAlī is the Wali (custodian) of God"). The basis for the Shīʿa belief in ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as the Wali of God is derived from the Quranic verse 5:55, the "Verse of Wilayah".[citation needed]

This additional phrase to the declaration of faith embodies the Shīʿa emphasis on the inheritance of authority through Muhammad's family and lineage. The three clauses of the Shīʿa version of the Shahada thus address the fundamental Islamic beliefs of Tawḥīd (unity and oneness of God), Nubuwwah (the prophethood of Muhammad), and Imamah (the Imamate, leadership of the faith).[32]

Infallibility (Ismah)

Main article: Ismah
 
ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib, cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, is credited as the first male convert to Islam.

Ismah is the concept of infallibility or "divinely bestowed freedom from error and sin" in Islam.[33] Muslims believe that Muhammad, along with other prophets and messengers in Islam, possessed ismah. Twelver and Ismāʿīlī Shīʿa Muslims also attribute the quality to Imams as well as to Fāṭimah, daughter of Muhammad, in contrast to the Zaydī Shīʿas, who don't attribute ismah to the Imams.[34] Though initially beginning as a political movement, infallibility and sinlessness of the Imams later evolved as a distinct belief of (non-Zaydī) Shīʿīsm.[35]

According to Shīʿa Muslim theologians, infallibility is considered a rational, necessary precondition for spiritual and religious guidance. They argue that since God has commanded absolute obedience from these figures, they must only order that which is right. The state of infallibility is based on the Shīʿa interpretation of the Verse of Purification.[36][37] Thus, they are the most pure ones, the only immaculate ones preserved from, and immune to, all uncleanness.[38] It doesn't mean that supernatural powers prevent them from committing a sin, but due to the fact that they have absolute belief in God, they refrain from doing anything that is a sin.[33]

They also have a complete knowledge of God's will. They are in possession of all knowledge brought by the angels to the prophets (nabī) and the messengers (rāsūl). Their knowledge encompasses the totality of all times. Thus, they are believed to act without fault in religious matters.[39] Shīʿa Muslims regard ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as the successor of Muhammad not only ruling over the entire Muslim community in justice, but also interpreting the Islamic faith, practices, and its esoteric meaning. Hence he was regarded as being free from error and sin (infallible), and appointed by God by divine decree (nass) to be the first Imam.[citation needed] ʿAlī is regarded as a "perfect man" (al-insan al-kamil) similar to Muhammad, according to the Shīʿa viewpoint.[40]

Occultation (Ghaybah)

Main articles: Occultation (Islam) and Reappearance of Hujjat Allah al-Mahdi
Further information: Major Occultation, Minor Occultation, and The Fourteen Infallibles
 
Jamkaran Mosque in Qom, Iran is a popular pilgrimage site for Shīʿa Muslims. Local belief holds that the 12th Shīʿīte Imam—the promised Mahdi according to Twelvers—once appeared and offered prayers at Jamkaran.

The Occultation is an eschatological belief held in various denominations of Shīʿa Islam concerning a messianic figure, the hidden and last Imam known as "the Mahdi", that one day shall return on Earth and fill the world with justice. According to the doctrine of Twelver Shīʿīsm, the main goal of Imam Mahdi will be to establish an Islamic state and to apply Islamic laws that were revealed to Muhammad. The Quran doesn't contain verses on the Imamate, which is the basic doctrine of Shīʿa Islam.[41] Some Shīʿa subsects, such as the Zaydī Shīʿas and Nizārī Ismāʿīlīs, don't believe in the idea of the Occultation. The groups which do believe in it differ as to which lineage of the Imamate is valid, and therefore which individual has gone into Occultation. They believe there are many signs that will indicate the time of his return.

Twelver Shīʿa Muslims believe that the prophesied Mahdi and twelfth Imam, Hujjat Allah al-Mahdi, is already on Earth in Occultation, and will return at the end of time. Ṭayyibi Ismāʿīlīs and Fatimid/Bohra/Dawoodi Bohra believe the same but for their 21st Ṭayyib, At-Tayyib Abi l-Qasim, and also believe that a Da'i al-Mutlaq ("Unrestricted Missionary") maintains contact with him. Sunnī Muslims believe that the future Mahdi has not yet arrived on Earth.[42]

Ḥadīth tradition

Shīʿa Muslims believe that the status of ʿAlī is supported by numerous ḥadīth, including the Hadith of the pond of Khumm, Hadith of the two weighty things, Hadith of the pen and paper, Hadith of the invitation of the close families, and Hadith of the Twelve Successors. In particular, the Hadith of the Cloak is often quoted to illustrate Muhammad's feeling towards ʿAlī and his family by both Sunnī and Shīʿa scholars. Shīʿa Muslims prefer to study and read the ḥadīth attributed to the Ahl al-Bayt and close associates, and most have their own separate ḥadīth canon.[43][44]

Holy Relics (Tabarruk)

It is believed that the armaments and sacred items of all of the prophets, including Muhammad, were handed down in succession to the Imams of the Ahl al-Bayt. Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq, the 6th Shīʿīte Imam, in Kitab al-Kafi mentions that "with me are the arms of the Messenger of Allah. It is not disputable."[45]

Further, he claims that with him is the sword of the Messenger of God, his coat of arms, his Lamam (pennon) and his helmet. In addition, he mentions that with him is the flag of the Messenger of God, the victorious. With him is the Staff of Moses, the ring of Solomon, son of David, and the tray on which Moses used to offer his offerings. With him is the name that whenever the Messenger of God would place it between the Muslims and pagans no arrow from the pagans would reach the Muslims. With him is the similar object that angels brought.[45]

Al-Ṣādiq also narrated that the passing down of armaments is synonymous to receiving the Imamat (leadership), similar to how the Ark of Covenant in the house of the Israelites signaled prophethood.[45] Imam Ali al-Ridha narrates that wherever the armaments among us would go, knowledge would also follow and the armaments would never depart from those with knowledge (Imamat).[45]

Other doctrines

Doctrine about necessity of acquiring knowledge

According to Muhammad Rida al-Muzaffar, God gives humans the faculty of reason and argument. Also, God orders humans to spend time thinking carefully on creation while he refers to all creations as his signs of power and glory. These signs encompass all of the universe. Furthermore, there is a similarity between humans as the little world and the universe as the large world. God does not accept the faith of those who follow him without thinking and only with imitation, but also God blames them for such actions. In other words, humans have to think about the universe with reason and intellect, a faculty bestowed on us by God. Since there is more insistence on the faculty of intellect among Shīʿa Muslims, even evaluating the claims of someone who claims prophecy is on the basis of intellect.[46][47]

Doctrine concerning prayer

Main article: Salah

Praying in Shīʿa Islam has an important place, as Muhammad described it as a weapon of the believer. In fact, Duʼa considered as something that is a feature of Shia community in a sense. Performing Duʼa in Shīʿa Islam has a special ritual. Because of this, there are many books written on the instructions and conditions of praying among Shīʿa Muslims. Shīʿīte clergymen always invited their followers to recite Duʼa. For instance, ʿAlī has been considered with the subject of Duʼa because of his leadership in monotheism.

Practices

 
Shīʿa Muslims gathered in prayer at the Shrine of Imam Ḥusayn in Karbala, Iraq

Shīʿa religious practices, such as prayers, differ only slightly from the Sunnīs. While all Muslims pray five times daily, Shīʿa Muslims have the option of combining Dhuhr with Asr and Maghrib with Isha', as there are three distinct times mentioned in the Quran. The Sunnīs tend to combine only under certain circumstances.

Holidays

Main article: Shia days of remembrance

Shīʿa Muslims celebrate the following annual holidays:

  • Eid ul-Fitr, which marks the end of fasting during the month of Ramadan
  • Eid al-Adha, which marks the end of the Hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca
  • Eid al-Ghadeer, which is the anniversary of the Ghadir Khum, the occasion when Muhammad announced Ali's Imamate before a multitude of Muslims.[48] Eid al-Ghadeer is held on the 18th of Dhu al-Hijjah.
  • The Mourning of Muharram and the Day of Ashura for Shīʿa Muslims commemorate the martyrdom of Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī, brother of Ḥasan and grandson of Muhammad, who was killed by Yazid ibn Muawiyah in Karbala (central Iraq). Ashura is a day of deep mourning which occurs on the 10th of Muharram.
  • Arba'een commemorates the suffering of the women and children of Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī's household. After Ḥusayn was killed, they were marched over the desert, from Karbala (central Iraq) to Shaam (Damascus, Syria). Many children (some of whom were direct descendants of Muhammad) died of thirst and exposure along the route. Arbaein occurs on the 20th of Safar, 40 days after Ashura.
  • Mawlid, Muhammad's birth date. Unlike Sunnī Muslims, who celebrate the 12th of Rabi' al-awwal as Muhammad's day of birth or death (because they assert that his birth and death both occur in this week), Shīʿa Muslims celebrate Muhammad's birthday on the 17th of the month, which coincides with the birth date of Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq, the 6th Shīʿīte Imam.[49]
  • Fāṭimah's birthday on 20th of Jumada al-Thani. This day is also considered as the "'women and mothers' day"[50]
  • ʿAlī's birthday on 13th of Rajab.
  • Mid-Sha'ban is the birth date of the 12th and final Twelver imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi. It is celebrated by Shia Muslims on the 15th of Sha'aban.
  • Laylat al-Qadr, anniversary of the night of the revelation of the Quran.
  • Eid al-Mubahila celebrates a meeting between the Ahl al-Bayt (household of Muhammad) and a Christian deputation from Najran. Al-Mubahila is held on the 24th of Dhu al-Hijjah.

Holy sites

Main article: Holiest sites in Shia Islam

After the four holy cities of Islam (Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem, and Damascus), the cities of Najaf, Karbala, and Qom are the most revered by Shīʿa Muslims.[51][52] The Sanctuary of Imām ʿAlī in Najaf, the Shrine of Imam Ḥusayn in Karbala, and the Shrine of Fāṭimah al-Maʿṣūmah in Qom are very essential for Shīʿa Muslims. Other venerated pilgrimage sites include the Imam Reza shrine in Mashhad, the Kadhimiya Mosque in Kadhimiya, Al-Askari Mosque in Samarra, the Sahla Mosque, the Great Mosque of Kufa, the Jamkaran Mosque in Qom, and the Tomb of Daniel in Susa.

Most of the Shīʿa sacred places and heritage sites in Saudi Arabia have been destroyed by the Al Saud-Wahhabi armies of the Ikhwan, the most notable being the tombs of the Imams located in the Al-Baqi' cemetery in 1925.[53] In 2006, a bomb destroyed the shrine of Al-Askari Mosque.[54] (See: Anti-Shi'ism).

Demographics

Main article: Islam by country
 
Islam by country     Sunnī     Shīʿa   Ibadi
 
Map of the Muslim world's schools of jurisprudence.[55]

It is estimated that either 10–20%[56] or 10–13%[57][58][59] of the global Muslim population are Shīʿas. They may number up to 200 million as of 2009.[58] As of 1985, Shīʿa Muslims are estimated to be 21% of the Muslim population in South Asia, although the total number is difficult to estimate.[60]

Shīʿa Muslims form a majority of the population in various regions of the Muslim world, including Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Iran, and Iraq,[61][62] as well as a plurality in Lebanon. Shīʿa Muslims constitute 36.3% of the entire population (and 38.6% of the Muslim population) of the Middle East.[63]

Estimates have placed the proportion of Shīʿa Muslims in Lebanon between 27% and 45% of the population,[61][64] 30%–35% of the citizen population in Kuwait (no figures exist for the non-citizen population),[65][66] over 20% in Turkey,[58][67] 5–20% of the population in Pakistan,[68][58] and 10–19% of Afghanistan's population.[69][70]

Saudi Arabia hosts a number of distinct Shīʿa communities, including the Twelver Baharna in the Eastern Province and Nakhawila of Medina, and the Ismāʿīlī Sulaymani and Zaydī Shīʿas of Najran. Estimations put the number of Shīʿīte citizens at 2–4 million,[citation needed] accounting for roughly 15% of the local population.[71] Approximately 40% of the population of Yemen are Shīʿa Muslims.[72][73]

Significant Shīʿa communities also exist in the coastal regions of West Sumatra and Aceh in Indonesia (see Tabuik).[74] The Shīʿa presence is negligible elsewhere in Southeast Asia, where Muslims are predominantly Shāfiʿī Sunnīs.

A significant Shīʿa minority is present in Nigeria, made up of modern-era converts to a Shīʿīte movement centered around Kano and Sokoto states.[58][59][75] Several African countries like Kenya,[76] South Africa,[77] Somalia,[78] etc. hold small minority populations of various Shīʿa subsects, primarily descendants of immigrants from South Asia during the colonial period, such as the Khoja.[79]

Significant populations worldwide

Figures indicated in the first three columns below are based on the October 2009 demographic study by the Pew Research Center report, Mapping the Global Muslim Population.[58][59]

Nations with over 100,000 Shia[58][59]
Country Article Shia population in 2009 (Pew)[58][59] Percent of Muslim population that is Shia in 2009 (Pew)[58][59] Percent of global Shia population in 2009 (Pew)[58][59] Population estimate ranges and notes
  Iran Islam in Iran 66,000,000–69,500,000 90–95 37–40
  Pakistan Shia Islam in the Indian subcontinent 25,272,000 15 15 A 2010 estimate was that Shia made up about 10–15% of Pakistan's population.[80]
  Iraq Shi'a Islam in Iraq 19,000,000–24,000,000 55–65 10–11
  India Shia Islam in the Indian subcontinent 12,300,000–18,500,000 10–15 9–14
  Yemen Shia Islam in Yemen 7,000,000–8,000,000 35–40 ~5 Majority following Zaydi Shia sect.
  Turkey Shi'a Islam in Turkey 6,000,000–9,000,000 ~10–15 ~3–4 Majority following Alevi Shia sect.
  Azerbaijan Islam in Azerbaijan 4,575,000–5,590,000 45–55 2–3 Azerbaijan is majority Shia.[81][82][83] A 2012 work noted that in Azerbaijan, among believers of all faiths, 10% identified as Sunni, 30% identified as Shia, and the remainder of followers of Islam simply identified as Muslim.[83]
 Afghanistan Shi'a Islam in Afghanistan 3,000,000 15 ~2 A reliable census has not been taken in Afghanistan in decades, but about 20% of Afghan population is Shia, mostly among ethnic Tajik and Hazara minorities.[84]
  Syria Islam in Syria 2,400,000 13 ~2 Majority following Alawites Shia sect.
  Lebanon Shi'a Islam in Lebanon 2,100,000 31.2 <1 In 2020, the CIA World Factbook stated that Shia Muslims constitute 31.2% of Lebanon's population.[85]
  Saudi Arabia Shi'a Islam in Saudi Arabia 2,000,000 ~6
  Nigeria Shi'a Islam in Nigeria <2,000,000 <1 <1 Estimates range from as low as 2% of Nigeria's Muslim population to as high as 17% of Nigeria's Muslim population.[a] Some, but not all, Nigerian Shia are affiliated with the banned Islamic Movement in Nigeria, an Iranian-inspired Shia organization led by Ibrahim Zakzaky.[86]
  Tanzania Islam in Tanzania ~1,500,000 ~2.5 <1
  Kuwait Shi'a Islam in Kuwait 500,000–700,000 20–25 <1 Among Kuwait's estimated 1.4 million citizens, about 30% are Shia (including Ismaili and Ahmadi, whom the Kuwaiti government count as Shia). Among Kuwait's large expatriate community of 3.3 million noncitizens, about 64% are Muslim, and among expatriate Muslims, about 5% are Shia.[88]
  Bahrain Islam in Bahrain 400,000–500,000 65–70 <1
  Tajikistan Shi'a Islam in Tajikistan ~400,000 ~4 <1 Shi'a Muslims in Tajikistan are predominantly Nizari Ismaili
  Germany Islam in Germany ~400,000 ~0.5 <1
  United Arab Emirates Islam in the United Arab Emirates ~300,000 ~3 <1
  United States Islam in the United States
Shia Islam in the Americas 		~225,000 ~0.07 <1 Shi'a form a majority amongst Arab Muslims in many American cities, e.g. Lebanese Shi'a forming the majority in Detroit.[89]
  United Kingdom Islam in the United Kingdom ~125,000 ~0.2 <1
  Qatar Islam in Qatar ~100,000 ~3.5 <1
  Oman Islam in Oman ~100,000 ~2 <1 As of 2015, about 5% of Omanis are Shia (compared to about 50% Ibadi and 45% Sunni).[90]

Major denominations or branches

Main article: Islamic schools and branches § Shīʿa Islam
Further information: List of extinct Shia sects and Schools of Islamic theology § Shīʿa schools of theology

The Shīʿa community throughout its history split over the issue of the Imamate. The largest branch are the Twelvers, followed by the Zaydīs and the Ismāʿīlīs. Each subsect of Shīʿīsm follows its own line of Imamate. All mainstream Twelver and Ismāʿīlī Shīʿa Muslims follow the same school of thought, the Jaʽfari jurisprudence, named after Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq, the 6th Shīʿīte Imam. Shīʿīte clergymen and jurists usually carry the title of mujtahid (i.e., someone authorized to issue legal opinions in Shīʿa Islam).

