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Crimean Tatars

May 04, 2023

Not to be confused with Volga Tatars.

Crimean Tatars (Crimean Tatar: Къырымтатарлар, romanized: Qırımtatarlar) or Crimeans (Crimean Tatar: Къырымлылар, romanized: Qırımlılar) are a Turkic ethnic group and nation who are an indigenous people of Crimea. The formation and ethnogenesis of Crimean Tatars occurred during the 13th–17th centuries, uniting Cumans, who appeared in Crimea in the 10th century, with other peoples who had inhabited Crimea since ancient times and gradually underwent Tatarization, including Greeks, Italians, Armenians, Goths, Sarmatians, and others.[9][10]

Crimean Tatars
Crimean Tatar: Къырымтатарлар, romanized: Qırımtatarlar
Crimean Tatars with their traditional clothes in Hidirellez festival.
Regions with significant populations
 TurkeyNo exact data. According to various estimates from at least 3,500,000 to 6,000,000[1]
 Ukraine[a]248,193[2][b]
 Uzbekistan239,000[3]
 Romania24,137[4]
 Russia[c]2,449[5][b]
 Bulgaria1,803[6]
 Kazakhstan1,532[7]
 United States
  • ( New York City)
    		• 7,000[citation needed]
    (500–1,000[8])
    Languages
    Religion
    Sunni Islam
    Related ethnic groups
    Dobrujan Tatars, Nogais, Volga Tatars, Lipka Tatars, Crimean Karaites

    Crimean Tatars constituted the majority of Crimea's population from the time of ethnogenesis until the mid-19th century, and the largest ethnic population until the end of the 19th century.[11][12] Russia attempted to purge through a combination of physical violence, intimidation, forced resettlement, and legalized forms of discrimination between 1783 and 1900. Between Russia’s annexation of Crimea in 1783 and 1800, somewhere between 100,000 and 300,000 Crimean Tatars emigrated. However, this did not result in the complete eradication of Crimean Tatar cultural elements (at least not under the Romanov dynasty; however, under the Soviets, the Crimean Tatars were almost completely driven from the Crimean peninsula).[13] Almost immediately after retaking of Crimea from Axis forces, in May 1944, the USSR State Defense Committee ordered the deportation of all of the Crimean Tatars from Crimea, including the families of Crimean Tatars who had served in the Soviet Army. The deportees were transported in trains and boxcars to Central Asia, primarily to Uzbekistan. The Crimean Tatars lost 18 to 46 percent of their population as a result of the deportations.[14] Starting in 1967, a few were allowed to return and in 1989 the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union condemned the removal of Crimean Tatars from their motherland as inhumane and lawless, but only a tiny percent were able to return before the full right of return became policy in 1989.

    The European Union and international indigenous groups do not dispute their status as an indigenous people and they have been officially recognized as an indigenous people of Ukraine as of 2014.[15][16] The current Russian administration considers them a "national minority", but not an indigenous people,[17][18] and continues to deny that they are titular people of Crimea, even though the Soviet Union considered them indigenous before their deportation and the subsequent dissolution of the Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (Crimean ASSR).[19][20][21][22] Today, Crimean Tatars constitute approximately 15% of the population of Crimea.[23] There remains a Crimean Tatar diaspora in Turkey and Uzbekistan.

    The Crimean Tatars have been members of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO) since 1991.[24]

    Distribution

    Main article: Crimean Tatar diaspora

    In the Ukrainian census of 2001, 248,200 Ukrainian citizens identified themselves as Crimean Tatars with 98% (or about 243,400) of them living in the Autonomous Republic of Crimea.[25][26] An additional 1,800 (or about 0.7%) lived in the city of Sevastopol, also on the Crimean peninsula, but outside the border of the autonomous republic.[25]

    About 150,000 remain in exile in Central Asia, mainly in Uzbekistan. The official number of Crimean Tatars in Turkey is 150,000 with some Crimean Tatar activists estimating a figure as high as 6 million. The activists reached this number by taking one million Tatar immigrants to Turkey as a starting point and multiplying this number by the birth rate in the span of the last hundred years.[1] Crimean Tatars in Turkey mostly live in Eskişehir Province, descendants of those who emigrated in the late 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries.[1] The Dobruja region of Romania and Bulgaria is home to more than 27,000 Crimean Tatars, with the majority in Romania and approximately 3,000 on the Bulgarian side of the border.[4]

    Sub-ethnic groups

     
    Crimean Tatars and a mullah c. 1862

    The Crimean Tatars are subdivided into three sub-ethnic groups:

    • the Tats (not to be confused with the Iranic Tat people, living in the Caucasus region) who used to inhabit the mountainous Crimea before 1944 predominantly are Cumans, Greeks, Goths and other people, as Tats in Crimea also were called Hellenic Urum people (Greeks settled in Crimea) who were deported by the Imperial Russia to the area around Mariupol;[27] The term Tat appears already in the 8th century Orkhon inscriptions denoting "a subjected foreign people". In the 17th century Crimean context, it probably denoted various peoples of foreign (ie. non-Turkic) origin living under the khan's rule, especially the Greeks, Italians, and the remnants of Goths and Alans inhabiting the mountainous southern section of Crimea.[28]
    • the Yaliboylu who lived on the Southern Coast of the peninsula before 1944 and practiced Christianity until the 14th century;[27]
    • the Noğays (not to be confused with related Nogai people, living now in Southern Russia) — former inhabitants of the Crimean steppe.[27]

    Historians suggest that inhabitants of the mountainous parts of Crimea lying to the central and southern parts (the Tats), and those of the Southern coast of Crimea (the Yalıboyu) were the direct descendants of the Pontic Greeks, Armenians, Scythians, Ostrogoths (Crimean Goths) and Kipchaks along with the Cumans while the latest inhabitants of the northern steppe represent the descendants of the Nogai Horde of the Black Sea, nominally subjects of the Crimean Khan.[29][30] It is largely assumed that the Tatarization process that mostly took place in the 16th century brought a sense of cultural unity through the blending of the Greeks, Armenians, Italians and Ottoman Turks of the southern coast, Goths of the central mountains and Turkic-speaking Kipchaks and Cumans of the steppe and forming of the Crimean Tatar ethnic group.[31][32][33] However, the Cuman language is considered the direct ancestor of the current language of the Crimean Tatars with possible incorporations of the other languages, like Crimean Gothic.[34][35][36][37] The fact that Crimean Tatars' ethnogenesis took place in Crimea and consisted of several stages lasting over 2500 years is proved by genetic research showing that the gene pool of the Crimean Tatars preserved both the initial components for more than 2.5 thousand years, and later in the northern steppe regions of the Crimea.[38][39][40]

    Some famous Crimean Tatar historians such as Halil Inalcik and Ilber Ortayli refused to use the term Tatar, they preferred to use the term "Crimean" or "Cuman" to describe Cuman-Kipchak speaking Crimean people who were settled in Pontic Steppes before the Tatar migration.[41][42]

    The Mongol conquest of the Kipchaks led to a merged society with a Mongol ruling class over a Kipchak speaking population which came to be dubbed Tatar and which eventually absorbed other ethnicities on the Crimean peninsula like Armenians, Italians, Greeks, and Goths to form the modern day Crimean Tatar people; up to the Soviet deportation, the Crimean Tatars could still differentiate among themselves between Tatar, Kipchak, Nogays, and the "Tat" descendants of Tatarized Goths and other Turkified peoples.[43]

    History

    Main article: History of Crimea

    Origin

     
    Steppe Crimean Tatars
     
    Tat and Yaliboylu Crimean Tatars

    The Crimean Tatars were formed as a people in Crimea and are descendants of various peoples who lived in Crimea in different historical eras. The main ethnic groups that inhabited the Crimea at various times and took part in the formation of the Crimean Tatar people are Tauri, Scythians, Sarmatians, Alans, Greeks, Goths, Huns, Bulgars, Khazars, Pechenegs, Cumans, Italians and Circassians. The consolidation of this diverse ethnic conglomerate into a single Crimean Tatar people took place over the course of centuries. The connecting elements in this process were the commonality of the territory, the Turkic language and Islamic religion.[44][45][46][20][47][48]

    By the end of the 15th century, the main prerequisites that led to the formation of an independent Crimean Tatar ethnic group were created: the political dominance of the Crimean Khanate was established in Crimea, the Turkic languages (Cuman-Kipchak on the territory of the khanate) became dominant, and Islam acquired the status of a state religion throughout the Peninsula. By a preponderance Cumanian population of the Crimea acquired the name "Tatars", the Islamic religion and Turkic language, and the process of consolidating the multi-ethnic conglomerate of the Peninsula began, which has led to the emergence of the Crimean Tatar people.[20] Over several centuries, on the basis of Cuman language with a noticeable Oghuz influence, the Crimean Tatar language has developed.[49][50][51][52]

    Golden Horde and Crimean Khanate

    Further information: Crimean Khanate
    See also: Golden Horde
     
    Ozbek Han Mosque — one of the oldest mosques of the Crimea. It was built in 1314 during the rule of the Golden Horde in the peninsula

    At the beginning of the 13th century, the Crimea, the majority of the population of which was already composed of a Turkic people — Cumans, became a part of the Golden Horde. The Crimean Tatars mostly adopted Islam in the 14th century and thereafter Crimea became one of the centers of Islamic civilization in Eastern Europe. In the same century, trends towards separatism appeared in the Crimean Ulus of the Golden Horde. De facto independence of the Crimea from the Golden Horde may be counted since the beginning of princess (khanum) Canike's, the daughter of the powerful Khan of the Golden Horde Tokhtamysh and the wife of the founder of the Nogai Horde Edigey, reign in the peninsula. During her reign she strongly supported Hacı Giray in the struggle for the Crimean throne until her death in 1437. Following the death of Canike, the situation of Hacı Giray in Crimea weakened and he was forced to leave Crimea for Lithuania.[53]

    The Crimean Tatars emerged as a nation at the time of the Crimean Khanate, an Ottoman vassal state during the 16th to 18th centuries.[54] Russian historian, doctor of history, Professor of the Russian Academy of Sciences Ilya Zaytsev writes that analysis of historical data shows that the influence of Turkey on the policy of the Crimea was not as high as it was reported in old Turkish sources and Imperial Russian ones.[55] The Turkic-speaking population of Crimea had mostly adopted Islam already in the 14th century, following the conversion of Ozbeg Khan of the Golden Horde.[56] By the time of the first Russian invasion of Crimea in 1736, the Khan's archives and libraries were famous throughout the Islamic world, and under Khan Krym-Girei the city of Aqmescit was endowed with piped water, sewerage and a theatre where Molière was performed in French, while the port of Kezlev stood comparison with Rotterdam and Bakhchysarai, the capital, was described as Europe's cleanest and greenest city.[57]

     
    The Crimean Khan's Palace in Bakhchysaray by Carlo Bossoli

    In 1441, an embassy from the representatives of several strongest clans of the Crimea, including the Golden Horde clans Shırın and Barın and the Cumanic clan — Kıpçak, went to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to invite Hacı Giray to rule in the Crimea. He became the founder of the Giray dynasty, which ruled until the annexation of the Crimean Khanate by Russia in 1783.[58] Hacı I Giray was a Jochid descendant of Genghis Khan and of his grandson Batu Khan of the Golden Horde. During the reign of Meñli I Giray, Hacı's son, the army of the Great Horde that still existed then invaded the Crimea from the north, Crimean Khan won the general battle, overtaking the army of the Horde Khan in Takht-Lia, where he was killed, the Horde ceased to exist, and the Crimean Khan became the Great Khan and the successor of this state.[58][59] Since then, the Crimean Khanate was among the strongest powers in Eastern Europe until the beginning of the 18th century.[60] The Khanate officially operated as a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire, with great autonomy after 1580.[61] At the same time, the Nogai hordes, not having their own khan, were vassals of the Crimean one, Muskovy and Polish-Lithuanian commonwealth[62][63] paid annual tribute to the khan (until 1700[64] and 1699 respectively). In the 17th century, the Crimean Tatars helped Ukrainian Cossacks led by Bohdan Khmelnytsky in the struggle for independence, which allowed them to win several decisive victories over Polish troops.[65]

     
    French-language Map of Crimea from 1774 showing mostly Turkic placenames.
     
