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Sundarbans

July 21, 2023

For other uses, see Sundarbans (disambiguation).

Sundarbans (pronounced /sʌnˈdɑːrbənz/) is a mangrove area in the delta formed by the confluence of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna Rivers in the Bay of Bengal. Sundarban Reserve Forest (SRF) of Bangladesh is the largest mangrove forest in the world. It spans the area from the Baleswar River in Bangladesh's division of Khulna to the Hooghly River in India's state of West Bengal. It comprises closed and open mangrove forests, land used for agricultural purpose, mudflats and barren land, and is intersected by multiple tidal streams and channels. Sundarbans is home to the world's largest area of mangrove forests.[3] Four protected areas in the Sundarbans are enlisted as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, viz. Sundarbans West (Bangladesh), Sundarbans South (Bangladesh), Sundarbans East (Bangladesh) and Sundarbans National Park (India).[4]

Sundarbans
Inside the sundarbans
Location of the Sundarbans, spanning across the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta
LocationKhulna Division, Bangladesh
Presidency division, West Bengal, India
Nearest cityBasirhat, Diamond Harbour, Haldia, Khulna, Kolkata, Bagerhat, Potuakhali, Barguna, Satkhira,
Coordinates21°43′59″N 88°52′08″E / 21.73318765°N 88.86896612°E / 21.73318765; 88.86896612
Governing bodyGovernment of Bangladesh (66%), Government of India (34%)
Official nameThe Sundarbans
LocationKhulna Division, Bangladesh
Includes
  1. Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary
  2. Sundarbans South Sanctuary
  3. Sundarbans East Sanctuary
CriteriaNatural: (ix)(x)
Reference798
Inscription1997 (21st Session)
Area139,500 ha (539 sq mi)
Coordinates21°57′N 89°11′E / 21.950°N 89.183°E / 21.950; 89.183
Official nameSundarbans Reserved Forest
Designated21 May 1992
Reference no.560[1]
Official nameSundarban Wetland
Designated30 January 2019
Reference no.2370[2]
Official nameSundarbans National Park
LocationPresidency division, West Bengal, India
Includes
  1. Sundarbans National Park
CriteriaNatural: (ix)(x)
Reference452
Inscription1987 (11th Session)
Area133,010 ha (513.6 sq mi)
Coordinates21°56′42″N 88°53′45″E / 21.94500°N 88.89583°E / 21.94500; 88.89583

Despite these protections, the Indian Sundarbans were considered endangered in a 2020 assessment under the IUCN Red List of Ecosystems framework.[5] The Sundarbans mangrove forest covers an area of about 10,000 km2 (3,900 sq mi), of which forests in Bangladesh's Khulna Division extend over 6,517 km2 (2,516 sq mi) and in West Bengal, they extend over 3,483 km2 (1,345 sq mi) across the South 24 Parganas and North 24 Parganas districts.[6] The most abundant tree species are sundri (Heritiera fomes) and gewa (Excoecaria agallocha). The forests provide habitat to 453 fauna wildlife, including 290 bird, 120 fish, 42 mammal, 35 reptile and eight amphibian species.[7] Despite a total ban on all killing or capture of wildlife other than fish and some invertebrates, there is a consistent pattern of depleted biodiversity or loss of species in the 20th century, and the ecological quality of the forest is declining.[8]

Despite preservation commitments from both governments, the Sundarbans are under threat from both natural and human-made causes. In 2007, the landfall of Cyclone Sidr damaged around 40% of the Sundarbans. The forest is also suffering from increased salinity due to rising sea levels due to climate change and reduced freshwater supply. In May 2009 Cyclone Aila devastated the Sundarbans with massive casualties. At least 100,000 people were affected by this cyclone.[9][10] The proposed coal-fired Rampal power station situated 14 km (8.7 mi) north of the Sundarbans at Rampal Upazila of Bagerhat District in Khulna, Bangladesh, is anticipated to further damage this unique mangrove forest according to a 2016 report by UNESCO.[11] Climate change is expected to continue to negatively affect both natural systems and human populations in the region, resulting in further ecosystem degradation and climate migration. Experts examining the region recommend further focus on mangrove restoration and management and advocating for adaptation of human populations, through processes like managed retreat and investments in resilient infrastructure.[12]

Etymology

The literal meaning of Sundarbans (Bengali: সুন্দরবন, romanized: Sundôrbôn) is "beautiful forest". Alternatively, it was proposed that the name is a corruption of Samudraban, Shomudrobôn ("Sea Forest"), or Chandra-bandhe, the name of a tribe.[13] However, the likely origin of the word is Sundari or Sundri, the local name of the mangrove species Heritiera fomes abundant in the area.[14]

History

 
Village in a clearing of the Sundarbans. Drawing by Frederic Peter Layard after an original sketch of 1839
 
Farm among paddy fields in the Sundarbans, 2010

The history of human settlement in the Sundarbans area can be traced back to Mauryan era (4th-2nd century BCE).[15] A ruin of an abandoned city was found in the Baghmara Forest Block that is attributed to Chand Sadagar, a pre-Mauryan semi-historical figure in Bengali folklore.[16] Archaeological excavation at Kapilmuni, Paikgacha Upazilla, north of the Sundarbans in Bangladesh, revealed ruins of urban settlement dating back to the early middle ages.[17] During the Mughal period, forest tracts were leased out by the local rulers for establishing settlements.[16] In 1757, The British East India Company obtained proprietary rights over Sundarbans from the Mughal Emperor Alamgir II and completed mapping the area in 1764. However, systematic forest management started a century later. The first Forest Management Division to have jurisdiction over the Sundarbans was established in 1869. In 1875 a large portion of the mangrove forests was declared as reserved forests under the Indian Forest Act of 1865 (Act VIII of 1865). The remaining portions of the forests were declared a reserve forest the following year and the forest, which was so far administered by the civil administration district, was placed under the control of the Forest Department. A Forest Division, which is the basic forest management and administration unit, was created in 1879 with the headquarters in Khulna, Bangladesh. The first management plan was written for the period 1893–1898.[18][19]

Geography

 
Map of the Sundarbans

The Sundarban forest lies in the vast delta on the Bay of Bengal formed by the super- confluence of the Hooghly, Padma (both are distributaries of Ganges), Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers across southern Bangladesh. The seasonally flooded Sundarbans freshwater swamp forest lies inland from the mangrove forests on the coastal fringe. The forest covers 10,000 km2 (3,900 sq mi) of which about 6,517 km2 (2,516 sq mi) are in Bangladesh. The Indian part of Sundarbans is estimated to be about 3,483 km2 (1,345 sq mi), of which about 1,700 km2 (660 sq mi) is occupied by water bodies in the forms of river, canals and creeks of width varying from a few metres to several kilometres.

The Sundarbans is intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, mudflats and small islands of salt-tolerant mangrove forests. The interconnected network of waterways makes almost every corner of the forest accessible by boat. The area is known for the Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris), as well as numerous fauna including species of birds, chital, crocodiles and snakes. The fertile soils of the delta have been subject to intensive human use for centuries, and the ecoregion has been mostly converted to intensive agriculture, with few enclaves of forest remaining. The remaining forests, taken together with the Sundarbans mangroves, are important habitat for the endangered tiger. Additionally, the Mangroves species present in the Sundarban area serve a crucial function as a protective barrier for the millions of inhabitants in and around Khulna and Port of Mongla against the floods that result from the cyclones. It also protects from tsunami and soil erosion for the coastal population.[20]

Physiography

 
SPOT satellite image of Sundarbans, released by CNES
 
Landsat 7 image of Sundarbans, released by NASA Earth Observatory

The mangrove-dominated Ganges Delta – the Sundarbans – is a complex ecosystem comprising one of the three largest single tracts of mangrove forests of the world. The larger part is situated in Bangladesh, a smaller portion of it lies in India. The Indian part of the forest is estimated to be about 40 percent, while the Bangladeshi part is 60 percent. To the south the forest meets the Bay of Bengal; to the east it is bordered by the Baleswar River and to the north there is a sharp interface with intensively cultivated land. The natural drainage in the upstream areas, other than the main river channels, is everywhere impeded by extensive embankments and polders. The Sundarbans was originally measured (about 200 years ago) to be of about 16,700 square kilometres (6,400 sq mi). Now it has dwindled into about one-third of its original size. The total land area today is 4,143 square kilometres (1,600 sq mi), including exposed sandbars with a total area of 42 square kilometres (16 sq mi); the remaining water area of 1,874 square kilometres (724 sq mi) encompasses rivers, small streams and canals. Rivers in the Sundarbans are meeting places of salt water and freshwater. Thus, it is a region of transition between the freshwater of the rivers originating from the Ganges and the saline water of the Bay of Bengal.[21]

The Sundarbans along the Bay of Bengal has evolved over the millennia through natural deposition of upstream sediments accompanied by intertidal segregation. The physiography is dominated by deltaic formations that include innumerable drainage lines associated with surface and subaqueous levees, splays and tidal flats. There are also marginal marshes above mean tide level, tidal sandbars and islands with their networks of tidal channels, subaqueous distal bars and proto-delta clays and silt sediments. The Sundarbans' floor varies from 0.9 to 2.11 metres (3.0 to 6.9 ft) above sea level.[22]

Biotic factors here play a significant role in physical coastal evolution, and for wildlife a variety of habitats have developed which include beaches, estuaries, permanent and semi-permanent swamps, tidal flats, tidal creeks, coastal dunes, back dunes and levees. The mangrove vegetation itself assists in the formation of new landmass and the intertidal vegetation plays a significant role in swamp morphology. The activities of mangrove fauna in the intertidal mudflats develop micromorphological features that trap and hold sediments to create a substratum for mangrove seeds. The morphology and evolution of the eolian dunes is controlled by an abundance of xerophytic and halophytic plants. Creepers, grasses and sedges stabilise sand dunes and uncompacted sediments. The Sunderbans mudflats (Banerjee, 1998) are found at the estuary and on the deltaic islands where low velocity of river and tidal current occurs. The flats are exposed in low tides and submerged in high tides, thus being changed morphologically even in one tidal cycle. The tides are so large that approximately one third of the land disappears and reappears every day.[23] The interior parts of the mudflats serve as a perfect home for mangroves.