Twelver

Main article: Twelver

Twelver Shīʿīsm or Ithnāʿashariyyah is the largest branch of Shīʿa Islam, and the terms Shīʿa Muslim and Shīʿa often refer to the Twelvers by default. The designation Twelver is derived from the doctrine of believing in twelve divinely ordained leaders, known as "the Twelve Imams". Twelver Shīʿas are otherwise known as Imami or Jaʿfari; the latter term derives from Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq, the 6th Shīʿīte Imam, who elaborated the Twelver jurisprudence.[91] Twelver Shīʿas constitute the majority of the population in Iran (90%),[92] Azerbaijan (85%),[16][93] Bahrain (70%), Iraq (65%), and Lebanon (65% of Muslims).[94][95]

Doctrine

 
Names of the 12 Imams (descendants of Imam ʿAlī) written in the calligraphic form of the name ʿAlī in Arabic: علي

Twelver doctrine is based on five principles.[96] These five principles known as Usul ad-Din are as follow:[97]

  1. Monotheism: God is one and unique;
  2. Justice: the concept of moral rightness based on ethics, fairness, and equity, along with the punishment of the breach of these ethics;
  3. Prophethood: the institution by which God sends emissaries, or prophets, to guide humankind;
  4. Leadership: a divine institution which succeeded the institution of Prophethood. Its appointees (Imams) are divinely appointed;
  5. Resurrection and Last Judgment: God's final assessment of humanity.

More specifically, these principles are known as Usul al-Madhhab (principles of the Shīʿa branch of Islam) according to Twelver Shīʿas, which differ from Daruriyat al-Din ("Necessities of Religion"), which are principles in order for one to be a Muslim. Daruriyat al-Din don't include leadership (Imamah), as it is not a requirement in order for one to be recognized as a Muslim. However, this category, according to Twelver scholars like Ayatollah Abu al-Qasim al-Khoei, does include belief in God, prophethood, the Day of Resurrection, and other "necessities" (such as the belief in angels). In this regard, Twelver Shīʿas draw a distinction in terms of believing in the main principles of Islam on the one hand, and specifically Shīʿīte doctrines like the Imamate on the other.[citation needed]

Books

Besides the Quran, which is the sacred text common to all Muslims, Twelver Shīʿas derive scriptural and authoritative guidance from collections of sayings and traditions (ḥadīth) attributed to Muhammad and the Twelve Imams. Below is a list of some of the most prominent of these books:

The Twelve Imams

Main articles: Imamate in Twelver doctrine, Sunni reports about there being 12 successors to the Prophet, and Hadith of the Twelve Successors
Further information: Occultation (Islam), Reappearance of Hujjat Allah al-Mahdi, and The Fourteen Infallibles
 
Calligraphic representation of the 12 Imams along with the name of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.

The Twelve Imams are the spiritual and political successors to Muhammad for the Twelvers.[citation needed] According to the theology of Twelvers, the successor of Muhammad is an infallible human individual who not only rules over the Muslim community with justice but also is able to keep and interpret the divine law (sharīʿa) and its esoteric meaning. The words and deeds of Muhammad and the Twelve Imams are a guide and model for the Muslim community to follow; as a result, they must be free from error and sin, and Imams must be chosen by divine decree (nass) through Muhammad.[100][101] In Twelver Shīʿīsm, each Imam was the son of the previous Imam, with the exception of Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī, who was the brother of Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī.[citation needed] The twelfth and final Imam is Hujjat Allah al-Mahdi, who is believed by Twelvers to be currently alive and hidden in Occultation.[102]

Jurisprudence

Main article: Ja'fari jurisprudence
Further information: Shia clergy

The Twelver jurisprudence is called Jaʽfari jurisprudence. In this school of Islamic jurisprudence, the sunnah is considered to be comprehensive of the oral traditions of Muhammad and their implementation and interpretation by the Twelve Imams. There are three schools of Jaʿfari jurisprudence: Usuli, Akhbari, and Shaykhi; the Usuli school is by far the largest of the three. Twelver groups that don't follow the Jaʿfari jurisprudence include Alevis, Bektashi, and Qizilbash.

The five pillars of Islam to the Jaʿfari jurisprudence are known as Usul ad-Din:

  1. Tawḥīd: unity and oneness of God;
  2. Nubuwwah: prophethood of Muhammad;
  3. Muʿad: resurrection and final judgment;
  4. ʿAdl: justice of God;
  5. Imamah: the rightful place of the Shīʿīte Imams.

In Jaʿfari jurisprudence, there are eight secondary pillars, known as Furu ad-Din, which are as follows:[97]

  1. Salat (prayer);
  2. Sawm (fasting);
  3. Hajj (pilgrimage) to Mecca;
  4. Zakāt (alms giving to the poor);
  5. Jihād (struggle) for the righteous cause;
  6. Directing others towards good;
  7. Directing others away from evil;
  8. Khums (20% tax on savings yearly, after deduction of commercial expenses).

According to Twelvers, defining and interpretation of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) is the responsibility of Muhammad and the Twelve Imams. Since the 12th Imam is currently in Occultation, it is the duty of Shīʿīte clerics to refer to the Islamic literature, such as the Quran and ḥadīth, and identify legal decisions within the confines of Islamic law to provide means to deal with current issues from an Islamic perspective. In other words, clergymen in Twelver Shīʿīsm are believed to be the guardians of fiqh, which is believed to have been defined by Muhammad and his twelve successors. This process is known as ijtihad and the clerics are known as marjaʿ, meaning "reference"; the labels Allamah and Ayatollah are in use for Twelver clerics.

Islamists

Islamist Shīʿīsm (Persian: تشیع اخوانی) is a new denomination within Twelver Shīʿīsm greatly inspired by the political ideology of the Muslim Brotherhood and mysticism of Ibn Arabi. It sees Islam as a political system and differs from the other mainstream Usuli and Akhbari groups in favoring the idea of the establishment of an Islamic state in Occultation under the rule of the 12th Imam.[103][104] Hadi Khosroshahi was the first person to identify himself as ikhwani (Islamist) Shīʿa Muslim.[105] Because of the concept of the hidden Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, Shīʿa Islam is inherently secular in the age of Occultation, therefore Islamist Shīʿa Muslims had to borrow ideas from Sunnī Islamists and adjust them in accordance with the doctrine of Shīʿīsm.[106] Its foundations were laid during the Persian Constitutional Revolution at the start of 20th century in Qajar Iran (1905–1911), when Fazlullah Nouri supported the Persian king Ahmad Shah Qajar against the will of Muhammad Kazim Khurasani, the Usuli marjaʿ of the time.[107]

Ismāʿīlī (Sevener)

Main article: Isma'ilism

Ismāʿīlīs, otherwise known as Sevener, derive their name from their acceptance of Ismāʿīl ibn Jaʿfar as the divinely appointed spiritual successor (Imam) to Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq, the 6th Shīʿīte Imam, wherein they differ from the Twelvers, who recognize Mūsā al-Kāẓim, younger brother of Ismāʿīl, as the true Imam.

After the death or Occultation of Muhammad ibn Imam Ismāʿīl in the 8th century CE, the teachings of Ismāʿīlīsm further transformed into the belief system as it is known today, with an explicit concentration on the deeper, esoteric meaning (bāṭin) of the Islamic faith. With the eventual development of Twelver Shīʿīsm into the more literalistic (zahīr) oriented Akhbari and later Usuli schools of thought, Shīʿīsm further developed in two separate directions: the metaphorical Ismāʿīlī group focusing on the mystical path and nature of God and the divine manifestation in the personage of the "Imam of the Time" as the "Face of God", with the more literalistic Twelver group focusing on divine law (sharī'ah) and the deeds and sayings (sunnah) attributed to Muhammad and his successors (the Ahl al-Bayt), who as A'immah were guides and a light (nūr) to God.[108]

 
Shāh Karim al-Husayni, known as the Aga Khan IV, is the 49th and current Imam of Nizārī Ismāʿīlīs.

Though there are several subsects amongst the Ismāʿīlīs, the term in today's vernacular generally refers to the Shīʿa Imami Ismāʿīlī Nizārī community, often referred to as the Ismāʿīlīs by default, who are followers of the Aga Khan and the largest group within Ismāʿīlīsm. Another Shīʿa Imami Ismāʿīlī community are the Dawudi Bohras, led by a Da'i al-Mutlaq ("Unrestricted Missionary") as representative of a hidden Imam. While there are many other branches with extremely differing exterior practices, much of the spiritual theology has remained the same since the days of the faith's early Imams. In recent centuries, Ismāʿīlīs have largely been an Indo-Iranian community,[109] but they can also be found in India, Pakistan, Syria, Palestine, Saudi Arabia,[110] Yemen, Jordan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, East and South Africa, and in recent years several Ismāʿīlīs have emigrated to China,[111] Western Europe (primarily in the United Kingdom), Australia, New Zealand, and North America.[112]

Ismāʿīlī Imams

Main article: List of Ismaili imams

In the Nizārī Ismāʿīlī interpretation of Shīʿa Islam, the Imam is the guide and the intercessor between humans and God, and the individual through whom God is recognized. He is also responsible for the esoteric interpretation of the Quran (taʾwīl). He is the possessor of divine knowledge and therefore the "Prime Teacher". According to the "Epistle of the Right Path", a Persian Ismāʿīlī prose text from the post-Mongol period of Ismāʿīlī history, by an anonymous author, there has been a chain of Imams since the beginning of time, and there will continue to be an Imam present on the Earth until the end of time. The worlds would not exist in perfection without this uninterrupted chain of Imams. The proof (hujja) and gate (bāb) of the Imam are always aware of his presence and are witness to this uninterrupted chain.[113]

After the death of Ismāʿīl ibn Jaʿfar, many Ismāʿīlīs believed that one day the eschatological figure of Imam Mahdi, whom they believed to be Muhammad ibn Imam Ismāʿīl, would return and establish an age of justice. One group included the violent Qarmatians, who had a stronghold in Bahrain. In contrast, some Ismāʿīlīs believed the Imamate did continue, and that the Imams were in Occultation and still communicated and taught their followers through a network of Da'i ("Missionaries").

In 909 CE, Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah, a claimant to the Ismāʿīlī Imamate, established the Fatimid Caliphate. During this period, three lineages of Imams were formed. The first branch, known today as the Druze, began with Al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh.[114] Born in 985 CE, he ascended as ruler at the age of eleven. When in 1021 CE his mule returned without him, soaked in blood, a religious group that was forming in his lifetime broke off from mainstream Ismāʿīlīsm and didn't acknowledge his successor.[114] Later to be known as the Druze, they believe Al-Ḥākim to be God incarnate[115] and the prophesied Mahdi on Earth, who would one day return and bring justice to the world.[116] The Druze faith further split from Ismāʿīlīsm as it developed into a distinct monotheistic Abrahamic religion and ethno-religious group with its own unique doctrines,[114] and finally separated from both Ismāʿīlīsm and Islam altogether.[114] Thus, the Druze don't identify themselves as Muslims,[114] and aren't considered as such by Muslims either.[114][117][118][119][120]

The second split occurred between Nizārī and Musta‘lī Ismāʿīlīs following the death of Ma'ad al-Mustansir Billah in 1094 CE. His rule was the longest of any caliph in any Islamic empire. Upon his passing away, his sons, Nizār (the older) and Al-Musta‘lī (the younger), fought for political and spiritual control of the dynasty. Nizār was defeated and jailed, but according to the Nizārī tradition his son escaped to Alamut, where the Iranian Ismāʿīlī had accepted his claim.[121] From here on, the Nizārī Ismāʿīlī community has continued with a present, living Imam.

The Musta‘lī Ismāʿīlīs split between the Ṭayyibi and the Ḥāfiẓi; Ṭayyibi Ismāʿīlīs, also known as "Bohras", are further divided between Dawudi Bohras, Sulaymani Bohras, and Alavi Bohras. The former denomination claims that At-Tayyib Abi l-Qasim, son of Al-Amir bi-Ahkami l-Lah, and the Imams following him went into a period of anonymity (Dawr-e-Satr) and appointed a Da'i al-Mutlaq ("Unrestricted Missionary") to guide the community, in a similar manner as the Ismāʿīlīs had lived after the death of Muhammad ibn Imam Ismāʿīl. The latter denomination claims that the ruling Fatimid caliph was the Imam, and they died out with the fall of the Fatimid Empire.

Pillars

Ismāʿīlīs have categorized their practices which are known as seven pillars:

Contemporary leadership

The Nizārīs place importance on a scholarly institution because of the existence of a present Imam. The Imam of the Age defines the jurisprudence, and his guidance may differ with Imams previous to him because of different times and circumstances. For Nizārī Ismāʿīlīs, the current Imam is Karim al-Husayni Aga Khan IV. The Nizārī line of Imams has continued to this day as an uninterrupted chain.

Divine leadership has continued in the Bohra branch through the institution of the "Missionary" (Da'i). According to the Bohra tradition, before the last Imam, At-Tayyib Abi l-Qasim, went into seclusion, his father, the 20th Al-Amir bi-Ahkami l-Lah, had instructed Al-Hurra Al-Malika the Malika (Queen consort) in Yemen to appoint a vicegerent after the seclusion—the Da'i al-Mutlaq ("Unrestricted Missionary"), who as the Imam's vicegerent has full authority to govern the community in all matters both spiritual and temporal while the lineage of Musta‘lī-Ṭayyibi Imams remains in seclusion (Dawr-e-Satr). The three branches of Musta‘lī Ismāʿīlīs (Dawudi Bohras, Sulaymani Bohras, and Alavi Bohras) differ on who the current "Unrestricted Missionary" is.

Zaydī (Fiver)

Main article: Zaydism
 
The Zaydī State of Yemen under the rule of Imam Al-Mutawakkil Ismāʿīl bin al-Qāsim (1644–1676)

Zaydīsm, otherwise known as Zaydīyyah or Zaydī, is a branch of Shīʿa Islam named after Zayd ibn ʿAlī. Followers of the Zaydī school of jurisprudence are called Zaydīs or occasionally Fivers. However, there is also a group called Zaydī Wasītīs who are Twelvers (see below). Zaydīs constitute roughly 42–47% of the population of Yemen.[122][123]

Doctrine

The Zaydīs, Twelvers, and Ismāʿīlīs all recognize the same first four Imams; however, the Zaydīs consider Zayd ibn ʿAlī as the 5th Imam. After the time of Zayd ibn ʿAlī, the Zaydīs believed that any descendant (Sayyid) of Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī or Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī could become the next Imam, after fulfilling certain conditions.[124] Other well-known Zaydī Imams in history were Yahya ibn Zayd, Muhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyya, and Ibrahim ibn Abdullah.

The Zaydī doctrine of Imamah doesn't presuppose the infallibility of the Imam, nor the belief that the Imams are supposed to receive divine guidance. Moreover, Zaydīs don't believe that the Imamate must pass from father to son but believe it can be held by any Sayyid descended from either Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī or Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī (as was the case after the death of the former). Historically, Zaydīs held that Zayd ibn ʿAlī was the rightful successor of the 4th Imam since he led a rebellion against the Umayyads in protest of their tyranny and corruption. Muhammad al-Baqir did not engage in political action, and the followers of Zayd ibn ʿAlī maintained that a true Imam must fight against corrupt rulers.

Jurisprudence

In matters of Islamic jurisprudence, Zaydīs follow the teachings of Zayd ibn ʿAlī, which are documented in his book Majmu'l Fiqh (in Arabic: مجموع الفِقه). Al-Ḥādī ila'l-Ḥaqq Yaḥyā, the first Zaydī Imam and founder of the Zaydī State in Yemen, is regarded as the codifier of Zaydī jurisprudence, and as such most Zaydī Shīʿas today are known as Hadawis.