    The Crimean Khan and Bohdan Khmelnytsky doing namaz.

    In 1711, when Peter I of Russia went on a campaign with all his troops (80,000) to gain access to the Black Sea, he was surrounded by the army of the Crimean Khan Devlet II Giray, finding himself in a hopeless situation. And only the betrayal of the Ottoman vizier Baltacı Mehmet Pasha allowed Peter to get out of the encirclement of the Crimean Tatars.[66] When Devlet II Giray protested against the vizier's decision,[67] his response was: "You should know your Tatar affairs. The affairs of the Sublime Porte are entrusted to me. You do not have the right to interfere in them".[68] Treaty of the Pruth was signed, and 10 years later, Russia declared itself an empire. In 1736, the Crimean Khan Qaplan I Giray was summoned by the Turkish Sultan Ahmed III to Persia. Understanding that Russia could take advantage of the lack of troops in Crimea, Qaplan Giray wrote to the Sultan to think twice, but the Sultan was persistent. As it was expected by Qaplan Giray, in 1736 the Russian army invaded the Crimea, led by Münnich, devastated the peninsula, killed civilians and destroyed all major cities, occupied the capital, Bakhchisaray, and burnt the Khan's palace with all the archives and documents, and then left the Crimea because of the epidemic that had begun in it. One year after the same was done by another Russian general — Peter Lacy.[58][69] Since then, the Crimean Khanate had not been able to recover, and its slow decline began. The Russo-Turkish War of 1768 to 1774 resulted in the defeat of the Ottomans by the Russians, and according to the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774) signed after the war, Crimea became independent and the Ottomans renounced their political right to protect the Crimean Khanate. After a period of political unrest in Crimea, Imperial Russia violated the treaty and annexed the Crimean Khanate in 1783.

     
    Crimean Tatar archer

    The main population of the Crimean khanate were Crimean Tatars, along with them in the Crimean khanate lived significant communities of Karaites, Italians, Armenians, Greeks, Circassians and Roma. In the early 16th century under the rule of the Crimean khans passed part of Nogays (Mangyts), who roamed outside the Crimean Peninsula, moving there during periods of drought and starvation. The majority of the population professed Islam of the Hanafi stream; part of the population – Orthodox, Monotheletism, Judaism; in the 16th century. There were small Catholic communities. The Crimean Tatar population of the Crimean Peninsula was partially exempt from taxes. The Greeks paid dzhyziya, the Italians were in a privileged position due to the partial tax relief made during the reign of Meñli Geray I. By the 18 century the population of the Crimean khanate was about 500 thousand people. The territory of the Crimean khanate was divided into Kinakanta (governorships), which consisted of Kadylyk, covering a number of settlements.[70]

    Until the beginning of the 18th century, Crimean Nogays were known for frequent, at some periods almost annual, slave raids into Ukraine and Russia.[71][72][54][73] For a long time, until the late 18th century, the Crimean Khanate maintained a massive slave trade with the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East which was one of the important factors of its economy.[70][74] One of the most important trading ports and slave markets was Kefe.[75][76] According to the Ottoman census of 1526, taxes on the sale and purchase of slaves accounted for 24% of the funds, levied in Ottoman Crimea for all activities.[77] But in fact, there were always small raids committed by both Tatars and Cossacks, in both directions.[78] The 17th century Ottoman writer and traveller Evliya Çelebi wrote that there were 920,000 Ukrainian slaves in the Crimea but only 187,000 free Muslims.[54] However, the Ukrainian historian Sergey Gromenko considers this testimony of Çelebi a myth popular among ultranationalists, pointing out that today it is known from the writings on economics that in the 17th century, the Crimea could feed no more than 500 thousand people.[79] For comparison, according to the notes of the Consul of France to Qırım Giray khan Baron Totta, a hundred years later, in 1767, there were 4 million people living in the Crimean khanate, [80] and in 1778, that is, just eleven years later, all the Christians were evicted from its territory by the Russian authorities, which turned out to be about 30 thousand,[81] mostly Armenians and Greeks, and there were no Ukrainians among them. Also, according to more reliable modern sources than Evliya's data, slaves never constituted a significant part of the Crimean population.[82] Russian professor Glagolev writes that there were 1.800.000 free Crimean Tatars in the Crimean Khanate in 1666,[83] it also should be mentioned that a huge part of Ukraine was part of the Crimean Khanate, that is why Ukrainians could have been taken into account in the general population of the Khanate by Evliya (see Khan Ukraine).

    Some researchers estimate that more than 2 million people were captured and enslaved during the time of the Crimean Khanate. Polish historian Bohdan Baranowski assumed that in the 17th century Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (present-day Poland, Ukraine and Belarus) lost an average of 20,000 yearly and as many as one million in all years combined from 1500 to 1644.[54][84] In retaliation, the lands of Crimean Tatars were being raided by Zaporozhian Cossacks,[78] armed Ukrainian horsemen, who defended the steppe frontier – Wild Fields – against Tatar slave raids and often attacked and plundered the lands of Ottoman Turks and Crimean Tatars. The Don Cossacks and Kalmyk Mongols also managed to raid Crimean Tatars' land.[85] The last recorded major Crimean raid, before those in the Russo-Turkish War (1768–74) took place during the reign of Peter the Great (1682–1725).[78] However, Cossack raids continued after that time; Ottoman Grand Vizier complained to the Russian consul about raids to Crimea and Özi in 1761.[78] In 1769 one last major Tatar raid, which took place during the Russo-Turkish War, saw the capture of 20,000 slaves.[74]

     
    The Crimean Tatar national dance, Qaytarma (1790s)

    Nevertheless, some historians, including Russian historian Valery Vozgrin and Polish historian Oleksa Gayvoronsky have emphasized that the role of the slave trade in the economy of the Crimean Khanate is greatly exaggerated by modern historians, and the raiding-dependent economy is nothing but a historical myth.[86][87] According to modern researches, livestock occupied a leading position in the economy of the Crimean Khanate, Crimean Khanate was one of the main wheat suppliers to the Ottoman Empire. Salt mining, viticulture and winemaking, horticulture and gardening were also developed as sources of income.[70]

    When reading the history of the Crimean Tatars, it is necessary to take into account that the historical science about the Crimean Tatars is strongly influenced by Russian historians who have rewritten the history of the Crimean Khanate to justify the annexation of the Crimea in 1783, and, especially, then by Soviet historians who distorted the history of the Crimea to justify the 1944 deportation of the Crimean Tatars.[88][89][90][91][92]

    In the Russian Empire

    Further information: Detatarization of Crimea
    See also: Novorossiya
     
    Caffa in ruins after Russian annexation of Crimea
     
    Abandoned houses in Qarasuvbazar.

    The Russo-Turkish War (1768–74) resulted in the defeat of the Ottomans by the Russians, and according to the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774) signed after the war, Crimea became independent and the Ottomans renounced their political right to protect the Crimean Khanate. After a period of political unrest in Crimea, Russia violated the treaty and annexed the Crimean Khanate in 1783. After the annexation, the wealthier Tatars, who had exported wheat, meat, fish and wine to other parts of the Black Sea, began to be expelled and to move to the Ottoman Empire. Due to the oppression by the Russian administration and colonial politics of Russian Empire, the Crimean Tatars were forced to immigrate to the Ottoman Empire. Further expulsions followed in 1812 for fear of the reliability of the Tatars in the face of Napoleon's advance. Particularly, the Crimean War of 1853–1856, the laws of 1860–63, the Tsarist policy and the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78) caused an exodus of the Tatars; 12,000 boarded Allied ships in Sevastopol to escape the destruction of shelling, and were branded traitors by the Russian government.[57] Of total Tatar population 300,000 of the Taurida Governorate about 200,000 Crimean Tatars emigrated.[93] Many Crimean Tatars perished in the process of emigration, including those who drowned while crossing the Black Sea. In total, from 1783 till the beginning of the 20th century, at least 800 thousand Tatars left Crimea. Today the descendants of these Crimeans form the Crimean Tatar diaspora in Bulgaria, Romania and Turkey.

     
    Crimean Tatar squadron of the Russian Empire

    Ismail Gasprali (1851–1914) was a renowned Crimean Tatar intellectual, influenced by the nationalist movements of the period, whose efforts laid the foundation for the modernization of Muslim culture and the emergence of the Crimean Tatar national identity. The bilingual Crimean Tatar-Russian newspaper Terciman-Perevodchik he published in 1883–1914, functioned as an educational tool through which a national consciousness and modern thinking emerged among the entire Turkic-speaking population of the Russian Empire.[57] After the Russian Revolution of 1917 this new elite, which included Noman Çelebicihan and Cafer Seydamet Qırımer proclaimed the first democratic republic in the Islamic world, named the Crimean People's Republic on 26 December 1917. However, this republic was short-lived and abolished by the Bolshevik uprising in January 1918.[94]

    In the Soviet Union (1917–1991)

    See also: Deportation of the Crimean Tatars
     
     
     
    Ethnic map of the Crimea (green colour — Crimean Tatars) in 1930, according to the Small Soviet encyclopedia; Percentage of Crimean Tatars by region in Crimea, according to 1939 Soviet census; Percentage of Crimean Tatars by region in Crimea according to 2014 Russian census
     
    Crimean Tatar child on a special settlement after the deportation. 1944, Molotov region, RSFSR

    As a part of the Russian famine of 1921 the Peninsula suffered widespread starvation.[95] More than 100,000 Crimean Tatars starved to death,[95] and tens of thousands of Tatars fled to Turkey or Romania.[96] Thousands more were deported or killed during the collectivization in 1928–29.[96] The Soviet government's "collectivization" policies led to a major nationwide famine in 1931–33. Between 1917 and 1933, 150,000 Tatars—about 50% of the population at the time—either were killed or forced out of Crimea.[97] During Stalin's Great Purge, statesmen and intellectuals such as Veli İbraimov and Bekir Çoban-zade were imprisoned or executed on various charges.[96]

    In May 1944, the entire Crimean Tatar population of Crimea was exiled to Central Asia, mainly to Uzbekistan, on the orders of Joseph Stalin, the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Chairman of the USSR State Defense Committee. Although a great number of Crimean Tatar men served in the Red Army and took part in the partisan movement in Crimea during the war, the existence of a Tatar Legion in the Nazi army and the collaboration of some Crimean Tatar religious and political leaders with Hitler during the German occupation of Crimea provided the Soviet leadership with justification for accusing the entire Crimean Tatar population of being Nazi collaborators. Some modern researchers argue that Crimea's geopolitical position fueled Soviet perceptions of Crimean Tatars as a potential threat.[98] This belief is based in part on an analogy with numerous other cases of deportations of non-Russians from boundary territories, as well as the fact that other non-Russian populations, such as Greeks, Armenians and Bulgarians were also removed from Crimea (see Deportation of the peoples inhabiting Crimea).

