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Islam

December 02, 2023

This article is about the religion. For other uses, see Islam (disambiguation).

Islam (/ˈɪslɑːm/; Arabic: ۘالِإسْلَام, al-ʾIslām [ʔɪsˈlæːm] ⓘ) is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centered on the Quran and the teachings of Muhammad, the religion's founder. Adherents of Islam, called Muslims, number approximately 1.9 billion globally and are the world's second-largest religious population after Christians.

Islam
الِإسْلَام‎
TypeUniversal religion
ClassificationAbrahamic
ScriptureQuran
TheologyMonotheistic
LanguageClassical Arabic
TerritoryMuslim world
FounderMuhammad
OriginCE 610; 1413 years ago (610)
Jabal al-Nour, Hejaz, Arabia
Separated fromArabian polytheism
Number of followersc. 1.9 billion (individually referred to as Muslims, collectively referred to as the ummah)

Muslims believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed many times through earlier prophets, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus. Muslims consider the Quran to be the verbatim word of God and the unaltered final revelation. Alongside the Quran, Muslims also believe in previous revelations, such as the Tawrat (the Torah), the Zabur (Psalms), and the Injeel (Gospel). They also consider Muhammad as the main and final Islamic prophet, through whom the religion was completed. The teachings and normative examples of Muhammad, called the sunnah, documented in accounts called the hadith, provide a constitutional model for Muslims. Islam teaches that God (Allah) is one and incomparable. It states that there will be a "Final Judgment" wherein the righteous will be rewarded in paradise (jannah) and the unrighteous will be punished in hell (jahannam). The Five Pillars—considered obligatory acts of worship—comprise the Islamic oath and creed (shahada); daily prayers (salah); almsgiving (zakat); fasting (sawm) in the month of Ramadan; and a pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca. Islamic law (sharia) touches on virtually every aspect of life, from banking and finance and welfare to men's and women's roles and the environment. The two main religious festivals are Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha. The three holiest sites in Islam are Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Prophet's Mosque in Medina, and Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.

The religion of Islam originated in Mecca about 610 CE. Muslims believe this is when Muhammad began receiving revelation. By the time of his death, most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam. Muslim rule expanded outside Arabia under the Rashidun Caliphate and the subsequent Umayyad Caliphate ruled from the Iberian Peninsula to the Indus Valley. In the Islamic Golden Age, mostly during the reign of the Abbasid Caliphate, much of the Muslim world experienced a scientific, economic and cultural flourishing. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various states and caliphates as well as extensive trade and religious conversion as a result of Islamic missionary activities (dawah), and through conquests.

The two main Islamic branches are Sunni Islam (85–90%) and Shia Islam (10–15%). While the Shia–Sunni divide initially arose from disagreements over the succession to Muhammad, they grew to cover a broader dimension, both theologically and juridically. Muslims make up a majority of the population in 49 countries. Approximately 12% of the world's Muslims live in Indonesia, the most populous Muslim-majority country; 31% live in South Asia; 20% live in the Middle East–North Africa; and 15% live in sub-Saharan Africa. Muslim communities are also present in the Americas, China, and Europe. Due largely to a higher fertility rate than that of other religions, Islam is the world's fastest-growing religion, and if current trends hold, it could slightly surpass Christianity as the world's largest religion by the end of the 21st century.

Etymology

See also: Muslims § Etymology

The Arabic term Islam (Arabic: إسلام, lit. 'submission [to God]')[1][2][3] is the verbal noun of Form IV originating from the verb سلم (salama), from the triliteral root س-ل-م (S-L-M), which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of submission, safeness, and peace.[4] In a religious context, it refers to the total surrender to the will of God.[5] A Muslim (مُسْلِم), the word for a follower of Islam,[6] is the active participle of the same verb form, and means "submitter (to God)" or "one who surrenders (to God)". In the Hadith of Gabriel, Islam is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān (faith), and ihsān (excellence).[7][8]

Islam itself was historically called Mohammedanism in the English-speaking world. This term has fallen out of use and is sometimes said to be offensive, as it suggests that a human being, rather than God, is central to Muslims' religion.[9]

Articles of faith

Main articles: Aqidah and Iman

The Islamic creed (aqidah) requires belief in six articles: God, angels, revelation, prophets, the Day of Resurrection, and the divine predestination.[10]

God

 
Calligraphy showing the word Allah in Arabic in Hagia Sophia, Istanbul Turkey
Main article: God in Islam

The central concept of Islam is tawḥīd (Arabic: توحيد), the oneness of God. It is usually thought of as a precise monotheism, but is also panentheistic in Islamic mystical teachings.[11][12] God is seen as incomparable and without partners such as in the Christian Trinity, and associating partners to God or attributing God's attributes to others is seen as idolatory, called shirk. God is seen as transcendent of creation and so is beyond comprehension. Thus, Muslims are not iconodules and do not attribute forms to God. God is instead described and referred to by several names or attributes, the most common being Ar-Rahmān (الرحمان) meaning "The Entirely Merciful," and Ar-Rahīm (الرحيم) meaning "The Especially Merciful" which are invoked at the beginning of most chapters of the Quran.[13][14]

Islam teaches that the creation of everything in the universe was brought into being by God's command as expressed by the wording, "Be, and it is,"[i][1] and that the purpose of existence is to worship God.[15] He is viewed as a personal god[1] and there are no intermediaries, such as clergy, to contact God. Consciousness and awareness of God is referred to as Taqwa. Allāh is a term with no plural or gender being ascribed to it and is also used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews in reference to God, whereas ʾilāh (إله) is a term used for a deity or a god in general.[16]

Angels

 
A 16th century Siyer-i Nebi image of the angel Gabriel visiting Muhammad
Main article: Angels in Islam

Angels (Arabic: ملك, malak) are beings described in the Quran[17] and hadith.[18] They are described as created to worship God and also to serve in other specific duties such as communicating revelations from God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. They are described as being created variously from 'light' (nūr)[19][20][21] or 'fire' (nār).[22][23][24][25] Islamic angels are often represented in anthropomorphic forms combined with supernatural images, such as wings, being of great size or wearing heavenly articles.[26][27][28][29] Common characteristics for angels include a lack of bodily needs and desires, such as eating and drinking.[30] Some of them, such as Gabriel (Jibrīl) and Michael (Mika'il), are mentioned by name in the Quran. Angels play a significant role in literature about the Mi'raj, where Muhammad encounters several angels during his journey through the heavens.[18] Further angels have often been featured in Islamic eschatology, theology and philosophy.[31]

Scriptures

 
A Quran manuscript resting on a rehal, a book rest for the holy text
Main articles: Islamic holy books, Quran, and Wahy
See also: History of the Quran

The pre-eminent holy text of Islam is the Quran. Muslims believe that the verses of the Quran were revealed to Muhammad by God, through the archangel Gabriel, on multiple occasions between 610 CE[32][33] and 632, the year Muhammad died.[34] While Muhammad was alive, these revelations were written down by his companions, although the primary method of transmission was orally through memorization.[35] The Quran is divided into 114 chapters (sūrah) which contain a combined 6,236 verses (āyāt). The chronologically earlier chapters, revealed at Mecca, are concerned primarily with spiritual topics, while the later Medinan chapters discuss more social and legal issues relevant to the Muslim community.[1][36] Muslim jurists consult the hadith ('accounts'), or the written record of Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Quran and assist with its interpretation. The science of Quranic commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir.[37][38] In addition to its religious significance, the Quran is widely regarded as the finest work in Arabic literature,[39][40] and has influenced art and the Arabic language.[41]

Islam also holds that God has sent revelations, called wahy, to different prophets numerous times throughout history. However, Islam teaches that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, such as the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospel), have become distorted—either in interpretation, in text, or both,[42][43][44][45] while the Quran (lit. 'Recitation') is viewed as the final, verbatim and unaltered word of God.[36][46][47][48]

Prophets

Main articles: Prophets and messengers in Islam, Sunnah, and Hadith
 
A 15th century[49] Persian miniature depicting Muhammad leading Abraham, Moses, Jesus and other prophets in prayer

Prophets (Arabic: أنبياء, anbiyāʾ) are believed to have been chosen by God to preach a divine message. Some of these prophets additionally deliver a new book and are called "messengers" (رسول‎, rasūl).[50] Muslims believe prophets are human and not divine. All of the prophets are said to have preached the same basic message of Islam – submission to the will of God – to various nations in the past, and this is said to account for many similarities among religions. The Quran recounts the names of numerous figures considered prophets in Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, among others.[1][51] The stories associated with the prophets beyond the Quranic accounts are collected and explored in the Qisas al-Anbiya (Stories of the Prophets).

Muslims believe that God sent Muhammad as the final prophet ("Seal of the prophets") to convey the completed message of Islam.[52][53] In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the sunnah (literally "trodden path"). Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's moral behaviors in their daily lives, and the sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Quran.[54][55][56][57] This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith, which are accounts of his words, actions, and personal characteristics. Hadith Qudsi is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as God's verbatim words quoted by Muhammad that are not part of the Quran. A hadith involves two elements: a chain of narrators, called sanad, and the actual wording, called matn. There are various methodologies to classify the authenticity of hadiths, with the commonly used grading grading scale being "authentic" or "correct" (صحيح, ṣaḥīḥ); "good", hasan (حسن, ḥasan); or "weak" (ضعيف, ḍaʻīf), among others. The Kutub al-Sittah are a collection of six books, regarded as the most authentic reports in Sunni Islam. Among them is Sahih al-Bukhari, often considered by Sunnis to be one of the most authentic sources after the Quran.[58] Another well-known source of hadiths is known as The Four Books, which Shias consider as the most authentic hadith reference.[59][60]

Resurrection and judgment

 
The Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, where Islamic tradition says Isa (Jesus, seen as an Islamic prophet) will appear close to the Day of Judgment
Main article: Islamic eschatology

Belief in the "Day of Resurrection" or Yawm al-Qiyāmah (Arabic: يوم القيامة) is also crucial for Muslims. It is believed that the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God, but unknown to man. The Quran and the hadith, as well as the commentaries of scholars, describe the trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah. The Quran emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.[61][62][63]

On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, Muslims believe all humankind will be judged by their good and bad deeds and consigned to Jannah (paradise) or Jahannam (hell).[64] The Quran in Surat al-Zalzalah describes this as: "So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it. And whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it." The Quran lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell. However, the Quran makes it clear that God will forgive the sins of those who repent if he wishes. Good deeds, like charity, prayer, and compassion towards animals[65] will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and blessings, with Quranic references describing its features. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.[66][67][68] Yawm al-Qiyāmah is also identified in the Quran as Yawm ad-Dīn (يوم الدين "Day of Religion");[ii] as-Sāʿah (الساعة "the Last Hour");[iii] and al-Qāriʿah (القارعة "The Clatterer").[iv]

Divine predestination

Main article: Predestination in Islam

The concept of divine predestination in Islam (Arabic: القضاء والقدر, al-qadāʾ wa l-qadar) means that every matter, good or bad, is believed to have been decreed by God. Al-qadar, meaning "power", derives from a root that means "to measure" or "calculating".[69][70][71][72] Muslims often express this belief in divine destiny with the phrase "In-sha-Allah" meaning "if God wills" when speaking on future events.[73]

Acts of worship

Main articles: Five Pillars of Islam and Ibadah

There are five acts of worship that are considered duties – the Shahada (declaration of faith), the five daily prayers, Zakat (alms-giving), fasting during Ramadan and the Hajj pilgrimage – collectively known as "The Pillars of Islam" (Arkān al-Islām).[74] In addition, Muslims also perform other optional supererogatory acts that are encouraged but not considered to be duties.[75]

Declaration of faith

 
Silver coin of the Mughal Emperor Akbar, c. 16th century, inscribed with the Shahadah
Main article: Shahada

The shahadah[76] is an oath declaring belief in Islam. The expanded statement is "ʾašhadu ʾal-lā ʾilāha ʾillā-llāhu wa ʾašhadu ʾanna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh" (أشهد أن لا إله إلا الله وأشهد أن محمداً رسول الله), or, "I testify that there is no deity except God and I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God."[77] Islam is sometimes argued to have a very simple creed with the shahada being the premise for the rest of the religion. Non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the shahada in front of witnesses.[78][79]

Prayer

Main article: Salah
See also: Mosque and Jumu'ah
 
Muslim men prostrating in prayer, at the Umayyad Mosque, Damascus

Prayer in Islam, called as-salah or aṣ-ṣalāt (Arabic: الصلاة), is seen as a personal communication with God and consists of repeating units called rakat that include bowing and prostrating to God. There are five timed prayers each day that are considered duties. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language and performed in the direction of the Kaaba. The act also requires a state ritual purity achieved by means of the either a routine wudu ritual wash or, in certain circumstances, a ghusl full body ritual wash.[80][81][82][83]

A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name masjid. Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also an important social center for the Muslim community. For example, the Masjid an-Nabawi ("Prophetic Mosque") in Medina, Saudi Arabia, used to also serve as a shelter for the poor.[84] Minarets are towers used to call the adhan, a vocal call to signal the prayer time.[85][86]

Almsgiving

Main article: Zakat
See also: Sadaqah
 
A slot for giving zakat at the Zawiya of Moulay Idris II in Fez, Morocco

Zakat (Arabic: زكاة, zakāh), also spelled Zakāt or Zakah, is a type of almsgiving characterized by the giving of a fixed portion (2.5% annually)[87] of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy, such as for freeing captives, those in debt, or for (stranded) travellers, and for those employed to collect zakat. It acts as a form of welfare in Muslim societies.[88] It is considered a religious obligation that the well-off owe the needy because their wealth is seen as a trust from God's bounty,[89] and is seen as a purification of one's excess wealth.[90] The total annual value contributed due to zakat is 15 times greater than global humanitarian aid donations, using conservative estimates.[91] Sadaqah, as opposed to Zakat, is a much-encouraged optional charity.[92][93] A waqf is a perpetual charitable trust, which finances hospitals and schools in Muslim societies.[94]

Fasting

 
A fast-breaking feast, known as Iftar, is served traditionally with dates.
Main article: Fasting in Islam
See also: Fasting during Ramadan

In Islam, fasting (Arabic: صوم, ṣawm) precludes food and drink, as well as other forms of consumption, such as smoking, and is performed from dawn to sunset. During the month of Ramadan, it is considered a duty for Muslims to fast.[95] The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God by restraining oneself for God's sake from what is otherwise permissible and to think of the needy. In addition, there are other days, such as the Day of Arafah, when fasting is optional.[96]

Pilgrimage

Main articles: Hajj and Umrah
See also: Holiest sites in Islam
 
Pilgrims at the Great Mosque of Mecca during the Hajj season

The Islamic pilgrimage, called the "ḥajj" (Arabic: حج), is to be done at least once a lifetime by every Muslim with the means to do so during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah. Rituals of the Hajj mostly imitate the story of the family of Abraham. In Mecca, pilgrims walk seven times around the Kaaba, which Muslims believe Abraham built as a place of worship, and they walk seven times between Mount Safa and Marwah, recounting the steps of Abraham's wife, Hagar, who was looking for water for her baby Ishmael in the desert before Mecca developed into a settlement.[97][98][99] The pilgrimage also involves spending a day praying and worshipping in the plain of Mount Arafat as well as symbolically stoning the Devil.[100] All Muslim men wear only two simple white unstitched pieces of cloth called ihram, intended to bring continuity through generations and uniformity among pilgrims despite class or origin.[101][102] Another form of pilgrimage, Umrah, is optional and can be undertaken at any time of the year. Other sites of Islamic pilgrimage are Medina, where Muhammad died, as well as Jerusalem, a city of many Islamic prophets and the site of Al-Aqsa, which was the direction of prayer before Mecca.[103][104]

Supererogatory acts

 
Muslim men reading the Quran
See also: Quran § Recitation, Dua, and Dhikr
 
Al-Ikhlas
Sincerity is the Quran's 112th chapter as recited by Imam Mishary Rashid Alafasy
Problems playing this file? See media help.

Muslims recite and memorize the whole or parts of the Quran as acts of virtue. Tajwid refers to the set of rules for the proper elocution of the Quran.[105] Many Muslims recite the whole Quran during the month of Ramadan.[106] One who has memorized the whole Quran is called a hafiz ("memorizer"), and hadiths mention that these individuals will be able to intercede for others on Judgment Day.[107]

Supplication to God, called in Arabic ad-duʿāʾ (Arabic: الدعاء  IPA: [duˈʕæːʔ]) has its own etiquette such as raising hands as if begging.[108]

Remembrance of God (ذكر, Dhikr') refers to phrases repeated referencing God. Commonly, this includes Tahmid, declaring praise be due to God (الحمد لله, al-Ḥamdu lillāh) during prayer or when feeling thankful, Tasbih, declaring glory to God during prayer or when in awe of something and saying 'in the name of God' (بسملة, basmalah) before starting an act such as eating.[109]

History

Main article: History of Islam
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Islamic history.
See also: List of Muslim empires and dynasties
 
A panoramic view of Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) in Medina, Hejaz region, today's Saudi Arabia, the second most sacred Mosque in Islam

Muhammad and the birth of Islam (570–632)

Main articles: Muhammad and Muhammad in Islam
See also: Early social changes under Islam
 
Cave of Hira.