Timeline

The Idrisids (Arabic: الأدارسة) were Arab[125] Zaydī Shīʿas[126][127][128][129][130][131] whose dynasty, named after its first sultan, Idris I, ruled in the western Maghreb from 788 to 985 CE. Another Zaydī State was established in the region of Gilan, Deylaman, and Tabaristan (northern Iran) in 864 CE by the Alavids;[132] it lasted until the death of its leader at the hand of the Samanids in 928 CE. Roughly forty years later, the Zaydī State was revived in Gilan and survived under Hasanid leaders until 1126 CE. Afterwards, from the 12th to 13th centuries, the Zaydī Shīʿas of Deylaman, Gilan, and Tabaristan then acknowledged the Zaydī Imams of Yemen or rival Zaydī Imams within Iran.[133]

The Buyids were initially Zaydī Shīʿas,[134] as were the Banu Ukhaidhir rulers of al-Yamama in the 9th and 10th centuries.[135] The leader of the Zaydī community took the title of caliph; thus, the ruler of Yemen was known by this title. Al-Hadi Yahya bin al-Hussain bin al-Qasim ar-Rassi, a descendant of Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī, founded the Zaydī Imamate at Sa'dah in 893–897 CE, and the Rassid dynasty continued to rule over Yemen until the middle of the 20th century, when the republican revolution of 1962 deposed the last Zaydī Imam. (See: Arab Cold War). The founding Zaydī branch in Yemen was the Jarudiyya; however, with increasing interaction with the Ḥanafī and Shāfiʿī schools of Sunnī jurisprudence, there was a shift from the Jarudiyya group to the Sulaimaniyya, Tabiriyya, Butriyya, and Salihiyya.[136] Zaydī Shīʿas form the second dominant religious group in Yemen. Currently, they constitute about 40–45% of the population in Yemen; Jaʿfaris and Ismāʿīlīs constitute the 2–5%.[137] In Saudi Arabia, it is estimated that there are over 1 million Zaydī Shīʿas, primarily based in the western provinces.

Currently, the most prominent Zaydī political movement is the Houthi movement in Yemen,[138] known by the name of Shabab al-Mu'mineen ("Believing Youth") or Ansar Allah ("Partisans of God").[139] In 2014–2015, Houthis took over the Yemeni government in Sana'a, which led to the fall of the Saudi Arabian-backed government of Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi.[138][139][140] Houthis and their allies gained control of a significant part of Yemen's territory, and resisted the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen seeking to restore Hadi in power.[138][139] (See: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict). Both the Houthis and the Saudi Arabian-led coalition were being attacked by the Sunnī Islamist militant group and Salafi-jihadist terrorist organization ISIL/ISIS/IS/Daesh.[141][142][143][144][145][146]

History

Main article: History of Shia Islam
Further information: Origin of Shia Islam

Succession of ʿAlī

Main articles: Shia view of Ali and Succession to Muhammad
Further information: Ali in the Quran

Shīʿa Muslims believe that just as a prophet is appointed by God alone, only God has the prerogative to appoint the successor to his prophet. They believe God chose ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib to be Muhammad's successor, infallible, the first caliph (khalīfa, head of state) of Islam. Shīʿa Muslims believe that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor by God's command (Eid Al Ghadir).[147][148] ʿAlī was Muhammad's first-cousin and closest living male relative as well as his son-in-law, having married Muhammad's daughter, Fāṭimah.[149][150]

The Party of ʿAlī

Further information: The Four Companions

Even during the time of Muhammad, there were signs of split among the companions with Salman al-Farsi, Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, Miqdad, and Ammar ibn Yasir amongst the most vehement and loyal supporters of ʿAlī.[151][152]

The event of Dhul Asheera

Main article: Hadith of Warning

During the revelation of Ash-Shu'ara, the twenty-sixth Surah of the Quran, in c. 617 CE,[153] Muhammad is said to have received instructions to warn his family members against adhering to their pre-Islamic religious practices. There are differing accounts of Muhammad's attempt to do this, with one version stating that he had invited his relatives to a meal (later termed the Feast of Dhul Asheera), during which he gave the pronouncement.[154] According to Ibn Ishaq, it consisted of the following speech:

Allah has commanded me to invite you to His religion by saying: And warn thy nearest kinsfolk. I, therefore, warn you, and call upon you to testify that there is no god but Allah, and that I am His messenger. O ye sons of Abdul Muttalib, no one ever came to you before with anything better than what I have brought to you. By accepting it, your welfare will be assured in this world and in the Hereafter. Who among you will support me in carrying out this momentous duty? Who will share the burden of this work with me? Who will respond to my call? Who will become my vicegerent, my deputy and my wazir?[155]

Among those gathered, only ʿAlī offered his consent. Some sources, such as the Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, do not record Muhammad's reaction to this, though Ibn Ishaq continues that he then declared ʿAlī to be his brother, heir and successor.[156] In another narration, when Muhammad accepted ʿAlī's offer, he "threw up his arms around the generous youth, and pressed him to his bosom" and said, "Behold my brother, my vizir, my vicegerent ... let all listen to his words, and obey him."[157] The direct appointment of ʿAlī as heir in this version is notable in that it alleges that his right to succession was established at the very beginning of Muhammad's prophetic activity. The association with the revelation of a Quranic verse also serves the purpose of providing the nomination with authenticity as well as a divine authorization.[158]

Event of Ghadir Khumm

Main article: Event of Ghadir Khumm

The ḥadīth report of Ghadir Khumm has many different variations and is transmitted by both Sunnī and Shīʿa sources. The narrations generally state that in March 632, Muhammad, while returning from his Farewell Pilgrimage alongside a large number of followers and companions, stopped at the oasis of Ghadir Khumm. There, he took ʿAlī's hand and addressed the gathering. The point of contention between different sects arises when Muhammad, whilst giving his speech, gave the proclamation "Anyone who has me as his mawla, has ʿAlī as his mawla." Some versions add the additional sentence "O God, befriend the friend of ʿAlī and be the enemy of his enemy."[159]

Mawla has a number of meanings in Arabic, with interpretations of Muhammad's use here being split along sectarian lines between the Sunnī and Shīʿa Muslims. Among the former group, the word is translated as "friend" or "one who is loyal/close" and that Muhammad was advocating that ʿAlī was deserving of friendship and respect. Conversely, Shīʿa Muslims tend to view the meaning as being "master" or "ruler",[citation needed] and that the statement was a clear designation of ʿAlī being Muhammad's appointed successor. Shīʿa sources also record further details of the event, such as stating that those present congratulated ʿAlī and acclaimed him as Amir al-Mu'minin ("commander of the believers").[159]

Caliphate of ʿAlī

 
The investiture of ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib at Ghadir Khumm (MS Arab 161, fol. 162r, 1308–1309 CE, Ilkhanid manuscript illustration)

When Muhammad died in 632 CE, ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib and Muhammad's closest relatives made the funeral arrangements. While they were preparing his body, Abū Bakr, ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb, and Abu Ubaidah ibn al Jarrah met with the leaders of Medina and elected Abū Bakr as caliph. ʿAlī did not accept the caliphate of Abū Bakr and refused to pledge allegiance to him. This is indicated in a ḥadīth report which both Sunnī and Shīʿa Muslims regard as sahih (authentic).

Ibn Qutaybah, a 9th-century Sunnī Islamic scholar narrates of ʿAlī:

I am the servant of God and the brother of the Messenger of God. I am thus more worthy of this office than you. I shall not give allegiance to you [Abu Bakr & Umar] when it is more proper for you to give bayʼah to me. You have seized this office from the Ansar using your tribal relationship to the Prophet as an argument against them. Would you then seize this office from us, the ahl al-bayt by force? Did you not claim before the Ansar that you were more worthy than they of the caliphate because Muhammad came from among you (but Muhammad was never from Abu Bakr's family) – and thus they gave you leadership and surrendered command? I now contend against you with the same argument…It is we who are more worthy of the Messenger of God, living or dead. Give us our due right if you truly have faith in God, or else bear the charge of wilfully doing wrong... Umar, I will not yield to your commands: I shall not pledge loyalty to him.' Ultimately Abu Bakr said, "O 'Ali! If you do not desire to give your bay'ah, I am not going to force you for the same.

ʿAlī's wife and daughter of Muhammad, Fāṭimah, refused to pledge allegiance to Abū Bakr and remained angry with him until she died due to the issues of Fadak, the inheritance from her father, and the situation of ʿUmar at Fāṭimah's house; this is stated in various Sunnī ḥadīth collections, including Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim. Fāṭimah never pledged allegiance to Abū Bakr; neither did she acknowledge or accept his claim to the caliphate.[160] Almost all members of Banu Hashim, the Quraysh tribe to which Muhammad belonged, and many of his closest companions (the ṣaḥāba) had supported ʿAlī's cause after the death of Muhammad, whilst others supported Abū Bakr.[161][162][163][164][165][166][167][168][169]

 
Great Mosque of Kufa, site of ʿAlī's assassination (661 CE)[149][150]
 
Ḍarīẖ over ʿAlī's qabr (grave), Sanctuary of Imām ʿAlī, Najaf (present-day Iraq)

It was not until the murder of the third rāshidūn caliph, ʿUthmān (657 CE), that the Muslims of Medina in desperation invited ʿAlī to become the fourth caliph as the last source,[149] and he established his capital in Kufa (present-day Iraq).[16] ʿAlī's rule over the early Muslim community was often contested, and wars were waged against him. As a result, he had to struggle to maintain his power against the groups who betrayed him after giving allegiance to his succession, or those who wished to take his position. This dispute eventually led to the First Fitna, which was the first major civil war between Muslims within the early Islamic empire. The First Fitna began as a series of revolts fought against ʿAlī, caused by the assassination of his political predecessor, ʿUthmān. While the rebels had previously affirmed the legitimacy of ʿAlī's khilafāʾ (caliphate), they later turned against ʿAlī and fought him.[149] ʿAlī ruled from 656 CE to 661 CE,[149] when he was assassinated[150] while prostrating in prayer (sujud). ʿAlī's main rival, Muawiyah, then claimed the caliphate.[170]

The connection between the Indus Valley and Shīʿa Islam was established through the early Muslim conquests. According to Derryl N. Maclean, a link between the Sindh region and Shīʿas or proto-Shīʿas can be traced to Hakim ibn Jabalah al-Abdi, a companion of Muhammad, who traveled across the Sindh to Makran in the year 649 CE, and presented a report on the area to the caliph. He supported ʿAlī, and died in the Battle of the Camel alongside Sindhi Jats.[171] He was also a poet and few couplets of his poem in praise of ʿAlī have survived, as reported in Chachnama:[172]

"Oh Ali, owing to your alliance (with the prophet) you are truly of high birth, and your example is great, and you are wise and excellent, and your advent has made your age an age of generosity and kindness and brotherly love".[173]

During the caliphate of ʿAlī, many Jats came under the influence of Shīʿa Islam.[174] Harith ibn Murrah Al-abdi and Sayfi ibn Fil' al-Shaybani, both officers of ʿAlī's army, attacked Sindhi bandits and chased them to Al-Qiqan (present-day Quetta) in the year 658 CE.[175] Sayfi was one of the seven Shīʿa Muslims who were beheaded alongside Hujr ibn Adi al-Kindi[176] in 660 CE, near Damascus.

Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī

Main article: Hasan ibn Ali

Upon the death of ʿAlī, his elder son Ḥasan became leader of the Muslims of Kufa, and after a series of skirmishes between the Kufa Muslims and the army of Muawiyah, Ḥasan agreed to cede the caliphate to Muawiyah and maintain peace among Muslims upon certain conditions:[177][178]

  1. The enforced public cursing of ʿAlī, e.g. during prayers, should be abandoned
  2. Muawiyah should not use tax money for his own private needs
  3. There should be peace, and followers of Ḥasan should be given security and their rights
  4. Muawiyah will never adopt the title of Amir al-Mu'minin ("commander of the believers")
  5. Muawiyah will not nominate any successor

Ḥasan then retired to Medina, where in 670 CE he was poisoned by his wife Ja'da bint al-Ash'ath ibn Qays, after being secretly contacted by Muawiyah who wished to pass the caliphate to his own son Yazid and saw Ḥasan as an obstacle.[179]

Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī

Main article: Husayn ibn Ali
 
Battle of Karbala, painting by the Isfahan-based Persian artist Abbas Al-Mousavi, Brooklyn Museum (between 1868 and 1933).

Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī, ʿAlī's younger son and brother to Ḥasan, initially resisted calls to lead the Muslims against Muawiyah and reclaim the caliphate. In 680 CE, Muawiyah died and passed the caliphate to his son Yazid, and breaking the treaty with Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī. Yazid asked Husayn to swear allegiance (bay'ah) to him. ʿAlī's faction, having expected the caliphate to return to ʿAlī's line upon Muawiyah's death, saw this as a betrayal of the peace treaty and so Ḥusayn rejected this request for allegiance. There was a groundswell of support in Kufa for Ḥusayn to return there and take his position as caliph and Imam, so Ḥusayn collected his family and followers in Medina and set off for Kufa. En route to Kufa, he was blocked by an army of Yazid's men, which included people from Kufa, near Karbala (modern Iraq); Ḥusayn and approximately 72 of his family members and followers were killed in the Battle of Karbala.

 
 
Left: the Shrine of Imam Ḥusayn; Right: the Mosque of Imam Ḥusayn premises during Arba'een.

Shīʿa Muslims regard Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī as a martyr (shahid), and count him as an Imam from the Ahl al-Bayt. They view Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī as the defender of Islam from annihilation at the hands of Yazid I. Ḥusayn is the last Imam following ʿAlī mutually recognized by all branches of Shīʿa Islam.[180] The Battle of Karbala and martyrdom of Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī is often cited as the definitive separation between the Shīʿa and Sunnī sects of Islam, and is commemorated each year by Shīʿa Muslims on the Day of Ashura.

Imamate of the Ahl al-Bayt

Main article: Imamate in Shia doctrine
 
Zulfiqar with and without the shield. The Fatimid depiction of ʿAlī's sword is carved on the gates of Old Cairo, namely Bab al-Nasr (shown below). Two swords were captured from the temple of the pre-Islamic Arabian deity Manāt during the Raid of Sa'd ibn Zaid al-Ashhali. Muhammad gave them to ʿAlī, saying that one of them was "Zulfiqar", which became famously known as the sword of ʿAlī and a later symbol of Shīʿīsm.[181]
 
Depiction of ʿAlī's sword and shield carved on the Bab al-Nasr gate wall in Cairo, Egypt

Later, most denominations of Shīʿa Islam, including Twelvers and Ismāʿīlīs, became Imamis. Imami Shīʿītes believe that Imams are the spiritual and political successors to Muhammad.[182] Imams are human individuals who not only rule over the Muslim community with justice, but also are able to keep and interpret the divine law and its esoteric meaning. The words and deeds of Muhammad and the Imams are a guide and model for the community to follow; as a result, they must be free from error and sin, and must be chosen by divine decree (nass) through Muhammad.[100][101] According to this view peculiar to Shīʿa Islam, there is always an Imam of the Age, who is the divinely appointed authority on all matters of faith and law in the Muslim community. ʿAlī was the first Imam of this line, the rightful successor to Muhammad, followed by male descendants of Muhammad through his daughter Fatimah.[182][183]

This difference between following either the Ahl al-Bayt (Muhammad's family and descendants) or pledging allegiance to Abū Bakr has shaped the Shīʿa—Sunnī divide on the interpretation of some Quranic verses, ḥadīth literature (accounts of the sayings and living habits attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad during his lifetime), and other areas of Islamic belief throughout the history of Islam. For instance, the ḥadīth collections venerated by Shīʿa Muslims are centered on narrations by members of the Ahl al-Bayt and their supporters, while some ḥadīth transmitted by narrators not belonging to or supporting the Ahl al-Bayt are not included. Those of Abu Hurairah, for example, Ibn Asakir in his Taʿrikh Kabir, and Muttaqi in his Kanzuʿl-Umma report that ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb lashed him, rebuked him, and forbade him to narrate ḥadīth from Muhammad. ʿUmar is reported to have said: "Because you narrate hadith in large numbers from the Holy Prophet, you are fit only for attributing lies to him. (That is, one expects a wicked man like you to utter only lies about the Holy Prophet.) So you must stop narrating hadith from the Prophet; otherwise, I will send you to the land of Dus." (An Arab clan in Yemen, to which Abu Hurairah belonged). According to Sunnī Muslims, ʿAlī was the fourth successor to Abū Bakr, while Shīʿa Muslims maintain that ʿAlī was the first divinely sanctioned "Imam", or successor of Muhammad. The seminal event in Shīʿa history is the martyrdom at the Battle of Karbala of ʿAlī's son, Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī, and 71 of his followers in 680 CE, who led a non-allegiance movement against the defiant caliph.