See also: List of rivers of Sundarbans

Ecoregions

Sundarbans features two ecoregions — "Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests" (IM0162) and "Sundarbans mangroves" (IM1406).[24]

Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests

The Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests are a tropical moist broadleaf forest ecoregion of Bangladesh. It represents the brackish swamp forests that lie behind the Sundarbans Mangroves, where the salinity is more pronounced. The freshwater ecoregion is an area where the water is only slightly brackish and becomes quite fresh during the rainy season, when the freshwater plumes from the Ganges and the Brahmaputra rivers push the intruding salt water out and bring a deposit of silt. It covers 14,600 square kilometres (5,600 sq mi) of the vast Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta, extending from the northern part of Khulna District and finishing at the mouth of the Bay of Bengal with scattered portions extending into India's West Bengal state. The Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests lie between the upland Lower Gangetic plains moist deciduous forests and the brackish-water Sundarbans mangroves bordering the Bay of Bengal.[25]

A victim of large-scale clearing and settlement to support one of the densest human populations in Asia, this ecoregion is under a great threat of extinction. Hundreds of years of habitation and exploitation have exacted a heavy toll on this ecoregion's habitat and biodiversity. There are two protected areas – Narendrapur (110 km2) and Ata Danga Baor (20 km2) that cover a mere 130 km2 of the ecoregion. Habitat loss in this ecoregion is so extensive, and the remaining habitat is so fragmented, that it is difficult to ascertain the composition of the original vegetation of this ecoregion. According to Champion and Seth (1968), the freshwater swamp forests are characterised by Heritiera minor, Xylocarpus molluccensis, Bruguiera conjugata, Sonneratia apetala, Avicennia officinalis, and Sonneratia caseolaris, with Pandanus tectorius, Hibiscus tiliaceus, and Nipa fruticans along the fringing banks.[25]

Sundarbans Mangroves

See also: Mangrove
 
Ecoregion IM406, also known as the Sundarbans Mangroves ecoregion

The Sundarbans Mangroves ecoregion on the coast forms the seaward fringe of the delta and is the world's largest mangrove ecosystem, with 20,400 square kilometres (7,900 sq mi) of an area covered. The dominant mangrove species Heritiera fomes is locally known as sundri or sundari. Mangrove forests are not home to a great variety of plants. They have a thick canopy, and the undergrowth is mostly seedlings of the mangrove trees. Besides the sundari, other tree species in the forest include Avicennia, Xylocarpus mekongensis, Xylocarpus granatum, Sonneratia apetala, Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Ceriops decandra, Aegiceras corniculatum, Rhizophora mucronata, and Nypa fruticans palms.[26] Twenty-six of the fifty broad mangrove species found in the world grow well in the Sundarbans. The commonly identifiable vegetation types in the dense Sundarbans mangrove forests are salt water mixed forest, mangrove scrub, brackish water mixed forest, littoral forest, wet forest and wet alluvial grass forests. The Bangladesh mangrove vegetation of the Sundarbans differs greatly from other non-deltaic coastal mangrove forests and upland forests associations. Unlike the former, the Rhizophoraceae are of minor importance.[27]

Ecological succession

Ecological succession is generally defined as the successive occupation of a site by different plant communities.[28] In an accreting mudflats the outer community along the sequence represents the pioneer community which is gradually replaced by the next community representing the seral stages and finally by a climax community typical of the climatic zone.[29] Robert Scott Troup suggested that succession began in the newly accreted land created by fresh deposits of eroded soil. The pioneer vegetation on these newly accreted sites is Sonneratia, followed by Avicennia and Nypa. As the ground is elevated as a result of soil deposition, other trees make their appearance. The most prevalent, though one of the late species to appear, is Excoecaria. As the level of land rises through accretion and the land is only occasionally flooded by tides, Heritiera fomes begins to appear.[30]

Flora

 
Sundari tree (Heritiera littoralis)
 
Golpata (Nypa fruticans)

A total of 245 genera and 334 plant species were recorded by David Prain in 1903.[31] While most of the mangroves in other parts of the world are characterised by members of the Rhizophoraceae, Avicenneaceae or Combretaceae, the mangroves of Bangladesh are dominated by the Malvaceae and Euphorbiaceae.[18]

The Sundarbans flora is characterised by the abundance of sundari (Heritiera fomes), gewa (Excoecaria agallocha), goran (Ceriops decandra) and keora (Sonneratia apetala) all of which occur prominently throughout the area. The characteristic tree of the forest is the sundari (Heritiera littoralis), from which the name of the forest had probably been derived. It yields a hard wood, used for building houses and making boats, furniture and other things. New forest accretions is often conspicuously dominated by keora (Sonneratia apetala) and tidal forests. It is an indicator species for newly accreted mudbanks and is an important species for wildlife, especially spotted deer (Axis axis). There is abundance of dhundul or passur (Xylocarpus granatum) and kankra (Bruguiera gymnorhiza) though distribution is discontinuous. Among palms, Poresia coaractata, Myriostachya wightiana and golpata (Nypa fruticans), and among grasses spear grass (Imperata cylindrica) and khagra (Phragmites karka) are well distributed.

The varieties of the forests that exist in Sundarbans include mangrove scrub, littoral forest, saltwater mixed forest, brackish water mixed forest and swamp forest. Besides the forest, there are extensive areas of brackish water and freshwater marshes, intertidal mudflats, sandflats, sand dunes with typical dune vegetation, open grassland on sandy soils and raised areas supporting a variety of terrestrial shrubs and trees. Since Prain's report there have been considerable changes in the status of various mangrove species and taxonomic revision of the man-grove flora.[32] However, very little exploration of the botanical nature of the Sundarbans has been made to keep up with these changes. Differences in vegetation have been explained in terms of freshwater and low salinity influences in the Northeast and variations in drainage and siltation. The Sundarbans has been classified as a moist tropical forest demonstrating a whole mosaic of seres, comprising primary colonisation on new accretions to more mature beach forests. Historically vegetation types have been recognised in broad correlation with varying degrees of water salinity, freshwater flushing and physiography.

Fauna

The Sundarbans provides a unique ecosystem and a rich wildlife habitat. According to the 2015 tiger census in Bangladesh, and the 2011 tiger census in India, the Sundarbans have about 180 tigers (106 in Bangladesh and 74 in India). Earlier estimates, based on counting unique pugmarks, were much higher. The more recent counts have used camera traps, an improved methodology that yields more accurate results.[33][34][35] Tiger attacks were historically common in the area, and are still frequent in the Sundarbans, with around 40 people killed in 2000–2010.[36]

Most importantly, mangroves are a transition from the marine to freshwater and terrestrial systems, and provide critical habitat for numerous species of small fish, crabs, shrimps and other crustaceans that adapt to feed and shelter, and reproduce among the tangled mass of roots, known as pneumatophores, which grow upward from the anaerobic mud to get the supply of oxygen. A 1991 study has revealed that the Indian part of the Sundarbans supports diverse biological resources including at least 150 species of commercially important fish, 270 species of birds, 42 species of mammals, 35 reptiles and 8 amphibian species, although new ones are being discovered. This represents a significant proportion of the species present in Bangladesh (i.e. about 30% of the reptiles, 37% the birds and 34% of the mammals) and includes many species which are now extinct elsewhere in the country.[37] Two amphibians, 14 reptiles, 25 aves and five mammals are endangered.[38] The Sundarbans is an important wintering area for migrant water birds[39] and is an area suitable for watching and studying avifauna.[40]

The management of wildlife is restricted to, firstly, the protection of fauna from poaching, and, secondly, designation of some areas as wildlife sanctuaries where no extraction of forest produce is allowed and where the wildlife face few disturbances. Although the fauna of Bangladesh have diminished in recent times[18] and the Sundarbans has not been spared from this decline, the mangrove forest retains several good wildlife habitats and their associated fauna. Of these, the tiger and dolphin are target species for planning wildlife management and tourism development. There are high profile and vulnerable mammals living in two contrasting environments, and their statuses and management are strong indicators of the general condition and management of wildlife. Some species are protected by legislation, notably by the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order, 1973 (P.O. 23 of 1973).[41]

Mammals

 
A Bengal tiger in the Sundarbans
 
Chital deer (Axis axis)
 
A Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta)

The Sundarbans are an important habitat for the Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris).[42] The forest also provides habitat for small wild cats such as the jungle cat (Felis chaus), fishing cat (Prionailurus viverrinus), and leopard cat (P. bengalensis).[43]

Several predators dwell in the labyrinth of channels, branches, and roots that poke up into the air. This is the only mangrove ecoregion that harbors the Indo-Pacific region's largest terrestrial predator, the Bengal tiger. Unlike in other habitats, tigers live here and swim among the mangrove islands, where they hunt scarce prey such as the chital deer (Axis axis), Indian muntjacs (Muntiacus muntjak), wild boar (Sus scrofa), and Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta). It is estimated that there are now 180 Bengal tigers[33] and about 30,000 spotted deer in the area. The tigers are known to attack and kill humans who venture into the forest, with around 40 deaths recorded in 2000–2010.[36]

 
A saltwater crocodile in the Sundarban Crocodile Breeding Center
 
A largetooth sawfish
 
A mudskipper

Endangered and extinct species

 
Extinct Indian Javan rhinoceros of Sunderbans, drawing from 1877
 
Gangetic dolphin, drawing from 1894

Forest inventories reveal a decline in standing volume of the two main commercial mangrove species – sundari (Heritiera spp.) and gewa (Excoecaria agallocha) — by 40% and 45% respectively between 1959 and 1983.[44][45] Despite a total ban on all killing or capture of wildlife other than fish and some invertebrates, it appears that there is a consistent pattern of depleted biodiversity or loss of species (notably at least six mammals and one important reptile) in the 20th century, and that the "ecological quality of the original mangrove forest is declining".[18]

The endangered species that live within the Sundarbans and extinct species that used to be include the Bengal tiger, estuarine crocodile, northern river terrapin (Batagur baska), olive ridley sea turtle, Gangetic dolphin, ground turtles, hawksbill sea turtles and king crabs (horse shoe). The Sundarbans hold globally important numbers of the critically endangered masked finfoot and are important wintering sites for the spoon-billed sandpiper and the Indian skimmer.[46] Some species such as hog deer (Axis porcinus), water buffalos (Bubalus bubalis), barasingha or swamp deer (Cervus duvauceli), Javan rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus), Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) and the mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) started to become extinct in the Sundarbans towards the middle of the 20th century, because of extensive poaching and hunting by the British and locals.[38] There are other threatened mammal species, such as the capped langur (Semnopithecus pileatus), smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata), Asian small-clawed otter (Aonyx cinerea) and large Indian civet (Viverra zibetha).

Climate change impact

Further information: Climate change in South Asia
 
Sundarbans a few months after Cyclone Sidr
 
Mudflats in Sundarbans

The physical development processes along the coast are influenced by a multitude of factors, comprising wave motions, micro and macro-tidal cycles and long shore currents typical to the coastal tract. The shore currents vary greatly along with the monsoon. These are also affected by cyclonic action. Erosion and accretion through these forces maintains varying levels, as yet not properly measured, of physiographic change whilst the mangrove vegetation itself provides a remarkable stability to the entire system. During each monsoon season almost all the Bengal Delta is submerged, much of it for half a year. The sediment of the lower delta plain is primarily advected inland by monsoonal coastal setup and cyclonic events. One of the greatest challenges people living on the Ganges Delta may face in coming years is the threat of rising sea levels caused mostly by subsidence in the region and partly by climate change.