According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570 CE and was orphaned early in life. Growing up as a trader, he became known as the "trusted one" (Arabic: الامين) and was sought after as an impartial arbitrator. He later married his employer, the businesswoman Khadija.[110] In the year 610 CE, troubled by the moral decline and idolatry prevalent in Mecca and seeking seclusion and spiritual contemplation, Muhammad retreated to the Cave of Hira in the mountain Jabal al-Nour, near Mecca. It was during his time in the cave that he is said to have received the first revelation of the Quran from the angel Gabriel.[111] The event of Muhammad's retreat to the cave and subsequent revelation is known as the "Night of Power" (Laylat al-Qadr) and is considered a significant event in Islamic history. During the next 22 years of his life, from age 40 onwards, Muhammad continued to receive revelations from God, becoming the last or seal of the prophets sent to mankind.[42][43][112]

During this time, while in Mecca, Muhammad preached first in secret and then in public, imploring his listeners to abandon polytheism and worship one God. Many early converts to Islam were women, the poor, foreigners, and slaves like the first muezzin Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi.[113] The Meccan elite felt Muhammad was destabilizing their social order by preaching about one God and giving questionable ideas to the poor and slaves because they profited from the pilgrimages to the idols of the Kaaba.[114][115]

After 12 years of the persecution of Muslims by the Meccans, Muhammad and his companions performed the Hijra ("emigration") in 622 to the city of Yathrib (current-day Medina). There, with the Medinan converts (the Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (the Muhajirun), Muhammad in Medina established his political and religious authority. The Constitution of Medina was signed by all the tribes of Medina. This established religious freedoms and freedom to use their own laws among the Muslim and non-Muslim communities as well as an agreement to defend Medina from external threats.[116] Meccan forces and their allies lost against the Muslims at the Battle of Badr in 624 and then fought an inconclusive battle in the Battle of Uhud[117] before unsuccessfully besieging Medina in the Battle of the Trench (March–April 627). In 628, the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was signed between Mecca and the Muslims, but it was broken by Mecca two years later. As more tribes converted to Islam, Meccan trade routes were cut off by the Muslims.[118][119] By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at age 62) he had united the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity.[120][32]

Early Islamic period (632–750)

Further information: Succession to Muhammad and Early Muslim conquests
 
Rashidun and Umayyad expansion
 
Dome of the Rock built by caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan; completed at the end of the Second Fitna

Following Muhammad's death in 632, his deputy Abu Bakr (r. 632–634) was elected caliph ('successor') at Saqifa. A number of tribes apostatized from Islam and rebelled against the Muslims, leading to the Ridda wars. Abu Bakr defeated them and initiated the early Muslim conquests. Before dying in 634, Abu Bakr appointed Umar (r. 634–644) his successor and the latter continued expansion, conquering Egypt and Syria from the Byzantine Empire and more than one-thirds of the Sasanian Empire. Umar was assassinated by the Persian slave Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz in 644.[121][122][123][124][125][126][127][128][129][130] Under Umar's successor Uthman (r. 644–656), the caliphate reached its extent, stretching from Baluchistan to Tunisia. Uthman's controversial policies led to his assassination in 656 and he was succeeded by Ali (r. 656–661), Muhammad's cousin and Uthman's brother-in-law. Ali's legitimacy as caliph was challenged by Muhammad's widow A'isha, who called for retaliation against Uthman's murderers and the election of a new caliph. These events precipitated the First Fitna. Ali emerged victorious at the Battle of the Camel in 656. Mu'awiya, the governor of Syria and a member of the Umayyad clan to which Uthman belonged, also refused to recognize Ali and the two fought to a stalemate at the Battle of Siffin in 657. Ali reluctantly agreed to arbitration, a move which caused schism in Ali's army. A group of his men, later called the Kharijites, seceded in protest and condemned arbitration as blasphemous. Arbitration could not settle the dispute between Mu'awiya and Ali. The latter was assassinated by a Kharijite called Ibn Muljam in 661, after Ali's forces had defeated most of the Kharijites at the Battle of Nahrawan in 658. These four are known in Sunni Islam as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn ("Rightly Guided Caliphs").[131][132] Ali's son Hasan became caliph and abdicated to Mu'awiya in 661 to avoid further bloodshed and signed a peace treaty in return for Mu'awiya not appointing a successor.[133] The founder of the Umayyad Caliphate, Mu'awiya (r. 661–680) made the unprecedented move of appointed his son Yazid I (r. 680–683) as successor. This led to the Second Fitna as Muhammad's grandson and Ali's son Husayn ibn Ali refused to give allegiance to Yazid. Husayn and his partisans were killed by Yazid's forces at the Battle of Karbala in 680. The battle is annually commemorated by Shias ever since. Sunnis, led by Ibn al-Zubayr and opposed to a dynastic caliphate, were defeated in the siege of Mecca. These disputes over leadership would give rise to the Sunni-Shia schism,[134] with the Shia believing leadership belongs to Muhammad's family through Ali, called the ahl al-bayt.[135] Abu Bakr's leadership oversaw the beginning of the compilation of the Quran. The Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz set up the committee, The Seven Fuqaha of Medina,[136][137] and Malik ibn Anas wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence, the Muwatta, as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists.[138][139][140] The Kharijites believed there was no compromised middle ground between good and evil, and any Muslim who committed a grave sin would become an unbeliever. The term "kharijites" would also be used to refer to later groups such as Isis.[141] The Murji'ah taught that people's righteousness could be judged by God alone. Therefore, wrongdoers might be considered misguided, but not denounced as unbelievers.[142] This attitude came to prevail into mainstream Islamic beliefs.[143]

The Umayyad dynasty conquered the Maghreb, the Iberian Peninsula, Narbonnese Gaul and Sindh.[144] The Umayyads struggled with a lack of legitimacy and relied on a heavily patronized military.[145] Since the jizya tax was a tax paid by non-Muslims which exempted them from military service, the Umayyads denied recognizing the conversion of non-Arabs, as it reduced revenue.[143] While the Rashidun Caliphate emphasized austerity, with Umar even requiring an inventory of each official's possessions,[146] Umayyad luxury bred dissatisfaction among the pious.[143] The Kharijites led the Berber Revolt, leading to the first Muslim states independent of the Caliphate. In the Abbasid Revolution, non-Arab converts (mawali), Arab clans pushed aside by the Umayyad clan, and some Shi'a rallied and overthrew the Umayyads, inaugurating the more cosmopolitan Abbasid dynasty in 750.[147][148]

Classical era (750–1258)

Further information: Hadith studies and Islamic philosophy
See also: Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe and Turco-Persian tradition

Al-Shafi'i codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith.[149] During the early Abbasid era, scholars such as Muhammad al-Bukhari and Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj compiled the major Sunni hadith collections while scholars like Al-Kulayni and Ibn Babawayh compiled major Shia hadith collections. The four Sunni Madh'habs, the Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, and Shafi'i, were established around the teachings of Abū Ḥanīfa, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Malik ibn Anas and al-Shafi'i. In contrast, the teachings of Ja'far al-Sadiq formed the Ja'fari jurisprudence. In the 9th century, Al-Tabari completed the first commentary of the Quran, the Tafsir al-Tabari, which became one of the most cited commentaries in Sunni Islam. Some Muslims began questioning the piety of indulgence in worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility, and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as Hasan al-Basri inspired a movement that would evolve into tasawwuf or Sufism.[150][151]

At this time, theological problems, notably on free will, were prominently tackled, with Hasan al Basri holding that although God knows people's actions, good and evil come from abuse of free will and the devil.[152][a] Greek rationalist philosophy influenced a speculative school of thought known as Muʿtazila, who famously advocated the notion of free-will originated by Wasil ibn Ata.[154] Caliph Mamun al Rashid made it an official creed and unsuccessfully attempted to force this position on the majority.[155] Caliph Al-Mu'tasim carried out inquisitions, with the traditionalist Ahmad ibn Hanbal notably refusing to conform to the Muʿtazila idea that the Quran was created rather than being eternal, which resulted in him being tortured and kept in an unlit prison cell for nearly thirty months.[156] However, other schools of speculative theology – Māturīdism founded by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi and Ash'ari founded by Al-Ash'ari – were more successful in being widely adopted. Philosophers such as Al-Farabi, Avicenna and Averroes sought to harmonize Aristotle's ideas with the teachings of Islam, similar to later scholasticism within Christianity in Europe and Maimonides' work within Judaism, while others like Al-Ghazali argued against such syncretism and ultimately prevailed.[157][158]

 
The eye, according to Hunain ibn Ishaq from a manuscript dated c. 1200

This era is sometimes called the "Islamic Golden Age".[159][160][161][162][128] Islamic scientific achievements spanned a wide range of subject areas including medicine, mathematics, astronomy, and agriculture as well as physics, economics, engineering and optics.[163][164][165][166] Avicenna was a pioneer in experimental medicine,[167][168] and his The Canon of Medicine was used as a standard medicinal text in the Islamic world and Europe for centuries. Rhazes was the first to identify the diseases smallpox and measles.[169] Public hospitals of the time issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors.[170][171] Ibn al-Haytham is regarded as the father of the modern scientific method and often referred to as the "world's first true scientist", in particular regarding his work in optics.[172][173][174] In engineering, the Banū Mūsā brothers' automatic flute player is considered to have been the first programmable machine.[175] In mathematics, the concept of the algorithm is named after Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, who is considered a founder of algebra, which is named after his book al-jabr, while others developed the concept of a function.[176] The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today.[177] Guinness World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine, founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university.[178] Many non-Muslims, such as Christians, Jews and Sabians,[179] contributed to the Islamic civilization in various fields,[180][181] and the institution known as the House of Wisdom employed Christian and Persian scholars to both translate works into Arabic and to develop new knowledge.[182][179][183]

Soldiers broke away from the Abbasid empire and established their own dynasties, such as the Tulunids in 868 in Egypt[184] and the Ghaznavid dynasty in 977 in Central Asia.[185] In this fragmentation came the Shi'a Century, roughly between 945 and 1055, which saw the rise of the millennialist Isma'ili Shi'a missionary movement. One Isma'ili group, the Fatimid dynasty, took control of North Africa in the 10th century[186] and another Isma'ili group, the Qarmatians, sacked Mecca and stole the Black Stone, a rock placed within the Kaaba, in their unsuccessful rebellion.[187] Yet another Isma'ili group, the Buyid dynasty, conquered Baghdad and turned the Abbasids into a figurehead monarchy. The Sunni Seljuk dynasty campaigned to reassert Sunni Islam by promulgating the scholarly opinions of the time, notably with the construction of educational institutions known as Nezamiyeh, which are associated with Al-Ghazali and Saadi Shirazi.[188]

The expansion of the Muslim world continued with religious missions converting Volga Bulgaria to Islam. The Delhi Sultanate reached deep into the Indian Subcontinent and many converted to Islam,[189] in particular low-caste Hindus whose descendants make up the vast majority of Indian Muslims.[190] Trade brought many Muslims to China, where they virtually dominated the import and export industry of the Song dynasty.[191] Muslims were recruited as a governing minority class in the Yuan dynasty.[192]

Pre-Modern era (1258–18th century)

Further information: Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam
 
Ghazan Khan, 7th Ilkhanate ruler of the Mongol Empire, converts to Islam. 14th-century depiction

Through Muslim trade networks and the activity of Sufi orders,[193] Islam spread into new areas[194] and Muslims assimilated into new cultures.

Under the Ottoman Empire, Islam spread to Southeast Europe.[195] Conversion to Islam often involved a degree of syncretism,[196] as illustrated by Muhammad's appearance in Hindu folklore.[197] Muslim Turks incorporated elements of Turkish Shamanism beliefs to Islam.[b][199] Muslims in Ming Dynasty China who were descended from earlier immigrants were assimilated, sometimes through laws mandating assimilation,[200] by adopting Chinese names and culture while Nanjing became an important center of Islamic study.[201][202]

Cultural shifts were evident with the decrease in Arab influence after the Mongol destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate.[203] The Muslim Mongol Khanates in Iran and Central Asia benefited from increased cross-cultural access to East Asia under Mongol rule and thus flourished and developed more distinctively from Arab influence, such as the Timurid Renaissance under the Timurid dynasty.[204] Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–1274) proposed the mathematical model that was later argued to be adopted by Copernicus unrevised in his heliocentric model,[205] and Jamshīd al-Kāshī's estimate of pi would not be surpassed for 180 years.[206]

After the introduction of gunpowder weapons, large and centralized Muslim states consolidated around gunpowder empires, these had been previously splintered amongst various territories. The caliphate was claimed by the Ottoman dynasty of the Ottoman Empire and its claims were strengthened in 1517 as Selim I became the ruler of Mecca and Medina.[207] The Shia Safavid dynasty rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran.[208] In South Asia, Babur founded the Mughal Empire.[209]

The religion of the centralized states of the gunpowder empires influenced the religious practice of their constituent populations. A symbiosis between Ottoman rulers and Sufism strongly influenced Islamic reign by the Ottomans from the beginning. The Mevlevi Order and Bektashi Order had a close relation to the sultans,[210] as Sufi-mystical as well as heterodox and syncretic approaches to Islam flourished.[211] The often forceful Safavid conversion of Iran to the Twelver Shia Islam of the Safavid Empire ensured the final dominance of the Twelver sect within Shia Islam. Persian migrants to South Asia, as influential bureaucrats and landholders, help spread Shia Islam, forming some of the largest Shia populations outside Iran.[212] Nader Shah, who overthrew the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Twelverism into Sunni Islam as a fifth madhhab, called Ja'farism,[213] which failed to gain recognition from the Ottomans.[214]

Modern era (18th–20th centuries)

 
Abdülmecid II was the last Caliph of Islam from the Ottoman dynasty.

Earlier in the 14th century, Ibn Taymiyya promoted a puritanical form of Islam,[215] rejecting philosophical approaches in favor of simpler theology,[215] and called to open the gates of itjihad rather than blind imitation of scholars.[216] He called for a jihad against those he deemed heretics,[217] but his writings only played a marginal role during his lifetime.[218] During the 18th century in Arabia, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, influenced by the works of Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn al-Qayyim, founded a movement called Wahhabi to return to what he saw as unadultered Islam.[219][220] He condemned many local Islamic customs, such as visiting the grave of Muhammad or saints, as later innovations and sinful[220] and destroyed sacred rocks and trees, Sufi shrines, the tombs of Muhammad and his companions and the tomb of Husayn at Karbala, a major Shia pilgrimage site.[221][222] He formed an alliance with the Saud family, which, by the 1920s, completed their conquest of the area that would become Saudi Arabia.[223] Ma Wanfu and Ma Debao promoted salafist movements in the 19th century such as Sailaifengye in China after returning from Mecca but were eventually persecuted and forced into hiding by Sufi groups.[224] Other groups sought to reform Sufism rather than reject it, with the Senusiyya and Muhammad Ahmad both waging war and establishing states in Libya and Sudan respectively.[225] In India, Shah Waliullah Dehlawi attempted a more conciliatory style against Sufism and influenced the Deobandi movement.[226] In response to the Deobandi movement, the Barelwi movement was founded as a mass movement, defending popular Sufism and reforming its practices.[227][228]

The Muslim world was generally in political decline starting the 1800s, especially compared to non-Muslim European powers. Earlier, in the 15th century, the Reconquista succeeded in ending the Muslim presence in Iberia. By the 19th century, the British East India Company had formally annexed the Mughal dynasty in India.[229] As a response to Western Imperialism, many intellectuals sought to reform Islam.[230] Islamic modernism, initially labelled by Western scholars as Salafiyya, embraced modern values and institutions such as democracy while being scripture oriented. Notable forerunners in the movement include Muhammad 'Abduh and Jamal al-Din al-Afghani.[231] Abul A'la Maududi helped influence modern political Islam.[232] Similar to contemporary codification, sharia was for the first time partially codified into law in 1869 in the Ottoman Empire's Mecelle code.[233]

The Ottoman Empire disintegrated after World War I and the Caliphate was abolished in 1924.[234] Pan-Islamists attempted to unify Muslims and competed with growing nationalist forces, such as pan-Arabism. The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), consisting of Muslim-majority countries, was established in 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.[235]

Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants (mostly from India and Indonesia) to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.[236] Migration from Syria and Lebanon contributed to the Muslim population in Latin America.[237] The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith,[238] likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914.[239]

Contemporary era (20th century–present)

 
Leaders of Muslim countries during session of the Islamic Summit Conference in Istanbul, Turkey

Forerunners of Islamic modernism influenced Islamist political movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood and related parties in the Arab world,[240][241] which performed well in elections following the Arab Spring,[242] Jamaat-e-Islami in South Asia and the AK Party, which has democratically been in power in Turkey for decades. In Iran, revolution replaced a secular monarchy with an Islamic state. Others such as Sayyid Rashid Rida broke away from Islamic modernists[243] and pushed against embracing what he saw as Western influence.[244] The group Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant would even attempt to recreate the modern gold dinar as their monetary system. While some of those who broke away were quietist, others believed in violence against those opposing them, even against other Muslims.[245]

In opposition to Islamic political movements, in 20th century Turkey, the military carried out coups to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were legally restricted, as also happened in Tunisia.[246][247] In other places, religious authority was co-opted and is now often seen as puppets of the state. For example, in Saudi Arabia, the state monopolized religious scholarship[248] and, in Egypt, the state nationalized Al-Azhar University, previously an independent voice checking state power.[249] Salafism was funded in the Middle East for its quietism.[250] Saudi Arabia campaigned against revolutionary Islamist movements in the Middle East, in opposition to Iran.[251]

