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Soul

January 30, 2023

Not to be confused with Seoul.
For other uses, see Soul (disambiguation).

In many religious and philosophical traditions, there is a belief that a soul is "the immaterial aspect or essence of a human being".[1]

Etymology

The Modern English noun soul is derived from Old English sāwol, sāwel. The earliest attestations reported in the Oxford English Dictionary are from the 8th century. In King Alfred's translation of De Consolatione Philosophiae, it is used to refer to the immaterial, spiritual, or thinking aspect of a person, as contrasted with the person's physical body; in the Vespasian Psalter 77.50, it means "life" or "animate existence".

The Old English word is cognate with other historical Germanic terms for the same idea, including Old Frisian sēle, sēl (which could also mean "salvation", or "solemn oath"), Gothic saiwala, Old High German sēula, sēla, Old Saxon sēola, and Old Norse sāla. Present-day cognates include Dutch ziel and German Seele.[2]

Religious views

In Judaism and in some Christian denominations, only human beings have immortal souls (although immortality is disputed within Judaism and the concept of immortality was most likely influenced by Plato).[3] For example, Thomas Aquinas, borrowing directly from Aristotle's On the Soul, attributed "soul" (anima) to all organisms but argued that only human souls are immortal.[4] Other religions (most notably Hinduism and Jainism) believe that all living things from the smallest bacterium to the largest of mammals are the souls themselves (Atman, jiva) and have their physical representative (the body) in the world. The actual self is the soul, while the body is only a mechanism to experience the karma of that life. Thus if one sees a tiger then there is a self-conscious identity residing in it (the soul), and a physical representative (the whole body of the tiger, which is observable) in the world. Some teach that even non-biological entities (such as rivers and mountains) possess souls. This belief is called animism.[5]

Ancient Near East

Main articles: Ancient Egyptian concept of the soul and Religions of the ancient Near East
 
The souls of Pe and Nekhen towing the royal barge on a relief of Ramesses II's temple in Abydos.

In the ancient Egyptian religion, an individual was believed to be made up of various elements, some physical and some spiritual. Similar ideas are found in ancient Assyrian and Babylonian religion. The Kuttamuwa stele, a funeral stele for an 8th-century BCE royal official from Sam'al, describes Kuttamuwa requesting that his mourners commemorate his life and his afterlife with feasts "for my soul that is in this stele". It is one of the earliest references to a soul as a separate entity from the body. The 800-pound (360 kg) basalt stele is 3 ft (0.91 m) tall and 2 ft (0.61 m) wide. It was uncovered in the third season of excavations by the Neubauer Expedition of the Oriental Institute in Chicago, Illinois.[6]

Baháʼí Faith

The Baháʼí Faith affirms that "the soul is a sign of God, a heavenly gem whose reality the most learned of men hath failed to grasp, and whose mystery no mind, however acute, can ever hope to unravel".[7] Bahá'u'lláh stated that the soul not only continues to live after the physical death of the human body, but is, in fact, immortal.[8] Heaven can be seen partly as the soul's state of nearness to God; and hell as a state of remoteness from God. Each state follows as a natural consequence of individual efforts, or the lack thereof, to develop spiritually.[9] Bahá'u'lláh taught that individuals have no existence prior to their life here on earth and the soul's evolution is always towards God and away from the material world.[9]

Christianity

See also: Soul in the Bible, Christian mortalism, Immortality of the soul, Christian conditionalism, and Annihilationism
 
Depiction of a soul being carried to heaven by two angels by William Bouguereau

According to some Christian eschatology, when people die, their souls will be judged by God and determined to go to Heaven or to Hades awaiting a resurrection. The oldest existing branches of Christianity, the Catholic Church and the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox churches, adhere to this view, as well as many Protestant denominations. Some Protestant Christians understand the soul as "life,” and believe that the dead have no conscious existence until after the resurrection (Christian conditionalism). Some Protestant Christians believe that the souls and bodies of the unrighteous will be destroyed in Hell rather than suffering eternally (annihilationism). Believers will inherit eternal life either in Heaven, or in a Kingdom of God on earth, and enjoy eternal fellowship with God. Other Christians reject the punishment of the soul.

Paul the Apostle used ψυχή (psychē) and πνεῦμα (pneuma) specifically to distinguish between the Jewish notions of נפש (nephesh) and רוח ruah (spirit)[10] (also in the Septuagint, e.g. Genesis 1:2 רוּחַ אֱלֹהִים = πνεῦμα θεοῦ = spiritus Dei = "the Spirit of God").

Origin of the soul

 
The Damned Soul. Drawing by Michelangelo Buonarroti c. 1525

The "origin of the soul" has provided a vexing question in Christianity. The major theories put forward include soul creationism, traducianism, and pre-existence. According to soul creationism, God creates each individual soul directly, either at the moment of conception or some later time. According to traducianism, the soul comes from the parents by natural generation. According to the preexistence theory, the soul exists before the moment of conception. There have been differing thoughts regarding whether human embryos have souls from conception, or whether there is a point between conception and birth where the fetus acquires a soul, consciousness, and/or personhood. Stances in this question might play a role in judgements on the morality of abortion.[11][12][13]

Trichotomy of the soul

Augustine (354-430), one of western Christianity's most influential early Christian thinkers, described the soul as "a special substance, endowed with reason, adapted to rule the body". Some Christians espouse a trichotomic view of humans, which characterizes humans as consisting of a body (soma), soul (psyche), and spirit (pneuma).[14] However, the majority of modern Bible scholars point out how the concepts of "spirit" and of "soul" are used interchangeably in many biblical passages, and so hold to dichotomy: the view that each human comprises a body and a soul. Paul said that the "body wars against" the soul, "For the word of God is living and active and sharper than any two-edged sword, and piercing as far as the division of soul and spirit" (Heb 4:12 NASB), and that "I buffet my body", to keep it under control.

Views of various denominations

Roman Catholicism

The present Catechism of the Catholic Church states that the term soul

“refers to the innermost aspect of [persons], that which is of greatest value in [them], that by which [they are] most especially in God's image: ‘soul’ signifies the spiritual principle in [humanity]”.[15]

All souls living and dead will be judged by Jesus Christ when he comes back to earth. The Catholic Church teaches that the existence of each individual soul is dependent wholly upon God:

"The doctrine of the faith affirms that the spiritual and immortal soul is created immediately by God."[16]
 
Depiction of the soul on a 17th century tombstone at the cemetery of the Old Dutch Church of Sleepy Hollow
Protestantism

Protestants generally believe in the soul's existence and immortality, but fall into two major camps about what this means in terms of an afterlife. Some, following John Calvin, believe that the soul persists as consciousness after death.[17] Others, following Martin Luther, believe that the soul dies with the body, and is unconscious ("sleeps") until the resurrection of the dead.[18][19]

Adventism

Various new religious movements deriving from Adventism — including Christadelphians,[20] Seventh-day Adventists,[21][22] and Jehovah's Witnesses[23][24] — similarly believe that the dead do not possess a soul separate from the body and are unconscious until the resurrection.

Latter-day Saints (‘Mormonism’)

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints teaches that the spirit and body together constitute the Soul of Man (Mankind). "The spirit and the body are the soul of man."[25] Latter-day Saints believe that the soul is the union of a pre-existing, God-made spirit[26][27][28] and a temporal body, which is formed by physical conception on earth.

After death, the spirit continues to live and progress in the Spirit world until the resurrection, when it is reunited with the body that once housed it. This reuniting of body and spirit results in a perfect soul that is immortal, and eternal, and capable of receiving a fulness of joy.[29][30]

Latter-day Saint cosmology also describes "intelligences" as the essence of consciousness or agency. These are co-eternal with God, and animate the spirits.[31] The union of a newly-created spirit body with an eternally-existing intelligence constitutes a "spirit birth"[citation needed] and justifies God's title "Father of our spirits".[32][33][34]

Confucianism

Main article: Hun and po
See also: Soul dualism

Some Confucian traditions contrast a spiritual soul with a corporeal soul.[35]

Hinduism

Main articles: Ātman (Hinduism) and Jiva

Ātman is a Sanskrit word that means inner self or soul.[36][37][38] In Hindu philosophy, especially in the Vedanta school of Hinduism, Ātman is the first principle,[39] the true self of an individual beyond identification with phenomena, the essence of an individual. In order to attain liberation (moksha), a human being must acquire self-knowledge (atma jnana), which is to realize that one's true self (Ātman) is identical with the transcendent self Brahman according to Advaita Vedanta.[37][40]

The six orthodox schools of Hinduism believe that there is Ātman (self, essence) in every being.[41]

In Hinduism and Jainism, a jiva (Sanskrit: जीव, jīva, alternative spelling jiwa; Hindi: जीव, jīv, alternative spelling jeev) is a living being, or any entity imbued with a life force.[42]

The concept of jiva in Jainism is similar to atman in Hinduism. However, some Hindu traditions differentiate between the two concepts, with jiva considered as individual self, while atman as that which is universal unchanging self that is present in all living beings and everything else as the metaphysical Brahman.[43][44][45] The latter is sometimes referred to as jiva-atman (a soul in a living body).[43]

Islam

Main articles: Rūḥ and Nafs

The Quran, the holy book of Islam, uses two words to refer to the soul: rūḥ (translated as spirit, consciousness, pneuma or "soul") and nafs (translated as self, ego, psyche or "soul"),[46][47] cognates of the Hebrew nefesh and ruach. The two terms are frequently used interchangeably, though rūḥ is more often used to denote the divine spirit or "the breath of life", while nafs designates one's disposition or characteristics.[48] In Islamic philosophy, the immortal rūḥ "drives" the mortal nafs, which comprises temporal desires and perceptions necessary for living.[citation needed]

Two of the passages in the Quran that mention the rûh occur in chapters 17 ("The Night Journey") and 39 ("The Troops"):

And they ask you, [O Muhammad], about the Rûh. Say, "The Rûh is of the affair of my Lord. And mankind has not been given of knowledge except a little.