In many of the Bangladesh's mangrove wetlands, freshwater reaching the mangroves was considerably reduced from the 1970s because of diversion of freshwater in the upstream area by neighbouring India through the use of the Farakka Barrage bordering Rajshahi, Bangladesh. Also, the Bengal Basin is slowly tilting towards the east because of neo-tectonic movement, forcing greater freshwater input to the Bangladesh Sundarbans. As a result, the salinity of the Bangladesh Sundarbans is much lower than that of the Indian side. A 1990 study noted that there "is no evidence that environmental degradation in the Himalayas or a 'greenhouse' induced rise in sea level have aggravated floods in Bangladesh"; however, a 2007 report by UNESCO, "Case Studies on Climate Change and World Heritage" has stated that an anthropogenic 45-centimetre (18 in) rise in sea level (likely by the end of the 21st century, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), combined with other forms of anthropogenic stress on the Sundarbans, could lead to the destruction of 75 percent of the Sundarbans mangroves.[47] Already, Lohachara Island and New Moore Island/South Talpatti Island have disappeared under the sea, and Ghoramara Island is half submerged.[48]

In a study conducted in 2012, the Zoological Society of London (ZSL) found out that the Sunderban coast was retreating up to 200 metres (660 ft) in a year. Agricultural activities had destroyed around 17,179 hectares (42,450 acres) of mangroves within three decades (1975–2010). Shrimp cultivation had destroyed another 7,554 hectares (18,670 acres).

Researches from the School of Oceanographic Studies, Jadavpur University, estimated the annual rise in sea level to be 8 millimetres (0.31 in) in 2010. It had doubled from 3.14 millimetres (0.124 in) recorded in 2000. The rising sea levels had also submerged around 7,500 hectares (19,000 acres) of forest areas. This, coupled with an around 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) rise in surface water temperatures and increased levels of salinity have posed a problem for the survival of the indigenous flora and fauna. The Sundari trees are exceptionally sensitive to salinity and are being threatened with extinction.

Loss of the mangrove forest will result in the loss of the protective biological shield against cyclones and tsunamis. This may put the surrounding coastal communities at high risk. Moreover, the submergence of land mass have rendered up to 6,000 families homeless and around 70,000 people are immediately threatened with the same.[49][self-published source?][50][self-published source?][51] This is causing the flight of human capital to the mainland, about 13% in the decade of 2000–2010.[52]

A 2015 ethnographic study, conducted by a team of researchers from Heiderberg university in Germany, found a crisis brewing in the Sunderbans. The study contended that poor planning on the part of the India and Bangladesh governments coupled with natural ecological changes were forcing the flight of human capital from the region[52][53]

Hazards

Natural hazards

According to a report created by UNESCO, the landfall of Cyclone Sidr damaged around 40% of Sundarbans in 2007.[54]

Human made hazards

Further information: Rampal Power Station and 2014 Sundarbans oil spill

In August 2010, a memorandum of understanding was signed between Bangladesh Power Development Board (BPDB) and India's state-owned National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) where they designated to implement the coal-fired Rampal power station by 2016.[55][56] The proposed project, on an area of over 1,834 acres of land, is situated 14 kilometres (8.7 mi) north of the Sundarbans.[57] This project violates the environmental impact assessment guidelines for coal-based thermal power plants.[58] Environmental activists contend that the proposed location of the Rampal Station would violate provisions of the Ramsar Convention.[59][60] The government of Bangladesh rejected the allegations that the coal-based power plant would adversely affect the world's largest mangrove forest.[61]

On 9 December 2014 an oil-tanker named Southern Star VII,[62] carrying 358,000 litres (79,000 imp gal; 95,000 US gal) of furnace oil,[63][64] was sunk in the Sela river[65] of Sundarbans after it had been hit by a cargo vessel.[62][64] The oil spread over 350 km2 (140 sq mi) area after the clash, as of 17 December.[66] The slick spread to a second river and a network of canals in the Sundarbans and blackened the shoreline.[67] The event was very threatening to trees, plankton, vast populations of small fishes and dolphins.[68] The event occurred at a protected Sundarbans mangrove area, home to rare Irrawaddy and Ganges dolphins.[69] Until 15 December 2014 only 50,000 litres (11,000 imp gal; 13,000 US gal) of oil from the area were cleaned up by local residents, Bangladesh Navy and the government of Bangladesh.[63][70] Some reports indicated that the event killed some wildlife.[65] On 13 December 2014, a dead Irrawaddy dolphin was seen floating on the Harintana-Tembulbunia channel of the Sela River.[71]

Economy

 
Commercial fishing boat in Sundarbans
 
Logging boat in the Sundarbans
 
Ferry boat in the Sundarbans

The Sundarbans plays an important role in the economy of the southwestern region of Bangladesh as well as in the national economy. It is the single largest source of forest produce in the country. The forest provides raw materials for wood-based industries. In addition to traditional forest produce like timber, fuelwood, pulpwood etc., large-scale harvest of non-wood forest products such as thatching materials, honey, beeswax, fish, crustacean and mollusc resources of the forest takes place regularly. The vegetated tidal lands of the Sundarbans function as an essential habitat, produces nutrients and purifies water. The forest also traps nutrient and sediment, acts as a storm barrier, shore stabiliser and energy storage unit. Last but not the least, the Sunderbans provides an aesthetic attraction for local and foreign tourists. The water houseboat in the Sundarbans is also a recent attraction among the tourists.

The forest has immense protective and productive functions. Constituting 51% of the total reserved forest estate of Bangladesh, it contributes about 41% of total forest revenue and accounts for about 45% of all timber and fuel wood output of the country.[72] A number of industries (e.g., newsprint mill, match factory, hardboard, boat building, furniture making) are based on raw materials obtained from the Sundarbans ecosystem. Non-timber forest products and plantations help generate considerable employment and income opportunities for at least half a million poor coastal people. It provides natural protection to life and properties of the coastal population in cyclone-prone Bangladesh.

Agriculture

 
During monsoon the paddy fields in the Sunderbans are entirely flooded.

Part of the Sundarbans is shielded from tidal inflow by leaves and there one finds villages and agriculture. During the monsoon season, the low lying agricultural lands are waterlogged and the summer crop (kharif crop) is therefore mainly deepwater rice or floating rice. In the dry winter season the land is normally uncropped and used for cattle grazing. However, the lands near the villages are irrigated from ponds that were filled up during monsoon, and vegetable crops (Rabi crops) can be grown here.[73]

Habitation

The Sundarbans has a population of over 4 million[74] but much of it is mostly free of permanent human habitation. Despite human habitations and a century of economic exploitation of the forest well into the late 1940s, the Sundarbans retained a forest closure of about 70% according to the Overseas Development Administration (ODA) of the United Kingdom in 1980.

Administration

 
Police Boat Patrolling in Sundarban National Park, West Bengal

The Sundarbans area is one of the most densely populated areas in the world, and the population is increasing.[citation needed] As a result, half of this ecoregion's mangrove forests have been cut down to supply fuelwood and other natural resources. Despite the intense and large-scale exploitation, this still is one of the largest contiguous areas of mangroves in the world. Another threat comes from deforestation and water diversion from the rivers inland, which causes far more silt to be brought to the estuary, clogging up the waterways.

The Directorate of Forest is responsible for the administration and management of Sundarban National Park in West Bengal. The Principal Chief Conservator of Forests (PCCF), Wildlife & Bio-Diversity & ex-officio Chief Wildlife Warden, West Bengal is the senior most executive officer looking over the administration of the park. The Chief Conservator of Forests (South) & Director, Sundarban Biosphere Reserve is the administrative head of the park at the local level and is assisted by a Deputy Field Director and an Assistant Field Director. The park area is divided into two ranges, overseen by range forest officers. Each range is further sub-divided into beats. The park also has floating watch stations and camps to protect the property from poachers.

The park receives financial aid from the State Government as well as the Ministry of Environment and Forests under various Plan and Non-Plan Budgets. Additional funding is received under the Project Tiger from the Central Government. In 2001, a grant of US$20,000 was received as a preparatory assistance for promotion between India and Bangladesh from the World Heritage Fund.

A new Khulna Forest Circle was created in Bangladesh back in 1993 to preserve the forest, and Chief Conservators of Forests have been posted since. The direct administrative head of the Division is the Divisional Forest Officer, based at Khulna, who has a number of professional, subprofessional and support staff and logistic supports for the implementation of necessary management and administrative activities. The basic unit of management is the compartment. There are 55 compartments in four Forest Ranges and these are clearly demarcated mainly by natural features such as rivers, canals and creeks.

Recently West Bengal Cabinet has approved a new district in South 24 Parganas and proposed district was named Sundarban.[75]

Protected areas

 
A map of the protected areas of the Indian Sunderbans, showing the boundaries of the tiger reserve, the national park and the three wildlife sanctuaries, conservation and lodging centres, subsistence towns, and access points. The entire forested (dark green) area constitutes the Biosphere Reserve, with the remaining forests outside the national park and wildlife sanctuaries being given the status of a reserve forest.

The Bangladesh part of the forest lies under two forest divisions, and four administrative ranges viz Chandpai (Khulna District), Sarankhola (Khulna), and Burigoalini (Satkhira District) and has sixteen forest stations. It is further divided into fifty-five compartments and nine blocks.[13] There are three wildlife sanctuaries established in 1977 under the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order, 1973 (P.O. 23 of 1973). The West Bengal part of the forest lies under the district of South & North 24 Parganas.

Protected areas cover 15% of the Sundarbans mangroves including Sundarbans National Park and Sajnakhali Wildlife Sanctuary, in West Bengal, Sundarbans East, Sundarbans South and Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuaries in Bangladesh.[26]

In May 2019, the local authorities in Bangladesh killed 4 tiger poachers in a shootout in the Sunderbans mangrove area where currently 114 tigers dwell.

Sundarban National Park

Main article: Sundarbans National Park

The Sundarban National Park is a National Park, Tiger Reserve, and a Biosphere Reserve in West Bengal, India. It is part of the Sundarbans on the Ganges Delta, and adjacent to the Sundarbans Reserve Forest in Bangladesh. The delta is densely covered by mangrove forests, and is one of the largest reserves for the Bengal tiger. It is also home to a variety of bird, reptile and invertebrate species, including the salt-water crocodile. The present Sundarbans National Park was declared as the core area of Sundarbans Tiger Reserve in 1973 and a wildlife sanctuary in 1977. On 4 May 1984 it was declared a National Park.

Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary

Main article: Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary

Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary is a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Bangladesh. The region supports mangroves, including: sparse stands of Gewa (Excoecaria agallocha) and dense stands of Goran (Ceriops tagal), with discontinuous patches of Hantal palm (Phoenix paludosa) on drier ground, river banks and levees. The fauna of the sanctuary is very diverse with some 40 species of mammals, 260 species of birds and 35 species of reptiles. The greatest of these being the Bengal tiger of which an estimated 350 remain in the Bangladesh Sundarbans. Other large mammals are wild boar, chital horin (spotted deer), Indian otter and macaque monkey. Five species of marine turtles frequent the coastal zone and two endangered reptiles are present – the estuarine crocodile and the Indian python.[76]

Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary

Main article: Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary

Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary extends over an area of 31,227 hectares (77,160 acres) in Bangladesh. Sundari trees (Heritiera fomes) dominate the flora, interspersed with Gewa (Excoecaria agallocha) and Passur (Xylocarpus mekongensis) with Kankra (Bruguiera gymnorhiza) occurring in areas subject to more frequent flooding. There is an understory of Shingra (Cynometra ramiflora) where, soils are drier and Amur (Aglaia cucullata) in wetter areas and Goran (Ceriops decandra) in more saline places. Nypa palm (Nypa fruticans) is widespread along drainage lines.