    All 240,000 Crimean Tatars were deported en masse, in a form of collective punishment, on 17–18 May 1944 as "special settlers" to the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic and other distant parts of the Soviet Union.[99] This event is called Sürgün in the Crimean Tatar language; the few who escaped were shot on sight or drowned in scuttled barges, and within months half their number had died of cold, hunger, exhaustion and disease.[57] Many of them were re-located to toil as forced labourers in the Soviet GULAG system.[100]

    Civil rights movement

    Causes

    Starting in 1944, Crimean Tatars lived mostly in Central Asia with the designation as "special settlers", meaning that they had few rights. "Special settlers" were forbidden from leaving small designated areas and had to frequently sign in at a commandant's office.[101][102][103][104] Soviet propaganda directed towards Uzbeks depicted Crimean Tatars as threats to their homeland, and as a result there were many documented hate crimes against Crimean-Tatar civilians by Uzbek Communist loyalists.[105][106] In the 1950s the "special settler" regime ended, but Crimean Tatars were still kept closely tethered to Central Asia; while other deported ethnic groups like the Chechens, Karachays, and Kalmyks were fully allowed to return to their native lands during the Khrushchev thaw, economic and political reasons combined with basic misconceptions and stereotypes about Crimean Tatars led to Moscow and Tashkent being reluctant to allow Crimean Tatars the same right of return; the same decree that rehabilitated other deported nations and restored their national republics urged Crimean Tatars who wanted a national republic to seek "national reunification" in the Tatar ASSR in lieu of restoration of the Crimean ASSR, much to the dismay of Crimean Tatars who bore no connection to or desire to "return" to Tatarstan.[106][107] Moscow's refusal to allow a return was not only based on a desire to satisfy the new Russian settlers in Crimea, who were very hostile to the idea of a return and had been subject to lots of Tatarophobic propaganda, but for economic reasons: high productivity from Crimean Tatar workers in Central Asia meant that letting the diaspora return would take a toll on Soviet industrialization goals in Central Asia.[102] Historians have long suspected that violent resistance to confinement in exile from Chechens led to further willingness to let them return, while the non-violent Crimean Tatar movement did not lead to any desire for Crimean Tatars to leave Central Asia. In effect, the government was punishing Crimean Tatars for being Stakhanovites while rewarding the deported nations that contributed less to the building of socialism, creating further resentment.[108][109]

    A 1967 Soviet decree removed the charges against Crimean Tatars on paper while simultaneously referring to them not by their proper ethnonym but by the euphemism that eventually became standard of "citizens of Tatar nationality who formerly lived in Crimea", angering many Crimean Tatars who realized it meant they were not even seen as Crimean Tatars by the government. In addition, the Soviet government did nothing to facilitate their resettlement in Crimea and to make reparations for lost lives and confiscated property.[110] Before the mass return in the perestroika era, Crimean Tatars made up only 1.5% of Crimea's population, since government entities at all levels took a variety of measures beyond the already-debilitating residence permit system to keep them in Central Asia.[111][112]

    Methods

    The abolition of the special settlement regime made it possible for Crimean Tatar rights activists to mobilize. The primary method of raising grievances with the government was petitioning. Many for the right of return gained over 100,000 signatures; although other methods of protest were occasionally used, the movement remained completely non-violent.[113][114] When only a small percentage of Crimean Tatars were allowed to return to Crimea, those who were not granted residence permits would return to Crimea and try to live under the radar. However, the lack of a residence permit resulted in a second deportation for them. A last-resort method to avoid a second deportation was self-immolation, famously used by Crimean Tatar national hero Musa Mamut, one of those who moved to Crimea without a residence permit. He doused himself with gasoline and committed self-immolation in front of police trying to deport him on 23 June 1978. Mamut died of severe burns several days later, but expressed no regret for having committed self-immolation.[114] Mamut posthumously became a symbol of Crimean Tatar resistance and nationhood, and remains celebrated by Crimean Tatars.[115] Other notable self-immolations in the name of the Crimean Tatar right of return movement include that of Shavkat Yarullin, who fatally committed self-immolation in front of a government building in protest in October 1989, and Seidamet Balji who attempted self-immolation while being deported from Crimea in December that year but survived.[116] Many other famous Crimean Tatars threatened government authorities with self-immolation if they continued to be ignored, including Hero of the Soviet Union Abdraim Reshidov. In the later years of the Soviet Union, Crimean Tatar activists held picket protests in Red Square.[117][104]

    Results

    After a prolonged effort of lobbying by the Crimean Tatar civil rights movement, the Soviet government established a commission in 1987 to evaluate the request for the right of return, chaired by Andrey Gromyko.[118] Gromyko's condescending attitude[119] and failure to assure them that they would have the right of return[120] ended up concerning members of the Crimean Tatar civil rights movement. In June 1988 he issued an official statement that rejected the request for re-establishment of a Crimean Tatar autonomy in Crimea and supported only allowing an organized return of a few more Crimean Tatars, while agreeing to allow the lower-priority requests of having more publications and school instruction in the Crimean Tatar language at the local level among areas with the deported populations.[121] The conclusion that "no basis to renew autonomy and grant Crimean Tatars the right to return"[122] triggered widespread protests.[123] Less than two years after Gromyko's commission had rejected their request for autonomy and return, pogroms against the deported Meskhetian Turks were taking place in Central Asia. During the pogroms, some Crimean Tatars were targeted as well, resulting in changing attitudes towards allowing Crimean Tatars to move back to Crimea.[124] Eventually a second commission, chaired by Gennady Yanaev and inclusive of Crimean Tatars on the board, was established in 1989 to reevaluate the issue, and it was decided that the deportation was illegal and the Crimean Tatars were granted the full right to return, revoking previous laws intended to make it as difficult as possible for Crimean Tatars to move to Crimea.[125][126]

    After Ukrainian independence

    See also: Yuri Osmanov and Mejlis of the Crimean Tatar People

    Today, more than 250,000 Crimean Tatars have returned to their homeland, struggling to re-establish their lives and reclaim their national and cultural rights against many social and economic obstacles. One-third of them are atheists, and over half that consider themselves religious are non-observant.[127] As of 2009, only 15 out of 650 schools in Crimea provide education in the Crimean Tatar language, and only 13 do so in the first three grades.[128]

    Squatting in Crimea has been a significant method for Crimean Tatars to rebuild communities in Crimea destroyed by the deportations. These squats have sometimes resulted in violence by Crimean Russians, such as the 1992 Krasny Ray events [uk], in which the security forces of the separatist Republic of Crimea (not to be confused with the post-2014 government of the same name) attacked a Crimean Tatar squat near the village of Krasny Ray. As a result of the attack on the Krasny Ray settlement, Crimean Tatars stormed the Verkhovna Rada of Crimea, leading to the release of 26 squatters who had been abducted by the Crimean security forces.[129]

    Crimean Tatars were recognised as an indigenous people by the 1996 Constitution of Ukraine, and granted a limited number of seats in the 1994 Crimean parliamentary election. Nonetheless, they faced constant discrimination from the authorities of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea, which was primarily governed by ethnic Russians and directed towards Russian interests.[129] Under the presidency of Viktor Yushchenko, increased attention was paid to Crimean Tatars, with trials for crimes against humanity beginning for those involved in the deportations.[128] However, issues of land failed to be resolved.[130]


    2014 Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation

    Main article: Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation
    See also: Republic of Crimea § Crimean Tatars
     
    Pro-Ukrainian demonstration in Simferopol (Ukrainian flag on the left, Crimean Tatar flag on the right) during the Russian military intervention in Crimea, March 2014

    Following news of Crimea's independence referendum organized with the help of Russia on 16 March 2014, the Kurultai leadership voiced concerns of renewed persecution, as commented by a U.S. official before the visit of a UN human rights team to the peninsula.[131] At the same time, Rustam Minnikhanov, the president of Tatarstan was dispatched to Crimea to quell Crimean Tatars' concerns and to state that "in the 23 years of Ukraine's independence the Ukrainian leaders have been using Crimean Tatars as pawns in their political games without doing them any tangible favors". The issue of Crimean Tatar persecution by Russia has since been raised regularly on an international level.[132][133]

    On 18 March 2014, the day Crimea was annexed by Russia, and Crimean Tatar was de jure declared one of the three official languages of Crimea. It was also announced that Crimean Tatars will be required to relinquish coastal lands on which they squatted since their return to Crimea in the early 1990s and be given land elsewhere in Crimea. Crimea stated it needed the relinquished land for "social purposes", since part of this land is occupied by the Crimean Tatars without legal documents of ownership.[134] The situation was caused by the inability of the USSR (and later Ukraine) to sell the land to Crimean Tatars at a reasonable price instead of giving back to the Tatars the land owned before deportation, once they or their descendants returned from Central Asia (mainly Uzbekistan). As a consequence, some Crimean Tatars settled as squatters, occupying land that was and is still not legally registered.

     
    Russian President Vladimir Putin meeting with pro-Russian representatives of the Crimean Tatars, 16 May 2014

    Some Crimean Tatars fled to Mainland Ukraine due to the Crimean crisis – reportedly around 2000 by 23 March.[135] On 29 March 2014, an emergency meeting of the Crimean Tatars representative body, the Kurultai, voted in favor of seeking "ethnic and territorial autonomy" for Crimean Tatars using "political and legal" means. The meeting was attended by the Head of the Republic of Tatarstan and the chair of the Russian Council of Muftis.[136] Decisions as to whether the Tatars will accept Russian passports or whether the autonomy sought would be within the Russian or Ukrainian state have been deferred pending further discussion.[137]

    The Mejlis works in emergency mode in Kyiv.[138]

    After the annexation of Crimea by Russian Federation, Crimean Tatars are reportedly persecuted and discriminated by Russian authorities, including cases of torture, arbitrary detentions, forced disappearances by Russian security forces and courts.[139][140][141]

    On 12 June 2018, Ukraine lodged a memorandum consisting of 17,500 pages of text in 29 volumes to the UN's International Court of Justice about racial discrimination against Crimean Tatars by Russian authorities in occupied Crimea and state financing of terrorism by Russian Federation in Donbas.[142][143]

    Culture

    See also: Crimean Tatar language and Crimean Tatar literature

    Yurts or nomadic tents have traditionally played an important role in the cultural history of Crimean Tatars. There are different types of yurts; some are large and collapsible, called "terme", while others are small and non-collapsible (otav).

    On the Nowruz holiday, Crimean Tatars usually cook eggs, chicken soup, puff meat pie (kobete), halva, and sweet biscuits. Children put on masks and sing special songs under the windows of their neighbours, receiving sweets in return.

    The songs (makam) of the nomadic steppe Crimean Tatars are characterized by diatonic, melodic simplicity and brevity. The songs of mountainous and southern coastal Crimean Tatars, called Türkü, are sung with richly ornamented melodies. Household lyricism is also widespread. Occasionally, song competitions take place between young men and women during Crimean holidays and weddings. Ritual folklore includes winter greetings, wedding songs, lamentations and circular dance songs (khoran). Epic stories or destans are very popular among the Crimean Tatars, particularly the destans of "Chora batyr", "Edige", "Koroglu" and others.[144]

    Today in use there are two types of alphabet: Cyrillic and Latin. Initially Crimean Tatars used Arabic script. In 1928 it was replaced with the Latin alphabet. Cyrillic was introduced in 1938 based on the Russian alphabet. The Cyrillic alphabet was the only official one between 1938 and 1997. All its letters coincide with those of the Russian alphabet. The 1990s saw the start of the gradual transition of the language to the new Latin alphabet based on the Turkish one.[145]

    Cuisine

    Main article: Crimean Tatar cuisine

    The traditional cuisine of the Crimean Tatars has similarities with that of Greeks, Italians, Balkan peoples, Nogays, North Caucasians, and Volga Tatars, although some national dishes and dietary habits vary between different Crimean Tatar regional subgroups; for example, fish and produce are more popular among Yaliboylu Tatar dishes while meat and dairy is more prevalent in Steppe Tatar cuisine. Many Uzbek dishes were incorporated into Crimean Tatar national cuisine during exile in Central Asia since 1944, and these dishes have become prevalent in Crimea since the return. Uzbek samsa, laghman, and plov (pilaf) are sold in most Tatar roadside cafes in Crimea as national dishes. In turn, some Crimean Tatar dishes, including chibureki, have been adopted by peoples outside Crimea, such as in Turkey and the North Caucasus.[146]

    Crimean Tatar political parties

    National Movement of Crimean Tatars

    Founded by Crimean Tatar civil rights activist Yuri Osmanov, the National Movement of Crimean Tatars (NDKT) was the major opposition faction to the Dzhemilev faction during the Soviet era. The official goal of the NDKT during the Soviet era was the restoration of the Crimean ASSR under the Leninist principle of national autonomy for titular indigenous peoples in their homeland, conflicting with the desires of an independent Tatar state from the OKND, the predecessor of the Mejilis. Yuri Osmanov, founder of the organization, was highly critical of Dzhemilev, saying that the OKND, the predecessor of the Mejilis, did not sufficiently try to mend ethnic tensions in Crimea. However, the OKND decreased in popularity after Yuri Osmanov was killed.[147][148][149]

    Mejlis

    Main article: Mejlis of the Crimean Tatar People

    In 1991, the Crimean Tatar leadership founded the Kurultai, or Parliament, to act as a representative body for the Crimean Tatars which could address grievances to the Ukrainian central government, the Crimean government, and international bodies.[150] Mejlis of the Crimean Tatar People is the executive body of the Kurultai.