— Quran 17:85

Allah takes the souls at the time of their death, and those that do not die [He takes] during their sleep. Then He keeps those for which He has decreed death and releases the others for a specified term. Indeed in that are signs for a people who give thought..

— Quran 39:42

Jainism

Main articles: Jīva (Jainism) and Vitalism (Jainism)
Further information: Jain philosophy and Jainism and non-creationism

In Jainism, every living being, from plant or bacterium to human, has a soul and the concept forms the very basis of Jainism. According to Jainism, there is no beginning or end to the existence of soul. It is eternal in nature and changes its form until it attains liberation.

In Jainism, jiva is the immortal essence or soul of a living organism (human, animal, fish or plant etc.) which survives physical death.[49] The concept of Ajiva in Jainism means "not soul", and represents matter (including body), time, space, non-motion and motion.[49] In Jainism, a Jiva is either samsari (mundane, caught in cycle of rebirths) or mukta (liberated).[50][51]

According to this belief until the time the soul is liberated from the saṃsāra (cycle of repeated birth and death), it gets attached to one of these bodies based on the karma (actions) of the individual soul. Irrespective of which state the soul is in, it has got the same attributes and qualities. The difference between the liberated and non-liberated souls is that the qualities and attributes are manifested completely in case of siddha (liberated soul) as they have overcome all the karmic bondages whereas in case of non-liberated souls they are partially exhibited. Souls who rise victorious over wicked emotions while still remaining within physical bodies are referred to as arihants.[52]

Concerning the Jain view of the soul, Virchand Gandhi said

the soul lives its own life, not for the purpose of the body, but the body lives for the purpose of the soul. If we believe that the soul is to be controlled by the body then soul misses its power.[53]

Judaism

The Hebrew terms נפש‎ nefesh (literally "living being"), רוח‎ ruach (literally "wind"), נשמה‎ neshamah (literally "breath"), חיה‎ chayah (literally "life") and יחידה‎ yechidah (literally "singularity") are used to describe the soul or spirit.[54]

In Judaism the soul is believed to be given by God to Adam as mentioned in Genesis,

Then the LORD God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living being.

—Genesis 2:7

Judaism relates the quality of one's soul to one's performance of the commandments (mitzvot) and reaching higher levels of understanding, and thus closeness to God. A person with such closeness is called a tzadik. Therefore, Judaism embraces the commemoration of the day of one's death, nahala/Yahrtzeit and not the birthday[55] as a festivity of remembrance, for only toward the end of life's struggles, tests and challenges could human souls be judged and credited for righteousness.[56] Judaism places great importance on the study of the souls.[57]

Kabbalah and other mystic traditions go into greater detail into the nature of the soul. Kabbalah separates the soul into five elements, corresponding to the five worlds:[58]

  1. Nefesh, related to natural instinct.
  2. Ruach, related to intellect and the awareness of God.
  3. Neshamah, related to emotion and morality.
  4. Chayah, considered a part of God, as it were.
  5. Yechidah. This aspect is essentially one with God.

Kabbalah also proposed a concept of reincarnation, the gilgul. (See also nefesh habehamit the "animal soul".)[citation needed]

Some Jewish traditions assert that the soul is housed in the luz bone, though traditions disagree as to whether it is the atlas at the top of the spine, or the sacrum at bottom of the spine.[citation needed]

Scientology

The Scientology view is that a person does not have a soul, it is a soul. It is the belief of the religion that they do not have the power to force adherents' conclusions.[59] Therefore, a person is immortal, and may be reincarnated if they wish. Scientologists view that one's future happiness and immortality, as guided by their spirituality, is influenced by how they live and act during their time on earth.[59] The Scientology term for the soul is "thetan", derived from the Greek word "theta", symbolizing thought. Scientology counselling (called auditing) addresses the soul to improve abilities, both worldly and spiritual. The ideologies surrounding this understanding align with those of the five major world religions.[59]

Shamanism

See also: Soul dualism
 
The Neolithic Manunggul burial jar from the Tabon Caves, Palawan, Philippines, depicts a soul and a psychopomp journeying to the spirit world in a boat (c. 890–710 BCE)

Soul dualism (also called "multiple souls" or "dualistic pluralism") is a common belief in Shamanism,[60][61][62] and is essential in the universal and central concept of "soul flight" (also called "soul journey", "out-of-body experience", "ecstasy", or "astral projection").[63][62][64][65][66] It is the belief that humans have two or more souls, generally termed the "body soul" (or "life soul") and the "free soul". The former is linked to bodily functions and awareness when awake, while the latter can freely wander during sleep or trance states.[61][64][65][66][67] In some cases, there are a plethora of soul types with different functions.[68][69]

Soul dualism and multiple souls are prominent in the traditional animistic beliefs of the Austronesian peoples,[70][71] the Chinese people (hún and pò),[72] the Tibetan people,[60] most African peoples,[73] most Native North Americans,[73][68] ancient South Asian peoples,[62] Northern Eurasian peoples,[66][74] and in Ancient Egyptians (the ka and ba).[73]

The belief in soul dualism is found throughout most Austronesian shamanistic traditions. The reconstructed Proto-Austronesian word for the "body soul" is *nawa ("breath", "life", or "vital spirit"). It is located somewhere in the abdominal cavity, often in the liver or the heart (Proto-Austronesian *qaCay).[70][71] The "free soul" is located in the head. Its names are usually derived from Proto-Austronesian *qaNiCu ("ghost", "spirit [of the dead]"), which also apply to other non-human nature spirits. The "free soul" is also referred to in names that literally mean "twin" or "double", from Proto-Austronesian *duSa ("two").[75][76] A virtuous person is said to be one whose souls are in harmony with each other, while an evil person is one whose souls are in conflict.[77]

The "free soul" is said to leave the body and journey to the spirit world during sleep, trance-like states, delirium, insanity, and death. The duality is also seen in the healing traditions of Austronesian shamans, where illnesses are regarded as a "soul loss" and thus to heal the sick, one must "return" the "free soul" (which may have been stolen by an evil spirit or got lost in the spirit world) into the body. If the "free soul" can not be returned, the afflicted person dies or goes permanently insane.[78]

In some ethnic groups, there can also be more than two souls. Like among the Tagbanwa people, where a person is said to have six souls – the "free soul" (which is regarded as the "true" soul) and five secondary souls with various functions.[70]

Several Inuit groups believe that a person has more than one type of soul. One is associated with respiration, the other can accompany the body as a shadow.[79] In some cases, it is connected to shamanistic beliefs among the various Inuit groups.[68] Also Caribou Inuit groups believed in several types of souls.[80]

The shaman heals within the spiritual dimension by returning 'lost' parts of the human soul from wherever they have gone. The shaman also cleanses excess negative energies, which confuse or pollute the soul.

Shinto

Shinto distinguishes between the souls of living persons (tamashii) and those of dead persons (mitama), each of which may have different aspects or sub-souls.

Sikhism

Sikhism considers soul (atma) to be part of God (Waheguru). Various hymns are cited from the holy book Guru Granth Sahib (SGGS) that suggests this belief. "God is in the Soul and the Soul is in the God."[81] The same concept is repeated at various pages of the SGGS. For example: "The soul is divine; divine is the soul. Worship Him with love."[82] and "The soul is the Lord, and the Lord is the soul; contemplating the Shabad, the Lord is found."[83]

The atma or soul according to Sikhism is an entity or "spiritual spark" or "light" in the human body - because of which the body can sustain life. On the departure of this entity from the body, the body becomes lifeless – no amount of manipulations to the body can make the person make any physical actions. The soul is the "driver" in the body. It is the roohu or spirit or atma, the presence of which makes the physical body alive.

Many[quantify] religious and philosophical traditions support the view that the soul is the ethereal substance – a spirit; a non-material spark – particular to a unique living being. Such traditions often consider the soul both immortal and innately aware of its immortal nature, as well as the true basis for sentience in each living being. The concept of the soul has strong links with notions of an afterlife, but opinions may vary wildly even within a given religion as to what happens to the soul after death. Many within these religions and philosophies see the soul as immaterial, while others consider it possibly material.