Sundarbans South Wildlife Sanctuary

Main article: Sundarbans South Wildlife Sanctuary

Sundarbans South Wildlife Sanctuary extends over an area of 36,970 hectares (91,400 acres) in Bangladesh. There is evidently the greatest seasonal variation in salinity levels and possibly represents an area of relatively longer duration of moderate salinity where Gewa (Excoecaria agallocha) is the dominant woody species. It is often mixed with Sundri, which is able to displace in circumstances such as artificially opened canopies where Sundri does not regenerate as effectively. It is also frequently associated with a dense understory of Goran (Ceriops tagal) and sometimes Passur.

Sajnakhali Wildlife Sanctuary

Main article: Sajnakhali Wildlife Sanctuary

Sajnakhali Wildlife Sanctuary is a 362-square-kilometre (140 sq mi) area in the northern part of the Sundarbans delta in South 24 Parganas district, West Bengal, India. It is mainly mangrove scrub, forest and swamp. It was set up as a sanctuary in 1976. It is home to a rich population of different species of wildlife, such as water fowl, heron, pelican, spotted deer, rhesus macaques, wild boar, tigers, water monitor lizards, fishing cats, otters, olive ridley turtles, crocodiles, batagur terrapins, and migratory birds.

In popular culture

 
Idol of Manasa, the deity of snakes
 
Bonbibi, the goddess of Sundarbans

The Sundarbans is celebrated through numerous Bengali folk songs and dances, often centred around the folk heroes, gods and goddesses specific to the Sunderbans (like Bonbibi and Dakshin Rai) and to the Lower Gangetic Delta (like Manasa and Chand Sadagar). The Bengali folk epic Manasamangal mentions Netidhopani and has some passages set in the Sundarbans during the heroine Behula's quest to bring her husband Lakhindar back to life.

The area provides the setting for several novels by Emilio Salgari, (e.g. The Mystery of the Black Jungle). Sundarbaney Arjan Sardar, a novel by Shibshankar Mitra, and Padma Nadir Majhi, a novel by Manik Bandopadhyay, are based on the rigors of lives of villagers and fishermen living in the Sunderbans region, and are woven into the Bengali psyche to a great extent. Part of the plot of Salman Rushdie's Booker Prize winning novel, Midnight's Children is set in the Sundarbans. This forest is adopted as the setting of Kunal Basu's short story "The Japanese Wife" and the subsequent film adaptation. Most of the plot of an internationally acclaimed novelist, Amitav Ghosh's 2004 novel, The Hungry Tide, is set in the Sundarbans. The plot centres on a headstrong American cetologist who arrives to study a rare species of river dolphin, enlisting a local fisherman and translator to aid her. The book also mentions two accounts of the Bonbibi story of "Dukhey's Redemption".[77] Manik Bandopadhyay's Padma Nadir Majhi was made into a movie by Goutam Ghose.

The Sunderbans has been the subject of a detailed and well-researched scholarly work on Bonbibi (a 'forest goddess' venerated by Hindus), on the relation between the islanders and tigers and on conservation and how it is perceived by the inhabitants of the Sundarbans,[78] as well as numerous non-fiction books, including The Man-Eating Tigers of Sundarbans by Sy Montegomery for a young audience, which was shortlisted for the Dorothy Canfield Fisher Children's Book Award. In Up The Country, Emily Eden discusses her travels through the Sunderbans.[79] Numerous documentary movies have been made about the Sunderbans, including the 2003 IMAX production Shining Bright about the Bengal tiger. The acclaimed BBC TV series Ganges documents the lives of villagers, especially honey collectors, in the Sundarbans.

See also

References

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External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sundarbans.
  •   Sundarbans travel guide from Wikivoyage
  • UNESCO World Heritage Centre: The Sundarbans
  • UNESCO: Sundarban Biosphere Reserve Information
  • World Heritage Site: The Sundarbans
  • United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre Protected Areas Programme: The Sundarbans
  • Greenpeace: Sinking Sundarbans – Climate voices
  • Tiger Conservation Project in the Bangladeshi Sundarbans
  • Research on water management and control in the Sunderbans, West Bengal, India
  • Finfishes of Sundarbans
  • Nasa images: and