 
Sanctuary of Imam Reza in Mashhad, Iran, is a complex which contains the mausoleum of Imam Reza, the 8th Imam of Twelver Shīʿas.

It is believed in Twelver and Ismāʿīlī branches of Shīʿa Islam that divine wisdom (ʿaql) was the source of the souls of the prophets and Imams, which bestowed upon them esoteric knowledge (ḥikmah), and that their sufferings were a means of divine grace to their devotees.[184][185] Although the Imam was not the recipient of a divine revelation (waḥy), he had a close relationship with God, through which God guides him, and the Imam, in turn, guides the people. Imamate, or belief in the divine guide, is a fundamental belief in the Twelver and Ismāʿīlī branches of Shīʿa Islam, and is based on the concept that God would not leave humanity without access to divine guidance.[102]

Imam Mahdi, last Imam of the Shīʿa

Main articles: Mahdi, Muhammad al-Mahdi, Occultation (Islam), and Reappearance of Hujjat Allah al-Mahdi
Further information: History of Shia Islam and Imamate in Shia doctrine
 
Ghazan and his brother Öljaitü both were tolerant of sectarian differences within the boundaries of Islam, in contrast to the traditions of Genghis Khan.

In Shīʿa Islam, Imam Mahdi is regarded as the prophesied eschatological redeemer of Islam who will rule for seven, nine, or nineteen years (according to differing interpretations) before the Day of Judgment and will rid the world of evil. According to Islamic tradition, the Mahdi's tenure will coincide with the Second Coming of Jesus (ʿĪsā), who is to assist the Mahdi against the Masih ad-Dajjal (literally, the "false Messiah" or Antichrist). Jesus, who is considered the Masih ("Messiah") in Islam, will descend at the point of a white arcade east of Damascus, dressed in yellow robes with his head anointed. He will then join the Mahdi in his war against the Dajjal, where it is believed the Mahdi will slay the Dajjal and unite humankind.

Historians dispute over the origins of Shīʿa Islam, with many Western scholars positing that Shīʿīsm began as a political faction rather than a truly religious movement.[186][187] Other scholars disagree, considering this concept of religious-political separation to be an anachronistic application of a Western concept.[188]

Dynasties

Main article: List of Shia dynasties

In the century following the Battle of Karbala (680 CE), as various Shia-affiliated groups diffused in the emerging Islamic world, several nations arose based on a Shia leadership or population.

  • Idrisids (788–985 CE): a Zaydi dynasty in what is now Morocco
  • Qarmatians (899–1077 CE): an Ismaili Iranian dynasty. Their headquarters were in East Arabia and Bahrain. It was founded by Abu Sa'id al-Jannabi.
  • Buyids (934–1055 CE): a Twelver Iranian dynasty. at its peak consisted of large portions of modern Iraq and Iran.
  • Uqaylids (990–1096 CE): a Shia Arab dynasty with several lines that ruled in various parts of Al-Jazira, northern Syria and Iraq.
  • Ilkhanate (1256–1335): a Persianate Mongol khanate established in Persia in the 13th century, considered a part of the Mongol Empire. The Ilkhanate was based, originally, on Genghis Khan's campaigns in the Khwarezmid Empire in 1219–1224, and founded by Genghis's grandson, Hulagu, in territories which today comprise most of Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Turkey, and Pakistan. The Ilkhanate initially embraced many religions, but was particularly sympathetic to Buddhism and Christianity. Later Ilkhanate rulers, beginning with Ghazan in 1295, embraced Islam his brother Öljaitü promoted Shia Islam.[189]
  • Bahmanids (1347–1527): a Shia Muslim state of the Deccan in southern India and one of the great medieval Indian kingdoms.[190] Bahmanid Sultanate was the first independent Islamic Kingdom in South India.[191]
 
The Fatimid Caliphate at its peak

Fatimid Caliphate

 
Al Hakim Mosque, Islamic Cairo.

Safavid Empire

Main articles: Safavid dynasty and Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam
 
One of the first actions performed by Shāh Ismā'īl I of the Safavid dynasty was the proclamation of the Twelver denomination of Shīʿa Islam as the official religion of his newly founded Persian Empire, causing sectarian tensions in the Middle East when he destroyed the tombs of the Abbasid caliphs, the Sunnī Imam Abū Ḥanīfa al-Nuʿmān, and the Ṣūfī Muslim ascetic ʿAbdul Qādir Gīlānī in 1508.[196] In 1533 the Ottoman Turks, upon their conquest of Iraq, rebuilt various important Sunnī shrines.[196][197]

A major turning point in the history of Shīʿa Islam was the dominion of the Safavid dynasty (1501–1736) in Persia. This caused a number of changes in the Muslim world:

  • The ending of the relative mutual tolerance between Sunnīs and Shīʿas that existed from the time of the Mongol conquests onwards and the resurgence of antagonism between the two groups.
  • Initial dependence of Shīʿīte clerics on the state followed by the emergence of an independent body of ulama capable of taking a political stand different from official policies.[198]
  • The growth in importance of Persian centers of Islamic education and religious learning, which resulted in the change of Twelver Shīʿīsm from being a predominantly Arab phenomenon to become predominantly Persian.[199]
  • The growth of the Akhbari school of thought, which taught that only the Quran, ḥadīth literature, and sunnah (accounts of the sayings and living habits attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad during his lifetime) are to be bases for verdicts, rejecting the use of reasoning.

With the fall of the Safavids, the state in Persia—including the state system of courts with government-appointed judges (qāḍī)—became much weaker. This gave the sharīʿa courts of mujtahid an opportunity to fill the legal vacuum and enabled the ulama to assert their judicial authority. The Usuli school of thought also increased in strength at this time.[200]

Persecution of Shīʿa Muslims

Main articles: Anti-Shiism and Shia–Sunni relations
Further information: Sectarian violence among Muslims and Shia genocide

The history of Shīʿa—Sunnī relations has often involved religious discrimination, persecution, and violence, dating back to the earliest development of the two competing sects. At various times throughout the history of Islam, Shīʿa groups and minorities have faced persecution perpetrated by Sunnī Muslims.[201][202][203][204]

Militarily established and holding control over the Umayyad government, many Sunnī rulers perceived the Shīʿas as a threat—both to their political and religious authority.[205] The Sunnī rulers under the Umayyad dynasty sought to marginalize the Shīʿa minority, and later the Abbasids turned on their Shīʿa allies and imprisoned, persecuted, and killed them. The persecution of Shīʿa Muslims throughout history by their Sunnī co-religionists has often been characterized by brutal and genocidal acts. Comprising only about 10–15% of the global Muslim population,[13] Shīʿa Muslims remain a marginalized community to this day in many Sunnī-dominant Arab countries, without the rights to practice their religion and freely organize.[206]

In 1514, the Ottoman sultan Selim I (1512–1520) ordered the massacre of 40,000 Alevis and Bektashi (Anatolian Shīʿa Muslims).[207] According to Jalal Al-e-Ahmad, "Sultan Selim I carried things so far that he announced that the killing of one Shīʿa had as much otherworldly reward as killing 70 Christians."[208] In 1802, the Al Saud-Wahhabi armies of the Ikhwan from the First Saudi State (1727–1818) attacked and sacked the city of Karbala, the Shīʿa shrine in Najaf (eastern region of Iraq) that commemorates the martyrdom and death of Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī.[209]

Under Saddam Hussein's Ba'athist regime in Iraq (1968–2003), Shīʿa Muslims were heavily persecuted, arrested, tortured, and killed.[210] In March 2011, the Malaysian government declared Shīʿa Islam a "deviant" sect and banned Shīʿa Muslims from promoting their faith to other Muslims, but left them free to practice it themselves privately.[211][212]

The most recent and grave attempt by Sunnī Muslims to entirely eradicate the Shīʿa community through violent means was the large-scale genocide of Shīʿa Muslims organized and perpetrated by ISIL/ISIS/IS/Daesh in Syria and Iraq between 2014 and 2018,[143][213][144][214] which occurred alongside the genocides of many other religious minorities in the same region of the Middle East perpetrated by the aforementioned Sunnī Islamist militant group and Salafi-jihadist terrorist organization.[143][144][145][146]

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ A 2019 Council on Foreign Relations article states: "Nobody really knows the size of the Shia population in Nigeria. Credible estimates that its numbers range between 2 and 3 percent of Nigeria's population, which would amount to roughly four million."[86] A 2019 BBC News article said that "Estimates of [Nigerian Shia] numbers vary wildly, ranging from less than 5% to 17% of Nigeria's Muslim population of about 100 million."[87]

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Sources

Further reading

 
Wikisource has the text of the 1905 New International Encyclopedia article "Shiites".
 
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Shi'ites".
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Shia Islam.
  • Dabashi, Hamid (2011). Shiʻism: A Religion of Protest. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-06428-7.
  • Halm, Heinz (2004). Shiʻism. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-1888-0.
  • Halm, Heinz (2007). The Shiʻites: A Short History. Markus Wiener Pub. ISBN 978-1-55876-437-8.
  • Lalani, Arzina R. (2000). Early Shiʻi Thought: The Teachings of Imam Muhammad Al-Baqir. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1-86064-434-4.
  • Marcinkowski, Christoph (2010). Shiʻite Identities: Community and Culture in Changing Social Contexts. Lit Verlag. ISBN 978-3-643-80049-7.
  • Momen, Moojan (1985). An Introduction to Shiʻi Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shiʻism. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-03499-8.
  • Shirazi, Sultanu'l-Wa'izin (2013). Peshawar Nights, A Transcript of a Dialogue between Shia and Sunni scholars. Ansariyan Publications. ISBN 978-964-438-320-5.
  • Nasr, Seyyed Hossein; Hamid Dabashi (1989). Expectation of the Millennium: Shiʻism in History. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-88706-843-0.
  • Rogerson, Barnaby (2007). The Heirs of Muhammad: Islam's First Century and the Origins of the Sunni Shia split. Overlook Press. ISBN 978-1-58567-896-9.
  • Wollaston, Arthur N. (2005). The Sunnis and Shias. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4254-7916-9.
  • Moosa, Matti (1988). Extremist Shiites: The Ghulat Sects. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-2411-0.
  • Shi'a Minorities in the Contemporary World: Migration, Transnationalism and Multilocality. United Kingdom, Edinburgh University Press, 2020.
  • Khalaji, Mehdi (27 November 2009). "The Dilemmas of Pan-Islamic Unity". Current Trends in Islamist Ideology. 9: 64–79.
  • Bohdan, Siarhei (Summer 2020). ""They Were Going Together with the Ikhwan": The Influence of Muslim Brotherhood Thinkers on Shi'i Islamists during the Cold War". The Middle East Journal. 74 (2): 243–262. doi:10.3751/74.2.14. ISSN 1940-3461. S2CID 225510058.

External links

  • "Shi'a History and Identity". shiism.wcfia.harvard.edu. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Project on Shi'ism and Global Affairs at the Weatherhead Center for International Affairs (Harvard University). 2022. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  • Daftary, Farhad; Nanji, Azim (2018) [2006]. "What is Shi'a Islam?". www.iis.ac.uk. London: Institute of Ismaili Studies at the Aga Khan Centre. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  • Muharrami, Ghulam-Husayn (2003). "History of Shi'ism: From the Advent of Islam up to the End of Minor Occultation". Al-Islam.org. Translated by Limba, Mansoor L. Ahlul Bayt Digital Islamic Library Project. Retrieved 4 March 2022.