Taoism

According to Chinese traditions, every person has two types of soul called hun and po (魂 and 魄), which are respectively yang and yin. Taoism believes in ten souls, sanhunqipo (三魂七魄) "three hun and seven po".[84] A living being that loses any of them is said to have mental illness or unconsciousness, while a dead soul may reincarnate to a disability, lower desire realms, or may even be unable to reincarnate.

Zoroastrianism

Main article: Zoroastrianism

Other religious beliefs and views

 
Charon (Greek) who guides dead souls to the Underworld. 4th century BCE.

In theological reference to the soul, the terms "life" and "death" are viewed as emphatically more definitive than the common concepts of "biological life" and "biological death". Because the soul is said to be transcendent of the material existence, and is said to have (potentially) eternal life, the death of the soul is likewise said to be an eternal death. Thus, in the concept of divine judgment, God is commonly said to have options with regard to the dispensation of souls, ranging from Heaven (i.e., angels) to hell (i.e., demons), with various concepts in between. Typically both Heaven and hell are said to be eternal, or at least far beyond a typical human concept of lifespan and time.

According to Louis Ginzberg, the soul of Adam is the image of God.[85] Every soul of human also escapes from the body every night, rises up to heaven, and fetches new life thence for the body of man.[86]

Spirituality, New Age, and new religions

Brahma Kumaris

In Brahma Kumaris, human souls are believed to be incorporeal and eternal. God is considered to be the Supreme Soul, with maximum degrees of spiritual qualities, such as peace, love and purity.[87]

Theosophy

In Helena Blavatsky's Theosophy, the soul is the field of our psychological activity (thinking, emotions, memory, desires, will, and so on) as well as of the so-called paranormal or psychic phenomena (extrasensory perception, out-of-body experiences, etc.). However, the soul is not the highest, but a middle dimension of human beings. Higher than the soul is the spirit, which is considered to be the real self; the source of everything we call "good"—happiness, wisdom, love, compassion, harmony, peace, etc. While the spirit is eternal and incorruptible, the soul is not. The soul acts as a link between the material body and the spiritual self, and therefore shares some characteristics of both. The soul can be attracted either towards the spiritual or towards the material realm, being thus the "battlefield" of good and evil. It is only when the soul is attracted towards the spiritual and merges with the Self that it becomes eternal and divine.

Anthroposophy

Rudolf Steiner claimed classical trichotomic stages of soul development, which interpenetrated one another in consciousness:[88]

  • The "sentient soul", centering on sensations, drives, and passions, with strong conative (will) and emotional components;
  • The "intellectual" or "mind soul", internalizing and reflecting on outer experience, with strong affective (feeling) and cognitive (thinking) components; and
  • The "consciousness soul", in search of universal, objective truths.

Miscellaneous

In Surat Shabda Yoga, the soul is considered to be an exact replica and spark of the Divine. The purpose of Surat Shabd Yoga is to realize one's True Self as soul (Self-Realisation), True Essence (Spirit-Realisation) and True Divinity (God-Realisation) while living in the physical body.

Similarly, the spiritual teacher Meher Baba held that "Atma, or the soul, is in reality identical with Paramatma the Oversoul – which is one, infinite, and eternal...[and] [t]he sole purpose of creation is for the soul to enjoy the infinite state of the Oversoul consciously."[89]

Eckankar, founded by Paul Twitchell in 1965, defines Soul as the true self; the inner, most sacred part of each person.[90]

G.I. Gurdjieff taught that humans are not born with immortal souls but could develop them through certain efforts.[91]

Philosophical views

Greek philosophers, such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, understood that the soul (ψυχή psykhḗ) must have a logical faculty, the exercise of which was the most divine of human actions. At his defense trial, Socrates even summarized his teachings as nothing other than an exhortation for his fellow Athenians to excel in matters of the psyche since all bodily goods are dependent on such excellence (Apology 30a–b). Aristotle reasoned that a man's body and soul were his matter and form respectively: the body is a collection of elements and the soul is the essence.

Soul or psyche (Ancient Greek: ψυχή psykhḗ, of ψύχειν psýkhein, "to breathe", cf. Latin 'anima') comprises the mental abilities of a living being: reason, character, free will, feeling, consciousness, qualia, memory, perception, thinking, etc. Depending on the philosophical system, a soul can either be mortal or immortal.[92] The ancient Greeks used the word "ensouled" to represent the concept of being "alive", indicating that the earliest surviving western philosophical view believed that the soul was that which gave the body life.[93] The soul was considered the incorporeal or spiritual "breath" that animates (from the Latin, anima, cf. "animal") the living organism.

Francis M. Cornford quotes Pindar by saying that the soul sleeps while the limbs are active, but when one is sleeping, the soul is active and reveals "an award of joy or sorrow drawing near" in dreams.[94]

Erwin Rohde writes that an early pre-Pythagorean belief presented the soul as lifeless when it departed the body, and that it retired into Hades with no hope of returning to a body.[95]

Plato was the first thinker in antiquity to combine the various functions of the soul into one coherent conception: the soul is that which moves things (i.e., that which gives life, on the view that life is self-motion) by means of its thoughts, requiring that it be both a mover and a thinker.[96]

Socrates and Plato

 
Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael.
Main article: Plato's tripartite theory of soul

Drawing on the words of his teacher Socrates, Plato considered the psyche to be the essence of a person, being that which decides how we behave. He considered this essence to be an incorporeal, eternal occupant of our being. Plato said that even after death, the soul exists and is able to think. He believed that as bodies die, the soul is continually reborn (metempsychosis) in subsequent bodies. However, Aristotle believed that only one part of the soul was immortal, namely the intellect (logos). The Platonic soul consists of three parts:[97]

  1. the logos, or logistikon (mind, nous, or reason)
  2. the thymos, or thumetikon (emotion, spiritedness, or masculine)
  3. the eros, or epithumetikon (appetitive, desire, or feminine)

The parts are located in different regions of the body:

  1. logos is located in the head, is related to reason and regulates the other part.
  2. thymos is located near the chest region and is related to anger.
  3. eros is located in the stomach and is related to one's desires.

Plato also compares the three parts of the soul or psyche to a societal caste system. According to Plato's theory, the three-part soul is essentially the same thing as a state's class system because, to function well, each part must contribute so that the whole functions well. Logos keeps the other functions of the soul regulated.

The soul is at the heart of Plato's philosophy. Francis Cornford described the twin pillars of Platonism as being the theory of the Forms, on the one hand, and, on the other hand, the doctrine of the immortality of the soul.[98] Indeed, Plato was the first person in the history of philosophy to believe that the soul was both the source of life and the mind. In Plato's dialogues, we find the soul playing many disparate roles.[99] Among other things, Plato believes that the soul is what gives life to the body (which was articulated most of all in the Laws and Phaedrus) in terms of self-motion: to be alive is to be capable of moving yourself; the soul is a self-mover. He also thinks that the soul is the bearer of moral properties (i.e., when I am virtuous, it is my soul that is virtuous as opposed to, say, my body). The soul is also the mind: it is that which thinks in us.

We see this casual oscillation between different roles of the soul in many dialogues. First of all, in the Republic:

Is there any function of the soul that you could not accomplish with anything else, such as taking care of something (epimeleisthai), ruling, and deliberating, and other such things? Could we correctly assign these things to anything besides the soul, and say that they are characteristic (idia) of it?

No, to nothing else.

What about living? Will we deny that this is a function of the soul?

That absolutely is.[100]

The Phaedo most famously caused problems to scholars who were trying to make sense of this aspect of Plato's theory of the soul, such as Sarah Broadie[101] and Dorothea Frede.[102]

More-recent scholarship has overturned this accusation by arguing that part of the novelty of Plato's theory of the soul is that it was the first to unite the different features and powers of the soul that became commonplace in later ancient and medieval philosophy.[96] For Plato, the soul moves things by means of its thoughts, as one scholar puts it, and accordingly, the soul is both a mover (i.e., the principle of life, where life is conceived of as self-motion) and a thinker.[96]

Aristotle

 
The structure of the souls of plants, animals, and humans, according to Aristotle, with Bios, Zoê, and Psūchê
Further information: Aristotle's biology

Aristotle (384–322 BCE) defined the soul, or Psūchê (ψυχή), as the "first actuality" of a naturally organized body,[103] and argued against its separate existence from the physical body. In Aristotle's view, the primary activity, or full actualization, of a living thing constitutes its soul. For example, the full actualization of an eye, as an independent organism, is to see (its purpose or final cause).[104] Another example is that the full actualization of a human being would be living a fully functional human life in accordance with reason (which he considered to be a faculty unique to humanity).[105] For Aristotle, the soul is the organization of the form and matter of a natural being which allows it to strive for its full actualization. This organization between form and matter is necessary for any activity, or functionality, to be possible in a natural being. Using an artifact (non-natural being) as an example, a house is a building for human habituation, but for a house to be actualized requires the material (wood, nails, bricks, etc.) necessary for its actuality (i.e. being a fully functional house). However, this does not imply that a house has a soul. In regards to artifacts, the source of motion that is required for their full actualization is outside of themselves (for example, a builder builds a house). In natural beings, this source of motion is contained within the being itself.[106] Aristotle elaborates on this point when he addresses the faculties of the soul.