Muslim minorities of various ethnicities have been persecuted as a religious group.[252] This has been undertaken by communist forces like the Khmer Rouge, who viewed them as their primary enemy to be exterminated since their religious practice made them stand out from the rest of the population,[253] the Chinese Communist Party in Xinjiang[254] and by nationalist forces such as during the Bosnian genocide.[255] Myanmar military's Tatmadaw targeting of Rohingya Muslims has been labeled as a crime against humanity by the UN and Amnesty International,[256][257] while the OHCHR Fact-Finding Mission identified genocide, ethnic cleansing, and other crimes against humanity.[258]

The advancement of global communication has facilitated the widespread dissemination of religious knowledge. The adoption of the hijab has grown more common[259] and some Muslim intellectuals are increasingly striving to separate scriptural Islamic beliefs from cultural traditions.[260] Among other groups, this access to information has led to the rise of popular "televangelist" preachers, such as Amr Khaled, who compete with the traditional ulema in their reach and have decentralized religious authority.[261][262] More "individualized" interpretations of Islam[263] notably involve Liberal Muslims who attempt to align religious traditions with contemporary secular governance,[264][265] an approach that has been criticized by some regarding its compatibility.[266][267] Moreover, secularism is perceived as a foreign ideology imposed by invaders and perpetuated by post-colonial ruling elites,[268] and is frequently understood to be equivalent to anti-religion.[269]

Demographics

Main articles: Muslim world and Ummah
See also: Islam by country and Muslim population growth
 
Muslim distribution worldwide, based on latest available data[270]
 
World percentage of Muslims by country

As of 2015, about 24% of the global population, or about 1.9 billion people, are Muslims.[271][272][273][274][275][276][277] In 1900, this estimate was 12.3%,[278] in 1990 it was 19.9%[238] and projections suggest the proportion will be 29.7% by 2050.[279] The Pew Research Center estimates that 87–90% of Muslims are Sunni and 10–13% are Shia.[280] Approximately 49 countries are Muslim-majority,[281][282][283][284][285][286] with 62% of the world's Muslims living in Asia, and 683 million adherents in Indonesia,[287] Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh alone.[288][289][290] Arab Muslims form the largest ethnic group among Muslims in the world,[291] followed by Bengalis[292][293] and Punjabis.[294] Most estimates indicate China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population).[295][296] Islam in Europe is the second-largest religion after Christianity in many countries, with growth rates due primarily to immigration and higher birth rates of Muslims in 2005,[297] accounting for 4.9% of all of Europe's population in 2016.[298]

Religious conversion has no net impact on the Muslim population growth as "the number of people who become Muslims through conversion seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith."[299] Although, Islam is expected to experience a modest gain of 3 million through religious conversion between 2010 and 2050, mostly from Sub Saharan Africa (2.9 million).[300][301]

According to a report by CNN, "Islam has drawn converts from all walks of life, most notably African-Americans".[302] In Britain, around 6,000 people convert to Islam per year and, according to an article in the British Muslims Monthly Survey, the majority of new Muslim converts in Britain were women.[303] According to The Huffington Post, "observers estimate that as many as 20,000 Americans convert to Islam annually", most of them being women and African-Americans.[304][305]

By both percentage and total numbers, Islam is the world's fastest growing major religious group, and is projected to be the world's largest by the end of the 21st century, surpassing that of Christianity.[306][279] It is estimated that, by 2050, the number of Muslims will nearly equal the number of Christians around the world, "due to the young age and high fertility rate of Muslims relative to other religious groups."[279]

Main branches or denominations

Main article: Islamic schools and branches § Main branches or denominations
See also: Shia–Sunni relations

Sunni

Main article: Sunni Islam
 
The nine volumes of Sahih Al-Bukhari, one of the six Sunni hadith books

Sunni Islam or Sunnism is the name for the largest denomination in Islam.[307][308][309] The term is a contraction of the phrase "ahl as-sunna wa'l-jamaat", which means "people of the sunna (the traditions of the prophet Muhammad) and the community".[310] Sunnis, or sometimes Sunnites, believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad and primarily reference six major hadith works for legal matters, while following one of the four traditional schools of jurisprudence: Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki or Shafi'i.[311][312]

Traditionalist theology is a Sunni school of thought, prominently advocated by Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780–855 CE), that is characterized by its adherence to a textualist understanding of the Quran and the sunnah, the belief that the Quran is uncreated and eternal, and opposition to speculative theology, called kalam, in religious and ethical matters.[313] Mu'tazilism is a Sunni school of thought inspired by Ancient Greek Philosophy. Maturidism, founded by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi (853–944 CE), asserts that scripture is not needed for basic ethics and that good and evil can be understood by reason alone,[314] but people rely on revelation, for matters beyond human's comprehension. Ash'arism, founded by Al-Ashʿarī (c. 874–936), holds that ethics can derive just from divine revelation but accepts reason regarding exegetical matters and combines Muʿtazila approaches with traditionalist ideas.[315]

Salafism is a revival movement advocating the return to the practices of the earliest generations of Muslims. In the 18th century, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab led a Salafi movement, referred by outsiders as Wahhabism, in modern-day Saudi Arabia.[316] A similar movement called Ahl al-Hadith also de-emphasized the centuries' old Sunni legal tradition, preferring to directly follow the Quran and Hadith. The Nurcu Sunni movement was by Said Nursi (1877–1960);[317] it incorporates elements of Sufism and science.[317][318]

Shia

Main article: Shia Islam
 
The Imam Hussein Shrine in Iraq is a holy site for Shia Muslims.
 
Al-Abbas Shrine, Between The Holy Shrines, Karbala, Iraq.

Shia Islam, or Shi'ism, is the second-largest Muslim denomination.[319][320][280] Shias, or Shiites, split with Sunnis over Muhammad's successor as leader, who the Shia believed must be from certain descendants of Muhammad's family known as the Ahl al-Bayt and those leaders, referred to as Imams, have additional spiritual authority.[321][322]

According to both Sunni and Shia Muslims, significant event that took place at Ghadir Khumm, during Muhammad's return from his final pilgrimage to Mecca. At Ghadir Khumm, Muhammad appointed his cousin Ali as the executor of his last will and testament, as well as his Wali (authority).[323][324] Shias recognise that Muhammad nominated Ali as his successor (khalīfa) and Imam (spiritual and political leader) after him.[325] Some of the first Imams are revered by all Shia groups and Sunnis, such as Ali. The Twelvers, the first and the largest Shia branch, believe in twelve Imams, the last of whom went into occultation to return one day. They recognise that the prophecy of the Twelve Imams has been foretold in the Hadith of the Twelve Successors which is recorded by both Sunni and Shia sources.[326]

Zaidi, the second-oldest branch, reject special powers of Imams and are sometimes considered a 'fifth school' of Sunni Islam rather than a Shia denomination.[327][328] The Isma'ilis split with the Twelvers over who was the seventh Imam and have split into more groups over the status of successive Imams, with the largest group being the Nizaris.[329]

Muhakkima

Main articles: Muhakkima, Ibadi Islam, and Kharijites

Ibadi Islam or Ibadism is practised by 1.45 million Muslims around the world (~ 0.08% of all Muslims), most of them in Oman.[330] Ibadism is often associated with and viewed as a moderate variation of the kharijites, though Ibadis themselves object to this classification. The kharijites were groups that rebelled against Caliph Ali for his acceptance of arbitration with someone they viewed as a sinner. Unlike most kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. Ibadi hadiths, such as the Jami Sahih collection, use chains of narrators from early Islamic history they consider trustworthy, but most Ibadi hadiths are also found in standard Sunni collections and contemporary Ibadis often approve of the standard Sunni collections.[331]

 
An overview of the major sects and madhahib of Islam

Other denominations

Non-denominational Muslims

Main article: Non-denominational Muslim

Non-denominational Muslims is an umbrella term that has been used for and by Muslims who do not belong to or do not self-identify with a specific Islamic denomination.[346][347] Recent surveys report that large proportions of Muslims in some parts of the world self-identify as "just Muslim", although there is little published analysis available regarding the motivations underlying this response.[348][349][350] The Pew Research Center reports that respondents self-identifying as "just Muslim" make up a majority of Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others), with the highest proportion in Kazakhstan at 74%. At least one in five Muslims in at least 22 countries self-identifies in this way.[351]

Mysticism

Main article: Sufism
See also: Sufi–Salafi relations
 
The Whirling Dervishes, or Mevlevi Order by the tomb of Sufi-mystic Rumi
 
Sufism in Konya. Turkey.

Sufism (Arabic: تصوف, tasawwuf), is a mystical-ascetic approach to Islam that seeks to find a direct personal experience of God. Classical Sufi scholars defined tasawwuf as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God", through "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.[352][353][354][355] It is not a sect of Islam, and its adherents belong to the various Muslim denominations. Isma'ilism, whose teachings are rooted in Gnosticism and Neoplatonism[356] as well as by the Illuminationist and Isfahan schools of Islamic philosophy, has developed mystical interpretations of Islam.[357] Hasan al-Basri, the early Sufi ascetic often portrayed as one of the earliest Sufis,[358] emphasized fear of failing God's expectations of obedience. In contrast, later prominent Sufis, such as Mansur Al-Hallaj and Jalaluddin Rumi, emphasized religiosity based on love towards God. Such devotion would also have an impact on the arts, with Rumi, still one of the bestselling poets in America.[359][360]

Sufis see tasawwuf as an inseparable part of Islam.[361] Traditional Sufis, such as Bayazid Bastami, Jalaluddin Rumi, Haji Bektash Veli, Junaid Baghdadi, and Al-Ghazali, argued for Sufism as being based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of the prophet.[362][361] Historian Nile Green argued that Islam in the Medieval period, was more or less Sufism.[363] Popular devotional practices such as the veneration of Sufi saints have been viewed as innovations from the original religion from followers of the Sunni revivalist movement known as Salafism. Salafists have sometimes physically attacked Sufis, leading to a deterioration in Sufi–Salafi relations.[364]

Sufi congregations form orders (tariqa) centered around a teacher (wali) who traces a spiritual chain back to Muhammad.[365] Sufis played an important role in the formation of Muslim societies through their missionary and educational activities.[150] Sufism influenced Ahle Sunnat movement or Barelvi movement claims over 200 million followers in South Asia.[366][367][368] Sufism is prominent in Central Asia,[369][370] as well as in African countries like Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Senegal, Chad and Niger.[351][371]

Law and jurisprudence

Main articles: Sharia and Fiqh
See also: Logic in Islamic philosophy § Islamic law and theology

Sharia is the religious law forming part of the Islamic tradition.[311][372] It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam, particularly the Quran and the Hadith. In Arabic, the term sharīʿah refers to God's divine law and is contrasted with fiqh, which refers to its scholarly interpretations.[373][374] The manner of its application in modern times has been a subject of dispute between Muslim traditionalists and reformists.[311]

Traditional theory of Islamic jurisprudence recognizes four sources of sharia: the Quran, sunnah (Hadith and Sira), qiyas (analogical reasoning), and ijma (juridical consensus).[375] Different legal schools developed methodologies for deriving sharia rulings from scriptural sources using a process known as ijtihad.[373] Traditional jurisprudence distinguishes two principal branches of law,ʿibādāt (rituals) and muʿāmalāt (social relations), which together comprise a wide range of topics.[373] Its rulings assign actions to one of five categories called ahkam: mandatory (fard), recommended (mustahabb), permitted (mubah), abhorred (makruh), and prohibited (haram).[373][374] Forgiveness is much celebrated in Islam[376] and, in criminal law, while imposing a penalty on an offender in proportion to their offense is considered permissible; forgiving the offender is better. To go one step further by offering a favor to the offender is regarded as the peak of excellence.[377] Some areas of sharia overlap with the Western notion of law while others correspond more broadly to living life in accordance with God's will.[374]

Historically, sharia was interpreted by independent jurists (muftis). Their legal opinions (fatwa) were taken into account by ruler-appointed judges who presided over qāḍī's courts, and by maẓālim courts, which were controlled by the ruler's council and administered criminal law.[373][374] In the modern era, sharia-based criminal laws were widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models.[374] The Ottoman Empire's 19th century Tanzimat reforms lead to the Mecelle civil code and represented the first attempt to codify sharia.[233] While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, its classical rules were largely retained only in personal status (family) laws.[374] Legislative bodies which codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence.[374][378] The Islamic revival of the late 20th century brought along calls by Islamist movements for complete implementation of sharia.[374][378] The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world. There are ongoing debates as to whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government, human rights, freedom of thought, and women's rights.[379][380]

Schools of jurisprudence

 
Islamic schools of law in the Muslim world
Main article: Madhhab

A school of jurisprudence is referred to as a madhhab (Arabic: مذهب). The four major Sunni schools are the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i and Hanbali schools while the three major Shia schools are the Ja'fari, Zaidi and Isma'ili schools. Each differs in their methodology, called Usul al-fiqh ("principles of jurisprudence"). The conformity in following of decisions by a religious expert or school is called taqlid. The term ghair muqallid refers to those who do not use taqlid and, by extension, do not have a madhab.[381] The practice of an individual interpreting law with independent reasoning is called ijtihad.[382]

Society

Religious personages

Main article: Ulama
 
Crimean Tatar Muslim students (1856)

Islam has no clergy in the sacerdotal sense, such as priests who mediate between God and people. Imam (إمام) is the religious title used to refer to an Islamic leadership position, often in the context of conducting an Islamic worship service.[383] Religious interpretation is presided over by the 'ulama (Arabic: علماء), a term used describe the body of Muslim scholars who have received training in Islamic studies. A scholar of the hadith is called a muhaddith, a scholar of jurisprudence is called a faqih (فقيه), a jurist who is qualified to issue legal opinions or fatwas is called a mufti, and a qadi is an Islamic judge. Honorific titles given to scholars include sheikh, mullah and mawlawi. Some Muslims also venerate saints associated with miracles (كرامات, karāmāt).[384]

Governance

See also: Political aspects of Islam, Islamic economics, Islamic military jurisprudence, and Jihad

In Islamic economic jurisprudence, hoarding of wealth is reviled and thus monopolistic behavior is frowned upon.[385] Attempts to comply with sharia has led to the development of Islamic banking. Islam prohibits riba, usually translated as usury, which refers to any unfair gain in trade and is most commonly used to mean interest.[386] Instead, Islamic banks go into partnership with the borrower, and both share from the profits and any losses from the venture. Another feature is the avoidance of uncertainty, which is seen as gambling[387] and Islamic banks traditionally avoid derivative instruments such as futures or options which has historically protected them from market downturns.[388] The Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphate used to be involved in distribution of charity from the treasury, known as Bayt al-mal, before it became a largely individual pursuit around the year 720. The first Caliph, Abu Bakr, distributed zakat as one of the first examples of a guaranteed minimum income, with each citizen getting 10 to 20 dirhams annually.[389] During the reign of the second Caliph Umar, child support was introduced and the old and disabled were entitled to stipends,[390][391] while the Umayyad Caliph Umar II assigned a servant for each blind person and for every two chronically ill persons.[392]

Jihad means "to strive or struggle [in the way of God]" and, in its broadest sense, is "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation".[393] Shias in particular emphasize the "greater jihad" of striving to attain spiritual self-perfection[394][395][396] while the "lesser jihad" is defined as warfare.[397][398] When used without a qualifier, jihad is often understood in its military form.[393][394] Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against illegal works, terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, apostates, and leaders or states who oppress Muslims.[397][398] Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare.[399] Jihad only becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization.[398] For most Twelver Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such, is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi's occultation is 868 CE.[400][401]

Daily and family life

See also: Adab (Islam), Islamic dietary laws, Islam and children, Marriage in Islam, Women in Islam, and Polygyny in Islam
 
Islamic veils represent modesty.

Many daily practices fall in the category of adab, or etiquette. Specific prohibited foods include pork products, blood and carrion. Health is viewed as a trust from God and intoxicants, such as alcoholic drinks, are prohibited.[402] All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, except for game that one has hunted or fished for oneself.[403][404][405] Beards are often encouraged among men as something natural[406] and body modifications, such as permanent tattoos, are usually forbidden as violating the creation.[c][408] Silk and gold are prohibited for men in Islam to maintain a state of sobriety.[409] Haya, often translated as "shame" or "modesty", is sometimes described as the innate character of Islam[410] and informs much of Muslim daily life. For example, clothing in Islam emphasizes a standard of modesty, which has included the hijab for women. Similarly, personal hygiene is encouraged with certain requirements.[411]

 
An Islamic wedding.