July 21, 2023
sundarbans, other, uses, disambiguation, pronounced, ɑːr, mangrove, area, delta, formed, confluence, ganges, brahmaputra, meghna, rivers, bengal, sundarban, reserve, forest, bangladesh, largest, mangrove, forest, world, spans, area, from, baleswar, river, bang. For other uses see Sundarbans disambiguation Sundarbans pronounced s ʌ n ˈ d ɑːr b e n z is a mangrove area in the delta formed by the confluence of the Ganges Brahmaputra and Meghna Rivers in the Bay of Bengal Sundarban Reserve Forest SRF of Bangladesh is the largest mangrove forest in the world It spans the area from the Baleswar River in Bangladesh s division of Khulna to the Hooghly River in India s state of West Bengal It comprises closed and open mangrove forests land used for agricultural purpose mudflats and barren land and is intersected by multiple tidal streams and channels Sundarbans is home to the world s largest area of mangrove forests 3 Four protected areas in the Sundarbans are enlisted as UNESCO World Heritage Sites viz Sundarbans West Bangladesh Sundarbans South Bangladesh Sundarbans East Bangladesh and Sundarbans National Park India 4 SundarbansInside the sundarbansLocation of the Sundarbans spanning across the Ganges Brahmaputra deltaLocationKhulna Division BangladeshPresidency division West Bengal IndiaNearest cityBasirhat Diamond Harbour Haldia Khulna Kolkata Bagerhat Potuakhali Barguna Satkhira Coordinates21 43 59 N 88 52 08 E 21 73318765 N 88 86896612 E 21 73318765 88 86896612Governing bodyGovernment of Bangladesh 66 Government of India 34 UNESCO World Heritage SiteOfficial nameThe SundarbansLocationKhulna Division BangladeshIncludesSundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary Sundarbans South Sanctuary Sundarbans East SanctuaryCriteriaNatural ix x Reference798Inscription1997 21st Session Area139 500 ha 539 sq mi Coordinates21 57 N 89 11 E 21 950 N 89 183 E 21 950 89 183Ramsar WetlandOfficial nameSundarbans Reserved ForestDesignated21 May 1992Reference no 560 1 Ramsar WetlandOfficial nameSundarban WetlandDesignated30 January 2019Reference no 2370 2 UNESCO World Heritage SiteOfficial nameSundarbans National ParkLocationPresidency division West Bengal IndiaIncludesSundarbans National ParkCriteriaNatural ix x Reference452Inscription1987 11th Session Area133 010 ha 513 6 sq mi Coordinates21 56 42 N 88 53 45 E 21 94500 N 88 89583 E 21 94500 88 89583Despite these protections the Indian Sundarbans were considered endangered in a 2020 assessment under the IUCN Red List of Ecosystems framework 5 The Sundarbans mangrove forest covers an area of about 10 000 km2 3 900 sq mi of which forests in Bangladesh s Khulna Division extend over 6 517 km2 2 516 sq mi and in West Bengal they extend over 3 483 km2 1 345 sq mi across the South 24 Parganas and North 24 Parganas districts 6 The most abundant tree species are sundri Heritiera fomes and gewa Excoecaria agallocha The forests provide habitat to 453 fauna wildlife including 290 bird 120 fish 42 mammal 35 reptile and eight amphibian species 7 Despite a total ban on all killing or capture of wildlife other than fish and some invertebrates there is a consistent pattern of depleted biodiversity or loss of species in the 20th century and the ecological quality of the forest is declining 8 Despite preservation commitments from both governments the Sundarbans are under threat from both natural and human made causes In 2007 the landfall of Cyclone Sidr damaged around 40 of the Sundarbans The forest is also suffering from increased salinity due to rising sea levels due to climate change and reduced freshwater supply In May 2009 Cyclone Aila devastated the Sundarbans with massive casualties At least 100 000 people were affected by this cyclone 9 10 The proposed coal fired Rampal power station situated 14 km 8 7 mi north of the Sundarbans at Rampal Upazila of Bagerhat District in Khulna Bangladesh is anticipated to further damage this unique mangrove forest according to a 2016 report by UNESCO 11 Climate change is expected to continue to negatively affect both natural systems and human populations in the region resulting in further ecosystem degradation and climate migration Experts examining the region recommend further focus on mangrove restoration and management and advocating for adaptation of human populations through processes like managed retreat and investments in resilient infrastructure 12 Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 3 Geography 4 Physiography 5 Ecoregions 5 1 Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests 5 2 Sundarbans Mangroves 5 3 Ecological succession 6 Flora 7 Fauna 7 1 Mammals 8 Endangered and extinct species 9 Climate change impact 10 Hazards 10 1 Natural hazards 10 2 Human made hazards 11 Economy 11 1 Agriculture 11 2 Habitation 12 Administration 13 Protected areas 13 1 Sundarban National Park 13 2 Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary 13 3 Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary 13 4 Sundarbans South Wildlife Sanctuary 13 5 Sajnakhali Wildlife Sanctuary 14 In popular culture 15 See also 16 References 17 Sources 18 External linksEtymology EditThe literal meaning of Sundarbans Bengali স ন দরবন romanized Sundorbon is beautiful forest Alternatively it was proposed that the name is a corruption of Samudraban Shomudrobon Sea Forest or Chandra bandhe the name of a tribe 13 However the likely origin of the word is Sundari or Sundri the local name of the mangrove species Heritiera fomes abundant in the area 14 History Edit Village in a clearing of the Sundarbans Drawing by Frederic Peter Layard after an original sketch of 1839 Farm among paddy fields in the Sundarbans 2010 The history of human settlement in the Sundarbans area can be traced back to Mauryan era 4th 2nd century BCE 15 A ruin of an abandoned city was found in the Baghmara Forest Block that is attributed to Chand Sadagar a pre Mauryan semi historical figure in Bengali folklore 16 Archaeological excavation at Kapilmuni Paikgacha Upazilla north of the Sundarbans in Bangladesh revealed ruins of urban settlement dating back to the early middle ages 17 During the Mughal period forest tracts were leased out by the local rulers for establishing settlements 16 In 1757 The British East India Company obtained proprietary rights over Sundarbans from the Mughal Emperor Alamgir II and completed mapping the area in 1764 However systematic forest management started a century later The first Forest Management Division to have jurisdiction over the Sundarbans was established in 1869 In 1875 a large portion of the mangrove forests was declared as reserved forests under the Indian Forest Act of 1865 Act VIII of 1865 The remaining portions of the forests were declared a reserve forest the following year and the forest which was so far administered by the civil administration district was placed under the control of the Forest Department A Forest Division which is the basic forest management and administration unit was created in 1879 with the headquarters in Khulna Bangladesh The first management plan was written for the period 1893 1898 18 19 Geography EditThis section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed November 2018 Learn how and when to remove this template message Map of the SundarbansThe Sundarban forest lies in the vast delta on the Bay of Bengal formed by the super confluence of the Hooghly Padma both are distributaries of Ganges Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers across southern Bangladesh The seasonally flooded Sundarbans freshwater swamp forest lies inland from the mangrove forests on the coastal fringe The forest covers 10 000 km2 3 900 sq mi of which about 6 517 km2 2 516 sq mi are in Bangladesh The Indian part of Sundarbans is estimated to be about 3 483 km2 1 345 sq mi of which about 1 700 km2 660 sq mi is occupied by water bodies in the forms of river canals and creeks of width varying from a few metres to several kilometres The Sundarbans is intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways mudflats and small islands of salt tolerant mangrove forests The interconnected network of waterways makes almost every corner of the forest accessible by boat The area is known for the Bengal tiger Panthera tigris as well as numerous fauna including species of birds chital crocodiles and snakes The fertile soils of the delta have been subject to intensive human use for centuries and the ecoregion has been mostly converted to intensive agriculture with few enclaves of forest remaining The remaining forests taken together with the Sundarbans mangroves are important habitat for the endangered tiger Additionally the Mangroves species present in the Sundarban area serve a crucial function as a protective barrier for the millions of inhabitants in and around Khulna and Port of Mongla against the floods that result from the cyclones It also protects from tsunami and soil erosion for the coastal population 20 Physiography Edit SPOT satellite image of Sundarbans released by CNES Landsat 7 image of Sundarbans released by NASA Earth Observatory The mangrove dominated Ganges Delta the Sundarbans is a complex ecosystem comprising one of the three largest single tracts of mangrove forests of the world The larger part is situated in Bangladesh a smaller portion of it lies in India The Indian part of the forest is estimated to be about 40 percent while the Bangladeshi part is 60 percent To the south the forest meets the Bay of Bengal to the east it is bordered by the Baleswar River and to the north there is a sharp interface with intensively cultivated land The natural drainage in the upstream areas other than the main river channels is everywhere impeded by extensive embankments and polders The Sundarbans was originally measured about 200 years ago to be of about 16 700 square kilometres 6 400 sq mi Now it has dwindled into about one third of its original size The total land area today is 4 143 square kilometres 1 600 sq mi including exposed sandbars with a total area of 42 square kilometres 16 sq mi the remaining water area of 1 874 square kilometres 724 sq mi encompasses rivers small streams and canals Rivers in the Sundarbans are meeting places of salt water and freshwater Thus it is a region of transition between the freshwater of the rivers originating from the Ganges and the saline water of the Bay of Bengal 21 The Sundarbans along the Bay of Bengal has evolved over the millennia through natural deposition of upstream sediments accompanied by intertidal segregation The physiography is dominated by deltaic formations that include innumerable drainage lines associated with surface and subaqueous levees splays and tidal flats There are also marginal marshes above mean tide level tidal sandbars and islands with their networks of tidal channels subaqueous distal bars and proto delta clays and silt sediments The Sundarbans floor varies from 0 9 to 2 11 metres 3 0 to 6 9 ft above sea level 22 Biotic factors here play a significant role in physical coastal evolution and for wildlife a variety of habitats have developed which include beaches estuaries permanent and semi permanent swamps tidal flats tidal creeks coastal dunes back dunes and levees The mangrove vegetation itself assists in the formation of new landmass and the intertidal vegetation plays a significant role in swamp morphology The activities of mangrove fauna in the intertidal mudflats develop micromorphological features that trap and hold sediments to create a substratum for mangrove seeds The morphology and evolution of the eolian dunes is controlled by an abundance of xerophytic and halophytic plants Creepers grasses and sedges stabilise sand dunes and uncompacted sediments The Sunderbans mudflats Banerjee 1998 are found at the estuary and on the deltaic islands where low velocity of river and tidal current occurs The flats are exposed in low tides and submerged in high tides thus being changed morphologically even in one tidal cycle The tides are so large that approximately one third of the land disappears and reappears every day 23 The interior parts of the mudflats serve as a perfect home for mangroves See also List of rivers of SundarbansEcoregions EditSundarbans features two ecoregions Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests IM0162 and Sundarbans mangroves IM1406 24 Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests Edit The Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests are a tropical moist broadleaf forest ecoregion of Bangladesh It represents the brackish swamp forests that lie behind the Sundarbans Mangroves where the salinity is more pronounced The freshwater ecoregion is an area where the water is only slightly brackish and becomes quite fresh during the rainy season when the freshwater plumes from the Ganges and the Brahmaputra rivers push the intruding salt water out and bring a deposit of silt It covers 14 600 square kilometres 5 600 sq mi of the vast Ganges Brahmaputra Delta extending from the northern part of Khulna District and finishing at the mouth of the Bay of Bengal with scattered portions extending into India s West Bengal state The Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests lie between the upland Lower Gangetic plains moist deciduous forests and the brackish water Sundarbans mangroves bordering the Bay of Bengal 25 A victim of large scale clearing and settlement to support one of the densest human populations in Asia this ecoregion is under a great threat of extinction Hundreds of years of habitation and exploitation have exacted a heavy toll on this ecoregion s habitat and biodiversity There are two protected areas Narendrapur 110 km2 and Ata Danga Baor 20 km2 that cover a mere 130 km2 of the ecoregion Habitat loss in this ecoregion is so extensive and the remaining habitat is so fragmented that it is difficult to ascertain the composition of the original vegetation of this ecoregion According to Champion and Seth 1968 the freshwater swamp forests are characterised by Heritiera minor Xylocarpus molluccensis Bruguiera conjugata Sonneratia apetala Avicennia officinalis and Sonneratia caseolaris with Pandanus tectorius Hibiscus tiliaceus and Nipa fruticans along the fringing banks 25 Sundarbans Mangroves Edit See also Mangrove Ecoregion IM406 also known as the Sundarbans Mangroves ecoregionThe Sundarbans Mangroves ecoregion on the coast forms the seaward fringe of the delta and is the world s largest mangrove ecosystem with 20 400 square kilometres 7 