The various faculties of the soul, such as nutrition, movement (peculiar to animals), reason (peculiar to humans), sensation (special, common, and incidental) and so forth, when exercised, constitute the "second" actuality, or fulfillment, of the capacity to be alive. For example, someone who falls asleep, as opposed to someone who falls dead, can wake up and live their life, while the latter can no longer do so.

Aristotle identified three hierarchical levels of natural beings: plants, animals, and people, having three different degrees of soul: Bios (life), Zoë (animate life), and Psuchë (self-conscious life). For these groups, he identified three corresponding levels of soul, or biological activity: the nutritive activity of growth, sustenance and reproduction which all life shares (Bios); the self-willed motive activity and sensory faculties, which only animals and people have in common (Zoë); and finally "reason", of which people alone are capable (Pseuchë).

Aristotle's discussion of the soul is in his work, De Anima (On the Soul). Although mostly seen as opposing Plato in regard to the immortality of the soul, a controversy can be found in relation to the fifth chapter of the third book: in this text both interpretations can be argued for, soul as a whole can be deemed mortal, and a part called "active intellect" or "active mind" is immortal and eternal.[107] Advocates exist for both sides of the controversy, but it has been understood that there will be permanent disagreement about its final conclusions, as no other Aristotelian text contains this specific point, and this part of De Anima is obscure.[108] Further, Aristotle states that the soul helps humans find the truth, and understanding the true purpose or role of the soul is extremely difficult.[109]

Avicenna and Ibn al-Nafis

Following Aristotle, Avicenna (Ibn Sina) and Ibn al-Nafis, an Arab physician, further elaborated upon the Aristotelian understanding of the soul and developed their own theories on the soul. They both made a distinction between the soul and the spirit, and the Avicennian doctrine on the nature of the soul was influential among the Scholastics. Some of Avicenna's views on the soul include the idea that the immortality of the soul is a consequence of its nature, and not a purpose for it to fulfill. In his theory of "The Ten Intellects", he viewed the human soul as the tenth and final intellect.[110][111]

While he was imprisoned, Avicenna wrote his famous "Floating man" thought experiment to demonstrate human self-awareness and the substantial nature of the soul.[112] He told his readers to imagine themselves suspended in the air, isolated from all sensations, which includes no sensory contact with even their own bodies. He argues that in this scenario one would still have self-consciousness. He thus concludes that the idea of the self is not logically dependent on any physical thing, and that the soul should not be seen in relative terms, but as a primary given, a substance. This argument was later refined and simplified by René Descartes in epistemic terms, when he stated: "I can abstract from the supposition of all external things, but not from the supposition of my own consciousness."[113]

Avicenna generally supported Aristotle's idea of the soul originating from the heart, whereas Ibn al-Nafis rejected this idea and instead argued that the soul "is related to the entirety and not to one or a few organs". He further criticized Aristotle's idea whereby every unique soul requires the existence of a unique source, in this case the heart. Al-Nafis concluded that "the soul is related primarily neither to the spirit nor to any organ, but rather to the entire matter whose temperament is prepared to receive that soul," and he defined the soul as nothing other than "what a human indicates by saying "I".[114]

Thomas Aquinas

Following Aristotle (whom he referred to as "the Philosopher") and Avicenna, Thomas Aquinas (1225–74) understood the soul to be the first actuality of the living body. Consequent to this, he distinguished three orders of life: plants, which feed and grow; animals, which add sensation to the operations of plants; and humans, which add intellect to the operations of animals.

Concerning the human soul, his epistemological theory required that, since the knower becomes what he knows, the soul is definitely not corporeal—if it is corporeal when it knows what some corporeal thing is, that thing would come to be within it.[115] Therefore, the soul has an operation which does not rely on a body organ, and therefore the soul can exist without a body. Furthermore, since the rational soul of human beings is a subsistent form and not something made of matter and form, it cannot be destroyed in any natural process.[116] The full argument for the immortality of the soul and Aquinas' elaboration of Aristotelian theory is found in Question 75 of the First Part of the Summa Theologica.

Aquinas affirmed in the doctrine of the divine effusion of the soul, the particular judgement of the soul after the separation from a dead body, and the final Resurrection of the flesh. He recalled two canons of the 4th-century De Ecclesiasticis Dogmatibus for which "the rational soul is not engendered by coition" (canon XIV)[117] and "is one and the same soul in man, that both gives life to the body by being united to it, and orders itself by its own reasoning."[118] Moreover, he believed in a unique and tripartite soul, within which are distinctively present a nutritive, a sensitive and intellectual soul. The latter is created by God and is taken solely by human beings, includes the other two types of soul and makes the sensitive soul incorruptible.[119]

Immanuel Kant

In his discussions of rational psychology, Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) identified the soul as the "I" in the strictest sense, and argued that the existence of inner experience can neither be proved nor disproved.

We cannot prove a priori the immateriality of the soul, but rather only so much: that all properties and actions of the soul cannot be recognized from materiality.

It is from the "I", or soul, that Kant proposes transcendental rationalization, but cautions that such rationalization can only determine the limits of knowledge if it is to remain practical.[120]

Philosophy of mind

Main article: Philosophy of mind

Gilbert Ryle's ghost in the machine argument, which is a rejection of Descartes's mind–body dualism, can provide a contemporary understanding of the soul/mind, and the problem concerning its connection to the brain/body.[121]

Psychology

Soul belief prominently figues in Otto Rank's work recovering the importance of immortality in the psychology of primitive, classical and modern interest in life and death. Rank's work directly opposed the "scientific" psychology that concedes the possibility of the soul's existence and postulates it as an object of research without really admitting that it exists. "Just as religion represents a psychological commentary on the social evolution of man, various psychologies represent our current attitudes toward spiritual belief. In the animistic era, psychologizing was a creating of the soul; in the religious era, it was a representing of the soul to one's self; in our era of natural science it is a knowing of the individual soul." [122] Rank's "Seelenglaube" translates to "Soul Belief". Rank's work had a significant influence on Ernest Becker's understanding of a universal interest in immortality. In Denial of Death, Becker describes "soul" in terms of Kierkegaard's use of "self" when he says, "what we call schizophrenia is an attempt by the symbolic self to deny the limitations of the finite body."[123]

† Kierkegaard’s use of "self" may be a bit confusing. He uses it to include
the symbolic self and the physical body. It is a synonym really for "total
personality" that goes beyond the person to include what we would now call
the "soul" or the "ground of being" out of which the created person sprang.

Science

According to Julien Musolino, the vast majority of scientists hold that the mind is a complex machine that operates on the same physical laws as all other objects in the universe.[124] According to Musolino, there is currently no scientific evidence whatsoever to support the existence of the soul.[124]

The search for the soul, however, is seen to have been instrumental in driving the understanding of the anatomy and physiology of the human body, particularly in the fields of cardiovascular and neurology.[125] In the two dominant conflicting concepts of the soul – one seeing it to be spiritual and immortal, and the other seeing it to be material and mortal, both have described the soul as being located in a particular organ or as pervading the whole body.[125]

Neuroscience

Neuroscience as an interdisciplinary field, and its branch of cognitive neuroscience particularly, operates under the ontological assumption of physicalism. In other words, it assumes that only the fundamental phenomena studied by physics exist. Thus, neuroscience seeks to understand mental phenomena within the framework according to which human thought and behavior are caused solely by physical processes taking place inside the brain, and it operates by the way of reductionism by seeking an explanation for the mind in terms of brain activity.[126][127]

To study the mind in terms of the brain several methods of functional neuroimaging are used to study the neuroanatomical correlates of various cognitive processes that constitute the mind. The evidence from brain imaging indicates that all processes of the mind have physical correlates in brain function.[128] However, such correlational studies cannot determine whether neural activity plays a causal role in the occurrence of these cognitive processes (correlation does not imply causation) and they cannot determine if the neural activity is either necessary or sufficient for such processes to occur. Identification of causation, and of necessary and sufficient conditions requires explicit experimental manipulation of that activity. If manipulation of brain activity changes consciousness, then a causal role for that brain activity can be inferred.[129][130] Two of the most common types of manipulation experiments are loss-of-function and gain-of-function experiments. In a loss-of-function (also called "necessity") experiment, a part of the nervous system is diminished or removed in an attempt to determine if it is necessary for a certain process to occur, and in a gain-of-function (also called "sufficiency") experiment, an aspect of the nervous system is increased relative to normal.[131] Manipulations of brain activity can be performed with direct electrical brain stimulation, magnetic brain stimulation using transcranial magnetic stimulation, psychopharmacological manipulation, optogenetic manipulation, and by studying the symptoms of brain damage (case studies) and lesions. In addition, neuroscientists are also investigating how the mind develops with the development of the brain.[132]