January 19, 2023
shia, islam, shia, shias, redirect, here, other, uses, shia, disambiguation, shīʿa, islam, shīʿīsm, second, largest, branch, islam, holds, that, islamic, prophet, muhammad, designated, ʿalī, abī, Ṭālib, successor, khalīfa, imam, spiritual, political, leader, a. Shia and Shias redirect here For other uses see Shia disambiguation Shiʿa Islam or Shiʿism is the second largest branch of Islam It holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated ʿAli ibn Abi Ṭalib as his successor khalifa and the Imam spiritual and political leader after him 1 2 most notably at the event of Ghadir Khumm 1 but was prevented from succeeding Muhammad as the leader of the Muslims as a result of the choice made by some of Muhammad s other companions ṣaḥaba at Saqifah This view primarily contrasts with that of Sunni Islam whose adherents believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor before his death and consider Abu Bakr who was appointed caliph by a group of senior Muslims at Saqifah to be the first rightful rashidun caliph after Muhammad 3 Adherents of Shiʿa Islam are called Shiʿa Muslims Shiʿites or simply Shiʿa or Shia 4 Shiʿa Islam is based on a ḥadith report concerning Muhammad s pronouncement at Ghadir Khumm 1 5 6 Shiʿa Muslims believe that ʿAli ibn Abi Ṭalib Muhammad s cousin and son in law should have been the designated successor to Muhammad as Islam s spiritual and political leader 1 7 This belief later developed into the concept of Imamah the idea that certain descendants of Muhammad the Ahl al Bayt are rightful rulers or Imams 8 whom Shiʿa Muslims believe possess special spiritual and political authority over the Muslim community 1 9 Although there are many Shiʿa subsects modern Shiʿa Islam has been divided into two main groupings Twelvers and Ismaʿilis with Twelver Shiʿas being the largest and most influential group among Shiʿa Muslims 10 11 12 Shiʿa Islam is the second largest branch of Islam followed by 10 15 of all Muslims 13 Twelver Shiʿism is the largest branch of Shiʿa Islam 14 comprising about 85 of all Shiʿa Muslims 15 Contents 1 Terminology 2 Beliefs and practices 2 1 Theology 2 1 1 Profession of faith Shahada 2 1 2 Infallibility Ismah 2 1 3 Occultation Ghaybah 2 1 4 Ḥadith tradition 2 1 5 Holy Relics Tabarruk 2 2 Other doctrines 2 2 1 Doctrine about necessity of acquiring knowledge 2 2 2 Doctrine concerning prayer 2 3 Practices 2 3 1 Holidays 2 3 2 Holy sites 3 Demographics 3 1 Significant populations worldwide 4 Major denominations or branches 4 1 Twelver 4 1 1 Doctrine 4 1 2 Books 4 1 3 The Twelve Imams 4 1 4 Jurisprudence 4 1 5 Islamists 4 2 Ismaʿili Sevener 4 2 1 Ismaʿili Imams 4 2 2 Pillars 4 2 3 Contemporary leadership 4 3 Zaydi Fiver 4 3 1 Doctrine 4 3 2 Jurisprudence 4 3 3 Timeline 5 History 5 1 Succession of ʿAli 5 1 1 The Party of ʿAli 5 1 2 The event of Dhul Asheera 5 1 3 Event of Ghadir Khumm 5 2 Caliphate of ʿAli 5 3 Ḥasan ibn ʿAli 5 4 Ḥusayn ibn ʿAli 5 5 Imamate of the Ahl al Bayt 5 6 Imam Mahdi last Imam of the Shiʿa 5 7 Dynasties 5 7 1 Fatimid Caliphate 5 7 2 Safavid Empire 6 Persecution of Shiʿa Muslims 7 See also 8 References 8 1 Notes 8 2 Citations 8 3 Sources 9 Further reading 10 External linksTerminologyCollectively adherents of Shiʿa Islam are called the Shiʿah Arabic ش يع ة ˈ ʃ iː e which is short for Shiʿatu ʿAli Arabic ش يع ة ع ل ي ˈʃiːʕatu ˈʕaliː meaning followers of Ali faction of Ali or partisans of Ali 16 17 Shiʿi ش يع ي denotes both the singular noun and the adjective form while Shiyaʿ ش ي اع refers to the plural noun 18 Shiʿa or Shia and Shiʿism Shiʿite or Shiism Shiite are the forms used in English and other European languages for adherents mosques traditions and things associated with the Shiʿa branch of Islam 19 20 The term was first used during Muhammad s lifetime 21 At present the word refers to the Muslims who believe that the leadership of the Muslim community after Muhammad belongs to ʿAli ibn Abi Ṭalib Muhammad s cousin and son in law and his successors 1 Nawbakhti states that the term Shiʿa refers to a group of Muslims who at the time of Muhammad and after him regarded ʿAli as the Imam and caliph 1 22 Al Shahrastani expresses that the term Shiʿa refers to those who believe that ʿAli is designated as the heir Imam and caliph by Muhammad 1 23 and that ʿAli s authority is maintained through his descendants 1 24 For the adherents of Shiʿa Islam this conviction is implicit in the Quran and the history of Islam Shiʿa Muslim scholars emphasize that the notion of authority is linked to the family of the Abrahamic prophets as the Quranic verses 3 33 and 3 34 show Indeed God chose Adam and Noah and the family of Abraham and the family of Imran over the worlds 33 Descendants some of them from others And God is Hearing and Knowing 34 25 Beliefs and practicesThis section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed October 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message Theology This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia s quality standards The specific problem is cluttered inconsistent and confusing Please help improve this section if you can October 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message Main article Shia Islamic beliefs and practices Shiʿa Islam is the second largest branch of Islam followed by 10 15 of all Muslims 13 considered to be vast and inclusive of many different denominations and subgroups 16 Shiʿa Islam embodies a completely independent system of religious interpretation and political authority in the Muslim world 26 27 The original Shiʿa identity referred to the followers of Imam ʿAli 28 and Shiʿa theology was formulated after the hijra 8th century CE 29 The first Shiʿa governments and societies were established by the end of the 9th century CE The 10th century CE has been referred to by the scholar of Islamic studies Louis Massignon as the Shiite Ismaili century in the history of Islam 30 Profession of faith Shahada Kalema at Qibla of the Mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo Egypt displaying the phrase Ali un Waliullah علي ولي الله ʿAli is the Wali custodian of God The Shiʿa version of the Shahada the Islamic profession of faith differs from that of the Sunnis 31 The Sunni version of the Shahada states There is no god except God Muhammad is the messenger of God but to this declaration of faith Shiʿa Muslims append the phrase Ali un Waliullah علي ولي الله ʿAli is the Wali custodian of God The basis for the Shiʿa belief in ʿAli ibn Abi Ṭalib as the Wali of God is derived from the Quranic verse 5 55 the Verse of Wilayah citation needed This additional phrase to the declaration of faith embodies the Shiʿa emphasis on the inheritance of authority through Muhammad s family and lineage The three clauses of the Shiʿa version of the Shahada thus address the fundamental Islamic beliefs of Tawḥid unity and oneness of God Nubuwwah the prophethood of Muhammad and Imamah the Imamate leadership of the faith 32 Infallibility Ismah Main article Ismah ʿAli ibn Abi Ṭalib cousin and son in law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad is credited as the first male convert to Islam Ismah is the concept of infallibility or divinely bestowed freedom from error and sin in Islam 33 Muslims believe that Muhammad along with other prophets and messengers in Islam possessed ismah Twelver and Ismaʿili Shiʿa Muslims also attribute the quality to Imams as well as to Faṭimah daughter of Muhammad in contrast to the Zaydi Shiʿas who don t attribute ismah to the Imams 34 Though initially beginning as a political movement infallibility and sinlessness of the Imams later evolved as a distinct belief of non Zaydi Shiʿism 35 According to Shiʿa Muslim theologians infallibility is considered a rational necessary precondition for spiritual and religious guidance They argue that since God has commanded absolute obedience from these figures they must only order that which is right The state of infallibility is based on the Shiʿa interpretation of the Verse of Purification 36 37 Thus they are the most pure ones the only immaculate ones preserved from and immune to all uncleanness 38 It doesn t mean that supernatural powers prevent them from committing a sin but due to the fact that they have absolute belief in God they refrain from doing anything that is a sin 33 They also have a complete knowledge of God s will They are in possession of all knowledge brought by the angels to the prophets nabi and the messengers rasul Their knowledge encompasses the totality of all times Thus they are believed to act without fault in religious matters 39 Shiʿa Muslims regard ʿAli ibn Abi Ṭalib as the successor of Muhammad not only ruling over the entire Muslim community in justice but also interpreting the Islamic faith practices and its esoteric meaning Hence he was regarded as being free from error and sin infallible and appointed by God by divine decree nass to be the first Imam citation needed ʿAli is regarded as a perfect man al insan al kamil similar to Muhammad according to the Shiʿa viewpoint 40 Occultation Ghaybah Main articles Occultation Islam and Reappearance of Hujjat Allah al Mahdi Further information Major Occultation Minor Occultation and The Fourteen Infallibles Jamkaran Mosque in Qom Iran is a popular pilgrimage site for Shiʿa Muslims Local belief holds that the 12th Shiʿite Imam the promised Mahdi according to Twelvers once appeared and offered prayers at Jamkaran The Occultation is an eschatological belief held in various denominations of Shiʿa Islam concerning a messianic figure the hidden and last Imam known as the Mahdi that one day shall return on Earth and fill the world with justice According to the doctrine of Twelver Shiʿism the main goal of Imam Mahdi will be to establish an Islamic state and to apply Islamic laws that were revealed to Muhammad The Quran doesn t contain verses on the Imamate which is the basic doctrine of Shiʿa Islam 41 Some Shiʿa subsects such as the Zaydi Shiʿas and Nizari Ismaʿilis don t believe in the idea of the Occultation The groups which do believe in it differ as to which lineage of the Imamate is valid and therefore which individual has gone into Occultation They believe there are many signs that will indicate the time of his return Twelver Shiʿa Muslims believe that the prophesied Mahdi and twelfth Imam Hujjat Allah al Mahdi is already on Earth in Occultation and will return at the end of time Ṭayyibi Ismaʿilis and Fatimid Bohra Dawoodi Bohra believe the same but for their 21st Ṭayyib At Tayyib Abi l Qasim and also believe that a Da i al Mutlaq Unrestricted Missionary maintains contact with him Sunni Muslims believe that the future Mahdi has not yet arrived on Earth 42 Ḥadith tradition Shiʿa Muslims believe that the status of ʿAli is supported by numerous ḥadith including the Hadith of the pond of Khumm Hadith of the two weighty things Hadith of the pen and paper Hadith of the invitation of the close families and Hadith of the Twelve Successors In particular the Hadith of the Cloak is often quoted to illustrate Muhammad s feeling towards ʿAli and his family by both Sunni and Shiʿa scholars Shiʿa Muslims prefer to study and read the ḥadith attributed to the Ahl al Bayt and close associates and most have their own separate ḥadith canon 43 44 Holy Relics Tabarruk It is believed that the armaments and sacred items of all of the prophets including Muhammad were handed down in succession to the Imams of the Ahl al Bayt Jaʿfar al Ṣadiq the 6th Shiʿite Imam in Kitab al Kafi mentions that with me are the arms of the Messenger of Allah It is not disputable 45 Further he claims that with him is the sword of the Messenger of God his coat of arms his Lamam pennon and his helmet In addition he mentions that with him is the flag of the Messenger of God the victorious With him is the Staff of Moses the ring of Solomon son of David and the tray on which Moses used to offer his offerings With him is the name that whenever the Messenger of God would place it between the Muslims and pagans no arrow from the pagans would reach the Muslims With him is the similar object that angels brought 45 Al Ṣadiq also narrated that the passing down of armaments is synonymous to receiving the Imamat leadership similar to how the Ark of Covenant in the house of the Israelites signaled prophethood 45 Imam Ali al Ridha narrates that wherever the armaments among us would go knowledge would also follow and the armaments would never depart from those with knowledge Imamat 45 Other doctrines Doctrine about necessity of acquiring knowledge According to Muhammad Rida al Muzaffar God gives humans the faculty of reason and argument Also God orders humans to spend time thinking carefully on creation while he refers to all creations as his signs of power and glory These signs encompass all of the universe Furthermore there is a similarity between humans as the little world and the universe as the large world God does not accept the faith of those who follow him without thinking and only with imitation but also God blames them for such actions In other words humans have to think about the universe with reason and intellect a faculty bestowed on us by God Since there is more insistence on the faculty of intellect among Shiʿa Muslims even evaluating the claims of someone who claims prophecy is on the basis of intellect 46 47 Doctrine concerning prayer This section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed October 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message Main article Salah Praying in Shiʿa Islam has an important place as Muhammad described it as a weapon of the believer In fact Duʼa considered as something that is a feature of Shia community in a sense Performing Duʼa in Shiʿa Islam has a special ritual Because of this there are many books written on the instructions and conditions of praying among Shiʿa Muslims Shiʿite clergymen always invited their followers to recite Duʼa For instance ʿAli has been considered with the subject of Duʼa because of his leadership in monotheism Practices This section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed October 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message Shiʿa Muslims gathered in prayer at the Shrine of Imam Ḥusayn in Karbala Iraq Shiʿa religious practices such as prayers differ only slightly from the Sunnis While all Muslims pray five times daily Shiʿa Muslims have the option of combining Dhuhr with Asr and Maghrib with Isha as there are three distinct times mentioned in the Quran The Sunnis tend to combine only under certain circumstances Holidays Main article Shia days of remembrance Shiʿa Muslims celebrate the following annual holidays Eid ul Fitr which marks the end of fasting during the month of Ramadan Eid al Adha which marks the end of the Hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca Eid al Ghadeer which is the anniversary of the Ghadir Khum the occasion when Muhammad announced Ali s Imamate before a multitude of Muslims 48 Eid al Ghadeer is held on the 18th of Dhu al Hijjah The Mourning of Muharram and the Day of Ashura for Shiʿa Muslims commemorate the martyrdom of Ḥusayn ibn ʿAli brother of Ḥasan and grandson of Muhammad who was killed by Yazid ibn Muawiyah in Karbala central Iraq Ashura is a day of deep mourning which occurs on the 10th of Muharram Arba een commemorates the suffering of the women and children of Ḥusayn ibn ʿAli s household After Ḥusayn was killed they were marched over the desert from Karbala central Iraq to Shaam Damascus Syria Many children some of whom were direct descendants of Muhammad died of thirst and exposure along the route Arbaein occurs on the 20th of Safar 40 days after Ashura Mawlid Muhammad s birth date Unlike Sunni Muslims who celebrate the 12th of Rabi al awwal as Muhammad s day of birth or death because they assert that his birth and death both occur in this week Shiʿa Muslims celebrate Muhammad s birthday on the 17th of the month which coincides with the birth date of Jaʿfar al Ṣadiq the 6th Shiʿite Imam 49 Faṭimah s birthday on 20th of Jumada al Thani This day is also considered as the women and mothers day 50 ʿAli s birthday on 13th of Rajab Mid Sha ban is the birth date of the 12th and final Twelver imam Muhammad al Mahdi It is celebrated by Shia Muslims on the 15th of Sha aban Laylat al Qadr anniversary of the night of the revelation of the Quran Eid al Mubahila celebrates a meeting between the Ahl al Bayt household of Muhammad and a Christian deputation from Najran Al Mubahila is held on the 24th of Dhu al Hijjah Holy sites Main article Holiest sites in Shia Islam After the four holy cities of Islam Mecca Medina Jerusalem and Damascus the cities of Najaf Karbala and Qom are the most revered by Shiʿa Muslims 51 52 The Sanctuary of Imam ʿAli in Najaf the Shrine of Imam Ḥusayn in Karbala and the Shrine of Faṭimah al Maʿṣumah in Qom are very essential for Shiʿa Muslims Other venerated pilgrimage sites include the Imam Reza shrine in Mashhad the Kadhimiya Mosque in Kadhimiya Al Askari Mosque in Samarra the Sahla Mosque the Great Mosque of Kufa the Jamkaran Mosque in Qom and the Tomb of Daniel in Susa Most of the Shiʿa sacred places and heritage sites in Saudi Arabia have been destroyed by the Al Saud Wahhabi armies of the Ikhwan the most notable being the tombs of the Imams located in the Al Baqi cemetery in 1925 53 In 2006 a bomb destroyed the shrine of Al Askari Mosque 54 See Anti Shi ism DemographicsMain article Islam by country Islam by country Sunni Shiʿa Ibadi Map of the Muslim world s schools of jurisprudence 55 It is estimated that either 10 20 56 or 10 13 57 58 59 of the global Muslim population are Shiʿas They may number up to 200 million as of 2009 58 As of 1985 Shiʿa Muslims are estimated to be 21 of the Muslim population in South Asia although the total number is difficult to estimate 60 Shiʿa Muslims form a majority of the population in various regions of the Muslim world including Azerbaijan Bahrain Iran and Iraq 61 62 as well as a plurality in Lebanon Shiʿa Muslims constitute 36 3 of the entire population and 38 6 of the Muslim population of the Middle East 63 Estimates have placed the proportion of Shiʿa Muslims in Lebanon between 27 and 45 of the population 61 64 30 35 of the citizen population in Kuwait no figures exist for the non citizen population 65 66 over 20 in Turkey 58 67 5 20 of the population in Pakistan 68 58 and 10 19 of Afghanistan s population 69 70 Saudi Arabia hosts a number of distinct Shiʿa