900 sq mi of an area covered The dominant mangrove species Heritiera fomes is locally known as sundri or sundari Mangrove forests are not home to a great variety of plants They have a thick canopy and the undergrowth is mostly seedlings of the mangrove trees Besides the sundari other tree species in the forest include Avicennia Xylocarpus mekongensis Xylocarpus granatum Sonneratia apetala Bruguiera gymnorhiza Ceriops decandra Aegiceras corniculatum Rhizophora mucronata and Nypa fruticans palms 26 Twenty six of the fifty broad mangrove species found in the world grow well in the Sundarbans The commonly identifiable vegetation types in the dense Sundarbans mangrove forests are salt water mixed forest mangrove scrub brackish water mixed forest littoral forest wet forest and wet alluvial grass forests The Bangladesh mangrove vegetation of the Sundarbans differs greatly from other non deltaic coastal mangrove forests and upland forests associations Unlike the former the Rhizophoraceae are of minor importance 27 Ecological succession Edit Ecological succession is generally defined as the successive occupation of a site by different plant communities 28 In an accreting mudflats the outer community along the sequence represents the pioneer community which is gradually replaced by the next community representing the seral stages and finally by a climax community typical of the climatic zone 29 Robert Scott Troup suggested that succession began in the newly accreted land created by fresh deposits of eroded soil The pioneer vegetation on these newly accreted sites is Sonneratia followed by Avicennia and Nypa As the ground is elevated as a result of soil deposition other trees make their appearance The most prevalent though one of the late species to appear is Excoecaria As the level of land rises through accretion and the land is only occasionally flooded by tides Heritiera fomes begins to appear 30 Flora Edit Sundari tree Heritiera littoralis Golpata Nypa fruticans A total of 245 genera and 334 plant species were recorded by David Prain in 1903 31 While most of the mangroves in other parts of the world are characterised by members of the Rhizophoraceae Avicenneaceae or Combretaceae the mangroves of Bangladesh are dominated by the Malvaceae and Euphorbiaceae 18 The Sundarbans flora is characterised by the abundance of sundari Heritiera fomes gewa Excoecaria agallocha goran Ceriops decandra and keora Sonneratia apetala all of which occur prominently throughout the area The characteristic tree of the forest is the sundari Heritiera littoralis from which the name of the forest had probably been derived It yields a hard wood used for building houses and making boats furniture and other things New forest accretions is often conspicuously dominated by keora Sonneratia apetala and tidal forests It is an indicator species for newly accreted mudbanks and is an important species for wildlife especially spotted deer Axis axis There is abundance of dhundul or passur Xylocarpus granatum and kankra Bruguiera gymnorhiza though distribution is discontinuous Among palms Poresia coaractata Myriostachya wightiana and golpata Nypa fruticans and among grasses spear grass Imperata cylindrica and khagra Phragmites karka are well distributed The varieties of the forests that exist in Sundarbans include mangrove scrub littoral forest saltwater mixed forest brackish water mixed forest and swamp forest Besides the forest there are extensive areas of brackish water and freshwater marshes intertidal mudflats sandflats sand dunes with typical dune vegetation open grassland on sandy soils and raised areas supporting a variety of terrestrial shrubs and trees Since Prain s report there have been considerable changes in the status of various mangrove species and taxonomic revision of the man grove flora 32 However very little exploration of the botanical nature of the Sundarbans has been made to keep up with these changes Differences in vegetation have been explained in terms of freshwater and low salinity influences in the Northeast and variations in drainage and siltation The Sundarbans has been classified as a moist tropical forest demonstrating a whole mosaic of seres comprising primary colonisation on new accretions to more mature beach forests Historically vegetation types have been recognised in broad correlation with varying degrees of water salinity freshwater flushing and physiography Fauna EditThe Sundarbans provides a unique ecosystem and a rich wildlife habitat According to the 2015 tiger census in Bangladesh and the 2011 tiger census in India the Sundarbans have about 180 tigers 106 in Bangladesh and 74 in India Earlier estimates based on counting unique pugmarks were much higher The more recent counts have used camera traps an improved methodology that yields more accurate results 33 34 35 Tiger attacks were historically common in the area and are still frequent in the Sundarbans with around 40 people killed in 2000 2010 36 Most importantly mangroves are a transition from the marine to freshwater and terrestrial systems and provide critical habitat for numerous species of small fish crabs shrimps and other crustaceans that adapt to feed and shelter and reproduce among the tangled mass of roots known as pneumatophores which grow upward from the anaerobic mud to get the supply of oxygen A 1991 study has revealed that the Indian part of the Sundarbans supports diverse biological resources including at least 150 species of commercially important fish 270 species of birds 42 species of mammals 35 reptiles and 8 amphibian species although new ones are being discovered This represents a significant proportion of the species present in Bangladesh i e about 30 of the reptiles 37 the birds and 34 of the mammals and includes many species which are now extinct elsewhere in the country 37 Two amphibians 14 reptiles 25 aves and five mammals are endangered 38 The Sundarbans is an important wintering area for migrant water birds 39 and is an area suitable for watching and studying avifauna 40 The management of wildlife is restricted to firstly the protection of fauna from poaching and secondly designation of some areas as wildlife sanctuaries where no extraction of forest produce is allowed and where the wildlife face few disturbances Although the fauna of Bangladesh have diminished in recent times 18 and the Sundarbans has not been spared from this decline the mangrove forest retains several good wildlife habitats and their associated fauna Of these the tiger and dolphin are target species for planning wildlife management and tourism development There are high profile and vulnerable mammals living in two contrasting environments and their statuses and management are strong indicators of the general condition and management of wildlife Some species are protected by legislation notably by the Bangladesh Wildlife Preservation Order 1973 P O 23 of 1973 41 Mammals Edit A Bengal tiger in the Sundarbans Chital deer Axis axis A Rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta The Sundarbans are an important habitat for the Bengal tiger Panthera tigris 42 The forest also provides habitat for small wild cats such as the jungle cat Felis chaus fishing cat Prionailurus viverrinus and leopard cat P bengalensis 43 Several predators dwell in the labyrinth of channels branches and roots that poke up into the air This is the only mangrove ecoregion that harbors the Indo Pacific region s largest terrestrial predator the Bengal tiger Unlike in other habitats tigers live here and swim among the mangrove islands where they hunt scarce prey such as the chital deer Axis axis Indian muntjacs Muntiacus muntjak wild boar Sus scrofa and Rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta It is estimated that there are now 180 Bengal tigers 33 and about 30 000 spotted deer in the area The tigers are known to attack and kill humans who venture into the forest with around 40 deaths recorded in 2000 2010 36 A saltwater crocodile in the Sundarban Crocodile Breeding Center A largetooth sawfish A mudskipperEndangered and extinct species Edit Extinct Indian Javan rhinoceros of Sunderbans drawing from 1877 Gangetic dolphin drawing from 1894 Forest inventories reveal a decline in standing volume of the two main commercial mangrove species sundari Heritiera spp and gewa Excoecaria agallocha by 40 and 45 respectively between 1959 and 1983 44 45 Despite a total ban on all killing or capture of wildlife other than fish and some invertebrates it appears that there is a consistent pattern of depleted biodiversity or loss of species notably at least six mammals and one important reptile in the 20th century and that the ecological quality of the original mangrove forest is declining 18 The endangered species that live within the Sundarbans and extinct species that used to be include the Bengal tiger estuarine crocodile northern river terrapin Batagur baska olive ridley sea turtle Gangetic dolphin ground turtles hawksbill sea turtles and king crabs horse shoe The Sundarbans hold globally important numbers of the critically endangered masked finfoot and are important wintering sites for the spoon billed sandpiper and the Indian skimmer 46 Some species such as hog deer Axis porcinus water buffalos Bubalus bubalis barasingha or swamp deer Cervus duvauceli Javan rhinoceros Rhinoceros sondaicus Indian rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis and the mugger crocodile Crocodylus palustris started to become extinct in the Sundarbans towards the middle of the 20th century because of extensive poaching and hunting by the British and locals 38 There are other threatened mammal species such as the capped langur Semnopithecus pileatus smooth coated otter Lutrogale perspicillata Asian small clawed otter Aonyx cinerea and large Indian civet Viverra zibetha Climate change impact EditFurther information Climate change in South Asia Sundarbans a few months after Cyclone Sidr Mudflats in Sundarbans The physical development processes along the coast are influenced by a multitude of factors comprising wave motions micro and macro tidal cycles and long shore currents typical to the coastal tract The shore currents vary greatly along with the monsoon These are also affected by cyclonic action Erosion and accretion through these forces maintains varying levels as yet not properly measured of physiographic change whilst the mangrove vegetation itself provides a remarkable stability to the entire system During each monsoon season almost all the Bengal Delta is submerged much of it for half a year The sediment of the lower delta plain is primarily advected inland by monsoonal coastal setup and cyclonic events One of the greatest challenges people living on the Ganges Delta may face in coming years is the threat of rising sea levels caused mostly by subsidence in the region and partly by climate change In many of the Bangladesh s mangrove wetlands freshwater reaching the mangroves was considerably reduced from the 1970s because of diversion of freshwater in the upstream area by neighbouring India through the use of the Farakka Barrage bordering Rajshahi Bangladesh Also the Bengal Basin is slowly tilting towards the east because of neo tectonic movement forcing greater freshwater input to the Bangladesh Sundarbans As a result the salinity of the Bangladesh Sundarbans is much lower than that of the Indian side A 1990 study noted that there is no evidence that environmental degradation in the Himalayas or a greenhouse induced rise in sea level have aggravated floods in Bangladesh however a 2007 report by UNESCO Case Studies on Climate Change and World Heritage has stated that an anthropogenic 45 centimetre 18 in rise in sea level likely by the end of the 21st century according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change combined with other forms of anthropogenic stress on the Sundarbans could lead to the destruction of 75 percent of the Sundarbans mangroves 47 Already Lohachara Island and New Moore Island South Talpatti Island have disappeared under the sea and Ghoramara Island is half submerged 48 In a study conducted in 2012 the Zoological Society of London ZSL found out that the Sunderban coast was retreating up to 200 metres 660 ft in a year Agricultural activities had destroyed around 17 179 hectares 42 450 acres of mangroves within three decades 1975 2010 Shrimp cultivation had destroyed another 7 554 hectares 18 670 acres Researches from the School of Oceanographic Studies Jadavpur University estimated the annual rise in sea level to be 8 millimetres 0 31 in in 2010 It had doubled from 3 14 millimetres 0 124 in recorded in 2000 The rising sea levels had also submerged around 7 500 hectares 19 000 acres of forest areas This coupled with an around 1 5 C 2 7 F rise in surface water temperatures and increased levels of salinity have posed a problem for the survival of the indigenous flora and fauna The Sundari trees are exceptionally sensitive to salinity and are being threatened with extinction Loss of the mangrove forest will result in the loss of the protective biological shield against cyclones and tsunamis This may put the surrounding coastal communities at high risk Moreover the submergence of land mass have rendered up to 6 000 families homeless and around 70 000 people are immediately threatened with the same 49 self published source 50 self published source 51 This is causing the flight of human capital to the mainland about 13 in the decade of 2000 2010 52 A 2015 ethnographic study conducted by a team of researchers from Heiderberg university in Germany found a crisis brewing in the Sunderbans The study contended that poor planning on the part of the India and Bangladesh governments coupled with natural ecological changes were forcing the flight of human capital from the region 52 53 Hazards EditNatural hazards Edit According to a report created by UNESCO the landfall of Cyclone Sidr damaged around 40 of Sundarbans in 2007 54 Human made hazards Edit Further information Rampal Power Station and 2014 Sundarbans oil spill In August 2010 a memorandum of understanding was signed between Bangladesh Power Development Board BPDB and India s state owned National Thermal Power Corporation NTPC where they designated to implement the coal fired Rampal power station by 2016 55 56 The proposed project on an area of over 1 834 acres of land is situated 14 kilometres 8 7 mi north of the Sundarbans 57 This project violates the environmental impact assessment guidelines