Physics

Physicist Sean M. Carroll has written that the idea of a soul is incompatible with quantum field theory (QFT). He writes that for a soul to exist: "Not only is new physics required, but dramatically new physics. Within QFT, there can't be a new collection of 'spirit particles' and 'spirit forces' that interact with our regular atoms, because we would have detected them in existing experiments."[133]

Quantum indeterminism has been invoked as an explanatory mechanism for possible soul/brain interaction, but neuroscientist Peter Clarke found errors with this viewpoint, noting there is no evidence that such processes play a role in brain function; Clarke concluded that a Cartesian soul has no basis from quantum physics.[134][need quotation to verify]

Parapsychology

Some parapsychologists have attempted to establish, by scientific experiment, whether a soul separate from the brain exists, as is more commonly defined in religion rather than as a synonym of psyche or mind. Milbourne Christopher (1979) and Mary Roach (2010) have argued that none of the attempts by parapsychologists have yet succeeded.[135][136]

Weight of the soul

In 1901 Duncan MacDougall conducted an experiment in which he made weight measurements of patients as they died. He claimed that there was weight loss of varying amounts at the time of death; he concluded the soul weighed 21 grams, based on measurements of a single patient and discarding conflicting results.[137][138] The physicist Robert L. Park wrote that MacDougall's experiments "are not regarded today as having any scientific merit" and the psychologist Bruce Hood wrote that "because the weight loss was not reliable or replicable, his findings were unscientific."[139][140]

See also

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Further reading

  • Batchelor, Stephen. (1998). Buddhism Without Beliefs. Bloomsbury Publishing.
  • Bellarmine, Robert (1902). "Sermon 47: The Value of the Soul." . Sermons from the Latins. Benziger Brothers.
  • Bremmer, Jan (1983). The Early Greek Concept of the Soul. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-03131-6. Retrieved 16 August 2007.
  • Chalmers, David. J. (1996). The Conscious Mind: In Search of a Fundamental Theory, New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Christopher, Milbourne. (1979). Search for the Soul: An Insider's Report on the Continuing Quest By Psychics & Scientists For Evidence of Life After Death. Thomas Y. Crowell, Publishers.
  • Clarke, Peter (2014). "Neuroscience, Quantum Indeterminism and the Cartesian Soul". Brain and Cognition. 84 (1): 109–17. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2013.11.008. PMID 24355546. S2CID 895046.
  • Hood, Bruce. (2009). Supersense: From Superstition to Religion – The Brain Science of Belief. Constable. ISBN 978-1-84901-030-6
  • McGraw, John J. (2004). Brain & Belief: An Exploration of the Human Soul. Aegis Press.
  • Martin, Michael; Augustine, Keith. (2015). The Myth of an Afterlife: The Case against Life After Death. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-8108-8677-3
  • Park, Robert L. (2009). Superstition: Belief in the Age of Science. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13355-3
  • Rohde, Erwin. (1925). Psyche: The Cult of Souls and Belief in Immortality Among the Greeks, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., Ltd.
  • Ryle, Gilbert. (1949) The Concept of Mind, London: Hutchinson.
  • Spenard, Michael (2011) , essay. An historical account of mind-body duality and a comprehensive conceptual and empirical critique on the position. ISBN 978-0-578-08288-2
  • Swinburne, Richard. (1997). The Evolution of the Soul. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Leibowitz, Aryeh. (2018). The Neshama: A Study of the Human Soul. Feldheim Publishers. ISBN 1-68025-338-7
  • Kleivan, Inge; Sonne, B. (1985). "Arctic peoples". Eskimos. Greenland and Canada. Institute of Religious Iconography. Iconography of religions. Leiden, The Netherland): State University Groningen, via E.J. Brill. section VIII, fascicle 2. ISBN 90-04-07160-1.
  • Gabus, Jean (1970). A karibu eszkimók (in Hungarian). Budapest: Gondolat Kiadó. Translation of the original: Gabus, Jean (1944). Vie et coutumes des Esquimaux Caribous. Libraire Payot Lausanne.

External links

 
Wikiquote has quotations related to Soul.
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Soul.
  • Quantum Theory Won’t Save The Soul
  • What Science Really Says About the Soul by Stephen Cave
  • Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Ancient Theories of the Soul
  • The soul in Judaism at Chabad.org
  • by Heinrich J. Vogel]
  • Body, Soul and Spirit Article in the Journal of Biblical Accuracy
  • Is Another Human Living Inside You?
  • Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Soul" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
  • "The Soul", BBC Radio 4 discussion with Richard Sorabji, Ruth Padel and Martin Palmer (In Our Time, 6 June 2002)