In Islamic marriage, the groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr).[412][413][414] Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous.[415][416] Muslim men are allowed to practice polygyny and can have up to four wives simultaneously. Islamic teachings strongly advise that if a man cannot ensure equal financial and emotional support for each of his wives, it is recommended that he marry just one woman. One reason cited for polygyny is that it allows a man to give financial protection to multiple women, who might otherwise not have any support (e.g. widows). However, the first wife can set a condition in the marriage contract that the husband cannot marry another woman during their marriage.[417][418] There are also cultural variations in weddings.[419] Polyandry, a practice wherein a woman takes on two or more husbands, is prohibited in Islam.[420]

 
Shia Muslim girls studying the Quran placed atop folding lecterns (rehal) during Ramadan in Qom, Iran

After the birth of a child, the adhan is pronounced in the right ear.[421] On the seventh day, the aqiqah ceremony is performed, in which an animal is sacrificed and its meat is distributed among the poor.[422] The child's head is shaved, and an amount of money equaling the weight of its hair is donated to the poor.[422] Male circumcision, called khitan,[423] is often practised in the Muslim world.[424][425] Respecting and obeying one's parents, and taking care of them especially in their old age is a religious obligation.[426]

A dying Muslim is encouraged to pronounce the Shahada as their last words.[427] Paying respects to the dead and attending funerals in the community are considered among the virtuous acts. In Islamic burial rituals, burial is encouraged as soon as possible, usually within 24 hours. The body is washed, except for martyrs, by members of the same gender and enshrouded in a garment that must not be elaborate called kafan.[428] A "funeral prayer" called Salat al-Janazah is performed. Wailing, or loud, mournful outcrying, is discouraged. Coffins are often not preferred and graves are often unmarked, even for kings.[429]

Arts and culture

Main article: Islamic culture
See also: Islamic art, Islamic architecture, Islamic literature, Islam in association football, and Cultural Muslims

The term "Islamic culture" can be used to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such as festivals and dress code. It is also controversially used to denote the cultural aspects of traditionally Muslim people.[430] Finally, "Islamic civilization" may also refer to the aspects of the synthesized culture of the early Caliphates, including that of non-Muslims,[431] sometimes referred to as "Islamicate".[432]

Islamic art encompasses the visual arts including fields as varied as architecture, calligraphy, painting, and ceramics, among others.[433][434] While the making of images of animate beings has often been frowned upon in connection with laws against idolatry, this rule has been interpreted in different ways by different scholars and in different historical periods. This stricture has been used to explain the prevalence of calligraphy, tessellation, and pattern as key aspects of Islamic artistic culture.[435] Additionally, the depiction of Muhammad is a contentious issue among Muslims.[436] In Islamic architecture, varying cultures show influence such as North African and Spanish Islamic architecture such as the Great Mosque of Kairouan containing marble and porphyry columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings,[437] while mosques in Indonesia often have multi-tiered roofs from local Javanese styles.[438]

The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar that begins with the Hijra of 622 CE, a date that was reportedly chosen by Caliph Umar as it was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes.[439] Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, meaning they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important Islamic festivals are Eid al-Fitr (Arabic: عيد الفطر) on the 1st of Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha (عيد الأضحى) on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the end of the Hajj (pilgrimage).[440][74]

Cultural Muslims are religiously non-practicing individuals who still identify with Islam due to family backgrounds, personal experiences, or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up.[441][442]

Influences on other religions

See also: Islam and Druze

Some movements, such as the Druze,[443][444][445] Berghouata and Ha-Mim, either emerged from Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam, and whether each is a separate religion or a sect of Islam is sometimes controversial.[446] The Druze faith further split from Isma'ilism as it developed its own unique doctrines, and finally separated from both Ismāʿīlīsm and Islam altogether; these include the belief that the Imam Al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh was God incarnate.[447][448] Yazdânism is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to Kurdistan by Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir in the 12th century.[449] Bábism stems from Twelver Shia passed through Siyyid 'Ali Muhammad i-Shirazi al-Bab while one of his followers Mirza Husayn 'Ali Nuri Baha'u'llah founded the Baháʼí Faith.[450] Sikhism, founded by Guru Nanak in late 15th century Punjab, primarily incorporates aspects of Hinduism, with some Islamic influences.[451]

Criticism

Main article: Criticism of Islam
See also: Criticism of Muhammad and Criticism of the Quran
 
John of Damascus, under the Umayyad Caliphate, viewed Islamic doctrines as a hodgepodge from the Bible.[452]

Criticism of Islam has existed since its formative stages. Early criticism came from Jewish authors, such as Ibn Kammuna, and Christian authors, many of whom viewed Islam as a Christian heresy or a form of idolatry, often explaining it in apocalyptic terms.[453]

Christian writers criticized Islam's sensual descriptions of paradise. Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari defended the Quranic description of paradise by asserting that the Bible also implies such ideas, such as drinking wine in the Gospel of Matthew. Catholic theologian Augustine of Hippo's doctrines led to the broad repudiation of bodily pleasure in both life and the afterlife. [454]

Defamatory images of Muhammad, derived from early 7th century depictions of the Byzantine Church,[455] appear in the 14th-century epic poem Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri.[456] Here, Muhammad is depicted in the eighth circle of hell, along with Ali. Dante does not blame Islam as a whole but accuses Muhammad of schism, by establishing another religion after Christianity.[456]

Other criticisms center on the treatment of individuals within modern Muslim-majority countries, including issues related to human rights, particularly in relation to the application of Islamic law.[457] Furthermore, in the wake of the recent multiculturalism trend, Islam's influence on the ability of Muslim immigrants in the West to assimilate has been criticized.[458]

See also

References

Footnotes

  1. ^ "Hasan al Basri is often considered one of the first who rejected an angelic origin for the devil, arguing that his fall was the result of his own free-will, not God's determination. Hasan al Basri also argued that angels are incapable of sin or errors and nobler than humans and even prophets. Both early Shias and Sunnis opposed his view.[153]
  2. ^ "In recent years, the idea of syncretism has been challenged. Given the lack of authority to define or enforce an Orthodox doctrine about Islam, some scholars argue there had no prescribed beliefs, only prescribed practise, in Islam before the 16th century.[198]
  3. ^ Some Muslims in dynastic era China resisted footbinding of girls for the same reason.[407]