    From the 1990s until October 2013, the political leader of the Crimean Tatars and the chairman of the Mejlis of the Crimean Tatar People was former Soviet dissident Mustafa Dzhemilev. Since October 2013 the chairman of the Mejlis of the Crimean Tatar People has been Refat Chubarov.[151]

    Following the 2014 Russian annexation of Crimea, Russian authorities declared the Mejlis of the Crimean Tatar People an extremist organization, and banned it on 26 April 2016.[152]

    New Milliy Firqa

    Main article: Milliy Fırqa (NGO)

    In 2006, a new Crimean Tatar party in opposition to the Mejlis was founded, taking the name of the previously-defunct Milly Firqa party from the early 20th century. The party claims to be successor of the ideas of Yuri Osmanov and NDKT.[153]

    UDTTMR

    Main article: Democratic Union of Turkish-Muslim Tatars of Romania

    In Romanian "Uniunea Democratica a Tatarilor Turco-Musulmani din Romania, UDTTMR" in Crimean Tatar "Romanya Müslüman Tatar Türklerĭ Demokrat Bĭrlĭgĭ, RMTTDB" is an ethnic minority political party in Romania representing the Tatar community.

     
    Symbol of UDTTMR

    Notable Crimean Tatars

    Main article: List of Crimean Tatars

    See also

    References

    Footnotes

    1. ^ Including all territories lost from invasion according to international recognition.
    2. ^ a b Crimean Tatar population of Ukraine and Russia according to 2001 Ukrainian and 2010 Russian censuses respectively, both held before 2014 annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation. A 2014 Crimean census, conducted by Russia after the annexation, reported 246,073 Crimean Tatars on the Russian-held territory[154][155][156]
    3. ^ Excluding all territories from occupation according to international recognition.

    Citations

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    Further reading

    • Conquest, Robert. 1970. The Nation Killers: The Soviet Deportation of Nationalities (London: Macmillan). (ISBN 0-333-10575-3)
    • Fisher, Alan W. 1978. The Crimean Tatars. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press. (ISBN 0-8179-6661-7)
    • Fisher, Alan W. 1998. Between Russians, Ottomans and Turks: Crimea and Crimean Tatars (Istanbul: Isis Press, 1998). (ISBN 975-428-126-2)
    • Nekrich, Alexander. 1978. The Punished Peoples: The Deportation and Fate of Soviet Minorities at the End of the Second World War (New York: W. W. Norton). (ISBN 0-393-00068-0)
    • Quelquejay, Lemercier. "The Tatars of the Crimea, a retrospective summary." Central Asian Review 16#1 (1968): 15–25.
    • Uehling, Greta (June 2000). "Squatting, self-immolation, and the repatriation of Crimean Tatars". Nationalities Papers. 28 (2): 317–341. doi:10.1080/713687470. S2CID 140736004.
    • Williams, Brian Glyn. "The hidden ethnic cleansing of Muslims in the Soviet Union: The exile and repatriation of the Crimean Tatars." Journal of Contemporary History (2002): 323–347. in JSTOR 15 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine
    • Williams, Brian Glyn. "The Crimean Tatar exile in Central Asia: a case study in group destruction and survival." Central Asian Survey 17.2 (1998): 285–317.
    • Williams, Brian Glyn. "The Ethnogenesis of the Crimean Tatars. An Historical Reinterpretation" Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (2001) 11#3 pp. 329–348 in JSTOR 13 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine
    • Williams, Brian G., The Crimean Tatars: The Diaspora Experience and the Forging of a Nation 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Leyden: Brill, 2001.

    Other languages

    • Vozgrin, Valery, 2013, Istoriya krymskykh tatar ((in Russian) ), Simferopol (four volumes).
    • Smirnov V D, 1886, Krymskoe khanstvo
    • Campana (Aurélie), Dufaud (Grégory) and Tournon (Sophie) (ed.), Les Déportations en héritage. Les peuples réprimés du Caucase et de Crimée, hier et aujourd'hui, Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2009.
    • Bykova, Tetyana (2015). Політичне та соціально-економічне становище в Криму (від середини XVIII ст. до 1917 р.) (PDF). Kyiv. (PDF) from the original on 29 July 2020. Retrieved 27 May 2020.
    • Serhiychuk, Volodymyr (2008). Етнічні межі і державний кордон України. Kyiv: ПП Сергійчук M. І. ISBN 978-966-2911-24-4. from the original on 13 January 2020. Retrieved 27 May 2020.

    External links

     
    Wikimedia Commons has media related to Crimean Tatars.
    • Official website of Qirim Tatar Cultural Association of Canada 23 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine
    • International Committee for Crimea 19 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine
    • Crimean Tatar Home Page 15 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine
    • Crimean Tatar words (Turkish) Archived 20 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine
    • Crimean Tatar words (English) Archived 12 December 2020 at the Wayback Machine
    • State Defense Committee Decree No. 5859ss: On Crimean Tatars (See also Three answers to the Decree No. 5859ss 11 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine)
    • Crimean Tatars; Essays on Central Asia Index 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine Essays on Central Asia Index
    • 'Крымская солидарность; ВОЗВРАЩЕНИЕ ДОМОЙ. РУСТЕМ ВАИТОВ' (YouTube channel of Crimean Tatar Solidarity; story of Rustem Vaitov returning home after 5 years of jail) 24 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine

    May 04, 2023
    crimean, tatars, confused, with, volga, tatars, crimean, tatar, Къырымтатарлар, romanized, qırımtatarlar, crimeans, crimean, tatar, Къырымлылар, romanized, qırımlılar, turkic, ethnic, group, nation, indigenous, people, crimea, formation, ethnogenesis, occurred. Not to be confused with Volga Tatars Crimean Tatars Crimean Tatar Kyrymtatarlar romanized Qirimtatarlar or Crimeans Crimean Tatar Kyrymlylar romanized Qirimlilar are a Turkic ethnic group and nation who are an indigenous people of Crimea The formation and ethnogenesis of Crimean Tatars occurred during the 13th 17th centuries uniting Cumans who appeared in Crimea in the 10th century with other peoples who had inhabited Crimea since ancient times and gradually underwent Tatarization including Greeks Italians Armenians Goths Sarmatians and others 9 10 Crimean TatarsCrimean Tatar Kyrymtatarlar romanized QirimtatarlarFlag of Crimean TatarsCrimean Tatars with their traditional clothes in Hidirellez festival Regions with significant populations TurkeyNo exact data According to various estimates from at least 3 500 000 to 6 000 000 1 Ukraine a Crimea248 193 2 b Uzbekistan239 000 3 Romania24 137 4 Russia c 2 449 5 b Bulgaria1 803 6 Kazakhstan1 532 7 United States New York City 7 000 citation needed 500 1 000 8 LanguagesCrimean Tatar L1 TurkishRussianUkrainian L2 RomanianBulgarianReligionSunni IslamRelated ethnic groupsDobrujan Tatars Nogais Volga Tatars Lipka Tatars Crimean Karaites Crimean Tatars constituted the majority of Crimea s population from the time of ethnogenesis until the mid 19th century and the largest ethnic population until the end of the 19th century 11 12 Russia attempted to purge through a combination of physical violence intimidation forced resettlement and legalized forms of discrimination between 1783 and 1900 Between Russia s annexation of Crimea in 1783 and 1800 somewhere between 100 000 and 300 000 Crimean Tatars emigrated However this did not result in the complete eradication of Crimean Tatar cultural elements at least not under the Romanov dynasty however under the Soviets the Crimean Tatars were almost completely driven from the Crimean peninsula 13 Almost immediately after retaking of Crimea from Axis forces in May 1944 the USSR State Defense Committee ordered the deportation of all of the Crimean Tatars from Crimea including the families of Crimean Tatars who had served in the Soviet Army The deportees were transported in trains and boxcars to Central Asia primarily to Uzbekistan The Crimean Tatars lost 18 to 46 percent of their population as a result of the deportations 14 Starting in 1967 a few were allowed to return and in 1989 the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union condemned the removal of Crimean Tatars from their motherland as inhumane and lawless but only a tiny percent were able to return before the full right of return became policy in 1989 The European Union and international indigenous groups do not dispute their status as an indigenous people and they have been officially recognized as an indigenous people of Ukraine as of 2014 15 16 The current Russian administration considers them a national minority but not an indigenous people 17 18 and continues to deny that they are titular people of Crimea even though the Soviet Union considered them indigenous before their deportation and the subsequent dissolution of the Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic Crimean ASSR 19 20 21 22 Today Crimean Tatars constitute approximately 15 of the population of Crimea 23 There remains a Crimean Tatar diaspora in Turkey and Uzbekistan The Crimean Tatars have been members of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization UNPO since 1991 24 Contents 1 Distribution 2 Sub ethnic groups 3 History 3 1 Origin 3 2 Golden Horde and Crimean Khanate 3 3 In the Russian Empire 3 4 In the Soviet Union 1917 1991 3 4 1 Civil rights movement 3 4 1 1 Causes 3 4 1 2 Methods 3 4 1 3 Results 3 5 After Ukrainian independence 3 6 2014 Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation 4 Culture 5 Cuisine 6 Crimean Tatar political parties 6 1 National Movement of Crimean Tatars 6 2 Mejlis 6 3 New Milliy Firqa 6 4 UDTTMR 7 Notable Crimean Tatars 8 See also 9 References 9 1 Footnotes 9 2 Citations 10 Further reading 10 1 Other languages 11 External linksDistribution EditMain article Crimean Tatar diaspora In the Ukrainian census of 2001 248 200 Ukrainian citizens identified themselves as Crimean Tatars with 98 or about 243 400 of them living in the Autonomous Republic of Crimea 25 26 An additional 1 800 or about 0 7 lived in the city of Sevastopol also on the Crimean peninsula but outside the border of the autonomous republic 25 About 150 000 remain in exile in Central Asia mainly in Uzbekistan The official number of Crimean Tatars in Turkey is 150 000 with some Crimean Tatar activists estimating a figure as high as 6 million The activists reached this number by taking one million Tatar immigrants to Turkey as a starting point and multiplying this number by the birth rate in the span of the last hundred years 1 Crimean Tatars in Turkey mostly live in Eskisehir Province descendants of those who emigrated in the late 18th 19th and early 20th centuries 1 The Dobruja region of Romania and Bulgaria is home to more than 27 000 Crimean Tatars with the majority in Romania and approximately 3 000 on the Bulgarian side of the border 4 Sub ethnic groups Edit Crimean Tatars and a mullah c 1862 The Crimean Tatars are subdivided into three sub ethnic groups the Tats not to be confused with the Iranic Tat people living in the Caucasus region who used to inhabit the mountainous Crimea before 1944 predominantly are Cumans Greeks Goths and other people as Tats in Crimea also were called Hellenic Urum people Greeks settled in Crimea who were deported by the Imperial Russia to the area around Mariupol 27 The term Tat appears already in the 8th century Orkhon inscriptions denoting a subjected foreign people In the 17th century Crimean context it probably denoted various peoples of foreign ie non Turkic origin living under the khan s rule especially the Greeks Italians and the remnants of Goths and Alans inhabiting the mountainous southern section of Crimea 28 the Yaliboylu who lived on the Southern Coast of the peninsula before 1944 and practiced Christianity until the 14th century 27 the Nogays not to be confused with related Nogai people living now in Southern Russia former inhabitants of the Crimean steppe 27 Historians suggest that inhabitants of the mountainous parts of Crimea lying to the central and southern parts the Tats and those of the Southern coast of Crimea the Yaliboyu were the direct descendants of the Pontic Greeks Armenians Scythians Ostrogoths Crimean Goths and Kipchaks along with the Cumans while the latest inhabitants of the northern steppe represent the descendants of the Nogai Horde of the Black Sea nominally subjects of the Crimean Khan 29 30 It is largely assumed that the Tatarization process that mostly took place in the 16th century brought a sense of cultural unity through the blending of the Greeks Armenians Italians and Ottoman Turks of the southern coast Goths of the central mountains and Turkic speaking Kipchaks and Cumans of the steppe and forming of the Crimean Tatar ethnic group 31 32 33 However the Cuman language is considered the direct ancestor of the current language of the Crimean Tatars with possible incorporations of the other languages like Crimean Gothic 34 35 36 37 The fact that Crimean Tatars ethnogenesis took place in Crimea and consisted of several stages lasting over 2500 years is proved by genetic research showing that the gene pool of the Crimean Tatars preserved both the initial components for more than 2 5 thousand years and later in the northern steppe regions of the Crimea 38 39 40 Some famous Crimean Tatar historians such as Halil Inalcik and Ilber Ortayli refused to use the term Tatar they preferred to use the term Crimean or Cuman to describe Cuman Kipchak speaking Crimean people who were settled in Pontic Steppes before the Tatar migration 41 42 The Mongol conquest of the Kipchaks led to a merged society with a Mongol ruling class over a Kipchak speaking population which came to be dubbed Tatar and which eventually absorbed other ethnicities on the Crimean peninsula like Armenians Italians Greeks and Goths to form the modern day Crimean Tatar people up to the Soviet deportation the Crimean Tatars could still differentiate among themselves between Tatar Kipchak Nogays and the Tat descendants of Tatarized Goths and other Turkified peoples 43 History EditMain article History of Crimea Origin Edit Steppe Crimean Tatars Tat and Yaliboylu Crimean Tatars The Crimean Tatars were formed as a people in Crimea and are descendants of various peoples who lived in Crimea in different historical eras The main ethnic groups that inhabited the Crimea at various times and took part in the formation of the Crimean Tatar people are Tauri Scythians Sarmatians Alans Greeks Goths Huns Bulgars Khazars Pechenegs Cumans Italians and Circassians The consolidation of this diverse ethnic conglomerate into a single Crimean Tatar people took place over the course of centuries The connecting elements in this process were the commonality of the territory the Turkic language and Islamic religion 44 45 46 20 47 48 By the end of the 15th century the main prerequisites that led to the formation of an independent Crimean Tatar ethnic group were created the political dominance of the Crimean Khanate was established in Crimea the Turkic languages Cuman Kipchak on the territory of the khanate became dominant and Islam acquired the status of a state religion throughout the Peninsula By a preponderance Cumanian population of the Crimea acquired the name Tatars the Islamic religion and Turkic language and the process of consolidating the multi ethnic conglomerate of the Peninsula began which has led to the emergence of the Crimean Tatar people 20 Over several centuries on the basis of Cuman language with a noticeable Oghuz influence the Crimean Tatar language has developed 49 50 51 52 Golden Horde and Crimean Khanate Edit Further information Crimean KhanateSee also Golden Horde Ozbek Han Mosque one of the oldest mosques of the Crimea It was built in 1314 during the rule of the Golden Horde in the peninsula At the beginning of the 13th century the Crimea the majority of the population of which was already composed of a Turkic people Cumans became a part of the Golden Horde The Crimean Tatars mostly adopted Islam in the 14th century and thereafter Crimea became one of the centers of Islamic civilization in Eastern Europe In the same century trends towards separatism appeared in the Crimean Ulus of the Golden Horde De facto independence of the Crimea from the Golden Horde may be counted since the beginning of princess khanum Canike s the daughter of the powerful Khan of the Golden Horde Tokhtamysh and the wife of the founder of the Nogai Horde Edigey reign in the peninsula During her reign she strongly supported Haci Giray in the struggle for the Crimean throne until her death in 1437 Following the death of Canike the situation of Haci Giray in Crimea weakened and he was forced to leave Crimea for Lithuania 53 The Crimean Tatars emerged as a nation at the time of the Crimean Khanate an Ottoman vassal state during the 16th to 18th centuries 54 Russian historian doctor of history Professor of the Russian Academy of Sciences Ilya Zaytsev writes that analysis of historical data shows that the influence of Turkey on the policy of the Crimea was not as high as it was reported in old Turkish sources and Imperial Russian ones 55 The Turkic speaking population of Crimea had mostly adopted Islam already in the 14th century following the conversion of Ozbeg Khan of the Golden Horde 56 By the time of the first Russian invasion of Crimea in 1736 the Khan s archives and libraries were famous throughout the Islamic world and under Khan Krym Girei the city of Aqmescit was endowed with piped water sewerage and a theatre where Moliere was performed in French while the port of Kezlev stood comparison with Rotterdam and Bakhchysarai the capital was described as Europe s cleanest and greenest city 57 The Crimean Khan s Palace in Bakhchysaray by Carlo Bossoli In 1441 an embassy from the representatives of several strongest clans of the Crimea including the Golden Horde clans Shirin and Barin and the Cumanic clan Kipcak went to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to invite Haci Giray to rule in the Crimea He became the founder of the Giray dynasty which ruled until the annexation of the Crimean Khanate by Russia in 1783 58 Haci I Giray was a Jochid descendant of Genghis Khan and of his grandson Batu Khan of the Golden Horde During the reign of Menli I Giray Haci s son the army of the Great Horde that still existed then invaded the Crimea from the north Crimean Khan won the general battle overtaking the army of the Horde Khan in Takht Lia where he was killed the Horde ceased to exist and the Crimean Khan became the Great Khan and the successor of this state 58 59 Since then the Crimean Khanate was among the strongest powers in Eastern Europe until the beginning of the 18th century 60 The Khanate officially operated as a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire with great autonomy after 1580 61 At the same time the Nogai hordes not having their own khan were vassals of the Crimean one Muskovy and Polish Lithuanian commonwealth 62 63 paid annual tribute to the khan until 1700 64 and 1699 respectively In the 17th century the Crimean Tatars helped Ukrainian Cossacks led by Bohdan Khmelnytsky in the struggle for independence which allowed them to win several decisive victories over Polish troops 65 French language Map of Crimea from 1774 showing mostly Turkic placenames The Crimean Khan and Bohdan Khmelnytsky doing namaz In 1711 when Peter I of Russia went on a campaign with all his troops 80 000 to gain access to the Black Sea he was surrounded by the army of the Crimean Khan Devlet II Giray finding himself in a hopeless situation And only the betrayal of the Ottoman vizier Baltaci Mehmet Pasha allowed Peter to get out of the encirclement of the Crimean Tatars 66 When Devlet II Giray protested against the vizier s decision 67 his response was You should know your Tatar affairs The affairs of the Sublime Porte are entrusted to me You do not have the right to interfere in them 68 Treaty of the Pruth was signed and 10 years later Russia declared itself an empire In 1736 the Crimean Khan Qaplan I Giray was summoned by the Turkish Sultan Ahmed III to Persia Understanding that Russia could take advantage of the lack of troops in Crimea Qaplan Giray wrote to the Sultan to think twice but the Sultan was persistent As it was expected by Qaplan Giray in 1736 the Russian army invaded the Crimea led by Munnich devastated the peninsula killed civilians and destroyed all major cities occupied the capital Bakhchisaray and burnt the Khan s palace with all the archives and documents and then left the Crimea because of the epidemic that had begun in it One year after the same was done by another Russian general Peter Lacy 58 69 Since then the Crimean Khanate had not been able to recover and its slow decline began The Russo Turkish War of 1768 to 1774 resulted in the defeat