communities including the Twelver Baharna in the Eastern Province and Nakhawila of Medina and the Ismaʿili Sulaymani and Zaydi Shiʿas of Najran Estimations put the number of Shiʿite citizens at 2 4 million citation needed accounting for roughly 15 of the local population 71 Approximately 40 of the population of Yemen are Shiʿa Muslims 72 73 Significant Shiʿa communities also exist in the coastal regions of West Sumatra and Aceh in Indonesia see Tabuik 74 The Shiʿa presence is negligible elsewhere in Southeast Asia where Muslims are predominantly Shafiʿi Sunnis A significant Shiʿa minority is present in Nigeria made up of modern era converts to a Shiʿite movement centered around Kano and Sokoto states 58 59 75 Several African countries like Kenya 76 South Africa 77 Somalia 78 etc hold small minority populations of various Shiʿa subsects primarily descendants of immigrants from South Asia during the colonial period such as the Khoja 79 Significant populations worldwide Figures indicated in the first three columns below are based on the October 2009 demographic study by the Pew Research Center report Mapping the Global Muslim Population 58 59 Nations with over 100 000 Shia 58 59 Country Article Shia population in 2009 Pew 58 59 Percent of Muslim population that is Shia in 2009 Pew 58 59 Percent of global Shia population in 2009 Pew 58 59 Population estimate ranges and notes Iran Islam in Iran 66 000 000 69 500 000 90 95 37 40 Pakistan Shia Islam in the Indian subcontinent 25 272 000 15 15 A 2010 estimate was that Shia made up about 10 15 of Pakistan s population 80 Iraq Shi a Islam in Iraq 19 000 000 24 000 000 55 65 10 11 India Shia Islam in the Indian subcontinent 12 300 000 18 500 000 10 15 9 14 Yemen Shia Islam in Yemen 7 000 000 8 000 000 35 40 5 Majority following Zaydi Shia sect Turkey Shi a Islam in Turkey 6 000 000 9 000 000 10 15 3 4 Majority following Alevi Shia sect Azerbaijan Islam in Azerbaijan 4 575 000 5 590 000 45 55 2 3 Azerbaijan is majority Shia 81 82 83 A 2012 work noted that in Azerbaijan among believers of all faiths 10 identified as Sunni 30 identified as Shia and the remainder of followers of Islam simply identified as Muslim 83 Afghanistan Shi a Islam in Afghanistan 3 000 000 15 2 A reliable census has not been taken in Afghanistan in decades but about 20 of Afghan population is Shia mostly among ethnic Tajik and Hazara minorities 84 Syria Islam in Syria 2 400 000 13 2 Majority following Alawites Shia sect Lebanon Shi a Islam in Lebanon 2 100 000 31 2 lt 1 In 2020 the CIA World Factbook stated that Shia Muslims constitute 31 2 of Lebanon s population 85 Saudi Arabia Shi a Islam in Saudi Arabia 2 000 000 6 Nigeria Shi a Islam in Nigeria lt 2 000 000 lt 1 lt 1 Estimates range from as low as 2 of Nigeria s Muslim population to as high as 17 of Nigeria s Muslim population a Some but not all Nigerian Shia are affiliated with the banned Islamic Movement in Nigeria an Iranian inspired Shia organization led by Ibrahim Zakzaky 86 Tanzania Islam in Tanzania 1 500 000 2 5 lt 1 Kuwait Shi a Islam in Kuwait 500 000 700 000 20 25 lt 1 Among Kuwait s estimated 1 4 million citizens about 30 are Shia including Ismaili and Ahmadi whom the Kuwaiti government count as Shia Among Kuwait s large expatriate community of 3 3 million noncitizens about 64 are Muslim and among expatriate Muslims about 5 are Shia 88 Bahrain Islam in Bahrain 400 000 500 000 65 70 lt 1 Tajikistan Shi a Islam in Tajikistan 400 000 4 lt 1 Shi a Muslims in Tajikistan are predominantly Nizari Ismaili Germany Islam in Germany 400 000 0 5 lt 1 United Arab Emirates Islam in the United Arab Emirates 300 000 3 lt 1 United States Islam in the United StatesShia Islam in the Americas 225 000 0 07 lt 1 Shi a form a majority amongst Arab Muslims in many American cities e g Lebanese Shi a forming the majority in Detroit 89 United Kingdom Islam in the United Kingdom 125 000 0 2 lt 1 Qatar Islam in Qatar 100 000 3 5 lt 1 Oman Islam in Oman 100 000 2 lt 1 As of 2015 about 5 of Omanis are Shia compared to about 50 Ibadi and 45 Sunni 90 Major denominations or branchesMain article Islamic schools and branches Shiʿa Islam Further information List of extinct Shia sects and Schools of Islamic theology Shiʿa schools of theology The Shiʿa community throughout its history split over the issue of the Imamate The largest branch are the Twelvers followed by the Zaydis and the Ismaʿilis Each subsect of Shiʿism follows its own line of Imamate All mainstream Twelver and Ismaʿili Shiʿa Muslims follow the same school of thought the Jaʽfari jurisprudence named after Jaʿfar al Ṣadiq the 6th Shiʿite Imam Shiʿite clergymen and jurists usually carry the title of mujtahid i e someone authorized to issue legal opinions in Shiʿa Islam Twelver Main article Twelver Twelver Shiʿism or Ithnaʿashariyyah is the largest branch of Shiʿa Islam and the terms Shiʿa Muslim and Shiʿa often refer to the Twelvers by default The designation Twelver is derived from the doctrine of believing in twelve divinely ordained leaders known as the Twelve Imams Twelver Shiʿas are otherwise known as Imami or Jaʿfari the latter term derives from Jaʿfar al Ṣadiq the 6th Shiʿite Imam who elaborated the Twelver jurisprudence 91 Twelver Shiʿas constitute the majority of the population in Iran 90 92 Azerbaijan 85 16 93 Bahrain 70 Iraq 65 and Lebanon 65 of Muslims 94 95 Doctrine Names of the 12 Imams descendants of Imam ʿAli written in the calligraphic form of the name ʿAli in Arabic علي Twelver doctrine is based on five principles 96 These five principles known as Usul ad Din are as follow 97 Monotheism God is one and unique Justice the concept of moral rightness based on ethics fairness and equity along with the punishment of the breach of these ethics Prophethood the institution by which God sends emissaries or prophets to guide humankind Leadership a divine institution which succeeded the institution of Prophethood Its appointees Imams are divinely appointed Resurrection and Last Judgment God s final assessment of humanity More specifically these principles are known as Usul al Madhhab principles of the Shiʿa branch of Islam according to Twelver Shiʿas which differ from Daruriyat al Din Necessities of Religion which are principles in order for one to be a Muslim Daruriyat al Din don t include leadership Imamah as it is not a requirement in order for one to be recognized as a Muslim However this category according to Twelver scholars like Ayatollah Abu al Qasim al Khoei does include belief in God prophethood the Day of Resurrection and other necessities such as the belief in angels In this regard Twelver Shiʿas draw a distinction in terms of believing in the main principles of Islam on the one hand and specifically Shiʿite doctrines like the Imamate on the other citation needed Books Besides the Quran which is the sacred text common to all Muslims Twelver Shiʿas derive scriptural and authoritative guidance from collections of sayings and traditions ḥadith attributed to Muhammad and the Twelve Imams Below is a list of some of the most prominent of these books Nahj al Balagha by Ash Sharif Ar Radhi 98 the most famous collection of sermons letters amp narration attributed to Ali the first Imam regarded by Shias Kitab al Kafi by Muhammad ibn Ya qub al Kulayni 99 Wasa il al Shiʻah by al Hurr al AmiliThe Twelve Imams Main articles Imamate in Twelver doctrine Sunni reports about there being 12 successors to the Prophet and Hadith of the Twelve Successors Further information Occultation Islam Reappearance of Hujjat Allah al Mahdi and The Fourteen Infallibles Calligraphic representation of the 12 Imams along with the name of the Islamic prophet Muhammad The Twelve Imams are the spiritual and political successors to Muhammad for the Twelvers citation needed According to the theology of Twelvers the successor of Muhammad is an infallible human individual who not only rules over the Muslim community with justice but also is able to keep and interpret the divine law shariʿa and its esoteric meaning The words and deeds of Muhammad and the Twelve Imams are a guide and model for the Muslim community to follow as a result they must be free from error and sin and Imams must be chosen by divine decree nass through Muhammad 100 101 In Twelver Shiʿism each Imam was the son of the previous Imam with the exception of Ḥusayn ibn ʿAli who was the brother of Ḥasan ibn ʿAli citation needed The twelfth and final Imam is Hujjat Allah al Mahdi who is believed by Twelvers to be currently alive and hidden in Occultation 102 Jurisprudence Main article Ja fari jurisprudence Further information Shia clergy The Twelver jurisprudence is called Jaʽfari jurisprudence In this school of Islamic jurisprudence the sunnah is considered to be comprehensive of the oral traditions of Muhammad and their implementation and interpretation by the Twelve Imams There are three schools of Jaʿfari jurisprudence Usuli Akhbari and Shaykhi the Usuli school is by far the largest of the three Twelver groups that don t follow the Jaʿfari jurisprudence include Alevis Bektashi and Qizilbash The five pillars of Islam to the Jaʿfari jurisprudence are known as Usul ad Din Tawḥid unity and oneness of God Nubuwwah prophethood of Muhammad Muʿad resurrection and final judgment ʿAdl justice of God Imamah the rightful place of the Shiʿite Imams In Jaʿfari jurisprudence there are eight secondary pillars known as Furu ad Din which are as follows 97 Salat prayer Sawm fasting Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca Zakat alms giving to the poor Jihad struggle for the righteous cause Directing others towards good Directing others away from evil Khums 20 tax on savings yearly after deduction of commercial expenses According to Twelvers defining and interpretation of Islamic jurisprudence fiqh is the responsibility of Muhammad and the Twelve Imams Since the 12th Imam is currently in Occultation it is the duty of Shiʿite clerics to refer to the Islamic literature such as the Quran and ḥadith and identify legal decisions within the confines of Islamic law to provide means to deal with current issues from an Islamic perspective In other words clergymen in Twelver Shiʿism are believed to be the guardians of fiqh which is believed to have been defined by Muhammad and his twelve successors This process is known as ijtihad and the clerics are known as marjaʿ meaning reference the labels Allamah and Ayatollah are in use for Twelver clerics Islamists Islamist Shiʿism Persian تشیع اخوانی is a new denomination within Twelver Shiʿism greatly inspired by the political ideology of the Muslim Brotherhood and mysticism of Ibn Arabi It sees Islam as a political system and differs from the other mainstream Usuli and Akhbari groups in favoring the idea of the establishment of an Islamic state in Occultation under the rule of the 12th Imam 103 104 Hadi Khosroshahi was the first person to identify himself as ikhwani Islamist Shiʿa Muslim 105 Because of the concept of the hidden Imam Muhammad al Mahdi Shiʿa Islam is inherently secular in the age of Occultation therefore Islamist Shiʿa Muslims had to borrow ideas from Sunni Islamists and adjust them in accordance with the doctrine of Shiʿism 106 Its foundations were laid during the Persian Constitutional Revolution at the start of 20th century in Qajar Iran 1905 1911 when Fazlullah Nouri supported the Persian king Ahmad Shah Qajar against the will of Muhammad Kazim Khurasani the Usuli marjaʿ of the time 107 Ismaʿili Sevener Main article Isma ilism Ismaʿilis otherwise known as Sevener derive their name from their acceptance of Ismaʿil ibn Jaʿfar as the divinely appointed spiritual successor Imam to Jaʿfar al Ṣadiq the 6th Shiʿite Imam wherein they differ from the Twelvers who recognize Musa al Kaẓim younger brother of Ismaʿil as the true Imam After the death or Occultation of Muhammad ibn Imam Ismaʿil in the 8th century CE the teachings of Ismaʿilism further transformed into the belief system as it is known today with an explicit concentration on the deeper esoteric meaning baṭin of the Islamic faith With the eventual development of Twelver Shiʿism into the more literalistic zahir oriented Akhbari and later Usuli schools of thought Shiʿism further developed in two separate directions the metaphorical Ismaʿili group focusing on the mystical path and nature of God and the divine manifestation in the personage of the Imam of the Time as the Face of God with the more literalistic Twelver group focusing on divine law shari ah and the deeds and sayings sunnah attributed to Muhammad and his successors the Ahl al Bayt who as A immah were guides and a light nur to God 108 Shah Karim al Husayni known as the Aga Khan IV is the 49th and current Imam of Nizari Ismaʿilis Though there are several subsects amongst the Ismaʿilis the term in today s vernacular generally refers to the Shiʿa Imami Ismaʿili Nizari community often referred to as the Ismaʿilis by default who are followers of the Aga Khan and the largest group within Ismaʿilism Another Shiʿa Imami Ismaʿili community are the Dawudi Bohras led by a Da i al Mutlaq Unrestricted Missionary as representative of a hidden Imam While there are many other branches with extremely differing exterior practices much of the spiritual theology has remained the same since the days of the faith s early Imams In recent centuries Ismaʿilis have largely been an Indo Iranian community 109 but they can also be found in India Pakistan Syria Palestine Saudi Arabia 110 Yemen Jordan Uzbekistan Tajikistan Afghanistan East and South Africa and in recent years several Ismaʿilis have emigrated to China 111 Western Europe primarily in the United Kingdom Australia New Zealand and North America 112 Ismaʿili Imams Main article List of Ismaili imams In the Nizari Ismaʿili interpretation of Shiʿa Islam the Imam is the guide and the intercessor between humans and God and the individual through whom God is recognized He is also responsible for the esoteric interpretation of the Quran taʾwil He is the possessor of divine knowledge and therefore the Prime Teacher According to the Epistle of the Right Path a Persian Ismaʿili prose text from the post Mongol period of Ismaʿili history by an anonymous author there has been a chain of Imams since the beginning of time and there will continue to be an Imam present on the Earth until the end of time The worlds would not exist in perfection without this uninterrupted chain of Imams The proof hujja and gate bab of the Imam are always aware of his presence and are witness to this uninterrupted chain 113 After the death of Ismaʿil ibn Jaʿfar many Ismaʿilis believed that one day the eschatological figure of Imam Mahdi whom they believed to be Muhammad ibn Imam Ismaʿil would return and establish an age of justice One group included the violent Qarmatians who had a stronghold in Bahrain In contrast some Ismaʿilis believed the Imamate did continue and that the Imams were in Occultation and still communicated and taught their followers through a network of Da i Missionaries In 909 CE Abdullah al Mahdi Billah a claimant to the Ismaʿili Imamate established the Fatimid Caliphate During this period three lineages of Imams were formed The first branch known today as the Druze began with Al Ḥakim bi Amr Allah 114 Born in 985 CE he ascended as ruler at the age of eleven When in 1021 CE his mule returned without him soaked in blood a religious group that was forming in his lifetime broke off from mainstream Ismaʿilism and didn t acknowledge his successor 114 Later to be known as the Druze they believe Al Ḥakim to be God incarnate 115 and the prophesied Mahdi on Earth who would one day return and bring justice to the world 116 The Druze faith further split from Ismaʿilism as it developed into a distinct monotheistic Abrahamic religion and ethno religious group with its own unique doctrines 114 and finally separated from both Ismaʿilism and Islam altogether 114 Thus the Druze don t identify themselves as Muslims 114 and aren t considered as such by Muslims either 114 117 118 119 120 The second split occurred between Nizari and Musta li Ismaʿilis following the death of Ma ad al Mustansir Billah in 1094 CE His rule was the longest of any caliph in any Islamic empire Upon his passing away his sons Nizar the older and Al Musta li the younger fought for political and spiritual control of the dynasty Nizar was defeated and jailed but according to the Nizari tradition his son escaped to Alamut where the Iranian Ismaʿili had accepted his claim 121 From here on the Nizari Ismaʿili community has continued with a present living Imam The Musta li Ismaʿilis split between the Ṭayyibi and the Ḥafiẓi Ṭayyibi Ismaʿilis also known as Bohras are further divided between Dawudi Bohras Sulaymani Bohras and Alavi Bohras The former denomination claims that At Tayyib Abi l Qasim son of Al Amir bi Ahkami l Lah and the Imams following him went into a period of anonymity Dawr e Satr and appointed a Da i al Mutlaq Unrestricted Missionary to guide the community in a similar manner as the Ismaʿilis had lived after the death of Muhammad ibn Imam Ismaʿil The latter denomination claims that the ruling Fatimid caliph was the Imam and they died out with the fall of the Fatimid Empire Pillars Ismaʿilis have categorized their practices which are known as seven pillars Walayah Guardianship Taharah Purity Salat Prayer Zakat Charity Sawm Fasting Hajj Pilgrimage Jihad Struggle Contemporary leadership The Nizaris place importance on a scholarly institution because of the existence of a present Imam The Imam of the Age defines the jurisprudence and his guidance may differ with Imams previous to him because of different times and circumstances For Nizari Ismaʿilis the current Imam is Karim al Husayni Aga Khan IV The Nizari line of Imams has continued to this day as an uninterrupted chain Divine leadership has continued in the Bohra branch through the institution of the Missionary Da i According to the Bohra tradition before the last Imam At Tayyib Abi l Qasim went into seclusion his father the 20th Al Amir bi Ahkami l Lah had instructed Al Hurra Al Malika the Malika Queen consort in Yemen to appoint a vicegerent after the seclusion the Da i al Mutlaq Unrestricted Missionary who as the Imam s vicegerent has full authority to govern the community in all matters both spiritual and temporal while the lineage of Musta li Ṭayyibi Imams remains in seclusion Dawr e Satr The three branches of Musta li Ismaʿilis Dawudi Bohras Sulaymani Bohras and Alavi Bohras differ on