Quran and hadith

  1. ^ Quran 2:117
  2. ^ Quran 1:4;
  3. ^ Quran 6:31;
  4. ^ Quran 101:1

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December 02, 2023
islam, this, article, about, religion, other, uses, disambiguation, ɑː, arabic, ال, إس, ام, ʾislām, ʔɪsˈlæːm, abrahamic, monotheistic, religion, centered, quran, teachings, muhammad, religion, founder, adherents, called, muslims, number, approximately, billion. This article is about the religion For other uses see Islam disambiguation Islam ˈ ɪ s l ɑː m Arabic ال إس ل ام al ʾIslam ʔɪsˈlaeːm is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centered on the Quran and the teachings of Muhammad the religion s founder Adherents of Islam called Muslims number approximately 1 9 billion globally and are the world s second largest religious population after Christians Islamال إس ل ام The Kaaba at Masjid al Haram in Mecca Saudi Arabia the holiest Islamic siteTypeUniversal religionClassificationAbrahamicScriptureQuranTheologyMonotheisticLanguageClassical ArabicTerritoryMuslim worldFounderMuhammadOriginCE 610 1413 years ago 610 Jabal al Nour Hejaz ArabiaSeparated fromArabian polytheismNumber of followersc 1 9 billion individually referred to as Muslims collectively referred to as the ummah Muslims believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed many times through earlier prophets including Adam Noah Abraham Moses and Jesus Muslims consider the Quran to be the verbatim word of God and the unaltered final revelation Alongside the Quran Muslims also believe in previous revelations such as the Tawrat the Torah the Zabur Psalms and the Injeel Gospel They also consider Muhammad as the main and final Islamic prophet through whom the religion was completed The teachings and normative examples of Muhammad called the sunnah documented in accounts called the hadith provide a constitutional model for Muslims Islam teaches that God Allah is one and incomparable It states that there will be a Final Judgment wherein the righteous will be rewarded in paradise jannah and the unrighteous will be punished in hell jahannam The Five Pillars considered obligatory acts of worship comprise the Islamic oath and creed shahada daily prayers salah almsgiving zakat fasting sawm in the month of Ramadan and a pilgrimage hajj to Mecca Islamic law sharia touches on virtually every aspect of life from banking and finance and welfare to men s and women s roles and the environment The two main religious festivals are Eid al Fitr and Eid al Adha The three holiest sites in Islam are Masjid al Haram in Mecca Prophet s Mosque in Medina and Al Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem The religion of Islam originated in Mecca about 610 CE Muslims believe this is when Muhammad began receiving revelation By the time of his death most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam Muslim rule expanded outside Arabia under the Rashidun Caliphate and the subsequent Umayyad Caliphate ruled from the Iberian Peninsula to the Indus Valley In the Islamic Golden Age mostly during the reign of the Abbasid Caliphate much of the Muslim world experienced a scientific economic and cultural flourishing The expansion of the Muslim world involved various states and caliphates as well as extensive trade and religious conversion as a result of Islamic missionary activities dawah and through conquests The two main Islamic branches are Sunni Islam 85 90 and Shia Islam 10 15 While the Shia Sunni divide initially arose from disagreements over the succession to Muhammad they grew to cover a broader dimension both theologically and juridically Muslims make up a majority of the population in 49 countries Approximately 12 of the world s Muslims live in Indonesia the most populous Muslim majority country 31 live in South Asia 20 live in the Middle East North Africa and 15 live in sub Saharan Africa Muslim communities are also present in the Americas China and Europe Due largely to a higher fertility rate than that of other religions Islam is the world s fastest growing religion and if current trends hold it could slightly surpass Christianity as the world s largest religion by the end of the 21st century Contents 1 Etymology 2 Articles of faith 2 1 God 2 2 Angels 2 3 Scriptures 2 4 Prophets 2 5 Resurrection and judgment 2 6 Divine predestination 3 Acts of worship 3 1 Declaration of faith 3 2 Prayer 3 3 Almsgiving 3 4 Fasting 3 5 Pilgrimage 3 6 Supererogatory acts 4 History 4 1 Muhammad and the birth of Islam 570 632 4 2 Early Islamic period 632 750 4 3 Classical era 750 1258 4 4 Pre Modern era 1258 18th century 4 5 Modern era 18th 20th centuries 4 6 Contemporary era 20th century present 5 Demographics 6 Main branches or denominations 6 1 Sunni 6 2 Shia 6 3 Muhakkima 6 4 Other denominations 6 5 Non denominational Muslims 7 Mysticism 8 Law and jurisprudence 8 1 Schools of jurisprudence 9 Society 9 1 Religious personages 9 2 Governance 9 3 Daily and family life 9 4 Arts and culture 10 Influences on other religions 11 Criticism 12 See also 13 References 13 1 Footnotes 13 2 Quran and hadith 13 3 Citations 13 4 Sources 13 5 Encyclopedias and dictionaries 14 Further readingEtymologySee also Muslims Etymology The Arabic term Islam Arabic إسلام lit submission to God 1 2 3 is the verbal noun of Form IV originating from the verb سلم salama from the triliteral root س ل م S L M which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of submission safeness and peace 4 In a religious context it refers to the total surrender to the will of God 5 A Muslim م س ل م the word for a follower of Islam 6 is the active participle of the same verb form and means submitter to God or one who surrenders to God In the Hadith of Gabriel Islam is presented as one part of a triad that also includes iman faith and ihsan excellence 7 8 Islam itself was historically called Mohammedanism in the English speaking world This term has fallen out of use and is sometimes said to be offensive as it suggests that a human being rather than God is central to Muslims religion 9 Articles of faithMain articles Aqidah and Iman The Islamic creed aqidah requires belief in six articles God angels revelation prophets the Day of Resurrection and the divine predestination 10 God nbsp Calligraphy showing the word Allah in Arabic in Hagia Sophia Istanbul TurkeyMain article God in Islam The central concept of Islam is tawḥid Arabic توحيد the oneness of God It is usually thought of as a precise monotheism but is also panentheistic in Islamic mystical teachings 11 12 God is seen as incomparable and without partners such as in the Christian Trinity and associating partners to God or attributing God s attributes to others is seen as idolatory called shirk God is seen as transcendent of creation and so is beyond comprehension Thus Muslims are not iconodules and do not attribute forms to God God is instead described and referred to by several names or attributes the most common being Ar Rahman الرحمان meaning The Entirely Merciful and Ar Rahim الرحيم meaning The Especially Merciful which are invoked at the beginning of most chapters of the Quran 13 14 Islam teaches that the creation of everything in the universe was brought into being by God s command as expressed by the wording Be and it is i 1 and that the purpose of existence is to worship God 15 He is viewed as a personal god 1 and there are no intermediaries such as clergy to contact God Consciousness and awareness of God is referred to as Taqwa Allah is a term with no plural or gender being ascribed to it and is also used by Muslims and Arabic speaking Christians and Jews in reference to God whereas ʾilah إله is a term used for a deity or a god in general 16 Angels nbsp A 16th century Siyer i Nebi image of the angel Gabriel visiting MuhammadMain article Angels in Islam Angels Arabic ملك malak are beings described in the Quran 17 and hadith 18 They are described as created to worship God and also to serve in other specific duties such as communicating revelations from God recording every person s actions and taking a person s soul at the time of death They are described as being created variously from light nur 19 20 21 or fire nar 22 23 24 25 Islamic angels are often represented in anthropomorphic forms combined with supernatural images such as wings being of great size or wearing heavenly articles 26 27 28 29 Common characteristics for angels include a lack of bodily needs and desires such as eating and drinking 30 Some of them such as Gabriel Jibril and Michael Mika il are mentioned by name in the Quran Angels play a significant role in literature about the Mi raj where Muhammad encounters several angels during his journey through the heavens 18 Further angels have often been featured in Islamic eschatology theology and philosophy 31 Scriptures nbsp A Quran manuscript resting on a rehal a book rest for the holy textMain articles Islamic holy books Quran and Wahy See also History of the Quran The pre eminent holy text of Islam is the Quran Muslims believe that the verses of the Quran were revealed to Muhammad by God through the archangel Gabriel on multiple occasions between 610 CE 32 33 and 632 the year Muhammad died 34 While Muhammad was alive these revelations were written down by his companions although the primary method of transmission was orally through memorization 35 The Quran is divided into 114 chapters surah which contain a combined 6 236 verses ayat The chronologically earlier chapters revealed at Mecca are concerned primarily with spiritual topics while the later Medinan chapters discuss more social and legal issues relevant to the Muslim community 1 36 Muslim jurists consult the hadith accounts or the written record of Muhammad s life to both supplement the Quran and assist with its interpretation The science of Quranic commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir 37 38 In addition to its religious significance the Quran is widely regarded as the finest work in Arabic literature 39 40 and has influenced art and the Arabic language 41 Islam also holds that God has sent revelations called wahy to different prophets numerous times throughout history However Islam teaches that parts of the previously revealed scriptures such as the Tawrat Torah and the Injil Gospel have become distorted either in interpretation in text or both 42 43 44 45 while the Quran lit Recitation is viewed as the final verbatim and unaltered word of God 36 46 47 48 Prophets Main articles Prophets and messengers in Islam Sunnah and Hadith nbsp A 15th century 49 Persian miniature depicting Muhammad leading Abraham Moses Jesus and other prophets in prayerProphets Arabic أنبياء anbiyaʾ are believed to have been chosen by God to preach a divine message Some of these prophets additionally deliver a new book and are called messengers رسول rasul 50 Muslims believe prophets are human and not divine All of the prophets are said to have preached the same basic message of Islam submission to the will of God to various nations in the past and this is said to account for many similarities among religions The Quran recounts the names of numerous figures considered prophets in Islam including Adam Noah Abraham Moses and Jesus among others 1 51 The stories associated with the prophets beyond the Quranic accounts are collected and explored in the Qisas al Anbiya Stories of the Prophets Muslims believe that God sent Muhammad as the final prophet Seal of the prophets to convey the completed message of Islam 52 53 In Islam the normative example of Muhammad s life is called the sunnah literally trodden path Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad s moral behaviors in their daily lives and the sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Quran 54 55 56 57 This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith which are accounts of his words actions and personal characteristics Hadith Qudsi is a sub category of hadith regarded as God s verbatim words quoted by Muhammad that are not part of the Quran A hadith involves two elements a chain of narrators called sanad and the actual wording called matn There are various methodologies to classify the authenticity of hadiths with the commonly used grading grading scale being authentic or correct صحيح ṣaḥiḥ good hasan حسن ḥasan or weak ضعيف ḍaʻif among others The Kutub al Sittah are a collection of six books regarded as the most authentic reports in Sunni Islam Among them is Sahih al Bukhari often considered by Sunnis to be one of the most authentic sources after the Quran 58 Another well known source of hadiths is known as The Four Books which Shias consider as the most authentic hadith reference 59 60 Resurrection and judgment nbsp The Umayyad Mosque in Damascus where Islamic tradition says Isa Jesus seen as an Islamic prophet will appear close to the Day of JudgmentMain article Islamic eschatology Belief in the Day of Resurrection or Yawm al Qiyamah Arabic يوم القيامة is also crucial for Muslims It is believed that the time of Qiyamah is preordained by God but unknown to man The Quran and the hadith as well as the commentaries of scholars describe the trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyamah The Quran emphasizes bodily resurrection a break from the pre Islamic Arabian understanding of death 61 62 63 On Yawm al Qiyamah Muslims believe all humankind will be judged by their good and bad deeds and consigned to Jannah paradise or Jahannam hell 64 The Quran in Surat al Zalzalah describes this as So whoever does an atom s weight of good will see it And whoever does an atom s weight of evil will see it The Quran lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell However the Quran makes it clear that God will forgive the sins of those who repent if he wishes Good deeds like charity prayer and compassion towards animals 65 will be rewarded with entry to heaven Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and blessings with Quranic references describing its features Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God 66 67 68 Yawm al Qiyamah is also identified in the Quran as Yawm ad Din يوم الدين Day of Religion ii as Saʿah الساعة the Last Hour iii and al Qariʿah القارعة The Clatterer iv Divine predestination Main article Predestination in Islam The concept of divine predestination in Islam Arabic القضاء والقدر al qadaʾ wa l qadar means that every matter good or bad is believed to have been decreed by God Al qadar meaning power derives from a root that means to measure or calculating 69 70 71 72 Muslims often express this belief in divine destiny with the phrase In sha Allah meaning if God wills when speaking on future events 73 Acts of worshipMain articles Five Pillars of Islam and Ibadah There are five acts of worship that are considered duties the Shahada declaration of faith the five daily prayers Zakat alms giving fasting during Ramadan and the Hajj pilgrimage collectively known as The Pillars of Islam Arkan al Islam 74 In addition Muslims also perform other optional supererogatory acts that are encouraged but not considered to be duties 75 Declaration of faith nbsp Silver coin of the Mughal Emperor Akbar c 16th century inscribed with the ShahadahMain article Shahada The shahadah 76 is an oath declaring belief in Islam The expanded statement is ʾashadu ʾal la ʾilaha ʾilla llahu wa ʾashadu ʾanna muħammadan rasulu llah أشهد أن لا إله إلا الله وأشهد أن محمدا رسول الله or I testify that there is no deity except God and I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God 77 Islam is sometimes argued to have a very simple creed with the shahada being the premise for the rest of the religion Non Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the shahada in front of witnesses 78 79 Prayer Main article Salah See also Mosque and Jumu ah nbsp Muslim men prostrating in prayer at the Umayyad Mosque DamascusPrayer in Islam called as salah or aṣ ṣalat Arabic الصلاة is seen as a personal communication with God and consists of repeating units called rakat that include bowing and prostrating to God There are five timed prayers each day that are considered duties The prayers are recited in the Arabic language and performed in the direction of the Kaaba The act also requires a state ritual purity achieved by means of the either a routine wudu ritual wash or in certain circumstances a ghusl full body ritual wash 80 81 82 83 A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims who often refer to it by its Arabic name masjid Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer it is also an important social center for the Muslim community For example the Masjid an Nabawi Prophetic Mosque in Medina Saudi Arabia used to also serve as a shelter for the poor 84 Minarets are towers used to call the adhan a vocal call to signal the prayer time 85 86 Almsgiving Main article Zakat See also Sadaqah nbsp A slot for giving zakat at the Zawiya of Moulay Idris II in Fez MoroccoZakat Arabic زكاة zakah also spelled Zakat or Zakah is a type of almsgiving characterized by the giving of a fixed portion 2 5 annually 87 of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy such as for freeing captives those in debt or for stranded travellers and for those employed to collect zakat It acts as a form of welfare in Muslim societies 88 It is considered a religious obligation that the well off owe the needy because their wealth is seen as a trust from God s bounty 89 and is seen as a purification of one s excess wealth 90 The total annual value contributed due to zakat is 15 times greater than global humanitarian aid donations using conservative estimates 91 Sadaqah as opposed to Zakat is a much encouraged optional charity 92 93 A waqf is a perpetual charitable trust which finances hospitals and schools in Muslim societies 94 Fasting nbsp A fast breaking feast known as Iftar is served traditionally with dates Main article Fasting in Islam See also Fasting during Ramadan In Islam fasting Arabic صوم ṣawm precludes food and drink as well as other forms of consumption such as smoking and is performed from dawn to sunset During the month of Ramadan it is considered a duty for Muslims to fast 95 The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God by restraining oneself for God s sake from what is otherwise permissible and to think of the needy In addition there are other days such as the Day of Arafah when fasting is optional 96 Pilgrimage Main articles Hajj and Umrah See also Holiest sites in Islam nbsp Pilgrims at the Great Mosque of Mecca during the Hajj seasonThe Islamic pilgrimage called the ḥajj Arabic حج is to be done at least once a lifetime by every Muslim with the means to do so during the Islamic month of Dhu al Hijjah Rituals of the Hajj mostly imitate the story of the family of Abraham In Mecca pilgrims walk seven times around the Kaaba which Muslims believe Abraham built as a place of worship and they walk seven times between Mount Safa and Marwah recounting the steps of Abraham s wife Hagar who was looking for water for her baby Ishmael in the desert before Mecca developed into a settlement 97 98 99 The pilgrimage also involves spending a day praying and worshipping in the plain of Mount Arafat as well as symbolically stoning the Devil 100 All Muslim men wear only two simple white unstitched pieces of cloth called ihram intended to bring continuity through generations and uniformity among pilgrims despite class or origin 101 102 Another form of pilgrimage Umrah is optional and can be undertaken at any time of the year Other sites of Islamic pilgrimage are Medina where Muhammad died as well as Jerusalem a city of many Islamic prophets and the site of Al Aqsa which was the direction of prayer before Mecca 103 104 Supererogatory acts nbsp Muslim men reading the QuranSee also Quran Recitation Dua and Dhikr nbsp Al Ikhlas source source track track track Sincerity is the Quran s 112th chapter as recited by Imam Mishary Rashid Alafasy Problems playing this file See media help Muslims recite and memorize the whole or parts of the Quran as acts of virtue Tajwid refers to the set of rules for the proper elocution of the Quran 105 Many Muslims recite the whole Quran during the month of Ramadan 106 One who has memorized the whole Quran is called a hafiz memorizer and hadiths mention that these individuals will be able to intercede for others on Judgment Day 107 Supplication to God called in Arabic ad duʿaʾ Arabic الدعاء IPA duˈʕaeːʔ has its own etiquette such as raising hands as if begging 108 Remembrance of God ذكر Dhikr refers to phrases repeated referencing God Commonly this includes Tahmid declaring praise be due to God الحمد لله al Ḥamdu lillah during prayer or when feeling thankful Tasbih declaring glory to God during prayer or when in awe of something and saying in the name of God بسملة basmalah before starting an act such as eating 109 HistoryMain article History of Islam For a chronological guide see Timeline of Islamic history See also List of Muslim empires and dynasties nbsp A panoramic view of Al Masjid al Nabawi the Mosque of the Prophet in Medina Hejaz region today s Saudi Arabia the second most sacred Mosque in Islam Muhammad and the birth of Islam 570 632 Main articles Muhammad and Muhammad in Islam See also Early social changes under Islam nbsp Cave of Hira According to Islamic tradition Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570 CE and was orphaned early in life Growing up as a trader he became known as the trusted one Arabic الامين and was sought after as an impartial arbitrator He later married his employer the businesswoman Khadija 110 In the year 610 CE troubled by the moral decline and idolatry prevalent in Mecca and seeking seclusion and spiritual contemplation Muhammad retreated to the Cave of Hira in the mountain Jabal al Nour near Mecca It was during his time in the cave that he is said to have received the first revelation of the Quran from the angel Gabriel 111 The event of Muhammad s retreat to the cave and subsequent revelation is known as the Night of Power Laylat al Qadr and is considered a significant event in Islamic history During the next 22 years of his life from age 40 onwards Muhammad continued to receive revelations from God becoming the last or seal of the prophets sent to mankind 42 43 112 During this time while in Mecca Muhammad preached first in secret and then in public imploring his listeners to abandon polytheism and worship one God Many early converts to Islam were women the poor foreigners and slaves like the first muezzin Bilal ibn Rabah al Habashi 113 The Meccan elite felt Muhammad was destabilizing their social order by preaching about one God and giving questionable ideas to the poor and slaves because they profited from the pilgrimages to the idols of the Kaaba 114 115 After 12 years of the persecution of Muslims by the Meccans Muhammad and his companions performed the Hijra emigration in 622 to the city of Yathrib current day Medina There with the Medinan converts the Ansar and the Meccan migrants the Muhajirun Muhammad in Medina established his political and religious authority The Constitution of Medina was signed by all the tribes of Medina This established religious freedoms and freedom to use their own laws among the Muslim and non Muslim communities as well as an agreement to defend Medina from external threats 116 Meccan forces and their allies lost against the Muslims at the Battle of Badr in 624 and then fought an inconclusive battle in the Battle of Uhud 117 before unsuccessfully besieging Medina in the Battle of the Trench March April 627 In 628 the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was signed between Mecca and the Muslims but it was broken by Mecca two years later As more tribes converted to Islam