of the Ottomans by the Russians and according to the Treaty of Kucuk Kaynarca 1774 signed after the war Crimea became independent and the Ottomans renounced their political right to protect the Crimean Khanate After a period of political unrest in Crimea Imperial Russia violated the treaty and annexed the Crimean Khanate in 1783 Crimean Tatar archer The main population of the Crimean khanate were Crimean Tatars along with them in the Crimean khanate lived significant communities of Karaites Italians Armenians Greeks Circassians and Roma In the early 16th century under the rule of the Crimean khans passed part of Nogays Mangyts who roamed outside the Crimean Peninsula moving there during periods of drought and starvation The majority of the population professed Islam of the Hanafi stream part of the population Orthodox Monotheletism Judaism in the 16th century There were small Catholic communities The Crimean Tatar population of the Crimean Peninsula was partially exempt from taxes The Greeks paid dzhyziya the Italians were in a privileged position due to the partial tax relief made during the reign of Menli Geray I By the 18 century the population of the Crimean khanate was about 500 thousand people The territory of the Crimean khanate was divided into Kinakanta governorships which consisted of Kadylyk covering a number of settlements 70 Until the beginning of the 18th century Crimean Nogays were known for frequent at some periods almost annual slave raids into Ukraine and Russia 71 72 54 73 For a long time until the late 18th century the Crimean Khanate maintained a massive slave trade with the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East which was one of the important factors of its economy 70 74 One of the most important trading ports and slave markets was Kefe 75 76 According to the Ottoman census of 1526 taxes on the sale and purchase of slaves accounted for 24 of the funds levied in Ottoman Crimea for all activities 77 But in fact there were always small raids committed by both Tatars and Cossacks in both directions 78 The 17th century Ottoman writer and traveller Evliya Celebi wrote that there were 920 000 Ukrainian slaves in the Crimea but only 187 000 free Muslims 54 However the Ukrainian historian Sergey Gromenko considers this testimony of Celebi a myth popular among ultranationalists pointing out that today it is known from the writings on economics that in the 17th century the Crimea could feed no more than 500 thousand people 79 For comparison according to the notes of the Consul of France to Qirim Giray khan Baron Totta a hundred years later in 1767 there were 4 million people living in the Crimean khanate 80 and in 1778 that is just eleven years later all the Christians were evicted from its territory by the Russian authorities which turned out to be about 30 thousand 81 mostly Armenians and Greeks and there were no Ukrainians among them Also according to more reliable modern sources than Evliya s data slaves never constituted a significant part of the Crimean population 82 Russian professor Glagolev writes that there were 1 800 000 free Crimean Tatars in the Crimean Khanate in 1666 83 it also should be mentioned that a huge part of Ukraine was part of the Crimean Khanate that is why Ukrainians could have been taken into account in the general population of the Khanate by Evliya see Khan Ukraine Some researchers estimate that more than 2 million people were captured and enslaved during the time of the Crimean Khanate Polish historian Bohdan Baranowski assumed that in the 17th century Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth present day Poland Ukraine and Belarus lost an average of 20 000 yearly and as many as one million in all years combined from 1500 to 1644 54 84 In retaliation the lands of Crimean Tatars were being raided by Zaporozhian Cossacks 78 armed Ukrainian horsemen who defended the steppe frontier Wild Fields against Tatar slave raids and often attacked and plundered the lands of Ottoman Turks and Crimean Tatars The Don Cossacks and Kalmyk Mongols also managed to raid Crimean Tatars land 85 The last recorded major Crimean raid before those in the Russo Turkish War 1768 74 took place during the reign of Peter the Great 1682 1725 78 However Cossack raids continued after that time Ottoman Grand Vizier complained to the Russian consul about raids to Crimea and Ozi in 1761 78 In 1769 one last major Tatar raid which took place during the Russo Turkish War saw the capture of 20 000 slaves 74 The Crimean Tatar national dance Qaytarma 1790s Nevertheless some historians including Russian historian Valery Vozgrin and Polish historian Oleksa Gayvoronsky have emphasized that the role of the slave trade in the economy of the Crimean Khanate is greatly exaggerated by modern historians and the raiding dependent economy is nothing but a historical myth 86 87 According to modern researches livestock occupied a leading position in the economy of the Crimean Khanate Crimean Khanate was one of the main wheat suppliers to the Ottoman Empire Salt mining viticulture and winemaking horticulture and gardening were also developed as sources of income 70 When reading the history of the Crimean Tatars it is necessary to take into account that the historical science about the Crimean Tatars is strongly influenced by Russian historians who have rewritten the history of the Crimean Khanate to justify the annexation of the Crimea in 1783 and especially then by Soviet historians who distorted the history of the Crimea to justify the 1944 deportation of the Crimean Tatars 88 89 90 91 92 In the Russian Empire Edit Further information Detatarization of Crimea See also Novorossiya Caffa in ruins after Russian annexation of Crimea Abandoned houses in Qarasuvbazar The Russo Turkish War 1768 74 resulted in the defeat of the Ottomans by the Russians and according to the Treaty of Kucuk Kaynarca 1774 signed after the war Crimea became independent and the Ottomans renounced their political right to protect the Crimean Khanate After a period of political unrest in Crimea Russia violated the treaty and annexed the Crimean Khanate in 1783 After the annexation the wealthier Tatars who had exported wheat meat fish and wine to other parts of the Black Sea began to be expelled and to move to the Ottoman Empire Due to the oppression by the Russian administration and colonial politics of Russian Empire the Crimean Tatars were forced to immigrate to the Ottoman Empire Further expulsions followed in 1812 for fear of the reliability of the Tatars in the face of Napoleon s advance Particularly the Crimean War of 1853 1856 the laws of 1860 63 the Tsarist policy and the Russo Turkish War 1877 78 caused an exodus of the Tatars 12 000 boarded Allied ships in Sevastopol to escape the destruction of shelling and were branded traitors by the Russian government 57 Of total Tatar population 300 000 of the Taurida Governorate about 200 000 Crimean Tatars emigrated 93 Many Crimean Tatars perished in the process of emigration including those who drowned while crossing the Black Sea In total from 1783 till the beginning of the 20th century at least 800 thousand Tatars left Crimea Today the descendants of these Crimeans form the Crimean Tatar diaspora in Bulgaria Romania and Turkey Crimean Tatar squadron of the Russian Empire Ismail Gasprali 1851 1914 was a renowned Crimean Tatar intellectual influenced by the nationalist movements of the period whose efforts laid the foundation for the modernization of Muslim culture and the emergence of the Crimean Tatar national identity The bilingual Crimean Tatar Russian newspaper Terciman Perevodchik he published in 1883 1914 functioned as an educational tool through which a national consciousness and modern thinking emerged among the entire Turkic speaking population of the Russian Empire 57 After the Russian Revolution of 1917 this new elite which included Noman Celebicihan and Cafer Seydamet Qirimer proclaimed the first democratic republic in the Islamic world named the Crimean People s Republic on 26 December 1917 However this republic was short lived and abolished by the Bolshevik uprising in January 1918 94 In the Soviet Union 1917 1991 Edit See also Deportation of the Crimean Tatars Ethnic map of the Crimea green colour Crimean Tatars in 1930 according to the Small Soviet encyclopedia Percentage of Crimean Tatars by region in Crimea according to 1939 Soviet census Percentage of Crimean Tatars by region in Crimea according to 2014 Russian census Crimean Tatar child on a special settlement after the deportation 1944 Molotov region RSFSR As a part of the Russian famine of 1921 the Peninsula suffered widespread starvation 95 More than 100 000 Crimean Tatars starved to death 95 and tens of thousands of Tatars fled to Turkey or Romania 96 Thousands more were deported or killed during the collectivization in 1928 29 96 The Soviet government s collectivization policies led to a major nationwide famine in 1931 33 Between 1917 and 1933 150 000 Tatars about 50 of the population at the time either were killed or forced out of Crimea 97 During Stalin s Great Purge statesmen and intellectuals such as Veli Ibraimov and Bekir Coban zade were imprisoned or executed on various charges 96 In May 1944 the entire Crimean Tatar population of Crimea was exiled to Central Asia mainly to Uzbekistan on the orders of Joseph Stalin the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Chairman of the USSR State Defense Committee Although a great number of Crimean Tatar men served in the Red Army and took part in the partisan movement in Crimea during the war the existence of a Tatar Legion in the Nazi army and the collaboration of some Crimean Tatar religious and political leaders with Hitler during the German occupation of Crimea provided the Soviet leadership with justification for accusing the entire Crimean Tatar population of being Nazi collaborators Some modern researchers argue that Crimea s geopolitical position fueled Soviet perceptions of Crimean Tatars as a potential threat 98 This belief is based in part on an analogy with numerous other cases of deportations of non Russians from boundary territories as well as the fact that other non Russian populations such as Greeks Armenians and Bulgarians were also removed from Crimea see Deportation of the peoples inhabiting Crimea All 240 000 Crimean Tatars were deported en masse in a form of collective punishment on 17 18 May 1944 as special settlers to the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic and other distant parts of the Soviet Union 99 This event is called Surgun in the Crimean Tatar language the few who escaped were shot on sight or drowned in scuttled barges and within months half their number had died of cold hunger exhaustion and disease 57 Many of them were re located to toil as forced labourers in the Soviet GULAG system 100 Civil rights movement Edit Causes Edit Starting in 1944 Crimean Tatars lived mostly in Central Asia with the designation as special settlers meaning that they had few rights Special settlers were forbidden from leaving small designated areas and had to frequently sign in at a commandant s office 101 102 103 104 Soviet propaganda directed towards Uzbeks depicted Crimean Tatars as threats to their homeland and as a result there were many documented hate crimes against Crimean Tatar civilians by Uzbek Communist loyalists 105 106 In the 1950s the special settler regime ended but Crimean Tatars were still kept closely tethered to Central Asia while other deported ethnic groups like the Chechens Karachays and Kalmyks were fully allowed to return to their native lands during the Khrushchev thaw economic and political reasons combined with basic misconceptions and stereotypes about Crimean Tatars led to Moscow and Tashkent being reluctant to allow Crimean Tatars the same right of return the same decree that rehabilitated other deported nations and restored their national republics urged Crimean Tatars who wanted a national republic to seek national reunification in the Tatar ASSR in lieu of restoration of the Crimean ASSR much to the dismay of Crimean Tatars who bore no connection to or desire to return to Tatarstan 106 107 Moscow s refusal to allow a return was not only based on a desire to satisfy the new Russian settlers in Crimea who were very hostile to the idea of a return and had been subject to lots of Tatarophobic propaganda but for economic reasons high productivity from Crimean Tatar workers in Central Asia meant that letting the diaspora return would take a toll on Soviet industrialization goals in Central Asia 102 Historians have long suspected that violent resistance to confinement in exile from Chechens led to further willingness to let them return while the non violent Crimean Tatar movement did not lead to any desire for Crimean Tatars to leave Central Asia In effect the government was punishing Crimean Tatars for being Stakhanovites while rewarding the deported nations that contributed less to the building of socialism creating further resentment 108 109 A 1967 Soviet decree removed the charges against Crimean Tatars on paper while simultaneously referring to them not by their proper ethnonym but by the euphemism that eventually became standard of citizens of Tatar nationality who formerly lived in Crimea angering many Crimean Tatars who realized it meant they were not even seen as Crimean Tatars by the government In addition the Soviet government did nothing to facilitate their resettlement in Crimea and to make reparations for lost lives and confiscated property 110 Before the mass return in the perestroika era Crimean Tatars made up only 1 5 of Crimea s population since government entities at all levels took a variety of measures beyond the already debilitating residence permit system to keep them in Central Asia 111 112 Methods Edit The abolition of the special settlement regime made it possible for Crimean Tatar rights activists to mobilize The primary method of raising grievances with the government was petitioning Many for the right of return gained over 100 000 signatures although other methods of protest were occasionally used the movement remained completely non violent 113 114 When only a small percentage of Crimean Tatars were allowed to return to Crimea those who were not granted residence permits would return to Crimea and try to live under the radar However the lack of a residence permit resulted in a second deportation for them A last resort method to avoid a second deportation was self immolation famously used by Crimean Tatar national hero Musa Mamut one of those who moved to Crimea without a residence permit He doused himself with gasoline and committed self immolation in front of police trying to deport him on 23 June 1978 Mamut died of severe burns several days later but expressed no regret for having committed self immolation 114 Mamut posthumously became a symbol of Crimean Tatar resistance and nationhood and remains celebrated by Crimean Tatars 115 Other notable self immolations in the name of the Crimean Tatar right of return movement include that of Shavkat Yarullin who fatally committed self immolation in front of a government building in protest in October 1989 and Seidamet Balji who attempted self immolation while being deported from Crimea in December that year but survived 116 Many other famous Crimean Tatars threatened government