January 30, 2023
soul, confused, with, seoul, other, uses, disambiguation, many, religious, philosophical, traditions, there, belief, that, soul, immaterial, aspect, essence, human, being, contents, etymology, religious, views, ancient, near, east, baháʼí, faith, christianity,. Not to be confused with Seoul For other uses see Soul disambiguation In many religious and philosophical traditions there is a belief that a soul is the immaterial aspect or essence of a human being 1 Contents 1 Etymology 2 Religious views 2 1 Ancient Near East 2 2 Bahaʼi Faith 2 3 Christianity 2 3 1 Origin of the soul 2 3 2 Trichotomy of the soul 2 3 3 Views of various denominations 2 4 Confucianism 2 5 Hinduism 2 6 Islam 2 7 Jainism 2 8 Judaism 2 9 Scientology 2 10 Shamanism 2 11 Shinto 2 12 Sikhism 2 13 Taoism 2 14 Zoroastrianism 2 15 Other religious beliefs and views 2 16 Spirituality New Age and new religions 2 16 1 Brahma Kumaris 2 16 2 Theosophy 2 16 3 Anthroposophy 2 16 4 Miscellaneous 3 Philosophical views 3 1 Socrates and Plato 3 2 Aristotle 3 3 Avicenna and Ibn al Nafis 3 4 Thomas Aquinas 3 5 Immanuel Kant 3 6 Philosophy of mind 3 7 Psychology 4 Science 4 1 Neuroscience 4 2 Physics 5 Parapsychology 5 1 Weight of the soul 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External linksEtymology EditThe Modern English noun soul is derived from Old English sawol sawel The earliest attestations reported in the Oxford English Dictionary are from the 8th century In King Alfred s translation of De Consolatione Philosophiae it is used to refer to the immaterial spiritual or thinking aspect of a person as contrasted with the person s physical body in the Vespasian Psalter 77 50 it means life or animate existence The Old English word is cognate with other historical Germanic terms for the same idea including Old Frisian sele sel which could also mean salvation or solemn oath Gothic saiwala Old High German seula sela Old Saxon seola and Old Norse sala Present day cognates include Dutch ziel and German Seele 2 Religious views EditIn Judaism and in some Christian denominations only human beings have immortal souls although immortality is disputed within Judaism and the concept of immortality was most likely influenced by Plato 3 For example Thomas Aquinas borrowing directly from Aristotle s On the Soul attributed soul anima to all organisms but argued that only human souls are immortal 4 Other religions most notably Hinduism and Jainism believe that all living things from the smallest bacterium to the largest of mammals are the souls themselves Atman jiva and have their physical representative the body in the world The actual self is the soul while the body is only a mechanism to experience the karma of that life Thus if one sees a tiger then there is a self conscious identity residing in it the soul and a physical representative the whole body of the tiger which is observable in the world Some teach that even non biological entities such as rivers and mountains possess souls This belief is called animism 5 Ancient Near East Edit Main articles Ancient Egyptian concept of the soul and Religions of the ancient Near East The souls of Pe and Nekhen towing the royal barge on a relief of Ramesses II s temple in Abydos In the ancient Egyptian religion an individual was believed to be made up of various elements some physical and some spiritual Similar ideas are found in ancient Assyrian and Babylonian religion The Kuttamuwa stele a funeral stele for an 8th century BCE royal official from Sam al describes Kuttamuwa requesting that his mourners commemorate his life and his afterlife with feasts for my soul that is in this stele It is one of the earliest references to a soul as a separate entity from the body The 800 pound 360 kg basalt stele is 3 ft 0 91 m tall and 2 ft 0 61 m wide It was uncovered in the third season of excavations by the Neubauer Expedition of the Oriental Institute in Chicago Illinois 6 Bahaʼi Faith Edit The Bahaʼi Faith affirms that the soul is a sign of God a heavenly gem whose reality the most learned of men hath failed to grasp and whose mystery no mind however acute can ever hope to unravel 7 Baha u llah stated that the soul not only continues to live after the physical death of the human body but is in fact immortal 8 Heaven can be seen partly as the soul s state of nearness to God and hell as a state of remoteness from God Each state follows as a natural consequence of individual efforts or the lack thereof to develop spiritually 9 Baha u llah taught that individuals have no existence prior to their life here on earth and the soul s evolution is always towards God and away from the material world 9 Christianity Edit This section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed January 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message See also Soul in the Bible Christian mortalism Immortality of the soul Christian conditionalism and Annihilationism Depiction of a soul being carried to heaven by two angels by William Bouguereau According to some Christian eschatology when people die their souls will be judged by God and determined to go to Heaven or to Hades awaiting a resurrection The oldest existing branches of Christianity the Catholic Church and the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox churches adhere to this view as well as many Protestant denominations Some Protestant Christians understand the soul as life and believe that the dead have no conscious existence until after the resurrection Christian conditionalism Some Protestant Christians believe that the souls and bodies of the unrighteous will be destroyed in Hell rather than suffering eternally annihilationism Believers will inherit eternal life either in Heaven or in a Kingdom of God on earth and enjoy eternal fellowship with God Other Christians reject the punishment of the soul Paul the Apostle used psyxh psyche and pneῦma pneuma specifically to distinguish between the Jewish notions of נפש nephesh and רוח ruah spirit 10 also in the Septuagint e g Genesis 1 2 רו ח א ל ה ים pneῦma 8eoῦ spiritus Dei the Spirit of God Origin of the soul Edit The Damned Soul Drawing by Michelangelo Buonarroti c 1525 The origin of the soul has provided a vexing question in Christianity The major theories put forward include soul creationism traducianism and pre existence According to soul creationism God creates each individual soul directly either at the moment of conception or some later time According to traducianism the soul comes from the parents by natural generation According to the preexistence theory the soul exists before the moment of conception There have been differing thoughts regarding whether human embryos have souls from conception or whether there is a point between conception and birth where the fetus acquires a soul consciousness and or personhood Stances in this question might play a role in judgements on the morality of abortion 11 12 13 Trichotomy of the soul Edit Augustine 354 430 one of western Christianity s most influential early Christian thinkers described the soul as a special substance endowed with reason adapted to rule the body Some Christians espouse a trichotomic view of humans which characterizes humans as consisting of a body soma soul psyche and spirit pneuma 14 However the majority of modern Bible scholars point out how the concepts of spirit and of soul are used interchangeably in many biblical passages and so hold to dichotomy the view that each human comprises a body and a soul Paul said that the body wars against the soul For the word of God is living and active and sharper than any two edged sword and piercing as far as the division of soul and spirit Heb 4 12 NASB and that I buffet my body to keep it under control Views of various denominations Edit Roman CatholicismThe present Catechism of the Catholic Church states that the term soul refers to the innermost aspect of persons that which is of greatest value in them that by which they are most especially in God s image soul signifies the spiritual principle in humanity 15 All souls living and dead will be judged by Jesus Christ when he comes back to earth The Catholic Church teaches that the existence of each individual soul is dependent wholly upon God The doctrine of the faith affirms that the spiritual and immortal soul is created immediately by God 16 Depiction of the soul on a 17th century tombstone at the cemetery of the Old Dutch Church of Sleepy Hollow ProtestantismProtestants generally believe in the soul s existence and immortality but fall into two major camps about what this means in terms of an afterlife Some following John Calvin believe that the soul persists as consciousness after death 17 Others following Martin Luther believe that the soul dies with the body and is unconscious sleeps until the resurrection of the dead 18 19 AdventismVarious new religious movements deriving from Adventism including Christadelphians 20 Seventh day Adventists 21 22 and Jehovah s Witnesses 23 24 similarly believe that the dead do not possess a soul separate from the body and are unconscious until the resurrection Latter day Saints Mormonism The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter day Saints teaches that the spirit and body together constitute the Soul of Man Mankind The spirit and the body are the soul of man 25 Latter day Saints believe that the soul is the union of a pre existing God made spirit 26 27 28 and a temporal body which is formed by physical conception on earth After death the spirit continues to live and progress in the Spirit world until the resurrection when it is reunited with the body that once housed it This reuniting of body and spirit results in a perfect soul that is immortal and eternal and capable of receiving a fulness of joy 29 30 Latter day Saint cosmology also describes intelligences as the essence of consciousness or agency These are co eternal with God and animate the spirits 31 The union of a newly created spirit body with an eternally existing intelligence constitutes a spirit birth citation needed and justifies God s title Father of our spirits 32 33 34 Confucianism Edit Main article Hun and po See also Soul dualism Some Confucian traditions contrast a spiritual soul with a corporeal soul 35 Hinduism Edit Main articles Atman Hinduism and Jiva Atman is a Sanskrit word that means inner self or soul 36 37 38 In Hindu philosophy especially in the Vedanta school of Hinduism Atman is the first principle 39 the true self of an individual beyond identification with phenomena the essence of an individual In order to attain liberation moksha a human being must acquire self knowledge atma jnana which is to realize that one s true self Atman is identical with the transcendent self Brahman according to Advaita Vedanta 37 40 The six orthodox schools of Hinduism believe that there is Atman self essence in every being 41 In Hinduism and Jainism a jiva Sanskrit ज व jiva alternative spelling jiwa Hindi ज व jiv alternative spelling jeev is a living being or any entity imbued with a life force 42 The concept of jiva in Jainism is similar to atman in Hinduism However some Hindu traditions differentiate between the two concepts with jiva considered as individual self while atman as that which is universal unchanging self that is present in all living beings and everything else as the metaphysical Brahman 43 44 45 The latter is sometimes referred to as jiva atman a soul in a living body 43 Islam Edit Main articles Ruḥ and Nafs The Quran the holy book of Islam uses two words to refer to the soul ruḥ translated as spirit consciousness pneuma or soul and nafs translated as self ego psyche or soul 46 47 cognates of the Hebrew nefesh and ruach The two terms are frequently used interchangeably though ruḥ is more often used to denote the divine spirit or the breath of life while nafs designates one s disposition or characteristics 48 In Islamic philosophy the immortal ruḥ drives the mortal nafs which comprises temporal desires and perceptions necessary for living citation needed Two of the passages in the Quran that mention the ruh occur in chapters 17 The Night Journey and 39 The Troops And they ask you O Muhammad about the Ruh Say The Ruh is of the affair of my Lord And mankind has not been given of knowledge except a little Quran 17 85 Allah takes the souls at the time of their death and those that do not die He takes during their sleep Then He keeps those for which He has decreed death and releases the others for a specified term Indeed in that are signs for a people who give thought Quran 39 42 Jainism Edit Main articles Jiva Jainism and Vitalism Jainism Further information Jain philosophy and Jainism and non creationism In Jainism every living being from plant or bacterium to human has a soul and the concept forms the very basis of Jainism According to Jainism there is no beginning or end to the existence of soul It is eternal in nature and changes its form until it attains liberation In Jainism jiva is the immortal essence or soul of a living organism human animal fish or plant etc which survives physical death 49 The concept of Ajiva in Jainism means not soul and represents matter including body time space non motion and motion 