Meccan trade routes were cut off by the Muslims 118 119 By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless conquest of Mecca and by the time of his death in 632 at age 62 he had united the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity 120 32 Early Islamic period 632 750 Further information Succession to Muhammad and Early Muslim conquests nbsp Rashidun and Umayyad expansion nbsp Dome of the Rock built by caliph Abd al Malik ibn Marwan completed at the end of the Second FitnaFollowing Muhammad s death in 632 his deputy Abu Bakr r 632 634 was elected caliph successor at Saqifa A number of tribes apostatized from Islam and rebelled against the Muslims leading to the Ridda wars Abu Bakr defeated them and initiated the early Muslim conquests Before dying in 634 Abu Bakr appointed Umar r 634 644 his successor and the latter continued expansion conquering Egypt and Syria from the Byzantine Empire and more than one thirds of the Sasanian Empire Umar was assassinated by the Persian slave Abu Lu lu a Firuz in 644 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 Under Umar s successor Uthman r 644 656 the caliphate reached its extent stretching from Baluchistan to Tunisia Uthman s controversial policies led to his assassination in 656 and he was succeeded by Ali r 656 661 Muhammad s cousin and Uthman s brother in law Ali s legitimacy as caliph was challenged by Muhammad s widow A isha who called for retaliation against Uthman s murderers and the election of a new caliph These events precipitated the First Fitna Ali emerged victorious at the Battle of the Camel in 656 Mu awiya the governor of Syria and a member of the Umayyad clan to which Uthman belonged also refused to recognize Ali and the two fought to a stalemate at the Battle of Siffin in 657 Ali reluctantly agreed to arbitration a move which caused schism in Ali s army A group of his men later called the Kharijites seceded in protest and condemned arbitration as blasphemous Arbitration could not settle the dispute between Mu awiya and Ali The latter was assassinated by a Kharijite called Ibn Muljam in 661 after Ali s forces had defeated most of the Kharijites at the Battle of Nahrawan in 658 These four are known in Sunni Islam as al khulafa ar rashidun Rightly Guided Caliphs 131 132 Ali s son Hasan became caliph and abdicated to Mu awiya in 661 to avoid further bloodshed and signed a peace treaty in return for Mu awiya not appointing a successor 133 The founder of the Umayyad Caliphate Mu awiya r 661 680 made the unprecedented move of appointed his son Yazid I r 680 683 as successor This led to the Second Fitna as Muhammad s grandson and Ali s son Husayn ibn Ali refused to give allegiance to Yazid Husayn and his partisans were killed by Yazid s forces at the Battle of Karbala in 680 The battle is annually commemorated by Shias ever since Sunnis led by Ibn al Zubayr and opposed to a dynastic caliphate were defeated in the siege of Mecca These disputes over leadership would give rise to the Sunni Shia schism 134 with the Shia believing leadership belongs to Muhammad s family through Ali called the ahl al bayt 135 Abu Bakr s leadership oversaw the beginning of the compilation of the Quran The Caliph Umar ibn Abd al Aziz set up the committee The Seven Fuqaha of Medina 136 137 and Malik ibn Anas wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence the Muwatta as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists 138 139 140 The Kharijites believed there was no compromised middle ground between good and evil and any Muslim who committed a grave sin would become an unbeliever The term kharijites would also be used to refer to later groups such as Isis 141 The Murji ah taught that people s righteousness could be judged by God alone Therefore wrongdoers might be considered misguided but not denounced as unbelievers 142 This attitude came to prevail into mainstream Islamic beliefs 143 The Umayyad dynasty conquered the Maghreb the Iberian Peninsula Narbonnese Gaul and Sindh 144 The Umayyads struggled with a lack of legitimacy and relied on a heavily patronized military 145 Since the jizya tax was a tax paid by non Muslims which exempted them from military service the Umayyads denied recognizing the conversion of non Arabs as it reduced revenue 143 While the Rashidun Caliphate emphasized austerity with Umar even requiring an inventory of each official s possessions 146 Umayyad luxury bred dissatisfaction among the pious 143 The Kharijites led the Berber Revolt leading to the first Muslim states independent of the Caliphate In the Abbasid Revolution non Arab converts mawali Arab clans pushed aside by the Umayyad clan and some Shi a rallied and overthrew the Umayyads inaugurating the more cosmopolitan Abbasid dynasty in 750 147 148 Classical era 750 1258 Further information Hadith studies and Islamic philosophy See also Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe and Turco Persian tradition Al Shafi i codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith 149 During the early Abbasid era scholars such as Muhammad al Bukhari and Muslim ibn al Hajjaj compiled the major Sunni hadith collections while scholars like Al Kulayni and Ibn Babawayh compiled major Shia hadith collections The four Sunni Madh habs the Hanafi Hanbali Maliki and Shafi i were established around the teachings of Abu Ḥanifa Ahmad ibn Hanbal Malik ibn Anas and al Shafi i In contrast the teachings of Ja far al Sadiq formed the Ja fari jurisprudence In the 9th century Al Tabari completed the first commentary of the Quran the Tafsir al Tabari which became one of the most cited commentaries in Sunni Islam Some Muslims began questioning the piety of indulgence in worldly life and emphasized poverty humility and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires Ascetics such as Hasan al Basri inspired a movement that would evolve into tasawwuf or Sufism 150 151 At this time theological problems notably on free will were prominently tackled with Hasan al Basri holding that although God knows people s actions good and evil come from abuse of free will and the devil 152 a Greek rationalist philosophy influenced a speculative school of thought known as Muʿtazila who famously advocated the notion of free will originated by Wasil ibn Ata 154 Caliph Mamun al Rashid made it an official creed and unsuccessfully attempted to force this position on the majority 155 Caliph Al Mu tasim carried out inquisitions with the traditionalist Ahmad ibn Hanbal notably refusing to conform to the Muʿtazila idea that the Quran was created rather than being eternal which resulted in him being tortured and kept in an unlit prison cell for nearly thirty months 156 However other schools of speculative theology Maturidism founded by Abu Mansur al Maturidi and Ash ari founded by Al Ash ari were more successful in being widely adopted Philosophers such as Al Farabi Avicenna and Averroes sought to harmonize Aristotle s ideas with the teachings of Islam similar to later scholasticism within Christianity in Europe and Maimonides work within Judaism while others like Al Ghazali argued against such syncretism and ultimately prevailed 157 158 nbsp The eye according to Hunain ibn Ishaq from a manuscript dated c 1200This era is sometimes called the Islamic Golden Age 159 160 161 162 128 Islamic scientific achievements spanned a wide range of subject areas including medicine mathematics astronomy and agriculture as well as physics economics engineering and optics 163 164 165 166 Avicenna was a pioneer in experimental medicine 167 168 and his The Canon of Medicine was used as a standard medicinal text in the Islamic world and Europe for centuries Rhazes was the first to identify the diseases smallpox and measles 169 Public hospitals of the time issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors 170 171 Ibn al Haytham is regarded as the father of the modern scientific method and often referred to as the world s first true scientist in particular regarding his work in optics 172 173 174 In engineering the Banu Musa brothers automatic flute player is considered to have been the first programmable machine 175 In mathematics the concept of the algorithm is named after Muhammad ibn Musa al Khwarizmi who is considered a founder of algebra which is named after his book al jabr while others developed the concept of a function 176 The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today 177 Guinness World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine founded in 859 as the world s oldest degree granting university 178 Many non Muslims such as Christians Jews and Sabians 179 contributed to the Islamic civilization in various fields 180 181 and the institution known as the House of Wisdom employed Christian and Persian scholars to both translate works into Arabic and to develop new knowledge 182 179 183 Soldiers broke away from the Abbasid empire and established their own dynasties such as the Tulunids in 868 in Egypt 184 and the Ghaznavid dynasty in 977 in Central Asia 185 In this fragmentation came the Shi a Century roughly between 945 and 1055 which saw the rise of the millennialist Isma ili Shi a missionary movement One Isma ili group the Fatimid dynasty took control of North Africa in the 10th century 186 and another Isma ili group the Qarmatians sacked Mecca and stole the Black Stone a rock placed within the Kaaba in their unsuccessful rebellion 187 Yet another Isma ili group the Buyid dynasty conquered Baghdad and turned the Abbasids into a figurehead monarchy The Sunni Seljuk dynasty campaigned to reassert Sunni Islam by promulgating the scholarly opinions of the time notably with the construction of educational institutions known as Nezamiyeh which are associated with Al Ghazali and Saadi Shirazi 188 The expansion of the Muslim world continued with religious missions converting Volga Bulgaria to Islam The Delhi Sultanate reached deep into the Indian Subcontinent and many converted to Islam 189 in particular low caste Hindus whose descendants make up the vast majority of Indian Muslims 190 Trade brought many Muslims to China where they virtually dominated the import and export industry of the Song dynasty 191 Muslims were recruited as a governing minority class in the Yuan dynasty 192 Pre Modern era 1258 18th century Further information Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam nbsp Ghazan Khan 7th Ilkhanate ruler of the Mongol Empire converts to Islam 14th century depictionThrough Muslim trade networks and the activity of Sufi orders 193 Islam spread into new areas 194 and Muslims assimilated into new cultures Under the Ottoman Empire Islam spread to Southeast Europe 195 Conversion to Islam often involved a degree of syncretism 196 as illustrated by Muhammad s appearance in Hindu folklore 197 Muslim Turks incorporated elements of Turkish Shamanism beliefs to Islam b 199 Muslims in Ming Dynasty China who were descended from earlier immigrants were assimilated sometimes through laws mandating assimilation 200 by adopting Chinese names and culture while Nanjing became an important center of Islamic study 201 202 Cultural shifts were evident with the decrease in Arab influence after the Mongol destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate 203 The Muslim Mongol Khanates in Iran and Central Asia benefited from increased cross cultural access to East Asia under Mongol rule and thus flourished and developed more distinctively from Arab influence such as the Timurid Renaissance under the Timurid dynasty 204 Nasir al Din al Tusi 1201 1274 proposed the mathematical model that was later argued to be adopted by Copernicus unrevised in his heliocentric model 205 and Jamshid al Kashi s estimate of pi would not be surpassed for 180 years 206 After the introduction of gunpowder weapons large and centralized Muslim states consolidated around gunpowder empires these had been previously splintered amongst various territories The caliphate was claimed by the Ottoman dynasty of the Ottoman Empire and its claims were strengthened in 1517 as Selim I became the ruler of Mecca and Medina 207 The Shia Safavid dynasty rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran 208 In South Asia Babur founded the Mughal Empire 209 The religion of the centralized states of the gunpowder empires influenced the religious practice of their constituent populations A symbiosis between Ottoman rulers and Sufism strongly influenced Islamic reign by the Ottomans from the beginning The Mevlevi Order and Bektashi Order had a close relation to the sultans 210 as Sufi mystical as well as heterodox and syncretic approaches to Islam flourished 211 The often forceful Safavid conversion of Iran to the Twelver Shia Islam of the Safavid Empire ensured the final dominance of the Twelver sect within Shia Islam Persian migrants to South Asia as influential bureaucrats and landholders help spread Shia Islam forming some of the largest Shia populations outside Iran 212 Nader Shah who overthrew the Safavids attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Twelverism into Sunni Islam as a fifth madhhab called Ja farism 213 which failed to gain recognition from the Ottomans 214 Modern era 18th 20th centuries nbsp Abdulmecid II was the last Caliph of Islam from the Ottoman dynasty Earlier in the 14th century Ibn Taymiyya promoted a puritanical form of Islam 215 rejecting philosophical approaches in favor of simpler theology 215 and called to open the gates of itjihad rather than blind imitation of scholars 216 He called for a jihad against those he deemed heretics 217 but his writings only played a marginal role during his lifetime 218 During the 18th century in Arabia Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab influenced by the works of Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn al Qayyim founded a movement called Wahhabi to return to what he saw as unadultered Islam 219 220 He condemned many local Islamic customs such as visiting the grave of Muhammad or saints as later innovations and sinful 220 and destroyed sacred rocks and trees Sufi shrines the tombs of Muhammad and his companions and the tomb of Husayn at Karbala a major Shia pilgrimage site 221 222 He formed an alliance with the Saud family which by the 1920s completed their conquest of the area that would become Saudi Arabia 223 Ma Wanfu and Ma Debao promoted salafist movements in the 19th century such as Sailaifengye in China after returning from Mecca but were eventually persecuted and forced into hiding by Sufi groups 224 Other groups sought to reform Sufism rather than reject it with the Senusiyya and Muhammad Ahmad both waging war and establishing states in Libya and Sudan respectively 225 In India Shah Waliullah Dehlawi attempted a more conciliatory style against Sufism and influenced the Deobandi movement 226 In response to the Deobandi movement the Barelwi movement was founded as a mass movement defending popular Sufism and reforming its practices 227 228 The Muslim world was generally in political decline starting the 1800s especially compared to non Muslim European powers Earlier in the 15th century the Reconquista succeeded in ending the Muslim presence in Iberia By the 19th century the British East India Company had formally annexed the Mughal dynasty in India 229 As a response to Western Imperialism many intellectuals sought to reform Islam 230 Islamic modernism initially labelled by Western scholars as Salafiyya embraced modern values and institutions such as democracy while being scripture oriented Notable forerunners in the movement include Muhammad Abduh and Jamal al Din al Afghani 231 Abul A la Maududi helped influence modern political Islam 232 Similar to contemporary codification sharia was for the first time partially codified into law in 1869 in the Ottoman Empire s Mecelle code 233 The Ottoman Empire disintegrated after World War I and the Caliphate was abolished in 1924 234 Pan Islamists attempted to unify Muslims and competed with growing nationalist forces such as pan Arabism The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation OIC consisting of Muslim majority countries was established in 1969 after the burning of the Al Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem 235 Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants mostly from India and Indonesia to the Caribbean forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas 236 Migration from Syria and Lebanon contributed to the Muslim population in Latin America 237 The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith 238 likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914 239 Contemporary era 20th century present nbsp Leaders of Muslim countries during session of the Islamic Summit Conference in Istanbul TurkeyForerunners of Islamic modernism influenced Islamist political movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood and related parties in the Arab world 240 241 which performed well in elections following the Arab Spring 242 Jamaat e Islami in South Asia and the AK Party which has democratically been in power in Turkey for decades In Iran revolution replaced a secular monarchy with an Islamic state Others such as Sayyid Rashid Rida broke away from Islamic modernists 243 and pushed against embracing what he saw as Western influence 244 The group Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant would even attempt to recreate the modern gold dinar as their monetary system While some of those who broke away were quietist others believed in violence against those opposing them even against other Muslims 245 In opposition to Islamic political movements in 20th century Turkey the military carried out coups to oust Islamist governments and headscarves were legally restricted as also happened in Tunisia 246 247 In other places religious authority was co opted and is now often seen as puppets of the state For example in Saudi Arabia the state monopolized religious scholarship 248 and in Egypt the state nationalized Al Azhar University previously an independent voice checking state power 249 Salafism was funded in the Middle East for its quietism 250 Saudi Arabia campaigned against revolutionary Islamist movements in the Middle East in opposition to Iran 251 Muslim minorities of various ethnicities have been persecuted as a religious group 252 This has been undertaken by communist forces like the Khmer Rouge who viewed them as their primary enemy to be exterminated since their religious practice made them stand out from the rest of the population 253 the Chinese Communist Party in Xinjiang 254 and by nationalist forces such as during the Bosnian genocide 255 Myanmar military s Tatmadaw targeting of Rohingya Muslims has been labeled as a crime against humanity by the UN and Amnesty International 256 257 while the OHCHR Fact Finding Mission identified genocide ethnic cleansing and other crimes against humanity 258 The advancement of global communication has facilitated the widespread dissemination of religious knowledge The adoption of the hijab has grown more common 259 and some Muslim intellectuals are increasingly striving to separate scriptural Islamic beliefs from cultural traditions 260 Among other groups this access to information has led to the rise of popular televangelist preachers such as Amr Khaled who compete with the traditional ulema in their reach and have decentralized religious authority 261 262 More individualized interpretations of Islam 263 notably involve Liberal Muslims who attempt to align religious traditions with contemporary secular governance 264 265 an approach that has been criticized by some regarding its compatibility 266 267 Moreover secularism is perceived as a foreign ideology imposed by invaders and perpetuated by post colonial ruling elites 268 and is frequently understood to be equivalent to anti religion 269 DemographicsMain articles Muslim world and Ummah See also Islam by country and Muslim population growth nbsp Muslim distribution worldwide based on latest available data 270 nbsp World percentage of Muslims by countryAs of 2015 about 24 of the global population or about 1 9 billion people are Muslims 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 In 1900 this estimate was 12 3 278 in 1990 it was 19 9 238 and projections suggest the proportion will be 29 7 by 2050 279 The Pew Research Center estimates that 87 90 of Muslims are Sunni and 10 13 are Shia 280 Approximately 49 countries are Muslim majority 281 282 283 284 285 286 with 62 of the world s Muslims living in Asia and 683 million adherents in Indonesia 287 Pakistan India and Bangladesh alone 288 289 290 Arab Muslims form the largest ethnic group among Muslims in the world 291 followed by Bengalis 292 293 and Punjabis 294 Most estimates indicate China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims 1 5 to 2 of the population 295 296 Islam in Europe is the second largest religion after Christianity in many countries with growth rates due primarily to immigration and higher birth rates of Muslims in 2005 297 accounting for 4 9 of all of Europe s population in 2016 298 Religious conversion has no net impact on the Muslim population growth as the number of people who become Muslims through conversion seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith 299 Although Islam is expected to experience a modest gain of 3 million through religious conversion between 2010 and 2050 mostly from Sub Saharan Africa 2 9 million 300 301 According to a report by CNN Islam has drawn converts from all walks of life most notably African Americans 302 In Britain around 6 000 people convert to Islam per year and according to an article in the British Muslims Monthly Survey the majority of new Muslim converts in Britain were women 303 According to The Huffington Post observers estimate that as many as 20 000 Americans convert to Islam annually most of them being women and African Americans 304 305 By both percentage and total numbers Islam is the world s fastest growing major religious group and is projected to be the world s largest by the end of the 21st century surpassing that of Christianity 306 279 It is estimated that by 2050 the number of Muslims will nearly equal the number of Christians around the world due to the young age and high fertility rate of Muslims relative to other religious groups 279 Main branches or denominationsMain article Islamic schools and branches Main branches or denominationsSee also Shia Sunni relations Sunni Main article Sunni Islam nbsp The nine volumes of Sahih Al Bukhari one of the six Sunni hadith booksSunni Islam or Sunnism is the name for the largest denomination in Islam 307 308 309 The term is a contraction of the phrase ahl as sunna wa l jamaat which means people of the sunna the traditions of the prophet Muhammad and the community 310 Sunnis or sometimes Sunnites believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad and primarily reference six major hadith works for legal matters while following one of the four traditional schools of jurisprudence Hanafi Hanbali Maliki or Shafi i 311 312 Traditionalist theology is a Sunni school of thought prominently advocated by Ahmad ibn Hanbal 780 855 CE that is characterized by its adherence to a textualist understanding of the Quran and the sunnah the belief that the Quran is uncreated and eternal and opposition to speculative theology called kalam in religious and ethical matters 313 Mu tazilism is a Sunni school of thought inspired by Ancient Greek Philosophy Maturidism founded by Abu Mansur al Maturidi 853 944 CE asserts that scripture is not needed for basic ethics and that good and evil can be understood by reason alone 314 but people rely on revelation for matters beyond