who the current Unrestricted Missionary is Zaydi Fiver Main article Zaydism Gold dinar of al Ḥadi ila l Ḥaqq Yaḥya the first Zaydi Imam of Yemen minted in 910 911 CE The Zaydi State of Yemen under the rule of Imam Al Mutawakkil Ismaʿil bin al Qasim 1644 1676 Zaydism otherwise known as Zaydiyyah or Zaydi is a branch of Shiʿa Islam named after Zayd ibn ʿAli Followers of the Zaydi school of jurisprudence are called Zaydis or occasionally Fivers However there is also a group called Zaydi Wasitis who are Twelvers see below Zaydis constitute roughly 42 47 of the population of Yemen 122 123 Doctrine The Zaydis Twelvers and Ismaʿilis all recognize the same first four Imams however the Zaydis consider Zayd ibn ʿAli as the 5th Imam After the time of Zayd ibn ʿAli the Zaydis believed that any descendant Sayyid of Ḥasan ibn ʿAli or Ḥusayn ibn ʿAli could become the next Imam after fulfilling certain conditions 124 Other well known Zaydi Imams in history were Yahya ibn Zayd Muhammad al Nafs al Zakiyya and Ibrahim ibn Abdullah The Zaydi doctrine of Imamah doesn t presuppose the infallibility of the Imam nor the belief that the Imams are supposed to receive divine guidance Moreover Zaydis don t believe that the Imamate must pass from father to son but believe it can be held by any Sayyid descended from either Ḥasan ibn ʿAli or Ḥusayn ibn ʿAli as was the case after the death of the former Historically Zaydis held that Zayd ibn ʿAli was the rightful successor of the 4th Imam since he led a rebellion against the Umayyads in protest of their tyranny and corruption Muhammad al Baqir did not engage in political action and the followers of Zayd ibn ʿAli maintained that a true Imam must fight against corrupt rulers Jurisprudence In matters of Islamic jurisprudence Zaydis follow the teachings of Zayd ibn ʿAli which are documented in his book Majmu l Fiqh in Arabic مجموع الف قه Al Ḥadi ila l Ḥaqq Yaḥya the first Zaydi Imam and founder of the Zaydi State in Yemen is regarded as the codifier of Zaydi jurisprudence and as such most Zaydi Shiʿas today are known as Hadawis Timeline The Idrisids Arabic الأدارسة were Arab 125 Zaydi Shiʿas 126 127 128 129 130 131 whose dynasty named after its first sultan Idris I ruled in the western Maghreb from 788 to 985 CE Another Zaydi State was established in the region of Gilan Deylaman and Tabaristan northern Iran in 864 CE by the Alavids 132 it lasted until the death of its leader at the hand of the Samanids in 928 CE Roughly forty years later the Zaydi State was revived in Gilan and survived under Hasanid leaders until 1126 CE Afterwards from the 12th to 13th centuries the Zaydi Shiʿas of Deylaman Gilan and Tabaristan then acknowledged the Zaydi Imams of Yemen or rival Zaydi Imams within Iran 133 The Buyids were initially Zaydi Shiʿas 134 as were the Banu Ukhaidhir rulers of al Yamama in the 9th and 10th centuries 135 The leader of the Zaydi community took the title of caliph thus the ruler of Yemen was known by this title Al Hadi Yahya bin al Hussain bin al Qasim ar Rassi a descendant of Ḥasan ibn ʿAli founded the Zaydi Imamate at Sa dah in 893 897 CE and the Rassid dynasty continued to rule over Yemen until the middle of the 20th century when the republican revolution of 1962 deposed the last Zaydi Imam See Arab Cold War The founding Zaydi branch in Yemen was the Jarudiyya however with increasing interaction with the Ḥanafi and Shafiʿi schools of Sunni jurisprudence there was a shift from the Jarudiyya group to the Sulaimaniyya Tabiriyya Butriyya and Salihiyya 136 Zaydi Shiʿas form the second dominant religious group in Yemen Currently they constitute about 40 45 of the population in Yemen Jaʿfaris and Ismaʿilis constitute the 2 5 137 In Saudi Arabia it is estimated that there are over 1 million Zaydi Shiʿas primarily based in the western provinces Currently the most prominent Zaydi political movement is the Houthi movement in Yemen 138 known by the name of Shabab al Mu mineen Believing Youth or Ansar Allah Partisans of God 139 In 2014 2015 Houthis took over the Yemeni government in Sana a which led to the fall of the Saudi Arabian backed government of Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi 138 139 140 Houthis and their allies gained control of a significant part of Yemen s territory and resisted the Saudi Arabian led intervention in Yemen seeking to restore Hadi in power 138 139 See Iran Saudi Arabia proxy conflict Both the Houthis and the Saudi Arabian led coalition were being attacked by the Sunni Islamist militant group and Salafi jihadist terrorist organization ISIL ISIS IS Daesh 141 142 143 144 145 146 HistoryMain article History of Shia Islam Further information Origin of Shia Islam Succession of ʿAli Main articles Shia view of Ali and Succession to Muhammad Further information Ali in the Quran Shiʿa Muslims believe that just as a prophet is appointed by God alone only God has the prerogative to appoint the successor to his prophet They believe God chose ʿAli ibn Abi Ṭalib to be Muhammad s successor infallible the first caliph khalifa head of state of Islam Shiʿa Muslims believe that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor by God s command Eid Al Ghadir 147 148 ʿAli was Muhammad s first cousin and closest living male relative as well as his son in law having married Muhammad s daughter Faṭimah 149 150 The Party of ʿAli Further information The Four Companions Even during the time of Muhammad there were signs of split among the companions with Salman al Farsi Abu Dharr al Ghifari Miqdad and Ammar ibn Yasir amongst the most vehement and loyal supporters of ʿAli 151 152 The event of Dhul Asheera Main article Hadith of Warning During the revelation of Ash Shu ara the twenty sixth Surah of the Quran in c 617 CE 153 Muhammad is said to have received instructions to warn his family members against adhering to their pre Islamic religious practices There are differing accounts of Muhammad s attempt to do this with one version stating that he had invited his relatives to a meal later termed the Feast of Dhul Asheera during which he gave the pronouncement 154 According to Ibn Ishaq it consisted of the following speech Allah has commanded me to invite you to His religion by saying And warn thy nearest kinsfolk I therefore warn you and call upon you to testify that there is no god but Allah and that I am His messenger O ye sons of Abdul Muttalib no one ever came to you before with anything better than what I have brought to you By accepting it your welfare will be assured in this world and in the Hereafter Who among you will support me in carrying out this momentous duty Who will share the burden of this work with me Who will respond to my call Who will become my vicegerent my deputy and my wazir 155 Among those gathered only ʿAli offered his consent Some sources such as the Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal do not record Muhammad s reaction to this though Ibn Ishaq continues that he then declared ʿAli to be his brother heir and successor 156 In another narration when Muhammad accepted ʿAli s offer he threw up his arms around the generous youth and pressed him to his bosom and said Behold my brother my vizir my vicegerent let all listen to his words and obey him 157 The direct appointment of ʿAli as heir in this version is notable in that it alleges that his right to succession was established at the very beginning of Muhammad s prophetic activity The association with the revelation of a Quranic verse also serves the purpose of providing the nomination with authenticity as well as a divine authorization 158 Event of Ghadir Khumm Main article Event of Ghadir Khumm The ḥadith report of Ghadir Khumm has many different variations and is transmitted by both Sunni and Shiʿa sources The narrations generally state that in March 632 Muhammad while returning from his Farewell Pilgrimage alongside a large number of followers and companions stopped at the oasis of Ghadir Khumm There he took ʿAli s hand and addressed the gathering The point of contention between different sects arises when Muhammad whilst giving his speech gave the proclamation Anyone who has me as his mawla has ʿAli as his mawla Some versions add the additional sentence O God befriend the friend of ʿAli and be the enemy of his enemy 159 Mawla has a number of meanings in Arabic with interpretations of Muhammad s use here being split along sectarian lines between the Sunni and Shiʿa Muslims Among the former group the word is translated as friend or one who is loyal close and that Muhammad was advocating that ʿAli was deserving of friendship and respect Conversely Shiʿa Muslims tend to view the meaning as being master or ruler citation needed and that the statement was a clear designation of ʿAli being Muhammad s appointed successor Shiʿa sources also record further details of the event such as stating that those present congratulated ʿAli and acclaimed him as Amir al Mu minin commander of the believers 159 Caliphate of ʿAli The investiture of ʿAli ibn Abi Ṭalib at Ghadir Khumm MS Arab 161 fol 162r 1308 1309 CE Ilkhanid manuscript illustration When Muhammad died in 632 CE ʿAli ibn Abi Ṭalib and Muhammad s closest relatives made the funeral arrangements While they were preparing his body Abu Bakr ʿUmar ibn al Khaṭṭab and Abu Ubaidah ibn al Jarrah met with the leaders of Medina and elected Abu Bakr as caliph ʿAli did not accept the caliphate of Abu Bakr and refused to pledge allegiance to him This is indicated in a ḥadith report which both Sunni and Shiʿa Muslims regard as sahih authentic Ibn Qutaybah a 9th century Sunni Islamic scholar narrates of ʿAli I am the servant of God and the brother of the Messenger of God I am thus more worthy of this office than you I shall not give allegiance to you Abu Bakr amp Umar when it is more proper for you to give bayʼah to me You have seized this office from the Ansar using your tribal relationship to the Prophet as an argument against them Would you then seize this office from us the ahl al bayt by force Did you not claim before the Ansar that you were more worthy than they of the caliphate because Muhammad came from among you but Muhammad was never from Abu Bakr s family and thus they gave you leadership and surrendered command I now contend against you with the same argument It is we who are more worthy of the Messenger of God living or dead Give us our due right if you truly have faith in God or else bear the charge of wilfully doing wrong Umar I will not yield to your commands I shall not pledge loyalty to him Ultimately Abu Bakr said O Ali If you do not desire to give your bay ah I am not going to force you for the same ʿAli s wife and daughter of Muhammad Faṭimah refused to pledge allegiance to Abu Bakr and remained angry with him until she died due to the issues of Fadak the inheritance from her father and the situation of ʿUmar at Faṭimah s house this is stated in various Sunni ḥadith collections including Sahih al Bukhari and Sahih Muslim Faṭimah never pledged allegiance to Abu Bakr neither did she acknowledge or accept his claim to the caliphate 160 Almost all members of Banu Hashim the Quraysh tribe to which Muhammad belonged and many of his closest companions the ṣaḥaba had supported ʿAli s cause after the death of Muhammad whilst others supported Abu Bakr 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 Great Mosque of Kufa site of ʿAli s assassination 661 CE 149 150 Ḍariẖ over ʿAli s qabr grave Sanctuary of Imam ʿAli Najaf present day Iraq It was not until the murder of the third rashidun caliph ʿUthman 657 CE that the Muslims of Medina in desperation invited ʿAli to become the fourth caliph as the last source 149 and he established his capital in Kufa present day Iraq 16 ʿAli s rule over the early Muslim community was often contested and wars were waged against him As a result he had to struggle to maintain his power against the groups who betrayed him after giving allegiance to his succession or those who wished to take his position This dispute eventually led to the First Fitna which was the first major civil war between Muslims within the early Islamic empire The First Fitna began as a series of revolts fought against ʿAli caused by the assassination of his political predecessor ʿUthman While the rebels had previously affirmed the legitimacy of ʿAli s khilafaʾ caliphate they later turned against ʿAli and fought him 149 ʿAli ruled from 656 CE to 661 CE 149 when he was assassinated 150 while prostrating in prayer sujud ʿAli s main rival Muawiyah then claimed the caliphate 170 The connection between the Indus Valley and Shiʿa Islam was established through the early Muslim conquests According to Derryl N Maclean a link between the Sindh region and Shiʿas or proto Shiʿas can be traced to Hakim ibn Jabalah al Abdi a companion of Muhammad who traveled across the Sindh to Makran in the year 649 CE and presented a report on the area to the caliph He supported ʿAli and died in the Battle of the Camel alongside Sindhi Jats 171 He was also a poet and few couplets of his poem in praise of ʿAli have survived as reported in Chachnama 172 Oh Ali owing to your alliance with the prophet you are truly of high birth and your example is great and you are wise and excellent and your advent has made your age an age of generosity and kindness and brotherly love 173 During the caliphate of ʿAli many Jats came under the influence of Shiʿa Islam 174 Harith ibn Murrah Al abdi and Sayfi ibn Fil al Shaybani both officers of ʿAli s army attacked Sindhi bandits and chased them to Al Qiqan present day Quetta in the year 658 CE 175 Sayfi was one of the seven Shiʿa Muslims who were beheaded alongside Hujr ibn Adi al Kindi 176 in 660 CE near Damascus Ḥasan ibn ʿAli Main article Hasan ibn Ali Upon the death of ʿAli his elder son Ḥasan became leader of the Muslims of Kufa and after a series of skirmishes between the Kufa Muslims and the army of Muawiyah Ḥasan agreed to cede the caliphate to Muawiyah and maintain peace among Muslims upon certain conditions 177 178 The enforced public cursing of ʿAli e g during prayers should be abandoned Muawiyah should not use tax money for his own private needs There should be peace and followers of Ḥasan should be given security and their rights Muawiyah will never adopt the title of Amir al Mu minin commander of the believers Muawiyah will not nominate any successorḤasan then retired to Medina where in 670 CE he was poisoned by his wife Ja da bint al Ash ath ibn Qays after being secretly contacted by Muawiyah who wished to pass the caliphate to his own son Yazid and saw Ḥasan as an obstacle 179 Ḥusayn ibn ʿAli Main article Husayn ibn Ali Battle of Karbala painting by the Isfahan based Persian artist Abbas Al Mousavi Brooklyn Museum between 1868 and 1933 Ḥusayn ibn ʿAli ʿAli s younger son and brother to Ḥasan initially resisted calls to lead the Muslims against Muawiyah and reclaim the caliphate In 680 CE Muawiyah died and passed the caliphate to his son Yazid and breaking the treaty with Ḥasan ibn ʿAli Yazid asked Husayn to swear allegiance bay ah to him ʿAli s faction having expected the caliphate to return to ʿAli s line upon Muawiyah s death saw this as a betrayal of the peace treaty and so Ḥusayn rejected this request for allegiance There was a groundswell of support in Kufa for Ḥusayn to return there and take his position as caliph and Imam so Ḥusayn collected his family and followers in Medina and set off for Kufa En route to Kufa he was blocked by an army of Yazid s men which included people from Kufa near Karbala modern Iraq Ḥusayn and approximately 72 of his family members and followers were killed in the Battle of Karbala Left the Shrine of Imam Ḥusayn Right the Mosque of Imam Ḥusayn premises during Arba een Shiʿa Muslims regard Ḥusayn ibn ʿAli as a martyr shahid and count him as an Imam from the Ahl al Bayt They view Ḥusayn ibn ʿAli as the defender of Islam from annihilation at the hands of Yazid I Ḥusayn is the last Imam following ʿAli mutually recognized by all branches of Shiʿa Islam 180 The Battle of Karbala and martyrdom of Ḥusayn ibn ʿAli is often cited as the definitive separation between the Shiʿa and Sunni sects of Islam and is commemorated each year by Shiʿa Muslims on the Day of Ashura Imamate of the Ahl al Bayt Main article Imamate in Shia doctrine Zulfiqar with and without the shield The Fatimid depiction of ʿAli s sword is carved on the gates of Old Cairo namely Bab al Nasr shown below Two swords were captured from the temple of the pre Islamic Arabian deity Manat during the Raid of Sa d ibn Zaid al Ashhali Muhammad gave them to ʿAli saying that one of them was Zulfiqar which became famously known as the sword of ʿAli and a later symbol of Shiʿism 181 Depiction of ʿAli s sword and shield carved on the Bab al Nasr gate wall in Cairo Egypt Later most denominations of Shiʿa Islam including Twelvers and Ismaʿilis became Imamis Imami Shiʿites believe that Imams are the spiritual and political successors to Muhammad 182 Imams are human individuals who not only rule over the Muslim community with justice but also are able to keep and interpret the divine law and its esoteric meaning The words and deeds of Muhammad and the Imams are a guide and model for the community to follow as a result they must be free from error and sin and must be chosen by divine decree nass through Muhammad 100 101 According to this view peculiar to Shiʿa Islam there is always an Imam of the Age who is the divinely appointed authority on all matters of faith and law in the Muslim community ʿAli was the first Imam of this line the rightful successor to Muhammad followed by male descendants of Muhammad through his daughter Fatimah 182 183 This difference between following either the Ahl al Bayt Muhammad s family and descendants or pledging allegiance to Abu Bakr has shaped the Shiʿa Sunni divide on the interpretation of some Quranic verses ḥadith literature accounts of the sayings and living habits attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad during his lifetime and other areas of Islamic belief throughout the history of Islam For instance the ḥadith collections venerated by Shiʿa Muslims are centered on narrations by members of the Ahl al Bayt and their supporters while some ḥadith transmitted by narrators not belonging to or supporting the Ahl al Bayt are not included Those of Abu Hurairah for example Ibn Asakir in his Taʿrikh Kabir and Muttaqi in his Kanzuʿl Umma report that ʿUmar ibn al Khaṭṭab lashed him rebuked him and forbade him