for coal based thermal power plants 58 Environmental activists contend that the proposed location of the Rampal Station would violate provisions of the Ramsar Convention 59 60 The government of Bangladesh rejected the allegations that the coal based power plant would adversely affect the world s largest mangrove forest 61 On 9 December 2014 an oil tanker named Southern Star VII 62 carrying 358 000 litres 79 000 imp gal 95 000 US gal of furnace oil 63 64 was sunk in the Sela river 65 of Sundarbans after it had been hit by a cargo vessel 62 64 The oil spread over 350 km2 140 sq mi area after the clash as of 17 December 66 The slick spread to a second river and a network of canals in the Sundarbans and blackened the shoreline 67 The event was very threatening to trees plankton vast populations of small fishes and dolphins 68 The event occurred at a protected Sundarbans mangrove area home to rare Irrawaddy and Ganges dolphins 69 Until 15 December 2014 only 50 000 litres 11 000 imp gal 13 000 US gal of oil from the area were cleaned up by local residents Bangladesh Navy and the government of Bangladesh 63 70 Some reports indicated that the event killed some wildlife 65 On 13 December 2014 a dead Irrawaddy dolphin was seen floating on the Harintana Tembulbunia channel of the Sela River 71 Economy Edit Commercial fishing boat in Sundarbans Logging boat in the Sundarbans Ferry boat in the Sundarbans The Sundarbans plays an important role in the economy of the southwestern region of Bangladesh as well as in the national economy It is the single largest source of forest produce in the country The forest provides raw materials for wood based industries In addition to traditional forest produce like timber fuelwood pulpwood etc large scale harvest of non wood forest products such as thatching materials honey beeswax fish crustacean and mollusc resources of the forest takes place regularly The vegetated tidal lands of the Sundarbans function as an essential habitat produces nutrients and purifies water The forest also traps nutrient and sediment acts as a storm barrier shore stabiliser and energy storage unit Last but not the least the Sunderbans provides an aesthetic attraction for local and foreign tourists The water houseboat in the Sundarbans is also a recent attraction among the tourists The forest has immense protective and productive functions Constituting 51 of the total reserved forest estate of Bangladesh it contributes about 41 of total forest revenue and accounts for about 45 of all timber and fuel wood output of the country 72 A number of industries e g newsprint mill match factory hardboard boat building furniture making are based on raw materials obtained from the Sundarbans ecosystem Non timber forest products and plantations help generate considerable employment and income opportunities for at least half a million poor coastal people It provides natural protection to life and properties of the coastal population in cyclone prone Bangladesh Agriculture Edit During monsoon the paddy fields in the Sunderbans are entirely flooded Part of the Sundarbans is shielded from tidal inflow by leaves and there one finds villages and agriculture During the monsoon season the low lying agricultural lands are waterlogged and the summer crop kharif crop is therefore mainly deepwater rice or floating rice In the dry winter season the land is normally uncropped and used for cattle grazing However the lands near the villages are irrigated from ponds that were filled up during monsoon and vegetable crops Rabi crops can be grown here 73 Habitation Edit The Sundarbans has a population of over 4 million 74 but much of it is mostly free of permanent human habitation Despite human habitations and a century of economic exploitation of the forest well into the late 1940s the Sundarbans retained a forest closure of about 70 according to the Overseas Development Administration ODA of the United Kingdom in 1980 Administration Edit Police Boat Patrolling in Sundarban National Park West BengalThis section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed April 2020 Learn how and when to remove this template message The Sundarbans area is one of the most densely populated areas in the world and the population is increasing citation needed As a result half of this ecoregion s mangrove forests have been cut down to supply fuelwood and other natural resources Despite the intense and large scale exploitation this still is one of the largest contiguous areas of mangroves in the world Another threat comes from deforestation and water diversion from the rivers inland which causes far more silt to be brought to the estuary clogging up the waterways The Directorate of Forest is responsible for the administration and management of Sundarban National Park in West Bengal The Principal Chief Conservator of Forests PCCF Wildlife amp Bio Diversity amp ex officio Chief Wildlife Warden West Bengal is the senior most executive officer looking over the administration of the park The Chief Conservator of Forests South amp Director Sundarban Biosphere Reserve is the administrative head of the park at the local level and is assisted by a Deputy Field Director and an Assistant Field Director The park area is divided into two ranges overseen by range forest officers Each range is further sub divided into beats The park also has floating watch stations and camps to protect the property from poachers The park receives financial aid from the State Government as well as the Ministry of Environment and Forests under various Plan and Non Plan Budgets Additional funding is received under the Project Tiger from the Central Government In 2001 a grant of US 20 000 was received as a preparatory assistance for promotion between India and Bangladesh from the World Heritage Fund A new Khulna Forest Circle was created in Bangladesh back in 1993 to preserve the forest and Chief Conservators of Forests have been posted since The direct administrative head of the Division is the Divisional Forest Officer based at Khulna who has a number of professional subprofessional and support staff and logistic supports for the implementation of necessary management and administrative activities The basic unit of management is the compartment There are 55 compartments in four Forest Ranges and these are clearly demarcated mainly by natural features such as rivers canals and creeks Recently West Bengal Cabinet has approved a new district in South 24 Parganas and proposed district was named Sundarban 75 Protected areas Edit A map of the protected areas of the Indian Sunderbans showing the boundaries of the tiger reserve the national park and the three wildlife sanctuaries conservation and lodging centres subsistence towns and access points The entire forested dark green area constitutes the Biosphere Reserve with the remaining forests outside the national park and wildlife sanctuaries being given the status of a reserve forest The Bangladesh part of the forest lies under two forest divisions and four administrative ranges viz Chandpai Khulna District Sarankhola Khulna and Burigoalini Satkhira District and has sixteen forest stations It is further divided into fifty five compartments and nine blocks 13 There are three wildlife sanctuaries established in 1977 under the Bangladesh Wildlife Preservation Order 1973 P O 23 of 1973 The West Bengal part of the forest lies under the district of South amp North 24 Parganas Protected areas cover 15 of the Sundarbans mangroves including Sundarbans National Park and Sajnakhali Wildlife Sanctuary in West Bengal Sundarbans East Sundarbans South and Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuaries in Bangladesh 26 In May 2019 the local authorities in Bangladesh killed 4 tiger poachers in a shootout in the Sunderbans mangrove area where currently 114 tigers dwell Sundarban National Park Edit Main article Sundarbans National Park The Sundarban National Park is a National Park Tiger Reserve and a Biosphere Reserve in West Bengal India It is part of the Sundarbans on the Ganges Delta and adjacent to the Sundarbans Reserve Forest in Bangladesh The delta is densely covered by mangrove forests and is one of the largest reserves for the Bengal tiger It is also home to a variety of bird reptile and invertebrate species including the salt water crocodile The present Sundarbans National Park was declared as the core area of Sundarbans Tiger Reserve in 1973 and a wildlife sanctuary in 1977 On 4 May 1984 it was declared a National Park Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary Edit Main article Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary is a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Bangladesh The region supports mangroves including sparse stands of Gewa Excoecaria agallocha and dense stands of Goran Ceriops tagal with discontinuous patches of Hantal palm Phoenix paludosa on drier ground river banks and levees The fauna of the sanctuary is very diverse with some 40 species of mammals 260 species of birds and 35 species of reptiles The greatest of these being the Bengal tiger of which an estimated 350 remain in the Bangladesh Sundarbans Other large mammals are wild boar chital horin spotted deer Indian otter and macaque monkey Five species of marine turtles frequent the coastal zone and two endangered reptiles are present the estuarine crocodile and the Indian python 76 Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary Edit Main article Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary extends over an area of 31 227 hectares 77 160 acres in Bangladesh Sundari trees Heritiera fomes dominate the flora interspersed with Gewa Excoecaria agallocha and Passur Xylocarpus mekongensis with Kankra Bruguiera gymnorhiza occurring in areas subject to more frequent flooding There is an understory of Shingra Cynometra ramiflora where soils are drier and Amur Aglaia cucullata in wetter areas and Goran Ceriops decandra in more saline places Nypa palm Nypa fruticans is widespread along drainage lines Sundarbans South Wildlife Sanctuary Edit Main article Sundarbans South Wildlife Sanctuary Sundarbans South Wildlife Sanctuary extends over an area of 36 970 hectares 91 400 acres in Bangladesh There is evidently the greatest seasonal variation in salinity levels and possibly represents an area of relatively longer duration of moderate salinity where Gewa Excoecaria agallocha is the dominant woody species It is often mixed with Sundri which is able to displace in circumstances such as artificially opened canopies where Sundri does not regenerate as effectively It is also frequently associated with a dense understory of Goran Ceriops tagal and sometimes Passur Sajnakhali Wildlife Sanctuary Edit Main article Sajnakhali Wildlife Sanctuary Sajnakhali Wildlife Sanctuary is a 362 square kilometre 140 sq mi area in the northern part of the Sundarbans delta in South 24 Parganas district West Bengal India It is mainly mangrove scrub forest and swamp It was set up as a sanctuary in 1976 It is home to a rich population of different species of wildlife such as water fowl heron pelican spotted deer rhesus macaques wild boar tigers water monitor lizards fishing cats otters olive ridley turtles crocodiles batagur terrapins and migratory birds In popular culture Edit Idol of Manasa the deity of snakes Bonbibi the goddess of Sundarbans The Sundarbans is celebrated through numerous Bengali folk songs and dances often centred around the folk heroes gods and goddesses specific to the Sunderbans like Bonbibi and Dakshin Rai and to the Lower Gangetic Delta like Manasa and Chand Sadagar The Bengali folk epic Manasamangal mentions Netidhopani and has some passages set in the Sundarbans during the heroine Behula s quest to bring her husband Lakhindar back to life The area provides the setting for several novels by Emilio Salgari e g The Mystery of the Black Jungle Sundarbaney Arjan Sardar a novel by Shibshankar Mitra and Padma Nadir Majhi a novel by Manik Bandopadhyay are based on the rigors of lives of villagers and fishermen living in the Sunderbans region and are woven into the Bengali psyche to a great extent Part of the plot of Salman Rushdie s Booker Prize winning novel Midnight s Children is set in the Sundarbans This forest is adopted as the setting of Kunal Basu s short story The Japanese Wife and the subsequent film adaptation Most of the plot of an internationally acclaimed novelist Amitav Ghosh s 2004 novel The Hungry Tide is set in the Sundarbans The plot centres on a headstrong American cetologist who arrives to study a rare species of river dolphin enlisting a local fisherman and translator to aid her The book also mentions two accounts of the Bonbibi story of Dukhey s Redemption 77 Manik Bandopadhyay s Padma Nadir Majhi was made into a movie by Goutam Ghose The Sunderbans has been the subject of a detailed and well researched scholarly work on Bonbibi a forest goddess venerated by Hindus on the relation between the islanders and tigers and on conservation and how it is perceived by the inhabitants of the Sundarbans 78 as well as numerous non fiction books including The Man Eating Tigers of Sundarbans by Sy Montegomery for a young audience which was shortlisted for the Dorothy Canfield Fisher Children s Book Award In Up The Country Emily Eden discusses her travels through the Sunderbans 79 Numerous documentary movies have been made about the Sunderbans including the 2003 IMAX production Shining Bright about the Bengal tiger The acclaimed BBC TV series Ganges documents the lives of villagers especially honey collectors in the Sundarbans See also Edit Ecology portalSundarbans Tiger Project Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education Sangu Wildlife Sanctuary Environmental impact of development in the Sundarbans Tiger attacks in the SundarbansReferences Edit Sundarbans Reserved Forest Bangladesh Ramsar Sites Information Service Retrieved 14 February 2019 Sundarban Wetland India Ramsar Sites Information Service Retrieved 14 February 2019 Sundarbans National Park UNESCO World Heritage Centre Retrieved 29 July 2022 Giri C Pengra B Zhu Z Singh A Tieszen L L 2007 Monitoring mangrove forest dynamics of the Sundarbans in Bangladesh and India using multi temporal satellite data from 1973 to 2000 Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 73 1 2 91 100 Bibcode 2007ECSS 73 91G doi 10 1016 j ecss 2006 12 019 Sievers M Chowdhury M R Adame M F Bhadury P Bhargava R Buelow C Friess D A Ghosh A Hayes M A