49 In Jainism a Jiva is either samsari mundane caught in cycle of rebirths or mukta liberated 50 51 According to this belief until the time the soul is liberated from the saṃsara cycle of repeated birth and death it gets attached to one of these bodies based on the karma actions of the individual soul Irrespective of which state the soul is in it has got the same attributes and qualities The difference between the liberated and non liberated souls is that the qualities and attributes are manifested completely in case of siddha liberated soul as they have overcome all the karmic bondages whereas in case of non liberated souls they are partially exhibited Souls who rise victorious over wicked emotions while still remaining within physical bodies are referred to as arihants 52 Concerning the Jain view of the soul Virchand Gandhi said the soul lives its own life not for the purpose of the body but the body lives for the purpose of the soul If we believe that the soul is to be controlled by the body then soul misses its power 53 Judaism Edit This section relies excessively on references to primary sources Please improve this section by adding secondary or tertiary sources Find sources soul in Judaism news newspapers books scholar JSTOR October 2019 Learn how and when to remove this template message The Hebrew terms נפש nefesh literally living being רוח ruach literally wind נשמה neshamah literally breath חיה chayah literally life and יחידה yechidah literally singularity are used to describe the soul or spirit 54 In Judaism the soul is believed to be given by God to Adam as mentioned in Genesis Then the LORD God formed man of the dust of the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life and man became a living being Genesis 2 7 Judaism relates the quality of one s soul to one s performance of the commandments mitzvot and reaching higher levels of understanding and thus closeness to God A person with such closeness is called a tzadik Therefore Judaism embraces the commemoration of the day of one s death nahala Yahrtzeit and not the birthday 55 as a festivity of remembrance for only toward the end of life s struggles tests and challenges could human souls be judged and credited for righteousness 56 Judaism places great importance on the study of the souls 57 Kabbalah and other mystic traditions go into greater detail into the nature of the soul Kabbalah separates the soul into five elements corresponding to the five worlds 58 Nefesh related to natural instinct Ruach related to intellect and the awareness of God Neshamah related to emotion and morality Chayah considered a part of God as it were Yechidah This aspect is essentially one with God Kabbalah also proposed a concept of reincarnation the gilgul See also nefesh habehamit the animal soul citation needed Some Jewish traditions assert that the soul is housed in the luz bone though traditions disagree as to whether it is the atlas at the top of the spine or the sacrum at bottom of the spine citation needed Scientology Edit The Scientology view is that a person does not have a soul it is a soul It is the belief of the religion that they do not have the power to force adherents conclusions 59 Therefore a person is immortal and may be reincarnated if they wish Scientologists view that one s future happiness and immortality as guided by their spirituality is influenced by how they live and act during their time on earth 59 The Scientology term for the soul is thetan derived from the Greek word theta symbolizing thought Scientology counselling called auditing addresses the soul to improve abilities both worldly and spiritual The ideologies surrounding this understanding align with those of the five major world religions 59 Shamanism Edit See also Soul dualism The Neolithic Manunggul burial jar from the Tabon Caves Palawan Philippines depicts a soul and a psychopomp journeying to the spirit world in a boat c 890 710 BCE Soul dualism also called multiple souls or dualistic pluralism is a common belief in Shamanism 60 61 62 and is essential in the universal and central concept of soul flight also called soul journey out of body experience ecstasy or astral projection 63 62 64 65 66 It is the belief that humans have two or more souls generally termed the body soul or life soul and the free soul The former is linked to bodily functions and awareness when awake while the latter can freely wander during sleep or trance states 61 64 65 66 67 In some cases there are a plethora of soul types with different functions 68 69 Soul dualism and multiple souls are prominent in the traditional animistic beliefs of the Austronesian peoples 70 71 the Chinese people hun and po 72 the Tibetan people 60 most African peoples 73 most Native North Americans 73 68 ancient South Asian peoples 62 Northern Eurasian peoples 66 74 and in Ancient Egyptians the ka and ba 73 The belief in soul dualism is found throughout most Austronesian shamanistic traditions The reconstructed Proto Austronesian word for the body soul is nawa breath life or vital spirit It is located somewhere in the abdominal cavity often in the liver or the heart Proto Austronesian qaCay 70 71 The free soul is located in the head Its names are usually derived from Proto Austronesian qaNiCu ghost spirit of the dead which also apply to other non human nature spirits The free soul is also referred to in names that literally mean twin or double from Proto Austronesian duSa two 75 76 A virtuous person is said to be one whose souls are in harmony with each other while an evil person is one whose souls are in conflict 77 The free soul is said to leave the body and journey to the spirit world during sleep trance like states delirium insanity and death The duality is also seen in the healing traditions of Austronesian shamans where illnesses are regarded as a soul loss and thus to heal the sick one must return the free soul which may have been stolen by an evil spirit or got lost in the spirit world into the body If the free soul can not be returned the afflicted person dies or goes permanently insane 78 In some ethnic groups there can also be more than two souls Like among the Tagbanwa people where a person is said to have six souls the free soul which is regarded as the true soul and five secondary souls with various functions 70 Several Inuit groups believe that a person has more than one type of soul One is associated with respiration the other can accompany the body as a shadow 79 In some cases it is connected to shamanistic beliefs among the various Inuit groups 68 Also Caribou Inuit groups believed in several types of souls 80 The shaman heals within the spiritual dimension by returning lost parts of the human soul from wherever they have gone The shaman also cleanses excess negative energies which confuse or pollute the soul Shinto Edit This section needs expansion You can help by adding to it September 2021 Shinto distinguishes between the souls of living persons tamashii and those of dead persons mitama each of which may have different aspects or sub souls Sikhism Edit Sikhism considers soul atma to be part of God Waheguru Various hymns are cited from the holy book Guru Granth Sahib SGGS that suggests this belief God is in the Soul and the Soul is in the God 81 The same concept is repeated at various pages of the SGGS For example The soul is divine divine is the soul Worship Him with love 82 and The soul is the Lord and the Lord is the soul contemplating the Shabad the Lord is found 83 The atma or soul according to Sikhism is an entity or spiritual spark or light in the human body because of which the body can sustain life On the departure of this entity from the body the body becomes lifeless no amount of manipulations to the body can make the person make any physical actions The soul is the driver in the body It is the roohu or spirit or atma the presence of which makes the physical body alive Many quantify religious and philosophical traditions support the view that the soul is the ethereal substance a spirit a non material spark particular to a unique living being Such traditions often consider the soul both immortal and innately aware of its immortal nature as well as the true basis for sentience in each living being The concept of the soul has strong links with notions of an afterlife but opinions may vary wildly even within a given religion as to what happens to the soul after death Many within these religions and philosophies see the soul as immaterial while others consider it possibly material Taoism Edit According to Chinese traditions every person has two types of soul called hun and po 魂 and 魄 which are respectively yang and yin Taoism believes in ten souls sanhunqipo 三魂七魄 three hun and seven po 84 A living being that loses any of them is said to have mental illness or unconsciousness while a dead soul may reincarnate to a disability lower desire realms or may even be unable to reincarnate Zoroastrianism Edit Main article Zoroastrianism Other religious beliefs and views Edit Charon Greek who guides dead souls to the Underworld 4th century BCE In theological reference to the soul the terms life and death are viewed as emphatically more definitive than the common concepts of biological life and biological death Because the soul is said to be transcendent of the material existence and is said to have potentially eternal life the death of the soul is likewise said to be an eternal death Thus in the concept of divine judgment God is commonly said to have options with regard to the dispensation of souls ranging from Heaven i e angels to hell i e demons with various concepts in between Typically both Heaven and hell are said to be eternal or at least far beyond a typical human concept of lifespan and time According to Louis Ginzberg the soul of Adam is the image of God 85 Every soul of human also escapes from the body every night rises up to heaven and fetches new life thence for the body of man 86 Spirituality New Age and new religions Edit Brahma Kumaris Edit In Brahma Kumaris human souls are believed to be incorporeal and eternal God is considered to be the Supreme Soul with maximum degrees of spiritual qualities such as peace love and purity 87 Theosophy Edit In Helena Blavatsky s Theosophy the soul is the field of our psychological activity thinking emotions memory desires will and so on as well as of the so called paranormal or psychic phenomena extrasensory perception out of body experiences etc However the soul is not the highest but a middle dimension of human beings Higher than the soul is the spirit which is considered to be the real self the source of everything we call good happiness wisdom love compassion harmony peace etc While the spirit is eternal and incorruptible the soul is not The soul acts as a link between the material body and the spiritual self and therefore shares some characteristics of both The soul can be attracted either towards the spiritual or towards the material realm being thus the battlefield of good and evil It is only when the soul is attracted towards the spiritual and merges with the Self that it becomes eternal and divine Anthroposophy Edit Rudolf Steiner claimed classical trichotomic stages of soul development which interpenetrated one another in consciousness 88 The sentient soul centering on sensations drives and passions with strong conative will and emotional components The intellectual or mind soul internalizing and reflecting on outer experience with strong affective feeling and cognitive thinking components and The consciousness soul in search of universal objective truths Miscellaneous Edit In Surat Shabda Yoga the soul is considered to be an exact replica and spark of the Divine The purpose of Surat Shabd Yoga is to realize one s True Self as soul Self Realisation True Essence Spirit Realisation and True Divinity God Realisation while living in the physical body Similarly the spiritual teacher Meher Baba held that Atma or the soul is in reality identical with Paramatma the Oversoul which is one infinite and eternal and t he sole purpose of creation is for the soul to enjoy the infinite state of the Oversoul consciously 89 Eckankar founded by Paul Twitchell in 1965 defines Soul as the true self the inner most sacred part of each person 90 G I Gurdjieff taught that humans are not born with immortal souls but could develop them through certain efforts 91 Philosophical views EditGreek philosophers such as Socrates Plato and Aristotle understood that the soul psyxh psykhḗ must have a logical faculty the exercise of which was the most divine of human actions At his defense trial Socrates even summarized his teachings as nothing other than an exhortation for his fellow Athenians to excel in matters of the psyche since all bodily goods are dependent on such excellence Apology 30a b Aristotle reasoned that a man s body and soul were his matter and form respectively the body is a collection of elements and the soul is the essence Soul or psyche Ancient Greek psyxh psykhḗ of psyxein psykhein to breathe cf Latin anima comprises the mental abilities of a living being reason character free will feeling consciousness qualia memory perception thinking etc Depending on the philosophical