to narrate ḥadith from Muhammad ʿUmar is reported to have said Because you narrate hadith in large numbers from the Holy Prophet you are fit only for attributing lies to him That is one expects a wicked man like you to utter only lies about the Holy Prophet So you must stop narrating hadith from the Prophet otherwise I will send you to the land of Dus An Arab clan in Yemen to which Abu Hurairah belonged According to Sunni Muslims ʿAli was the fourth successor to Abu Bakr while Shiʿa Muslims maintain that ʿAli was the first divinely sanctioned Imam or successor of Muhammad The seminal event in Shiʿa history is the martyrdom at the Battle of Karbala of ʿAli s son Ḥusayn ibn ʿAli and 71 of his followers in 680 CE who led a non allegiance movement against the defiant caliph Sanctuary of Imam Reza in Mashhad Iran is a complex which contains the mausoleum of Imam Reza the 8th Imam of Twelver Shiʿas It is believed in Twelver and Ismaʿili branches of Shiʿa Islam that divine wisdom ʿaql was the source of the souls of the prophets and Imams which bestowed upon them esoteric knowledge ḥikmah and that their sufferings were a means of divine grace to their devotees 184 185 Although the Imam was not the recipient of a divine revelation waḥy he had a close relationship with God through which God guides him and the Imam in turn guides the people Imamate or belief in the divine guide is a fundamental belief in the Twelver and Ismaʿili branches of Shiʿa Islam and is based on the concept that God would not leave humanity without access to divine guidance 102 Imam Mahdi last Imam of the Shiʿa Main articles Mahdi Muhammad al Mahdi Occultation Islam and Reappearance of Hujjat Allah al Mahdi Further information History of Shia Islam and Imamate in Shia doctrine Ghazan and his brother Oljaitu both were tolerant of sectarian differences within the boundaries of Islam in contrast to the traditions of Genghis Khan In Shiʿa Islam Imam Mahdi is regarded as the prophesied eschatological redeemer of Islam who will rule for seven nine or nineteen years according to differing interpretations before the Day of Judgment and will rid the world of evil According to Islamic tradition the Mahdi s tenure will coincide with the Second Coming of Jesus ʿisa who is to assist the Mahdi against the Masih ad Dajjal literally the false Messiah or Antichrist Jesus who is considered the Masih Messiah in Islam will descend at the point of a white arcade east of Damascus dressed in yellow robes with his head anointed He will then join the Mahdi in his war against the Dajjal where it is believed the Mahdi will slay the Dajjal and unite humankind Historians dispute over the origins of Shiʿa Islam with many Western scholars positing that Shiʿism began as a political faction rather than a truly religious movement 186 187 Other scholars disagree considering this concept of religious political separation to be an anachronistic application of a Western concept 188 Dynasties Main article List of Shia dynasties In the century following the Battle of Karbala 680 CE as various Shia affiliated groups diffused in the emerging Islamic world several nations arose based on a Shia leadership or population Idrisids 788 985 CE a Zaydi dynasty in what is now Morocco Qarmatians 899 1077 CE an Ismaili Iranian dynasty Their headquarters were in East Arabia and Bahrain It was founded by Abu Sa id al Jannabi Buyids 934 1055 CE a Twelver Iranian dynasty at its peak consisted of large portions of modern Iraq and Iran Uqaylids 990 1096 CE a Shia Arab dynasty with several lines that ruled in various parts of Al Jazira northern Syria and Iraq Ilkhanate 1256 1335 a Persianate Mongol khanate established in Persia in the 13th century considered a part of the Mongol Empire The Ilkhanate was based originally on Genghis Khan s campaigns in the Khwarezmid Empire in 1219 1224 and founded by Genghis s grandson Hulagu in territories which today comprise most of Iran Iraq Afghanistan Turkmenistan Armenia Azerbaijan Georgia Turkey and Pakistan The Ilkhanate initially embraced many religions but was particularly sympathetic to Buddhism and Christianity Later Ilkhanate rulers beginning with Ghazan in 1295 embraced Islam his brother Oljaitu promoted Shia Islam 189 Bahmanids 1347 1527 a Shia Muslim state of the Deccan in southern India and one of the great medieval Indian kingdoms 190 Bahmanid Sultanate was the first independent Islamic Kingdom in South India 191 The Fatimid Caliphate at its peak Fatimid Caliphate Al Hakim Mosque Islamic Cairo Fatimids 909 1171 CE Controlled much of North Africa the Levant parts of Arabia and Mecca and Medina The group takes its name from Fatima Muhammad s daughter from whom they claim descent In 909 CE the Shi i military leader Abu Abdallah al Shiʻi overthrew the Sunni ruler in Northern Africa which began the Fatimid regime 192 Jawhar general Arabic جوهر fl 966 d 992 was a Fatimid general Under the command of Caliph Al Mu izz he led the conquest of North Africa and then of Egypt 193 founded the city of Cairo 194 and the great al Azhar Mosque A Greek slave by origin he was freed by Al Mu izz 195 Safavid Empire Main articles Safavid dynasty and Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam One of the first actions performed by Shah Isma il I of the Safavid dynasty was the proclamation of the Twelver denomination of Shiʿa Islam as the official religion of his newly founded Persian Empire causing sectarian tensions in the Middle East when he destroyed the tombs of the Abbasid caliphs the Sunni Imam Abu Ḥanifa al Nuʿman and the Ṣufi Muslim ascetic ʿAbdul Qadir Gilani in 1508 196 In 1533 the Ottoman Turks upon their conquest of Iraq rebuilt various important Sunni shrines 196 197 A major turning point in the history of Shiʿa Islam was the dominion of the Safavid dynasty 1501 1736 in Persia This caused a number of changes in the Muslim world The ending of the relative mutual tolerance between Sunnis and Shiʿas that existed from the time of the Mongol conquests onwards and the resurgence of antagonism between the two groups Initial dependence of Shiʿite clerics on the state followed by the emergence of an independent body of ulama capable of taking a political stand different from official policies 198 The growth in importance of Persian centers of Islamic education and religious learning which resulted in the change of Twelver Shiʿism from being a predominantly Arab phenomenon to become predominantly Persian 199 The growth of the Akhbari school of thought which taught that only the Quran ḥadith literature and sunnah accounts of the sayings and living habits attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad during his lifetime are to be bases for verdicts rejecting the use of reasoning With the fall of the Safavids the state in Persia including the state system of courts with government appointed judges qaḍi became much weaker This gave the shariʿa courts of mujtahid an opportunity to fill the legal vacuum and enabled the ulama to assert their judicial authority The Usuli school of thought also increased in strength at this time 200 The declaration of Twelver Shiʿism as the state religion of Safavid Persia Battle of Chaldiran in 1514 was a major sectarian crisis between Muslims in the Middle East Monument commemorating the Battle of Chaldiran where more than 7000 Muslims of the Shiʿa and Sunni sects killed each other Persecution of Shiʿa MuslimsMain articles Anti Shiism and Shia Sunni relations Further information Sectarian violence among Muslims and Shia genocide Shrine of Imam ʿAli in Najaf Iraq The history of Shiʿa Sunni relations has often involved religious discrimination persecution and violence dating back to the earliest development of the two competing sects At various times throughout the history of Islam Shiʿa groups and minorities have faced persecution perpetrated by Sunni Muslims 201 202 203 204 Militarily established and holding control over the Umayyad government many Sunni rulers perceived the Shiʿas as a threat both to their political and religious authority 205 The Sunni rulers under the Umayyad dynasty sought to marginalize the Shiʿa minority and later the Abbasids turned on their Shiʿa allies and imprisoned persecuted and killed them The persecution of Shiʿa Muslims throughout history by their Sunni co religionists has often been characterized by brutal and genocidal acts Comprising only about 10 15 of the global Muslim population 13 Shiʿa Muslims remain a marginalized community to this day in many Sunni dominant Arab countries without the rights to practice their religion and freely organize 206 In 1514 the Ottoman sultan Selim I 1512 1520 ordered the massacre of 40 000 Alevis and Bektashi Anatolian Shiʿa Muslims 207 According to Jalal Al e Ahmad Sultan Selim I carried things so far that he announced that the killing of one Shiʿa had as much otherworldly reward as killing 70 Christians 208 In 1802 the Al Saud Wahhabi armies of the Ikhwan from the First Saudi State 1727 1818 attacked and sacked the city of Karbala the Shiʿa shrine in Najaf eastern region of Iraq that commemorates the martyrdom and death of Ḥusayn ibn ʿAli 209 Under Saddam Hussein s Ba athist regime in Iraq 1968 2003 Shiʿa Muslims were heavily persecuted arrested tortured and killed 210 In March 2011 the Malaysian government declared Shiʿa Islam a deviant sect and banned Shiʿa Muslims from promoting their faith to other Muslims but left them free to practice it themselves privately 211 212 The most recent and grave attempt by Sunni Muslims to entirely eradicate the Shiʿa community through violent means was the large scale genocide of Shiʿa Muslims organized and perpetrated by ISIL ISIS IS Daesh in Syria and Iraq between 2014 and 2018 143 213 144 214 which occurred alongside the genocides of many other religious minorities in the same region of the Middle East perpetrated by the aforementioned Sunni Islamist militant group and Salafi jihadist terrorist organization 143 144 145 146 See also Shia Islam portal Islam portal Religion portalAlawi Islam Anti Shi ism Criticism of Twelver Shia Islam History of Shia Islam Imamate in Shia doctrine Imamate and guardianship of Ali ibn Abi Talib Imamate in Ismaili doctrine Imamate in Nizari doctrine Imamate in Twelver doctrine Intellectual proofs in Shia jurisprudence List of Shia books List of Shia Islamic dynasties List of Shia Muslim scholars of Islam List of Shia Muslims Shia clergy Shia crescent Shia genocide Shia Islam in the Indian subcontinent Shia nations Shia Rights Watch Shia view of Ali Shia view of the QuranReferencesNotes A 2019 Council on Foreign Relations article states Nobody really knows the size of the Shia population in Nigeria Credible estimates that its numbers range between 2 and 3 percent of Nigeria s population which would amount to roughly four million 86 A 2019 BBC News article said that Estimates of Nigerian Shia numbers vary wildly ranging from less than 5 to 17 of Nigeria s Muslim population of about 100 million 87 Citations a b c d e f g h i Foody Kathleen September 2015 Jain Andrea R ed Interiorizing Islam Religious Experience and State Oversight in the Islamic Republic of Iran Journal of the American Academy of Religion Oxford Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Academy of Religion 83 3 599 623 doi 10 1093 jaarel lfv029 eISSN 1477 4585 ISSN 0002 7189 JSTOR 24488178 LCCN sc76000837 OCLC 1479270 For Shiʿi Muslims Muhammad not only designated Ali as his friend but appointed him as his successor as the lord or master of the new Muslim community Ali and his descendants would become known as the Imams divinely guided leaders of the Shiʿi communities sinless and granted special insight into the Qurʾanic text The theology of the Imams that developed over the next several centuries made little distinction between the authority of the Imams to politically lead the Muslim community and their spiritual prowess quite to the contrary their right to political leadership was grounded in their special spiritual insight While in theory the only just ruler of the Muslim community was the Imam the Imams were politically marginal after the first generation In practice Shiʿi Muslims negotiated varied approaches to both interpretative authority over Islamic texts and governance of the community both during the lifetimes of the Imams themselves and even more so following the disappearance of the twelfth and final Imam in the 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Studies Archived from the original on 21 July 2011 Gritten David 25 February 2006 Long path to Iraq s sectarian split BBC News Archived from the original on 27 July 2008 Retrieved 19 April 2015 Malaysian government to Shia Muslims Keep your beliefs to yourself globalpost com Archived from the original on 28 February 2014 Retrieved 17 March 2014 Malaysia PDF International Religious Freedom Report United States Department of State Bureau of Democracy Human Rights and Labor 2011 Archived PDF from the original on 28 March 2017 Retrieved 17 March 2014 Baele Stephane J October 2019 Giles Howard ed Conspiratorial Narratives in Violent Political Actors Language PDF Journal of Language and Social Psychology SAGE Publications 38 5 6 706 734 doi 10 1177 0261927X19868494 hdl 10871 37355 ISSN 1552 6526 S2CID 195448888 Retrieved 3 January 2022 Ghasemi Faezeh 2020 Anti Shiism Discourse PhD University of Tehran Ghasemi Faezeh 2017 Anti Shiite and Anti Iranian Discourses in ISIS Texts Discourse 11 3 75 96 Matthiesen Toby 21 July 2015 The Islamic State Exploits Entrenched Anti Shia Incitement Sada Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Sources Cornell Vincent J 2007 Voices of Islam Westport Conn Praeger Publishers ISBN 978 0 275 98732 9 Encyclopaedia Iranica Online Columbia University Center for Iranian Studies Retrieved 11 September 2019 Martin Richard C 2004 Encyclopaedia of Islam and the Muslim World Vol 1 Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World A L MacMillan ISBN 978 0 02 865604 5 Corbin Henry 1993 1964 History of Islamic Philosophy Translated by Liadain Sherrard and Philip Sherrard London Kegan Paul International in association with Islamic Publications for The Institute of Ismaili Studies ISBN 978 0 7103 0416 2 Dakake Maria Massi 2008 The Charismatic Community Shiʻite Identity in Early Islam Suny Press ISBN 978 0 7914 7033 6 Holt P M Lewis Bernard 1977a Cambridge History of Islam Vol 1 Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 29136 1 Lapidus Ira 2002 A History of Islamic Societies 2nd ed Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 77933 3 Sachedina Abdulaziz Abdulhussein 1988 The Just Ruler al sultan Al ʻadil in Shiʻite Islam The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence Oxford University Press US ISBN 978 0 19 511915 2 Sobhani Ja afar Shah Kazemi Reza 2001 Doctrines of Shiʻi Islam A Compendium of Imami Beliefs and Practices Online Ausg ed London I B Tauris u a ISBN 978 1 86064 780 2 Tabatabaei Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn 1979 Shiʻite Islam Translated by Seyyed Hossein Nasr State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0 87395 272 9 Ṭabataba i Allamah Sayyid Muḥammad Husayn 1977 Shiʻite Islam Albany State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0 87395 390 0 Vaezi Ahmad 2004 Shia political thought London Islamic Centre of England ISBN 978 1 904934 01 1 OCLC 59136662 Further readingChelkowski Peter J 2010 Eternal Performance Taziyah and Other Shiite Rituals University of Chicago Press ISBN 978 1 906497 51 4 Corbin Henry 1993 History of Islamic Philosophy translated by Liadain Sherrard and Philip Sherrard Kegan Paul International in association with Islamic Publications for The Institute of Ismaili Studies ISBN 978 0 7103 0416 2 Wikisource has the text of the 1905 New International Encyclopedia article Shiites Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica article Shi ites Wikimedia Commons has media related to Shia Islam Dabashi Hamid 2011 Shiʻism A Religion of Protest Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 06428 7 Halm Heinz 2004 Shiʻism Edinburgh University Press ISBN 978 0 7486 1888 0 Halm Heinz 2007 The Shiʻites A Short History Markus Wiener Pub ISBN 978 1 55876 437 8 Lalani Arzina R 2000 Early Shiʻi Thought The Teachings of Imam Muhammad Al Baqir I B Tauris ISBN 978 1 86064 434 4 Marcinkowski Christoph 2010 Shiʻite Identities Community and Culture in Changing Social Contexts Lit Verlag ISBN 978 3 643 80049 7 Momen Moojan 1985 An Introduction to Shiʻi Islam The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shiʻism Yale University Press ISBN 978 0 300 03499 8 Shirazi Sultanu l Wa izin 2013 Peshawar Nights A Transcript of a Dialogue between Shia and Sunni scholars Ansariyan Publications ISBN 978 964 438 320 5 Nasr Seyyed Hossein Hamid Dabashi 1989 Expectation of the Millennium Shiʻism in History SUNY Press ISBN 978 0 88706 843 0 Rogerson Barnaby 2007 The Heirs of Muhammad Islam s First Century and the Origins of the Sunni Shia split Overlook Press ISBN 978 1 58567 896 9 Wollaston Arthur N 2005 The Sunnis and Shias Kessinger Publishing ISBN 978 1 4254 7916 9 Moosa Matti 1988 Extremist Shiites The Ghulat Sects Syracuse University Press ISBN 978 0 8156 2411 0 Shi a Minorities in the Contemporary World Migration Transnationalism and Multilocality United Kingdom Edinburgh University Press 2020 Khalaji Mehdi 27 November 2009 The Dilemmas of Pan Islamic Unity Current Trends in Islamist Ideology 9 64 79 Bohdan Siarhei Summer 2020 They Were Going Together with the Ikhwan The Influence of Muslim Brotherhood Thinkers on Shi i Islamists during the Cold War The Middle East Journal 74 2 243 262 doi 10 3751 74 2 14 ISSN 1940 3461 S2CID 225510058 External links Shi a History and Identity shiism wcfia harvard edu Cambridge Massachusetts Project on Shi ism and Global Affairs at the Weatherhead Center for International Affairs Harvard University 2022 Retrieved 4 March 2022 Daftary Farhad Nanji Azim 2018 2006 What is Shi a Islam www iis ac uk London Institute of Ismaili Studies at the Aga Khan Centre Retrieved 4 March 2022 Muharrami Ghulam Husayn 2003 History of Shi ism From the Advent of Islam up to the End of Minor Occultation Al Islam org Translated by Limba Mansoor L Ahlul Bayt Digital Islamic Library Project Retrieved 4 March 2022 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Shia Islam amp oldid 1133492995, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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