authorities with self immolation if they continued to be ignored including Hero of the Soviet Union Abdraim Reshidov In the later years of the Soviet Union Crimean Tatar activists held picket protests in Red Square 117 104 Results Edit After a prolonged effort of lobbying by the Crimean Tatar civil rights movement the Soviet government established a commission in 1987 to evaluate the request for the right of return chaired by Andrey Gromyko 118 Gromyko s condescending attitude 119 and failure to assure them that they would have the right of return 120 ended up concerning members of the Crimean Tatar civil rights movement In June 1988 he issued an official statement that rejected the request for re establishment of a Crimean Tatar autonomy in Crimea and supported only allowing an organized return of a few more Crimean Tatars while agreeing to allow the lower priority requests of having more publications and school instruction in the Crimean Tatar language at the local level among areas with the deported populations 121 The conclusion that no basis to renew autonomy and grant Crimean Tatars the right to return 122 triggered widespread protests 123 Less than two years after Gromyko s commission had rejected their request for autonomy and return pogroms against the deported Meskhetian Turks were taking place in Central Asia During the pogroms some Crimean Tatars were targeted as well resulting in changing attitudes towards allowing Crimean Tatars to move back to Crimea 124 Eventually a second commission chaired by Gennady Yanaev and inclusive of Crimean Tatars on the board was established in 1989 to reevaluate the issue and it was decided that the deportation was illegal and the Crimean Tatars were granted the full right to return revoking previous laws intended to make it as difficult as possible for Crimean Tatars to move to Crimea 125 126 After Ukrainian independence Edit See also Yuri Osmanov and Mejlis of the Crimean Tatar People Today more than 250 000 Crimean Tatars have returned to their homeland struggling to re establish their lives and reclaim their national and cultural rights against many social and economic obstacles One third of them are atheists and over half that consider themselves religious are non observant 127 As of 2009 only 15 out of 650 schools in Crimea provide education in the Crimean Tatar language and only 13 do so in the first three grades 128 Squatting in Crimea has been a significant method for Crimean Tatars to rebuild communities in Crimea destroyed by the deportations These squats have sometimes resulted in violence by Crimean Russians such as the 1992 Krasny Ray events uk in which the security forces of the separatist Republic of Crimea not to be confused with the post 2014 government of the same name attacked a Crimean Tatar squat near the village of Krasny Ray As a result of the attack on the Krasny Ray settlement Crimean Tatars stormed the Verkhovna Rada of Crimea leading to the release of 26 squatters who had been abducted by the Crimean security forces 129 Crimean Tatars were recognised as an indigenous people by the 1996 Constitution of Ukraine and granted a limited number of seats in the 1994 Crimean parliamentary election Nonetheless they faced constant discrimination from the authorities of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea which was primarily governed by ethnic Russians and directed towards Russian interests 129 Under the presidency of Viktor Yushchenko increased attention was paid to Crimean Tatars with trials for crimes against humanity beginning for those involved in the deportations 128 However issues of land failed to be resolved 130 2014 Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation Edit Main article Annexation of Crimea by the Russian FederationSee also Republic of Crimea Crimean Tatars Pro Ukrainian demonstration in Simferopol Ukrainian flag on the left Crimean Tatar flag on the right during the Russian military intervention in Crimea March 2014 Following news of Crimea s independence referendum organized with the help of Russia on 16 March 2014 the Kurultai leadership voiced concerns of renewed persecution as commented by a U S official before the visit of a UN human rights team to the peninsula 131 At the same time Rustam Minnikhanov the president of Tatarstan was dispatched to Crimea to quell Crimean Tatars concerns and to state that in the 23 years of Ukraine s independence the Ukrainian leaders have been using Crimean Tatars as pawns in their political games without doing them any tangible favors The issue of Crimean Tatar persecution by Russia has since been raised regularly on an international level 132 133 On 18 March 2014 the day Crimea was annexed by Russia and Crimean Tatar was de jure declared one of the three official languages of Crimea It was also announced that Crimean Tatars will be required to relinquish coastal lands on which they squatted since their return to Crimea in the early 1990s and be given land elsewhere in Crimea Crimea stated it needed the relinquished land for social purposes since part of this land is occupied by the Crimean Tatars without legal documents of ownership 134 The situation was caused by the inability of the USSR and later Ukraine to sell the land to Crimean Tatars at a reasonable price instead of giving back to the Tatars the land owned before deportation once they or their descendants returned from Central Asia mainly Uzbekistan As a consequence some Crimean Tatars settled as squatters occupying land that was and is still not legally registered Russian President Vladimir Putin meeting with pro Russian representatives of the Crimean Tatars 16 May 2014 Some Crimean Tatars fled to Mainland Ukraine due to the Crimean crisis reportedly around 2000 by 23 March 135 On 29 March 2014 an emergency meeting of the Crimean Tatars representative body the Kurultai voted in favor of seeking ethnic and territorial autonomy for Crimean Tatars using political and legal means The meeting was attended by the Head of the Republic of Tatarstan and the chair of the Russian Council of Muftis 136 Decisions as to whether the Tatars will accept Russian passports or whether the autonomy sought would be within the Russian or Ukrainian state have been deferred pending further discussion 137 The Mejlis works in emergency mode in Kyiv 138 After the annexation of Crimea by Russian Federation Crimean Tatars are reportedly persecuted and discriminated by Russian authorities including cases of torture arbitrary detentions forced disappearances by Russian security forces and courts 139 140 141 On 12 June 2018 Ukraine lodged a memorandum consisting of 17 500 pages of text in 29 volumes to the UN s International Court of Justice about racial discrimination against Crimean Tatars by Russian authorities in occupied Crimea and state financing of terrorism by Russian Federation in Donbas 142 143 Culture EditSee also Crimean Tatar language and Crimean Tatar literature Yurts or nomadic tents have traditionally played an important role in the cultural history of Crimean Tatars There are different types of yurts some are large and collapsible called terme while others are small and non collapsible otav On the Nowruz holiday Crimean Tatars usually cook eggs chicken soup puff meat pie kobete halva and sweet biscuits Children put on masks and sing special songs under the windows of their neighbours receiving sweets in return The songs makam of the nomadic steppe Crimean Tatars are characterized by diatonic melodic simplicity and brevity The songs of mountainous and southern coastal Crimean Tatars called Turku are sung with richly ornamented melodies Household lyricism is also widespread Occasionally song competitions take place between young men and women during Crimean holidays and weddings Ritual folklore includes winter greetings wedding songs lamentations and circular dance songs khoran Epic stories or destans are very popular among the Crimean Tatars particularly the destans of Chora batyr Edige Koroglu and others 144 Today in use there are two types of alphabet Cyrillic and Latin Initially Crimean Tatars used Arabic script In 1928 it was replaced with the Latin alphabet Cyrillic was introduced in 1938 based on the Russian alphabet The Cyrillic alphabet was the only official one between 1938 and 1997 All its letters coincide with those of the Russian alphabet The 1990s saw the start of the gradual transition of the language to the new Latin alphabet based on the Turkish one 145 Cuisine EditMain article Crimean Tatar cuisineThe traditional cuisine of the Crimean Tatars has similarities with that of Greeks Italians Balkan peoples Nogays North Caucasians and Volga Tatars although some national dishes and dietary habits vary between different Crimean Tatar regional subgroups for example fish and produce are more popular among Yaliboylu Tatar dishes while meat and dairy is more prevalent in Steppe Tatar cuisine Many Uzbek dishes were incorporated into Crimean Tatar national cuisine during exile in Central Asia since 1944 and these dishes have become prevalent in Crimea since the return Uzbek samsa laghman and plov pilaf are sold in most Tatar roadside cafes in Crimea as national dishes In turn some Crimean Tatar dishes including chibureki have been adopted by peoples outside Crimea such as in Turkey and the North Caucasus 146 Crimean Tatar political parties EditNational Movement of Crimean Tatars Edit Founded by Crimean Tatar civil rights activist Yuri Osmanov the National Movement of Crimean Tatars NDKT was the major opposition faction to the Dzhemilev faction during the Soviet era The official goal of the NDKT during the Soviet era was the restoration of the Crimean ASSR under the Leninist principle of national autonomy for titular indigenous peoples in their homeland conflicting with the desires of an independent Tatar state from the OKND the predecessor of the Mejilis Yuri Osmanov founder of the organization was highly critical of Dzhemilev saying that the OKND the predecessor of the Mejilis did not sufficiently try to mend ethnic tensions in Crimea However the OKND decreased in popularity after Yuri Osmanov was killed 147 148 149 Mejlis Edit Main article Mejlis of the Crimean Tatar People In 1991 the Crimean Tatar leadership founded the Kurultai or Parliament to act as a representative body for the Crimean Tatars which could address grievances to the Ukrainian central government the Crimean government and international bodies 150 Mejlis of the Crimean Tatar People is the executive body of the Kurultai From the 1990s until October 2013 the political leader of the Crimean Tatars and the chairman of the Mejlis of the Crimean Tatar People was former Soviet dissident Mustafa Dzhemilev Since October 2013 the chairman of the Mejlis of the Crimean Tatar People has been Refat Chubarov 151 Following the 2014 Russian annexation of Crimea Russian authorities declared the Mejlis of the Crimean Tatar People an extremist organization and banned it on 26 April 2016 152 New Milliy Firqa Edit Main article Milliy Firqa NGO In 2006 a new Crimean Tatar party in opposition to the Mejlis was founded taking the name of the previously defunct Milly Firqa party from the early 20th century The party claims to be successor of the ideas of Yuri Osmanov and NDKT 153 UDTTMR Edit Main article Democratic Union of Turkish Muslim Tatars of Romania In Romanian Uniunea Democratica a Tatarilor Turco Musulmani din Romania UDTTMR in Crimean Tatar Romanya Musluman Tatar Turklerĭ Demokrat Bĭrlĭgĭ RMTTDB is an ethnic minority political party in Romania representing the Tatar community Symbol of UDTTMRNotable Crimean Tatars EditMain article List of Crimean TatarsSee also EditIndex of articles related to Crimean Tatars De Tatarization of Crimea Aqmescit Friday mosque Crimean legends Tatarophobia TatarsReferences EditFootnotes Edit Including all territories lost from invasion according to international recognition a b Crimean Tatar population of Ukraine and Russia according to 2001 Ukrainian and 2010 Russian censuses respectively both held before 2014 annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation A 2014 Crimean census conducted by Russia after the annexation reported 246 073 Crimean Tatars on the Russian held territory 154 155 156 Excluding all territories from occupation according to international recognition Citations Edit a b c Crimean Tatars and Noghais in Turkey Archived from the original on 16 September 2019 Retrieved 30 June 2012 The distribution of the population by nationality ethnicity and mother tongue Archived from the original on 20 November 2012 Retrieved 8 August 2021 Big Russian Encyclopedia Crimean Tatars Archived from the original on 7 March 2020 Retrieved 5 November 2019 a b Recensamant Romania 2002 Agentia Nationala pentru Intreprinderi Mici si Mijlocii in Romanian 2002 Archived from the original on 13 May 2007 Retrieved 5 August 2007 Russian Census 2010 Population by ethnicity Archived 24 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine in Russian Bulgaria Population census 2001 Archived from the original on 23 February 2017 Retrieved 25 September 2011 in Russian Agentstvo Respubliki Kazahstan po statistike Perepis 2009 Archived 1 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine Nacionalnyj sostav naseleniya Archived 11 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine rar The Crimean Tatar National Movement and the American Diaspora Archived from the original on 24 December 2022 Retrieved 29 January 2021 Williams Brian Glyn 2001 The Ethnogenesis of the Crimean Tatars An Historical Reinterpretation Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 11 3 329 348 doi 10 1017 S1356186301000311 JSTOR 25188176 S2CID 162929705 Archived from the original on 13 February 2016 Retrieved 31 October 2017 Istoriya etnogeneza krymskih tatar Ana yurt ana yurt com Archived from the original on 27 November 2022 Retrieved 18 December 2019 Illarionov A 2014 The ethnic composition of Crimea during three centuries in Russian Moscow R F Institute of Economical Analysis Archived from the original on 5 March 2014 Troynitski N A 1905 First General Census of Russian Empire s Population 1897 Pervaya Vseobshaya perepis naseleniya Rossijskoj Imperii 1897 g Pod red N A Trojnickogo t II Obshij svod po Imperii rezultatov razrabotki dannyh Pervoj Vseobshej perepisi naseleniya proizvedennoj 28 yanvarya 1897 goda S Peterburg tipografiya Obshestvennaya polza 1899 1905 89 tomah 119 knig in Russian Saint Petersburg Archived from the original on 6 October 2014 Dennis Brad 3 July 2019 Armenians and the Cleansing of Muslims 1878 1915 Influences from the Balkans Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 39 3 411 431 doi 10 1080 13602004 2019 1654186 ISSN 1360 2004 S2CID 202282745 Archived from the original on 27 November 2022 Retrieved 29 November 2022 Human Rights Watch 1991 Punished Peoples of the Soviet Union The Continuing Legacy of Stalin s Deportations PDF p 34 Archived PDF from the original on 24 April 2019 Retrieved 12 February 2021 Verkhovna Rada recognized Crimean Tatars indigenous people of Ukraine Rada viznala krimskih tatar korinnim narodom u skladi Ukrayini Archived 28 November 2019 at the Wayback Machine Mirror Weekly 20 March 2014 Dahl J 2012 The Indigenous Space and Marginalized Peoples in the United Nations Springer pp 240 241 ISBN 978 1 137 28054 1 Archived from the original on 31 