McClure E C Pearson R M 2020 Indian Sundarbans mangrove forest considered endangered under Red List of Ecosystems but there is cause for optimism PDF Biological Conservation 251 108751 doi 10 1016 j biocon 2020 108751 S2CID 222206165 Pani D R Sarangi S K Subudhi H N Misra R C Bhandari D C 2013 Exploration evaluation and conservation of salt tolerant rice genetic resources from Sundarbans region of West Bengal PDF Journal of the Indian Society of Coastal Agricultural Research 30 1 45 53 Iftekhar M S Islam M R 2004 Managing mangroves in Bangladesh A strategy analysis PDF Journal of Coastal Conservation 10 1 139 146 doi 10 1652 1400 0350 2004 010 0139 MMIBAS 2 0 CO 2 S2CID 130056584 Manna S Chaudhuri K Bhattacharyya S Bhattacharyya M 2010 Dynamics of Sundarban estuarine ecosystem Eutrophication induced threat to mangroves Saline Systems 6 8 doi 10 1186 1746 1448 6 8 PMC 2928246 PMID 20699005 23 dead 1 lakh affected as Cyclone Aila hits Bengal The Times of India Cyclone Aila 2009 Iftekhar Mahmud 2016 Unesco calls for shelving Rampal project Prothom Alo Archived from the original on 26 September 2016 Retrieved 13 October 2016 Danda A A Ghosh N Bandyopadhyay J amp Hazra S 2020 Strategic and Managed Retreat as Adaptation Addressing Climate Vulnerability in the Sundarbans Report New Delhi Observer Research Foundation a b Siddiqui N A 2012 The Sundarbans In Islam S Jamal A A eds Banglapedia National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh Second ed Asiatic Society of Bangladesh Rainey John Rudd 1891 The Sundarban Its Physical Features and Ruins Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography JSTOR 13 5 273 287 doi 10 2307 1800883 ISSN 0266 626X JSTOR 1800883 Bandyopadhyay Krishnendu 1 August 2016 Civilisation in Sunderbans traced to Mauryan era Kolkata News Times of India The Times of India Retrieved 8 April 2022 a b Sunderban Mangroves Geological Survey of India Archived from the original on 10 December 2009 Retrieved 21 January 2010 Iftekhar Mahmud Sk Al Ehsan 16 April 2022 Ancient ruins near the Sundarbans Prothomalo Retrieved 16 April 2022 a b c d Hussain Z Acharya G eds 1994 Mangroves of the Sundarbans Vol 2 Bangkok International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources OCLC 773534471 UNDP 1998 Integrated resource development of the Sundarbans Reserved Forests Bangladesh Archived 23 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine Volume I Project BGD 84 056 United Nations Development Programme Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Dhaka The People s Republic of Bangladesh Behera R S Shaoo C K Sahu R K 2021 Mangroves Nature s shield against natural disasters and climate change SocialDhara Wahid S M Alam M J amp Rahman A 2002 Mathematical river modelling to support ecological monitoring of the largest mangrove forest of the world the Sundarbans Proceedings of First Asia Pacific DHI software conference 17 18 June 2002 Katebi M N A and Habib M G 1987 Sundarbans and Forestry in Coastal Area Resource Development and Management Part II BRAC Printers Dhaka Bangladesh Shapiro Ari 20 May 2016 Rising Tides Force Thousands To Leave Islands of Eastern India NPR Retrieved 22 May 2016 Ecoregions Indo Malayan Archived 28 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine World Wildlife Fund a b Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests Terrestrial Ecoregions World Wildlife Fund a b Sundarbans Mangroves Terrestrial Ecoregions World Wildlife Fund Rahman MR Asaduzzaman M 16 April 2013 Ecology of Sundarban Bangladesh Journal of Science Foundation 8 1 2 35 47 doi 10 3329 jsf v8i1 2 14618 ISSN 1728 7855 Weaver J E Clements F E 1938 Plant Ecology 2nd ed McGraw Hill Book Company OCLC 502944133 Watson J G 1928 Mangrove swamps of the Malayan peninsula Malayan Forest Records 6 1 275 Troup R S 1921 The Silviculture of Indian Trees Oxford Clarendon Press p 155 On newly formed islands flooded by every tide Sonneratia usually springs up first followed by Avicennia and the palm Nipa fruticans As the ground rises other trees make their appearance the most prevalent though one of the later species to appear being Exaecaria Agallocha As the level rises by accretion and the land is only occasionally flooded by the tide the sundri makes its appearance Prain David 1903 Flora of the Sundribuns Records of the Botanical Survey of India Vol 2 Calcutta Allied Book Centre p 251 Khatun B M R Hafiz Syed 1987 Taxonomic studies in the genus Avicennia L from Bangladesh Bangladesh J Bot 16 1 39 44 a b Only 100 tigers left in Bangladesh s famed Sundarbans forest why only 100 tigers The Guardian Agence France Presse 27 July 2015 India wild tiger census shows population rise BBC News 28 March 2011 Retrieved 31 March 2011 Joint Tiger census 2004 in Sundarban Reserved Forests Bangladesh Forest Department Ministry of Environment and Forest Archived from the original on 7 December 2004 Retrieved 6 May 2012 a b Goodrich J Lynam A Miquelle D Wibisono H Kawanishi K Pattanavibool A Htun S Tempa T Karki J Jhala Y Karanth U 2015 Panthera tigris IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015 e T15955A50659951 Scott D A 1991 Asia and the Middle East in In Finlayson C M Moser M eds Wetlands Oxford pp 151 178 ISBN 978 0 8160 2556 5 a b Sarker S U 1993 Ecology of Wildlife UNDP FAO BGD 85 011 Field Document N 50 Institute of Forestry and Environmental Sciences Chittagong Bangladesh Zockler C Balachandran S Bunting G C Fanck M Kashiwagi M Lappo E G Maheswaran G Sharma A Syroechkovski E E Webb K 2005 The Indian Sunderbans an important wintering site for Siberian waders PDF Wader Study Group Bulletin 108 42 46 Habib M G 1999 Message In Nuruzzaman M I U Ahmed and H Banik eds The Sundarbans world heritage site an introduction Forest Department Ministry of Environment and Forest Government of the People s Republic of Bangladesh THE ORIGINAL BANGLADESH WILDLIFE PRESERVATION ORDER 1973 THE DRAFT nishorgo org Khan M M H 2004 Ecology and conservation of the Bengal tiger in the Sundarbans Mangrove forest of Bangladesh PDF PhD thesis Cambridge University of Cambridge Khan M M H 2004 Food habit of the Leopard Cat Prionailurus bengalensis Kerr 1792 in the Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary Bangladesh Zoos Print Journal 19 5 1475 1476 doi 10 11609 JoTT ZPJ 1101 1475 6 Forestal 1960 Forest Inventory 1958 59 Sundarbans Forests Report Oregon Canada Forestal Forestry and Engineering International Ltd Chaffey D R Miller F R amp Sandom J H 1985 A forest inventory of the Sundarbans Bangladesh Report Surbiton England Land Resources Development Centre BirdLife Data Zone Case Studies of Climate Change Archived 27 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine UNESCO 2007 George Nirmala 24 March 2010 Disputed isle in Bay of Bengal disappears into sea Yahoo News Associated Press Archived from the original on 29 March 2010 Retrieved 24 March 2010 Mangrove forests threatened by Climate Change in the Sundarbans of Bangladesh and India 12 January 2013 Global Warming Rising Seas creates 70 000 Climate Refugees 27 December 2006 Cornforth William A Fatoyinbo Temilola E Freemantle Terri P Pettorelli Nathalie 2013 Advanced Land Observing Satellite Phased Array Type L Band SAR ALOS PALSAR to Inform the Conservation of Mangroves Sundarbans as a Case Study Remote Sensing 5 1 224 237 Bibcode 2013RemS 5 224C doi 10 3390 rs5010224 a b Everyday disasters driving flight from Sundarbans trust org Retrieved 5 June 2015 Poor planning climate shifts devastating India s Sundarbans trust org Retrieved 5 June 2015 Cyclone Sidr damaged 40 of Sundarbans UNESCO ibnlive in Archived from the original on 21 February 2015 Retrieved 21 February 2015 New Age Newspaper Final report on environmental impact assessment of 2x 500 660 MW coal based thermal power plant to be constructed at the location of Khulna India Environment Portal Rahman Khalilur 24 February 2013 Demand for Rampal power plant relocation The Financial Express Dhaka Kumar Chaitanya 24 September 2013 Bangladesh Power Plant Struggle Calls for International Solidarity The World Post The Roar of Disapproval Dhaka Courier 29 September 2013 Retrieved 29 November 2015 via HighBeam Research Rampal plant won t hamper environ The New Nation 27 October 2015 Retrieved 29 November 2015 Habib Haroon 27 September 2013 Bangladesh begins import of power from India The Hindu a b Krishnendu Mukherjee Rakhi Chakrabarty 350 tonne oil spill by Bangladeshi ship threatens Sunderbans The Times of India Retrieved 15 December 2014 a b India on alert after Sunderbans oil spill in Bangladesh BBC News Retrieved 16 December 2014 a b Phillips Tom 13 December 2014 Fears for rare wildlife as oil catastrophe strikes Bangladesh The Daily Telegraph Archived from the original on 12 January 2022 Retrieved 15 December 2014 a b Massive Oil Spill Threatens Bangladesh s Sundarbans Global Voices Online Retrieved 15 December 2014 Assessing the oil spill s impact on Bangladesh s Sundarbans forest Deutsche Welle 17 December 2014 Archived from the original on 24 December 2014 Retrieved 24 December 2014 Bangladesh launches campaign to clean up Sunderbans oil spill The Hindu Retrieved 15 December 2014 Bangladesh begins oil clean up after spill Al Jazeera 12 December 2014 Retrieved 15 December 2014 Bangladesh oil spill threatens rare dolphins Al Jazeera 11 December 2014 Retrieved 15 December 2014 No capacity to tackle oil spills The Daily Star 16 December 2014 Retrieved 16 December 2014 Siddique Abu Bakar 14 December 2014 First dead dolphin spotted Dhaka Tribune Retrieved 18 December 2014 Integrated Resource Management Plan of the Sundarbans Reserved Forest FAO Project BGD 84 056 Report Rome Italy FAO 1995 H S Sen 1992 Research on water management in the Sundarbans West Bengal India Published in the Annual Report 1992 of the International Institute for Land Reclamation and improvement Wageningen the Netherlands On line 1 Archived 10 February 2018 at the Wayback Machine Subir Bhaumik 15 September 2003 Fears rise for sinking Sundarbans BBC News Explained 7 new districts in West Bengal how and why are districts created or abolished in India The Indian Express 1 August 2022 Retrieved 2 August 2022 UNESCO World Heritage Nomination 1997 Ghosh A 2005 The Hungry Tide A Novel Boston Houghton Mifflin pp 84 88 292 97 ISBN 0 14 301556 7 Jalais Annu 2010 Forest of Tigers People Politics and Environment in the Sundarbans Routledge New Delhi London New York ISBN 0 415 69046 3 Eden Emily 1867 Up the country letters written to her sister from the upper provinces of India R Bentley Sources Edit This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain Chisholm Hugh ed 1911 Sundarbans Encyclopaedia Britannica 11th ed Cambridge University Press Laskar Muqsudur Rahman The Sundarbans A Unique Wilderness of the World Archived 28 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine at USDA Forest Reserve Archived 8 July 1997 at the Wayback Machine McCool Stephen F Cole David N Borrie William T O Loughlin Jennifer comps 2000 Wilderness science in a time of change conference Volume 2 Wilderness within the context of larger systems 1999 May 23 27 Missoula MT Proceedings RMRS P 15 VOL 2 Ogden UT US Department of Agriculture Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station Terminal Report Integrated Resource Development of the Sundarbans Reserved Forest Archived 23 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine Project Findings and Recommendations Food and Agriculture Organization acting as executing agency for the United Nations Development Programme United Nations Rome 1998 prepared for the Government of Bangladesh Blasco F 1975 The Mangroves of India Institut Francis de Pondichery Travaux de las Section Scientifique et Technique Tome XIV Facicule 1 Pondicherry India Jalais Annu 2005 Dwelling on Morichjhanpi When Tigers Became Citizens Refugees Tiger Food Economic and Political Weekly 23 April 2005 pp 1757 1762 Jalais Annu 2007 The Sundarbans Whose World Heritage Site Conservation and Society vol 5 no 4 Jalais Annu 2008 Unmasking the Cosmopolitan Tiger Nature and Culture vol 3 no 1 pp 25 40 Jalais Annu 2008 Bonbibi Bridging Worlds Indian Folklore serial no 28 Jan 2008 Jalais Annu 2009 Confronting Authority Negotiating Morality tiger prawn seed collection in the Sundarbans International Collective in Support of Fishworkers Yemaya 32 Nov 2 Archived 2 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine Also in French http base d p h info en fiches dph fiche dph 8148 html Archived 11 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine Jalais Annu 2010 Braving Crocodiles with Kali Being a prawn seed collector and a modern woman in the 21st century Sundarbans Socio Legal Review Vol 6 Montgomery Sy 1995 Spell of the Tiger The Man Eaters of Sundarbans Houghton Mifflin Company New York Rivers of Life Living with Floods in Bangladesh M Q Zaman Asian Survey Vol 33 No 10 October 1993 pp 985 996 Allison M A Kepple E B September 2001 Modern sediment supply to the lower delta plain of the Ganges Brahmaputra River in Bangladesh Geo Marine Letters 21 2 66 Bibcode 2001GML 21 66M doi 10 1007 s003670100069 S2CID 140636544 Sundarbans on United Nations Environment Programme Brammer H July 1990 Floods in Bangladesh II Flood Mitigation and Environmental Aspects The Geographical Journal 156 2 158 165 doi 10 2307 635323 JSTOR 635323 Environmental classification of mangrove wetlands of India Archived 1 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine V Selvam Current Science Vol 84 No 6 25 March 2003 Green M J B Centre W C M Parks I C o N Areas P 1990 Iucn Directory of South Asian Protected Areas IUCN The World Conservation Union ISBN 978 2 8317 0030 4 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sundarbans Sundarbans travel guide from Wikivoyage UNESCO World Heritage Centre The Sundarbans UNESCO Sundarban Biosphere Reserve Information World Heritage Site The Sundarbans United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre Protected Areas Programme The Sundarbans The Sundarban of Bangladesh A Rich Biodiversity of the World s Largest Mangrove Ecosystem Greenpeace Sinking Sundarbans Climate voices Tiger Conservation Project in the Bangladeshi Sundarbans Research on water management and control in the Sunderbans West Bengal India Finfishes of Sundarbans Nasa images set 01 and set 2 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Sundarbans amp oldid 1160474501, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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