human s comprehension Ash arism founded by Al Ashʿari c 874 936 holds that ethics can derive just from divine revelation but accepts reason regarding exegetical matters and combines Muʿtazila approaches with traditionalist ideas 315 Salafism is a revival movement advocating the return to the practices of the earliest generations of Muslims In the 18th century Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab led a Salafi movement referred by outsiders as Wahhabism in modern day Saudi Arabia 316 A similar movement called Ahl al Hadith also de emphasized the centuries old Sunni legal tradition preferring to directly follow the Quran and Hadith The Nurcu Sunni movement was by Said Nursi 1877 1960 317 it incorporates elements of Sufism and science 317 318 Shia Main article Shia Islam nbsp The Imam Hussein Shrine in Iraq is a holy site for Shia Muslims nbsp Al Abbas Shrine Between The Holy Shrines Karbala Iraq Shia Islam or Shi ism is the second largest Muslim denomination 319 320 280 Shias or Shiites split with Sunnis over Muhammad s successor as leader who the Shia believed must be from certain descendants of Muhammad s family known as the Ahl al Bayt and those leaders referred to as Imams have additional spiritual authority 321 322 According to both Sunni and Shia Muslims significant event that took place at Ghadir Khumm during Muhammad s return from his final pilgrimage to Mecca At Ghadir Khumm Muhammad appointed his cousin Ali as the executor of his last will and testament as well as his Wali authority 323 324 Shias recognise that Muhammad nominated Ali as his successor khalifa and Imam spiritual and political leader after him 325 Some of the first Imams are revered by all Shia groups and Sunnis such as Ali The Twelvers the first and the largest Shia branch believe in twelve Imams the last of whom went into occultation to return one day They recognise that the prophecy of the Twelve Imams has been foretold in the Hadith of the Twelve Successors which is recorded by both Sunni and Shia sources 326 Zaidi the second oldest branch reject special powers of Imams and are sometimes considered a fifth school of Sunni Islam rather than a Shia denomination 327 328 The Isma ilis split with the Twelvers over who was the seventh Imam and have split into more groups over the status of successive Imams with the largest group being the Nizaris 329 Muhakkima Main articles Muhakkima Ibadi Islam and Kharijites Ibadi Islam or Ibadism is practised by 1 45 million Muslims around the world 0 08 of all Muslims most of them in Oman 330 Ibadism is often associated with and viewed as a moderate variation of the kharijites though Ibadis themselves object to this classification The kharijites were groups that rebelled against Caliph Ali for his acceptance of arbitration with someone they viewed as a sinner Unlike most kharijite groups Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers Ibadi hadiths such as the Jami Sahih collection use chains of narrators from early Islamic history they consider trustworthy but most Ibadi hadiths are also found in standard Sunni collections and contemporary Ibadis often approve of the standard Sunni collections 331 nbsp An overview of the major sects and madhahib of IslamOther denominations The Ahmadiyya movement was founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad 332 in India in 1889 333 334 335 Ahmad claimed to be the Promised Messiah or Imam Mahdi of prophecy Today the group has 10 to 20 million practitioners but is rejected by most Muslims as heretical 336 and Ahmadis have been subject to religious persecution and discrimination since the movement s inception 337 Alevism is a syncretic and heterodox local Islamic tradition whose adherents follow the mystical baṭeni teachings of Ali and Haji Bektash Veli 338 Alevism is a blend of traditional 14th century Turkish beliefs 339 with possible syncretist origins in Shamanism and Animism alongside Shia and Sufi beliefs It has been estimated that there are 10 million to over 20 million 0 5 1 of all Muslims Alevis worldwide 340 Quranism is a religious movement of Islam based on the belief that Islamic law and guidance should only be based on the Quran and not the sunnah or Hadith 341 with Quranists notably differing in their approach to the five pillars of Islam 342 The movement developed from the 19th century onwards with thinkers like Syed Ahmad Khan Abdullah Chakralawi and Ghulam Ahmed Perwez in India questioning the hadith tradition 343 In Egypt Muhammad Tawfiq Sidqi penned the article Islam is the Quran alone in the magazine Al Manar arguing for the sole authority of the Quran 344 A prominent late 20th century Quranist was Rashad Khalifa an Egyptian American biochemist who claimed to have discovered a numerological code in the Quran and founded the Quranist organization United Submitters International 345 Non denominational Muslims Main article Non denominational Muslim Non denominational Muslims is an umbrella term that has been used for and by Muslims who do not belong to or do not self identify with a specific Islamic denomination 346 347 Recent surveys report that large proportions of Muslims in some parts of the world self identify as just Muslim although there is little published analysis available regarding the motivations underlying this response 348 349 350 The Pew Research Center reports that respondents self identifying as just Muslim make up a majority of Muslims in seven countries and a plurality in three others with the highest proportion in Kazakhstan at 74 At least one in five Muslims in at least 22 countries self identifies in this way 351 MysticismMain article Sufism See also Sufi Salafi relations nbsp The Whirling Dervishes or Mevlevi Order by the tomb of Sufi mystic Rumi nbsp Sufism in Konya Turkey Sufism Arabic تصوف tasawwuf is a mystical ascetic approach to Islam that seeks to find a direct personal experience of God Classical Sufi scholars defined tasawwuf as a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God through intuitive and emotional faculties that one must be trained to use 352 353 354 355 It is not a sect of Islam and its adherents belong to the various Muslim denominations Isma ilism whose teachings are rooted in Gnosticism and Neoplatonism 356 as well as by the Illuminationist and Isfahan schools of Islamic philosophy has developed mystical interpretations of Islam 357 Hasan al Basri the early Sufi ascetic often portrayed as one of the earliest Sufis 358 emphasized fear of failing God s expectations of obedience In contrast later prominent Sufis such as Mansur Al Hallaj and Jalaluddin Rumi emphasized religiosity based on love towards God Such devotion would also have an impact on the arts with Rumi still one of the bestselling poets in America 359 360 Sufis see tasawwuf as an inseparable part of Islam 361 Traditional Sufis such as Bayazid Bastami Jalaluddin Rumi Haji Bektash Veli Junaid Baghdadi and Al Ghazali argued for Sufism as being based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of the prophet 362 361 Historian Nile Green argued that Islam in the Medieval period was more or less Sufism 363 Popular devotional practices such as the veneration of Sufi saints have been viewed as innovations from the original religion from followers of the Sunni revivalist movement known as Salafism Salafists have sometimes physically attacked Sufis leading to a deterioration in Sufi Salafi relations 364 Sufi congregations form orders tariqa centered around a teacher wali who traces a spiritual chain back to Muhammad 365 Sufis played an important role in the formation of Muslim societies through their missionary and educational activities 150 Sufism influenced Ahle Sunnat movement or Barelvi movement claims over 200 million followers in South Asia 366 367 368 Sufism is prominent in Central Asia 369 370 as well as in African countries like Tunisia Algeria Morocco Senegal Chad and Niger 351 371 Law and jurisprudenceMain articles Sharia and Fiqh See also Logic in Islamic philosophy Islamic law and theology Sharia is the religious law forming part of the Islamic tradition 311 372 It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam particularly the Quran and the Hadith In Arabic the term shariʿah refers to God s divine law and is contrasted with fiqh which refers to its scholarly interpretations 373 374 The manner of its application in modern times has been a subject of dispute between Muslim traditionalists and reformists 311 Traditional theory of Islamic jurisprudence recognizes four sources of sharia the Quran sunnah Hadith and Sira qiyas analogical reasoning and ijma juridical consensus 375 Different legal schools developed methodologies for deriving sharia rulings from scriptural sources using a process known as ijtihad 373 Traditional jurisprudence distinguishes two principal branches of law ʿibadat rituals and muʿamalat social relations which together comprise a wide range of topics 373 Its rulings assign actions to one of five categories called ahkam mandatory fard recommended mustahabb permitted mubah abhorred makruh and prohibited haram 373 374 Forgiveness is much celebrated in Islam 376 and in criminal law while imposing a penalty on an offender in proportion to their offense is considered permissible forgiving the offender is better To go one step further by offering a favor to the offender is regarded as the peak of excellence 377 Some areas of sharia overlap with the Western notion of law while others correspond more broadly to living life in accordance with God s will 374 Historically sharia was interpreted by independent jurists muftis Their legal opinions fatwa were taken into account by ruler appointed judges who presided over qaḍi s courts and by maẓalim courts which were controlled by the ruler s council and administered criminal law 373 374 In the modern era sharia based criminal laws were widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models 374 The Ottoman Empire s 19th century Tanzimat reforms lead to the Mecelle civil code and represented the first attempt to codify sharia 233 While the constitutions of most Muslim majority states contain references to sharia its classical rules were largely retained only in personal status family laws 374 Legislative bodies which codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence 374 378 The Islamic revival of the late 20th century brought along calls by Islamist movements for complete implementation of sharia 374 378 The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world There are ongoing debates as to whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government human rights freedom of thought and women s rights 379 380 Schools of jurisprudence nbsp Islamic schools of law in the Muslim worldMain article Madhhab A school of jurisprudence is referred to as a madhhab Arabic مذهب The four major Sunni schools are the Hanafi Maliki Shafi i and Hanbali schools while the three major Shia schools are the Ja fari Zaidi and Isma ili schools Each differs in their methodology called Usul al fiqh principles of jurisprudence The conformity in following of decisions by a religious expert or school is called taqlid The term ghair muqallid refers to those who do not use taqlid and by extension do not have a madhab 381 The practice of an individual interpreting law with independent reasoning is called ijtihad 382 SocietyReligious personages Main article Ulama nbsp Crimean Tatar Muslim students 1856 Islam has no clergy in the sacerdotal sense such as priests who mediate between God and people Imam إمام is the religious title used to refer to an Islamic leadership position often in the context of conducting an Islamic worship service 383 Religious interpretation is presided over by the ulama Arabic علماء a term used describe the body of Muslim scholars who have received training in Islamic studies A scholar of the hadith is called a muhaddith a scholar of jurisprudence is called a faqih فقيه a jurist who is qualified to issue legal opinions or fatwas is called a mufti and a qadi is an Islamic judge Honorific titles given to scholars include sheikh mullah and mawlawi Some Muslims also venerate saints associated with miracles كرامات karamat 384 Governance See also Political aspects of Islam Islamic economics Islamic military jurisprudence and Jihad In Islamic economic jurisprudence hoarding of wealth is reviled and thus monopolistic behavior is frowned upon 385 Attempts to comply with sharia has led to the development of Islamic banking Islam prohibits riba usually translated as usury which refers to any unfair gain in trade and is most commonly used to mean interest 386 Instead Islamic banks go into partnership with the borrower and both share from the profits and any losses from the venture Another feature is the avoidance of uncertainty which is seen as gambling 387 and Islamic banks traditionally avoid derivative instruments such as futures or options which has historically protected them from market downturns 388 The Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphate used to be involved in distribution of charity from the treasury known as Bayt al mal before it became a largely individual pursuit around the year 720 The first Caliph Abu Bakr distributed zakat as one of the first examples of a guaranteed minimum income with each citizen getting 10 to 20 dirhams annually 389 During the reign of the second Caliph Umar child support was introduced and the old and disabled were entitled to stipends 390 391 while the Umayyad Caliph Umar II assigned a servant for each blind person and for every two chronically ill persons 392 Jihad means to strive or struggle in the way of God and in its broadest sense is exerting one s utmost power efforts endeavors or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation 393 Shias in particular emphasize the greater jihad of striving to attain spiritual self perfection 394 395 396 while the lesser jihad is defined as warfare 397 398 When used without a qualifier jihad is often understood in its military form 393 394 Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against illegal works terrorists criminal groups rebels apostates and leaders or states who oppress Muslims 397 398 Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare 399 Jihad only becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority For the rest of the populace this happens only in the case of a general mobilization 398 For most Twelver Shias offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community and as such is suspended since Muhammad al Mahdi s occultation is 868 CE 400 401 Daily and family life See also Adab Islam Islamic dietary laws Islam and children Marriage in Islam Women in Islam and Polygyny in Islam nbsp Islamic veils represent modesty Many daily practices fall in the category of adab or etiquette Specific prohibited foods include pork products blood and carrion Health is viewed as a trust from God and intoxicants such as alcoholic drinks are prohibited 402 All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim Jew or Christian except for game that one has hunted or fished for oneself 403 404 405 Beards are often encouraged among men as something natural 406 and body modifications such as permanent tattoos are usually forbidden as violating the creation c 408 Silk and gold are prohibited for men in Islam to maintain a state of sobriety 409 Haya often translated as shame or modesty is sometimes described as the innate character of Islam 410 and informs much of Muslim daily life For example clothing in Islam emphasizes a standard of modesty which has included the hijab for women Similarly personal hygiene is encouraged with certain requirements 411 nbsp An Islamic wedding In Islamic marriage the groom is required to pay a bridal gift mahr 412 413 414 Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous 415 416 Muslim men are allowed to practice polygyny and can have up to four wives simultaneously Islamic teachings strongly advise that if a man cannot ensure equal financial and emotional support for each of his wives it is recommended that he marry just one woman One reason cited for polygyny is that it allows a man to give financial protection to multiple women who might otherwise not have any support e g widows However the first wife can set a condition in the marriage contract that the husband cannot marry another woman during their marriage 417 418 There are also cultural variations in weddings 419 Polyandry a practice wherein a woman takes on two or more husbands is prohibited in Islam 420 nbsp Shia Muslim girls studying the Quran placed atop folding lecterns rehal during Ramadan in Qom IranAfter the birth of a child the adhan is pronounced in the right ear 421 On the seventh day the aqiqah ceremony is performed in which an animal is sacrificed and its meat is distributed among the poor 422 The child s head is shaved and an amount of money equaling the weight of its hair is donated to the poor 422 Male circumcision called khitan 423 is often practised in the Muslim world 424 425 Respecting and obeying one s parents and taking care of them especially in their old age is a religious obligation 426 A dying Muslim is encouraged to pronounce the Shahada as their last words 427 Paying respects to the dead and attending funerals in the community are considered among the virtuous acts In Islamic burial rituals burial is encouraged as soon as possible usually within 24 hours The body is washed except for martyrs by members of the same gender and enshrouded in a garment that must not be elaborate called kafan 428 A funeral prayer called Salat al Janazah is performed Wailing or loud mournful outcrying is discouraged Coffins are often not preferred and graves are often unmarked even for kings 429 Arts and culture Main article Islamic culture See also Islamic art Islamic architecture Islamic literature Islam in association football and Cultural Muslims The term Islamic culture can be used to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion such as festivals and dress code It is also controversially used to denote the cultural aspects of traditionally Muslim people 430 Finally Islamic civilization may also refer to the aspects of the synthesized culture of the early Caliphates including that of non Muslims 431 sometimes referred to as Islamicate 432 Islamic art encompasses the visual arts including fields as varied as architecture calligraphy painting and ceramics among others 433 434 While the making of images of animate beings has often been frowned upon in connection with laws against idolatry this rule has been interpreted in different ways by different scholars and in different historical periods This stricture has been used to explain the prevalence of calligraphy tessellation and pattern as key aspects of Islamic artistic culture 435 Additionally the depiction of Muhammad is a contentious issue among Muslims 436 In Islamic architecture varying cultures show influence such as North African and Spanish Islamic architecture such as the Great Mosque of Kairouan containing marble and porphyry columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings 437 while mosques in Indonesia often have multi tiered roofs from local Javanese styles 438 The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar that begins with the Hijra of 622 CE a date that was reportedly chosen by Caliph Umar as it was an important turning point in Muhammad s fortunes 439 Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar meaning they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar The most important Islamic festivals are Eid al Fitr Arabic عيد الفطر on the 1st of Shawwal marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan and Eid al Adha عيد الأضحى on the 10th of Dhu al Hijjah coinciding with the end of the Hajj pilgrimage 440 74 Cultural Muslims are religiously non practicing individuals who still identify with Islam due to family backgrounds personal experiences or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up 441 442 nbsp 14th century Sixty Dome Mosque in Khalifatabad Bangladesh nbsp Great Mosque of Djenne in the west African country of Mali nbsp Dome in Po i Kalyan Bukhara Uzbekistan nbsp 14th century Great Mosque of Xi an in China nbsp 16th century Menara Kudus Mosque in Indonesia showing Indian influence nbsp The phrase Bismillah in an 18th century Islamic calligraphy from the Ottoman region nbsp Geometric arabesque tiling on the underside of the dome of Hafiz Shirazi s tomb in Shiraz IranInfluences on other religionsSee also Islam and Druze Some movements such as the Druze 443 444 445 Berghouata and Ha Mim either emerged from Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam and whether each is a separate religion or a sect of Islam is sometimes controversial 446 The Druze faith further split from Isma ilism as it developed its own unique doctrines and finally separated from both Ismaʿilism and Islam altogether these include the belief that the Imam Al Ḥakim bi Amr Allah was God incarnate 447 448 Yazdanism is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to Kurdistan by Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir in the 12th century 449 Babism stems from Twelver Shia passed through Siyyid Ali Muhammad i Shirazi al Bab while one of his followers Mirza Husayn Ali Nuri Baha u llah founded the Bahaʼi Faith 450 Sikhism founded by Guru Nanak in late 15th century Punjab primarily incorporates aspects of Hinduism with some Islamic influences 451 CriticismMain article Criticism of Islam See also Criticism of Muhammad and Criticism of the Quran nbsp John of Damascus under the Umayyad Caliphate viewed Islamic doctrines as a hodgepodge from the Bible 452 Criticism of Islam has existed since its formative stages Early criticism came from Jewish authors such as Ibn Kammuna and Christian authors many of whom viewed Islam as a Christian heresy or a form of idolatry often explaining it in apocalyptic terms 453 Christian writers criticized Islam s sensual descriptions of paradise Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al Tabari defended the Quranic description of paradise by asserting that the Bible also implies such ideas such as drinking wine in the Gospel of Matthew Catholic theologian Augustine of Hippo s doctrines led to the broad repudiation of bodily pleasure in both life and the afterlife 454 Defamatory images of Muhammad derived from early 7th century depictions of the Byzantine Church 455 appear in the 14th century epic poem Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri 456 Here Muhammad is depicted in the eighth circle of hell along with Ali Dante does not blame Islam as a whole but accuses Muhammad of schism by establishing another religion after Christianity 456 Other criticisms center on the treatment of individuals within modern Muslim majority countries including issues related to human rights particularly in relation to the application of Islamic law 457 Furthermore in the wake of the recent multiculturalism trend Islam s influence on the ability of Muslim immigrants in the West to assimilate has been criticized 458 See alsoGlossary of Islam Index of Islam related articles Islamic mythology Islamic studies Major religious groups Outline of IslamReferencesFootnotes Hasan al Basri is often considered one of the first who rejected an angelic origin for the devil arguing that his fall was the result of his own free will not God s determination Hasan al Basri also argued that angels are incapable of sin or errors and nobler than humans and even prophets Both early Shias and Sunnis opposed his view 153 In recent years the idea of syncretism has been challenged Given the lack of authority to