March 2023 Retrieved 1 August 2020 Vanguri Star 2016 Rhetorics of Names and Naming Routledge pp 132 133 ISBN 978 1 317 43604 1 Archived from the original on 31 March 2023 Retrieved 1 August 2020 Uehling Greta Lynn 2000 Having a Homeland Recalling the Deportation Exile and Repatriation of Crimean Tatars University of Michigan pp 420 424 ISBN 978 0 599 98653 4 Archived from the original on 31 March 2023 Retrieved 10 November 2020 Yevstigneev Yuri 2008 Rossiya korennye narody i zarubezhnye diaspory kratkij etno istoricheskij spravochnik lit Russia indigenous peoples and foreign diasporas a brief ethno historical reference in Russian Saint Petersburg Litres ISBN 9785457236653 Archived from the original on 31 March 2023 Retrieved 4 March 2020 a b c Vozgrin Valery Historical fate of the Crimean Tatars Archived 11 July 2006 at the Wayback Machine Sasse Gwendolyn 2007 The Crimea Question Identity Transition and Conflict Harvard University Press p 93 ISBN 978 1 932650 01 3 Archived from the original on 31 March 2023 Retrieved 1 August 2020 Williams Brian Glyn 1999 A Homeland Lost Migration the Diaspora Experience and the Forging of Crimean Tatar National Identity University of Wisconsin Madison p 541 Archived from the original on 31 March 2023 Retrieved 1 August 2020 In the 2014 census many of those who indicated the nationality Tatar in the census were actually Crimean Tatars UNPO Crimean Tatars unpo org Archived from the original on 23 October 2019 Retrieved 25 April 2019 a b About number and composition population of UKRAINE by data All Ukrainian population census Ukrainian Census 2001 State Statistics Committee of Ukraine Archived from the original on 17 December 2011 Retrieved 20 November 2013 About number and composition population of AUTONOMOUS REPUBLIC OF CRIMEA by data All Ukrainian population census Ukrainian Census 2001 State Statistics Committee of Ukraine Archived from the original on 16 October 2018 Retrieved 20 November 2013 a b c Crimean Tatars KRIMSKI TATARI Archived 25 March 2022 at the Wayback Machine Encyclopedia of History of Ukraine Dariusz Kolodziejczyk 2011 The Crimean Khanate and Poland Lithuania International Diplomacy on the European Periphery 15th 18th Century A Study of Peace Treaties Followed by an Annotated Edition of Relevant Documents Vol 47 p 352 ISBN 978 90 04 19190 7 The Crimean Tatars The Diaspora Experience and the Forging of a Nation Iccrimea org 18 May 1944 Archived from the original on 16 July 2012 Retrieved 24 October 2012 Khodarkovsky Russia s Steppe Frontier p 11 Williams BG The Crimean Tatars The Diaspora Experience and the Forging of a Nation Pgs 7 23 ISBN 90 04 12122 6 William Zebina Ripley 1899 The Races of Europe A Sociological Study Lowell Institute Lectures D Appleton and Company pp 420 crimean tatar language Kropotkin Peter Alexeivitch Bealby John Thomas 1911 Crimea In Chisholm Hugh ed Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol 7 11th ed Cambridge University Press pp 449 450 see page 450 1 half way down amp 2 final line 1 Meanwhile the Tatars had got a firm footing in the northern and central parts of the peninsula as early as the 13th century amp 2 and in the first years of the 20th century the Tatars emigrated in large numbers to the Ottoman empire Istvan Vasary 2005 Cumans and Tatars Cambridge University Press Stearns 1979 39 40 CUMAN Christusrex org Archived from the original on 16 October 2012 Retrieved 24 October 2012 Stearns 1978 Sources for the Krimgotische p 37 Archived from the original on 24 July 2011 Retrieved 12 February 2011 Agdzhoyan A T Shalyaho R A Utevskaya O M Zhabagin M K Tagirli Sh G Damba L D Atramentova L A Balanovskij O P Genofond krymskih tatar v sravnenii s tyurkoyazychnymi narodami Evropy Archived 25 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine 2015 Kak my izuchali genofond krymskih tatar Genofond RF in Russian xn c1acc6aafa1c xn p1ai Archived from the original on 12 February 2020 Retrieved 15 February 2017 Stendovyj doklad Adzhogyan PDF Archived PDF from the original on 25 November 2020 Retrieved 28 January 2021 Dikbasan Sabriye KIRIM BIR RUS TOPRAGI MIYDI Archived from the original on 13 March 2023 Retrieved 4 February 2023 Tatars were mercenaries in the Mongol armies that arrived in Eastern Europe in the 1240s After the Ottomans took the Crimean Khanate there other regions were subject to the Golden Horde Mongol Khanate As subjects of the Mongol state they were called Tatars Tatar is a wrong term we should call them Kipchak Turks The dictionary of Kipchaks has been published they speak a Kipchak language To claim Tatarism is to claim Mongolian origin a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Ilber ORTAYLI in Turkish Archived from the original on 4 February 2023 Retrieved 4 February 2023 Today those who carry Tatar name partially dislike it Scholars and intelligentsia in the Kazan Tatarstan Republic don t like this name It is also true that Tatarstan is not Tatar This name needs to be changed Crimean Tatars also say this This is a wrong represenatation Williams Brian Glyn 2001 The Ethnogenesis of the Crimean Tatars An Historical Reinterpretation Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 11 3 Cambridge University Press 329 48 https www jstor org stable 25188176 Archived 13 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine Ocherki istorii i kultury krymskih tatar Pod red E Chubarova Simferopol Krymuchpedgiz 2005 A I Ajbabin Etnicheskaya istoriya rannevizantijskogo Kryma Simferopol Dar 1999 Muhamedyarov Sh F Vvedenie v etnicheskuyu istoriyu Kryma Tyurkskie narody Kryma Karaimy Krymskie tatary Krymchaki Moscow Nauka 2003 Hajruddinov M A K voprosu ob etnogeneze krymskih tatar M A Hajruddinov Uchenye zapiski Krymskogo gosudarstvennogo industrialno pedagogicheskogo instituta Vypusk 2 Simferopol 2001 Novosti Telekanal ATR Archived from the original on 1 August 2020 Retrieved 27 May 2020 Sevortyan E V Crimean Tatar language Languages of the peoples of the USSR t 2 Turkic languages N 1966 Pp 234 259 Baskakov on the classification of Turkic languages www 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with the Polish kings then seven years with us and we taking them together and hoping that they would be righteous and standing in service defended them fought for them with Poland and Lithuania shed a lot of innocent blood and did not allow them to be harmed Back then there were only 8 000 Cossacks and we Tatars made 20 000 of them The Cossacks liked it when we covered them and always came to their aid then Khmelnytsky kissed me Sefergazy Aga in the legs and wanted to be with us in submission forever Now the Cossacks have misappropriated us betrayed us forgotten our goodness gone to the Tsar of Moscow You members know that it is traitors and rebels who will betray the Tsar just as they betrayed us and the Poles Mehmed Giray the Tsar is unable to do anything but to walk on them and destroy them I do not think any of the Crimeans and Nogais will have a claw on the fingers of their hands I don t think their eyes will be covered with ground then only the treachery and the Cossack faith 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Oleg 1998 Krymskie repatrianty deportaciya vozvrashenie i obustrojstvo in Russian Amena p 321 a b Kuzio Taras 24 June 2009 Crimean Tatars Divide Ukraine and Russia Jamestown Foundation Archived from the original on 23 February 2023 Retrieved 22 February 2023 a b Humeniuk Natalia Samopovernennya v Krim Self return in Crimea Ukrainska Pravda in Ukrainian Archived from the original on 23 February 2023 Retrieved 22 February 2023 Lider Medzhlisa uveren chto samozahvat zemli v Krymu ne ostanovit Mejlis leader certain squatting of Crimean lands cannot be stopped Segodnya in Russian 4 August 2010 Archived from the original on 23 February 2023 Retrieved 22 February 2023 U N human rights team aims for quick access to Crimea official Archived from the original on 22 March 2014 Retrieved 20 March 2014 UNPO Crimean Tatars Turkey Officially Condemns Persecution by Russia unpo org Archived from the original on 16 February 2015 Retrieved 27 March 2018 Russia s War Against Crimean Tatars 12 April 2016 Archived from the original on 26 April 2016 Retrieved 20 April 2016 Temirgaliyev Rustam 19 March 2014 Crimean Deputy Prime Minister Archived from the original on 19 March 2014 Retrieved 19 March 2014 Trukhan Vassyl Crimea s Tatars flee for Ukraine far west Yahoo Archived from the original on 24 March 2014 Retrieved 23 March 2014 Baczynska Gabriela 29 March 2014 Crimean Tatars want autonomy after Russia s seizure of peninsula Reuters Archived from the original on 25 May 2021 Retrieved 5 July 2021 World Archived from the original on 31 March 2014 Retrieved 30 March 2014 UNPO Crimean Tatars Mejlis Continues Work in Emergency Mode from Kiev unpo org Archived from the original on 30 April 2016 Retrieved 27 March 2018 Crimea Persecution of Crimean Tatars Intensifies Human Rights Watch 14 November 2017 Archived from the original on 3 August 2018 Retrieved 11 September 2018 UN documents torture and arrests of Crimean Tatars by Russia 12 12 2017 14 44 Ukrinform News Archived from the original on 8 April 2022 Retrieved 11 September 2018 UN accuses Russia of multiple human rights abuses The Independent 16 November 2016 Archived from the original on 31 March 2022 Retrieved 21 June 2017 UAWire Ukraine files memorandum with UN Court of Justice containing evidence of Russia s involvement in financing of terrorism Archived from the original on 31 March 2022 Retrieved 11 September 2018 Ukraine submits to ICJ evidence of Russian crimes in Crimea Donbas UNIAN Archived from the original on 31 March 2022 Retrieved 11 September 2018 Gertsen A Crimean Tatars Big Russian Encyclopedia in Russian Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Archived from the original on 8 March 2021 Retrieved 12 July 2021 Crimean Tatars A to Z 21 March 2017 Archived from the original on 23 February 2022 Retrieved 23 February 2022 Mustafa Elmara 18 August 2018 V pomosh turistam populyarnye blyuda krymskotatarskoj kuhni To help tourists popular dishes of the Crimean Tatar cuisine RIA Novosti Crimea in Russian Archived from the original on 6 February 2021 Retrieved 21 September 2020 Yang Yering 2010 Nacionalizm v pozdne i postkommunisticheskoj Evrope in Russian Rosspen p 216 ISBN 9785824313055 Archived from the original on 31 March 2023 Retrieved 5 October 2019 Kasyanenko Nikita 14 April 2001 K synu ot otca zakalyat serdca day kyiv ua Archived from the original on 24 February 2021 Retrieved 5 October 2019 Rasy i narody in Russian Nauka 1997 p 124 Archived from the original on 31 March 2023 Retrieved 5 October 2019 Ziad Waleed Laryssa Chomiak 20 February 2007 A Lesson in Stifling Violent Extremism Crimea s Tatars have created a promising model to lessen ethnoreligious conflict CS Monitor Archived from the original on 3 August 2016 Retrieved 6 August 2007 Chairman qtmm org 11 June 2011 Archived from the original on 15 May 2012 Retrieved 25 June 2016 Crimean court bans Tatar ruling body in blow to minority Archived 18 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine The Star Malaysia 26 April 2016 Kashikhin Borislav Svetlova Kseniya 13 September 2017 Lepestki roz v koktejle Molotova Archived from the original on 28 November 2020 Retrieved 5 August 2020 Only 3 3 of Crimeans Mention Ukrainian as Their Native Language Information agency Krym Media Archived from the original on 20 April 2015 Retrieved 7 January 2016 Katastroficheskij faktor kasparov ru Archived from the original on 4 March 2016 Retrieved 27 March 2018 Russian Census of Crimea Nationality Results eurasianstudies Archived from the original on 27 April 2015 Retrieved 20 April 2015 Further reading EditConquest Robert 1970 The Nation Killers The Soviet Deportation of Nationalities London Macmillan ISBN 0 333 10575 3 Fisher Alan W 1978 The Crimean Tatars Stanford CA Hoover Institution Press ISBN 0 8179 6661 7 Fisher Alan W 1998 Between Russians Ottomans and Turks Crimea and Crimean Tatars Istanbul Isis Press 1998 ISBN 975 428 126 2 Nekrich Alexander 1978 The Punished Peoples The Deportation and Fate of Soviet Minorities at the End of the Second World War New York W W Norton ISBN 0 393 00068 0 Quelquejay Lemercier The Tatars of the Crimea a retrospective summary Central Asian Review 16 1 1968 15 25 Uehling Greta June 2000 Squatting self immolation and the repatriation of Crimean Tatars Nationalities Papers 28 2 317 341 doi 10 1080 713687470 S2CID 140736004 Williams Brian Glyn The hidden ethnic cleansing of Muslims in the Soviet Union The exile and repatriation of the Crimean Tatars Journal of Contemporary History 2002 323 347 in JSTOR Archived 15 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine Williams Brian Glyn The Crimean Tatar exile in Central Asia a case study in group destruction and survival Central Asian Survey 17 2 1998 285 317 Williams Brian Glyn The Ethnogenesis of the Crimean Tatars An Historical Reinterpretation Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 2001 11 3 pp 329 348 in JSTOR Archived 13 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine Williams Brian G The Crimean Tatars The Diaspora Experience and the Forging of a Nation Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine Leyden Brill 2001 Other languages Edit Vozgrin Valery 2013 Istoriya krymskykh tatar in Russian Valery Vozgrin Istoricheskie sudby krymskih tatar Simferopol four volumes Smirnov V D 1886 Krymskoe khanstvo Campana Aurelie Dufaud Gregory and Tournon Sophie ed Les Deportations en heritage Les peuples reprimes du Caucase et de Crimee hier et aujourd hui Rennes Presses universitaires de Rennes 2009 Bykova Tetyana 2015 Politichne ta socialno ekonomichne stanovishe v Krimu vid seredini XVIII st do 1917 r PDF Kyiv Archived PDF from the original on 29 July 2020 Retrieved 27 May 2020 Serhiychuk Volodymyr 2008 Etnichni mezhi i derzhavnij kordon Ukrayini Kyiv PP Sergijchuk M I ISBN 978 966 2911 24 4 Archived from the original on 13 January 2020 Retrieved 27 May 2020 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Crimean Tatars Official website of Qirim Tatar Cultural Association of Canada Archived 23 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine Official web site of Bizim QIRIM International Nongovernmental Organization International Committee for Crimea Archived 19 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine UNDP Crimea Integration and Development Programme Crimean Tatar Home Page Archived 15 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine Crimean Tatars Crimean Tatar words Turkish Archived 20 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine Crimean Tatar words English Archived 12 December 2020 at the Wayback Machine State Defense Committee Decree No 5859ss On Crimean Tatars See also Three answers to the Decree No 5859ss Archived 11 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine Crimean Tatars Essays on Central Asia Index Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine Essays on Central Asia Index Krymskaya solidarnost VOZVRAShENIE DOMOJ RUSTEM VAITOV YouTube channel of Crimean Tatar Solidarity story of Rustem Vaitov returning home after 5 years of jail Archived 24 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Crimean Tatars amp oldid 1152462318, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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