define or enforce an Orthodox doctrine about Islam some scholars argue there had no prescribed beliefs only prescribed practise in Islam before the 16th century 198 Some Muslims in dynastic era China resisted footbinding of girls for the same reason 407 Quran and hadith Quran 2 117 Quran 1 4 Quran 6 31 Quran 101 1 Citations a b c d e Schimmel Annemarie Islam Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved 17 September 2021 Definition of Islam Dictionary com www dictionary com Retrieved 9 May 2022 Haywood John 2002 Historical Atlas of the Medieval World AD 600 1492 1st ed Spain Barnes amp Noble Inc p 3 13 ISBN 0 7607 1975 6 Siin Lane s Lexicon 4 via StudyQuran Lewis Barnard Churchill Buntzie Ellis 2009 Islam The Religion and The People Wharton School Publishing p 8 ISBN 978 0 13 223085 8 Muslim Lexico UK Oxford University Press 2020 Esposito 2000 pp 76 77 Mahmutcehajic Rusmir 2006 The mosque the heart of submission Fordham University Press p 84 ISBN 978 0 8232 2584 2 Gibb Sir Hamilton 1969 Mohammedanism an historical survey Oxford University Press p 1 ISBN 9780195002454 Modern Muslims dislike the terms Mohammedan and Mohammedanism which seem to them to carry the implication of worship of Mohammed as Christian and Christianity imply the worship of Christ Beversluis Joel ed 2011 Sourcebook of the World s Religions An Interfaith Guide to Religion and Spirituality New World Library pp 68 9 ISBN 9781577313328 Tawhid Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved 17 September 2021 Gimaret D Tawḥid In Encyclopaedia of Islam 2nd ed 2012 doi 10 1163 1573 3912 islam SIM 7454 Ali Kecia Leaman Oliver 2008 Islam the key concepts London Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 39638 7 OCLC 123136939 Campo 2009 p 34 Allah Leeming David 2005 The Oxford Companion to World Mythology Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 195 15669 0 p 209 God Islam Empire of Faith PBS Retrieved 18 December 2010 Burge 2015 p 23 a b Burge 2015 p 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b Ringgren Helmer Qurʾan Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved 17 September 2021 The word Quran was invented and first used in the Quran itself There are two different theories about this term and its formation Tafsir Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved 17 September 2021 Esposito 2004 pp 79 81 Jones Alan 1994 The Koran London Charles E Tuttle Company p 1 ISBN 1842126091 Its outstanding literary merit should also be noted it is by far the finest work of Arabic prose in existence Arberry Arthur 1956 The Koran Interpreted London Allen amp Unwin p 191 ISBN 0684825074 It may be affirmed that within the literature of the Arabs wide and fecund as it is both in poetry and in elevated prose there is nothing to compare with it Kadi Wadad and Mustansir Mir Literature and the Quran In Encyclopaedia of the Qur an 3 pp 213 216 a b Esposito 2002b pp 4 5 a b Peters 2003 p 9 Buhl F Welch A T Muhammad In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online n d Hava Lazarus Yafeh Tahrif In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online n d Teece 2003 pp 12 13 Turner 2006 p 42 Bennett 2010 p 101 BnF Departement des Manuscrits Supplement turc 190 Bibliotheque nationale de France Retrieved 7 September 2023 Esposito J L 2003 The Oxford Dictionary of Islam Vereinigtes Konigreich Oxford University Press US p 225 Reeves J C 2004 Bible and Qurʼan Essays in scriptural intertextuality Leiden Brill p 177 ISBN 90 04 12726 7 Esposito John L 2009 Islam In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World edited by J L Esposito Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 530513 5 See also quick reference Profession of Faith affirms Islam s absolute monotheism and acceptance of Muḥammad as the messenger of Allah the last and final prophet Peters F E 2009 Allah In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World edited by J L Esposito Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 530513 5 See also quick reference T he Muslims understanding of Allah is based on the Qurʿan s public witness Allah is Unique the Creator Sovereign and Judge of mankind It is Allah who directs the universe through his direct action on nature and who has guided human history through his prophets Abraham with whom he made his covenant Moses Moosa Jesus Eesa and Muḥammad through all of whom he founded his chosen communities the Peoples of the Book Martin 2004 p 666 J Robson Hadith In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online n d D W Brown Sunna In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online n d Goldman Elizabeth 1995 Believers Spiritual Leaders of the World Oxford Oxford University Press p 63 ISBN 978 0 19 508240 1 al Rahman Aisha Abd ed 1990 Muqaddimah Ibn al Ṣalaḥ Cairo Dar al Ma arif 1990 pp 160 69 Awliya i Mustafa The Four Books In Outlines of the Development of the Science of Hadith 1 translated by A Q Qara i via Al Islam org Retrieved 24 May 2020 Rizvi Sayyid Sa eed Akhtar The Hadith The Four Books Al Kutubu l Arb ah Ch 4 in The Qur an and Hadith Tanzania Bilal Muslim Mission via Al Islam org Retrieved 24 May 2020 Glasse 2003 pp 382 383 Resurrection Encyclopaedia of Islam 2nd ed 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Islam 2nd ed 2012 doi 10 1163 1573 3912 islam COM 0407 Muslim beliefs Al Qadr Bitesize GCSE Edexcel BBC Retrieved 13 November 2020 a b Pillars of Islam Islamic Beliefs amp Practices Britannica www britannica com 3 May 2023 ZAROUG ABDULLAHI HASSAN 1985 THE CONCEPT OF PERMISSION SUPEREROGATORY ACTS AND ASETICISM sic IN ISLAMIC JURISPRUDENCE Islamic Studies 24 2 167 180 ISSN 0578 8072 JSTOR 20847307 Nasr 2003 pp 3 39 85 270 272 Mohammad N 1985 The doctrine of jihad An introduction Journal of Law and Religion 3 2 381 97 Kasim Husain Islam In Salamone 2004 pp 195 197 Galonnier Juliette Moving In or Moving Toward Reconceptualizing Conversion to Islam as a Liminal Process1 Moving In and Out of Islam edited by Karin van Nieuwkerk New York US University of Texas Press 2021 pp 44 66 https doi org 10 7560 317471 003 Esposito 2002b pp 18 19 Hedayetullah 2006 pp 53 55 Kobeisy 2004 pp 22 34 Momen 1987 p 178 Mattson Ingrid 2006 Women Islam and Mosques In R S Keller and R R Ruether eds Encyclopedia of Women and Religion in North America Volume 2 Part VII Islam Bloomington and Indianapolis Indiana University Press pp 615 629 ISBN 978 0 253 34687 2 Pedersen J R Hillenbrand J Burton Page et al 2010 Masd j id Encyclopedia of Islam Leiden Brill Retrieved 25 May 2020 Mosque Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved 17 September 2021 Ahmed Medani and Sebastian Gianci Zakat p 479 in Encyclopedia of Taxation and Tax Policy Ariff Mohamed 1991 The Islamic Voluntary Sector in Southeast Asia Islam and the Economic Development of Southeast Asia Institute of Southeast Asian Studies pp 55 ISBN 978 981 3016 07 1 Esposito 2010 p 109 110 This is not regarded as charity because it is not really voluntary but instead is owed by those who have received their wealth as a trust from God s bounty to the poor Ridgeon Lloyd 2003 Major World Religions From Their Origins to the Present United Kingdom RoutledgeCurzon p 258 ISBN 9780415297967 Aside from its function of purifying believers wealth the payment of zakat may 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06131 6 Toomer G J December 1964 Review Work Matthias Schramm 1963 Ibn Al Haythams Weg zur Physik Isis 55 4 464 JSTOR 228328 Schramm sums up Ibn Al Haytham s achievement in the development of scientific method Al Khalili Jim 4 January 2009 The first true scientist BBC News Retrieved 24 September 2013 Gorini Rosanna October 2003 Al Haytham the man of experience First steps in the science of vision PDF Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine 2 4 53 55 Retrieved 25 September 2008 Koetsier Teun May 2001 On the prehistory of programmable machines musical automata looms calculators Mechanism and Machine Theory 36 5 589 603 doi 10 1016 S0094 114X 01 00005 2 Katz Victor J Barton Bill 18 September 2007 Stages in the History of Algebra with Implications for Teaching Educational Studies in Mathematics 66 2 185 201 doi 10 1007 s10649 006 9023 7 S2CID 120363574 Ahmed 2006 pp 23 42 84 Young Mark 1998 The Guinness Book of Records Bantam p 242 ISBN 978 0 553 57895 9 a b Brague Remi 2009 The Legend of the Middle Ages Philosophical Explorations of Medieval Christianity Judaism and Islam University of Chicago Press p 164 ISBN 9780226070803 Neither were there any Muslims among the Ninth Century translators Amost all of them were Christians of various Eastern denominations Jacobites Melchites and above all Nestorians A few others were Sabians Hill Donald Islamic Science and Engineering 1993 Edinburgh Univ Press ISBN 0 7486 0455 3 p 4 Remi Brague Assyrians contributions to the Islamic civilization Archived 2013 09 27 at the Wayback Machine Meri Josef W and Jere L Bacharach Medieval Islamic Civilization Vol 1 Index A K 2006 p 304 Saliba George 1994 A History of Arabic Astronomy Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam New York New York University Press ISBN 0 8147 8023 7 pp 245 250 256 57 Holt Peter Malcolm 2004 The Crusader States and Their Neighbours 1098 1291 Pearson Longman p 6 ISBN 978 0 582 36931 3 Levi Scott Cameron Sela Ron eds 2010 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Asia in Practice Princeton University Press p 104 Peacock 2019 p 20 22 Cakmak 2017 pp 1425 1429 Farmer Edward L ed 1995 Zhu Yuanzhang and Early Ming Legislation The Reordering of Chinese Society Following the Era of Mongol Rule BRILL p 82 ISBN 9004103910 Israeli Raphael 2002 Islam in China p 292 Lexington Books ISBN 0 7391 0375 X Dillon Michael 1999 China s Muslim Hui Community Curzon p 37 ISBN 978 0 7007 1026 3 Bulliet 2005 p 497 Subtelny Maria Eva November 1988 Socioeconomic Bases of Cultural Patronage under the Later Timurids International Journal of Middle East Studies 20 4 479 505 doi 10 1017 S0020743800053861 S2CID 162411014 Retrieved 7 November 2016 Nasir al Din al Tusi University of St Andrews 1999 Retrieved 27 August 2023 Ghiyath al Din Jamshid Mas ud al Kashi University of St Andrews 1999 Retrieved 29 December 2021 Drews Robert August 2011 Chapter Thirty The Ottoman Empire Judaism and Eastern Europe to 1648 PDF Coursebook Judaism Christianity and Islam to the Beginnings of Modern Civilization Vanderbilt University Peter B Golden An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples In Osman Karatay Ankara 2002 p 321 Gilbert Marc Jason 2017 South Asia in World History Oxford University Press p 75 ISBN 978 0 19 066137 3 Ga bor A goston Bruce Alan Masters Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire Infobase Publishing 2010 ISBN 978 1 4381 1025 7 p 540 Algar Ayla Esen 1 January 1992 The Dervish Lodge Architecture Art and Sufism in Ottoman Turkey University of California Press p 15 ISBN 978 0 520 07060 8 Retrieved 29 April 2020 via Google Books CONVERSION To Imami Shiʿism in India Iranica Online Retrieved 6 October 2022 Tucker Ernest 1994 Nadir Shah and the Ja fari Madhhab Reconsidered Iranian Studies 27 1 4 163 179 doi 10 1080 00210869408701825 JSTOR 4310891 Tucker Ernest 29 March 2006 Nader Shah Encyclopaedia Iranica a b Mary Hawkesworth Maurice Kogan Encyclopedia of Government and Politics 2 volume set Routledge 2013 ISBN 978 1 136 91332 7 pp 270 271 Esposito 2010 p 150 Richard Gauvain Salafi Ritual Purity In the Presence of God Routledge 2013 ISBN 978 0 7103 1356 0 p 6 Spevack Aaron 2014 The Archetypal Sunni Scholar Law Theology and Mysticism in the Synthesis of al Bajuri SUNY Press pp 129 130 ISBN 978 1 4384 5371 2 Donald Quataert The Ottoman Empire 1700 1922 Cambridge University Press 2005 ISBN 978 0 521 83910 5 p 50 a b Ga bor A goston Bruce Alan Masters Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire Infobase Publishing 2010 ISBN 978 1 4381 1025 7 p 260 Esposito 2010 p 146 Graves desecrated in Mizdah Libya Herald 4 September 2013 Retrieved 2 November 2013 Nicolas Laos The Metaphysics of World Order A Synthesis of Philosophy Theology and Politics Wipf and Stock Publishers 2015 ISBN 978 1 4982 0102 5 p 177 Rubin Barry M 2000 Guide to Islamist Movements M E Sharpe p 79 ISBN 0 7656 1747 1 Retrieved 28 June 2010 Esposito 2010 p 147 Esposito 2010 p 149 Robert L Canfield 2002 Turko Persia in Historical Perspective Cambridge University Press pp 131 ISBN 978 0 521 52291 5 Sanyal Usha 23 July 1998 Generational Changes in the Leadership of the Ahl e Sunnat Movement in North India during the twentieth Century Modern Asian Studies 32 3 635 656 doi 10 1017 S0026749X98003059 via Cambridge Core Lapidus 2002 pp 358 378 380 624 Buzpinar S Tufan March 2007 Celal Nuri s Concepts of Westernization and Religion Middle Eastern Studies 43 2 247 258 doi 10 1080 00263200601114091 JSTOR 4284539 S2CID 144461915 Lauziere Henri 2016 The Making of Salafism Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century New York Chichester West Sussex Columbia University Press pp 231 232 ISBN 978 0 231 17550 0 Beginning with Louis Massignon in 1919 it is true that Westerners played a leading role in labeling Islamic modernists as Salafis even though the term was a misnomer At the time European and American scholars felt the need for a useful conceptual box to place Muslim figures such as Jamal al Din al Afghani Muhammad Abduh and their epigones all of whom seemed inclined toward a scripturalist understanding of Islam but proved open to rationalism and Western modernity They chose to adopt salafiyya a technical term of theology which they mistook for a reformist slogan and wrongly associated with all kinds of modernist Muslim intellectuals Political Islam A movement in motion Economist Magazine 3 January 2014 Retrieved 1 January 2014 a b Esposito John L ed Mecelle The Oxford Dictionary of Islam via Oxford Islamic Studies Online New Turkey Al Ahram Weekly No 488 29 June 5 July 2000 Archived from the original on 4 October 2010 Retrieved 16 May 2010 Organization of the Islamic Conference BBC News 26 December 2010 Retrieved 24 September 2013 Haddad amp Smith 2002 p 271 Zabel Darcy 2006 Arabs in the Americas Interdisciplinary Essays on the Arab Diaspora Austria Peter Lang p 5 ISBN 9780820481111 a b The Future of the Global Muslim Population Report Pew Research Center 27 January 2011 Archived from the original on 9 February 2011 Retrieved 27 December 2017 Bulliet 2005 p 722 Are secular forces being squeezed out of Arab Spring BBC News 9 August 2011 Retrieved 10 August 2011 Slackman Michael 23 December 2008 Jordanian students rebel embracing conservative Islam New York Times Retrieved 15 August 2011 Kirkpatrick David D 3 December 2011 Egypt s vote puts emphasis on split over religious rule The New York Times Retrieved 8 December 2011 Lauziere Henri 2016 The Making of Salafism Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century New York Chichester West Sussex Columbia University Press p 237 ISBN 978 0 231 17550 0 Prior to the fall of the Ottoman Empire leading reformers who happened to be Salafi in creed were surprisingly open minded although they adhered to neo Hanbali theology However the aftermath of the First World War and the expansion of European colonialism paved the way for a series of shifts in thought and attitude The experiences of Rida offer many examples he turned against the Shi is who dared with reason to express doubts about the Saudi Wahhabi project Shi is were not the only victims Rida and his associates showed their readiness to turn against fellow Salafis who questioned some of the Wahhabis religious interpretations G Rabil Robert 2014 Salafism in Lebanon From Apoliticism to Transnational Jihadism Washington DC US Georgetown University Press pp 32 33 ISBN 978 1 62616 116 0 Western colonialists established in these countries political orders that even though not professing enmity to Islam and its institutions left no role for Islam in society This caused a crisis among Muslim reformists who felt betrayed not only by the West but also by those nationalists many of whom were brought to power by the West Nothing reflects this crisis more than the ideological transformation of Rashid Rida 1865 1935 He also revived the works of Ibn Taymiyah by publishing his writings and promoting his ideas Subsequently taking note of the cataclysmic events brought about by Western policies in the Muslim world and shocked by the abolition of the caliphate he transformed into a Muslim intellectual mostly concerned about protecting Muslim culture identity and politics from Western influence He supported a theory that essentially emphasized the necessity of an Islamic state in which the scholars of Islam would have a leading role Rida was a forerunner of Islamist thought He apparently intended to provide a theoretical platform for a modern Islamic state His ideas were later incorporated into the works of Islamic scholars Significantly his ideas influenced none other than Hassan al Bannah founder of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt The Muslim Brethren have taken up Rida s Islamic fundamentalism a right wing radical movement founded in 1928 Isis to mint own Islamic dinar coins in gold silver and copper The Guardian 21 November 2014 Huge rally for Turkish secularism BBC News 29 April 2011 Retrieved 6 December 2011 Saleh Heba 15 October 2011 Tunisia moves against headscarves BBC News Retrieved 6 December 2011 Laying down the law 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ISBN 978 1 4422 0663 2 Oliver Holmes 19 December 2016 Myanmar s Rohingya campaign may be crime against humanity The Guardian Archived from the original on 6 January 2017 Retrieved 5 January 2017 Rohingya abuse may be crimes against humanity Amnesty Al Jazeera 19 December 2016 Retrieved 21 February 2023 Report of Independent International Fact Finding Mission on Myanmar ohchr org 27 August 2018 Archived from the original on 19 October 2018 Retrieved 14 August 2019 Slackman Michael 28 January 2007 In Egypt a new battle begins over the veil The New York Times Retrieved 15 August 2011 Nigosian 2004 p 41 Islamic televangelist holy smoke The Economist Retrieved 5 February 2022 Esposito 2010 p 263 V Sisler The Internet and the Construction of Islamic Knowledge in Europe p 212 Esposito 2004 pp 118 119 179 Rippin 2001 p 288 Adams Charles J 1983 Maududi and the Islamic State In Esposito John L ed Voices of Resurgent Islam Oxford University Press pp 113 4 Maududi believed that when religion is relegated to the personal realm men inevitably give way to their bestial impulses and perpetrate evil upon one another In fact it is precisely because they wish to escape the restraints of morality and the divine guidance that men espouse secularism Meisami Sayeh 2013 Abdolkarim Soroush Oxford Bibliographies Archived from the original on 5 November 2013 Retrieved 12 October 2021 Abdullah Saeed 2017 Secularism State Neutrality and Islam In Phil Zuckerman John R Shook eds The Oxford Handbook of Secularism p 188 doi 10 1093 oxfordhb 9780199988457 013 12 ISBN 978 0 19 998845 7 subscription required Nader Hashemi 2009 Secularism In John L Esposito ed The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 530513 5 subscription required Data taken from various sources see description in link Wikimedia Commons 22 August 2022 Retrieved 26 August 2022 Pew Templeton Global Religious Futures Project Research and data from Pew Research Center Muslim Population by 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Participation in Europe Edinburgh University Press 2013 ISBN 978 0 748 67753 5 page 255 John Shindeldecker Turkish Alevis Today II Alevi Population Size and Distribution PDF Datei See also Encyclopaedia of the Orient Alevi consulted on 30 May 2017 Musa Aisha Y 2010 The Qur anists Religion Compass John Wiley amp Sons 4 1 12 21 doi 10 1111 j 1749 8171 2009 00189 x Musa Aisha Y 2010 The Qur anists Religion Compass 4 1 12 21 doi 10 1111 j 1749 8171 2009 00189 x ISSN 1749 8171 Brown Daniel W 4 March 1999 Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought Cambridge University Press pp 7 45 68 ISBN 978 0 521 65394 7 Juynboll G H A 1969 The Authenticity of the Tradition Literature Discussions in Modern Egypt G H A Juynboll Brill Archive pp 23 25 Why the name change PDF Submission Perspective 57 1 September 1989 Benakis Theodoros 13 January 2014 Islamophoobia in Europe New Europe Brussels Archived from the original on 31 January 2016 Retrieved 20 October 2015 Anyone who has travelled to Central Asia knows of the non denominational Muslims those who are neither Shiites nor Sounites but who accept Islam as a religion generally Pollack Kenneth 2014 Unthinkable Iran the Bomb and American Strategy Simon and Schuster p 29 ISBN 978 1 4767 3393 7 Although many Iranian hardliners are Shi a chauvinists Khomeini s ideology saw the revolution as pan Islamist and therefore embracing Sunni Shi a Sufi and other more nondenominational Muslims Burns Robert 2011 Christianity Islam and the West University Press of America p 55 ISBN 978 0 7618 5560 6 40 per cent called themselves just a Muslim according to the Council of American Islamic relations Tatari Eren 2014 Muslims in British Local Government Representing Minority Interests in Hackney Newham and Tower Hamlets BRILL p 111 ISBN 978 90 04 27226 2 Nineteen said that they are Sunni Muslims six said they are just Muslim without specifying a sect two said they are Ahmadi and two said their families are Alevi Lopez Ralph 2008 Truth in the Age of Bushism Lulu com p 65 ISBN 978 1 4348 9615 5 Many Iraqis take offense at reporters efforts to identify them as Sunni or Shiite A 2004 Iraq Centre for Research and Strategic Studies poll found the largest category of Iraqis classified themselves as just Muslim a b Chapter 1 Religious Affiliation The World s Muslims Unity and Diversity Pew Research Center s Religion amp Public Life Project 9 August 2012 Retrieved 4 September 2013 Esposito 2003 p 302 Malik amp Hinnells 2006 p 3 Turner 1998 p 145 Trimingham 1998 p 1 Andani Khalil A Survey of Ismaili Studies Part 1 Early Ismailism and Fatimid Ismailism Religion Compass 10 8 2016 191 206 Aminrazavi Mehdi 2009 2016 Mysticism in Arabic and Islamic Philosophy The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy edited by E N Zalta Retrieved 25 May 2020 Knysh Alexander 2015 Islam in Historical Perspective Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 34712 5 p 214 Haviland Charles 30 September 2007 The roar of Rumi 800 years on BBC News Retrieved 10 August 2011 Islam Jalaluddin Rumi BBC 1 September 2009 Retrieved 10 August 2011 a b Chittick 2008 pp 3 4 11 Nasr Seyyed Hossein 1993 An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines SUNY Press p 192 ISBN 978 0 7914 1515 3 Retrieved 17 January 2015 Peacock 2019 p 24 77 Cook David May 2015 Mysticism in Sufi Islam Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion Oxford Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 acrefore 9780199340378 013 51 ISBN 9780199340378 Archived from the original on 28 November 2018 Retrieved 15 January 2023 tariqa Islam Britannica com 4 February 2014 Retrieved 29 May 2015 Bowker John 2000 The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions doi 10 1093 acref 9780192800947 001 0001 ISBN 978 0 19 280094 7 Sanyal Usha 1998 Generational Changes in the Leadership of the Ahl e Sunnat Movement in North India during the Twentieth Century Modern Asian Studies 32 3 635 656 doi 10 1017 S0026749X98003059 Ahl al Sunnah wa l Jamaah In Esposito 2003 harvc no authors in contributor list help via Oxford Reference Alvi Farhat The Significant Role of Sufism in Central Asia PDF, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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