system a soul can either be mortal or immortal 92 The ancient Greeks used the word ensouled to represent the concept of being alive indicating that the earliest surviving western philosophical view believed that the soul was that which gave the body life 93 The soul was considered the incorporeal or spiritual breath that animates from the Latin anima cf animal the living organism Francis M Cornford quotes Pindar by saying that the soul sleeps while the limbs are active but when one is sleeping the soul is active and reveals an award of joy or sorrow drawing near in dreams 94 Erwin Rohde writes that an early pre Pythagorean belief presented the soul as lifeless when it departed the body and that it retired into Hades with no hope of returning to a body 95 Plato was the first thinker in antiquity to combine the various functions of the soul into one coherent conception the soul is that which moves things i e that which gives life on the view that life is self motion by means of its thoughts requiring that it be both a mover and a thinker 96 Socrates and Plato Edit Plato left and Aristotle right a detail of The School of Athens a fresco by Raphael Main article Plato s tripartite theory of soul Drawing on the words of his teacher Socrates Plato considered the psyche to be the essence of a person being that which decides how we behave He considered this essence to be an incorporeal eternal occupant of our being Plato said that even after death the soul exists and is able to think He believed that as bodies die the soul is continually reborn metempsychosis in subsequent bodies However Aristotle believed that only one part of the soul was immortal namely the intellect logos The Platonic soul consists of three parts 97 the logos or logistikon mind nous or reason the thymos or thumetikon emotion spiritedness or masculine the eros or epithumetikon appetitive desire or feminine The parts are located in different regions of the body logos is located in the head is related to reason and regulates the other part thymos is located near the chest region and is related to anger eros is located in the stomach and is related to one s desires Plato also compares the three parts of the soul or psyche to a societal caste system According to Plato s theory the three part soul is essentially the same thing as a state s class system because to function well each part must contribute so that the whole functions well Logos keeps the other functions of the soul regulated The soul is at the heart of Plato s philosophy Francis Cornford described the twin pillars of Platonism as being the theory of the Forms on the one hand and on the other hand the doctrine of the immortality of the soul 98 Indeed Plato was the first person in the history of philosophy to believe that the soul was both the source of life and the mind In Plato s dialogues we find the soul playing many disparate roles 99 Among other things Plato believes that the soul is what gives life to the body which was articulated most of all in the Laws and Phaedrus in terms of self motion to be alive is to be capable of moving yourself the soul is a self mover He also thinks that the soul is the bearer of moral properties i e when I am virtuous it is my soul that is virtuous as opposed to say my body The soul is also the mind it is that which thinks in us We see this casual oscillation between different roles of the soul in many dialogues First of all in the Republic Is there any function of the soul that you could not accomplish with anything else such as taking care of something epimeleisthai ruling and deliberating and other such things Could we correctly assign these things to anything besides the soul and say that they are characteristic idia of it No to nothing else What about living Will we deny that this is a function of the soul That absolutely is 100 The Phaedo most famously caused problems to scholars who were trying to make sense of this aspect of Plato s theory of the soul such as Sarah Broadie 101 and Dorothea Frede 102 More recent scholarship has overturned this accusation by arguing that part of the novelty of Plato s theory of the soul is that it was the first to unite the different features and powers of the soul that became commonplace in later ancient and medieval philosophy 96 For Plato the soul moves things by means of its thoughts as one scholar puts it and accordingly the soul is both a mover i e the principle of life where life is conceived of as self motion and a thinker 96 Aristotle Edit The structure of the souls of plants animals and humans according to Aristotle with Bios Zoe and Psuche Further information Aristotle s biology Aristotle 384 322 BCE defined the soul or Psuche psyxh as the first actuality of a naturally organized body 103 and argued against its separate existence from the physical body In Aristotle s view the primary activity or full actualization of a living thing constitutes its soul For example the full actualization of an eye as an independent organism is to see its purpose or final cause 104 Another example is that the full actualization of a human being would be living a fully functional human life in accordance with reason which he considered to be a faculty unique to humanity 105 For Aristotle the soul is the organization of the form and matter of a natural being which allows it to strive for its full actualization This organization between form and matter is necessary for any activity or functionality to be possible in a natural being Using an artifact non natural being as an example a house is a building for human habituation but for a house to be actualized requires the material wood nails bricks etc necessary for its actuality i e being a fully functional house However this does not imply that a house has a soul In regards to artifacts the source of motion that is required for their full actualization is outside of themselves for example a builder builds a house In natural beings this source of motion is contained within the being itself 106 Aristotle elaborates on this point when he addresses the faculties of the soul The various faculties of the soul such as nutrition movement peculiar to animals reason peculiar to humans sensation special common and incidental and so forth when exercised constitute the second actuality or fulfillment of the capacity to be alive For example someone who falls asleep as opposed to someone who falls dead can wake up and live their life while the latter can no longer do so Aristotle identified three hierarchical levels of natural beings plants animals and people having three different degrees of soul Bios life Zoe animate life and Psuche self conscious life For these groups he identified three corresponding levels of soul or biological activity the nutritive activity of growth sustenance and reproduction which all life shares Bios the self willed motive activity and sensory faculties which only animals and people have in common Zoe and finally reason of which people alone are capable Pseuche Aristotle s discussion of the soul is in his work De Anima On the Soul Although mostly seen as opposing Plato in regard to the immortality of the soul a controversy can be found in relation to the fifth chapter of the third book in this text both interpretations can be argued for soul as a whole can be deemed mortal and a part called active intellect or active mind is immortal and eternal 107 Advocates exist for both sides of the controversy but it has been understood that there will be permanent disagreement about its final conclusions as no other Aristotelian text contains this specific point and this part of De Anima is obscure 108 Further Aristotle states that the soul helps humans find the truth and understanding the true purpose or role of the soul is extremely difficult 109 Avicenna and Ibn al Nafis Edit Following Aristotle Avicenna Ibn Sina and Ibn al Nafis an Arab physician further elaborated upon the Aristotelian understanding of the soul and developed their own theories on the soul They both made a distinction between the soul and the spirit and the Avicennian doctrine on the nature of the soul was influential among the Scholastics Some of Avicenna s views on the soul include the idea that the immortality of the soul is a consequence of its nature and not a purpose for it to fulfill In his theory of The Ten Intellects he viewed the human soul as the tenth and final intellect 110 111 While he was imprisoned Avicenna wrote his famous Floating man thought experiment to demonstrate human self awareness and the substantial nature of the soul 112 He told his readers to imagine themselves suspended in the air isolated from all sensations which includes no sensory contact with even their own bodies He argues that in this scenario one would still have self consciousness He thus concludes that the idea of the self is not logically dependent on any physical thing and that the soul should not be seen in relative terms but as a primary given a substance This argument was later refined and simplified by Rene Descartes in epistemic terms when he stated I can abstract from the supposition of all external things but not from the supposition of my own consciousness 113 Avicenna generally supported Aristotle s idea of the soul originating from the heart whereas Ibn al Nafis rejected this idea and instead argued that the soul is related to the entirety and not to one or a few organs He further criticized Aristotle s idea whereby every unique soul requires the existence of a unique source in this case the heart Al Nafis concluded that the soul is related primarily neither to the spirit nor to any organ but rather to the entire matter whose temperament is prepared to receive that soul and he defined the soul as nothing other than what a human indicates by saying I 114 Thomas Aquinas Edit Following Aristotle whom he referred to as the Philosopher and Avicenna Thomas Aquinas 1225 74 understood the soul to be the first actuality of the living body Consequent to this he distinguished three orders of life plants which feed and grow animals which add sensation to the operations of plants and humans which add intellect to the operations of animals Concerning the human soul his epistemological theory required that since the knower becomes what he knows the soul is definitely not corporeal if it is corporeal when it knows what some corporeal thing is that thing would come to be within it 115 Therefore the soul has an operation which does not rely on a body organ and therefore the soul can exist without a body Furthermore since the rational soul of human beings is a subsistent form and not something made of matter and form it cannot be destroyed in any natural process 116 The full argument for the immortality of the soul and Aquinas elaboration of Aristotelian theory is found in Question 75 of the First Part of the Summa Theologica Aquinas affirmed in the doctrine of the divine effusion of the soul the particular judgement of the soul after the separation from a dead body and the final Resurrection of the flesh He recalled two canons of the 4th century De Ecclesiasticis Dogmatibus for which the rational soul is not engendered by coition canon XIV 117 and is one and the same soul in man that both gives life to the body by being united to it and orders itself by its own reasoning 118 Moreover he believed in a unique and tripartite soul within which are distinctively present a nutritive a sensitive and intellectual soul The latter is created by God and is taken solely by human beings includes the other two types of soul and makes the sensitive soul incorruptible 119 Immanuel Kant Edit In his discussions of rational psychology Immanuel Kant 1724 1804 identified the soul as the I in the strictest sense and argued that the existence of inner experience can neither be proved nor disproved We cannot prove a priori the immateriality of the soul but rather only so much that all properties and actions of the soul cannot be recognized from materiality It is from the I or soul that Kant proposes transcendental rationalization but cautions that such rationalization can only determine the limits of knowledge if it is to remain practical 120 Philosophy of mind Edit Main article Philosophy of mind Gilbert Ryle s ghost in the machine argument which is a rejection of Descartes s mind body dualism can provide a contemporary understanding of the soul mind and the problem concerning its connection to the brain body 121 Psychology Edit Soul belief prominently figues in Otto Rank s work recovering the importance of immortality in the psychology of primitive classical and modern interest in life and death Rank s work directly opposed the scientific psychology that concedes the possibility of the soul s existence and postulates it as an object of research without really admitting that it exists Just as religion represents a psychological commentary on the social evolution of man various psychologies represent our current attitudes toward spiritual belief In the animistic era psychologizing was a creating of the soul in the religious era it was a representing of the soul to one s self in our era of natural science it is a knowing of the individual soul 122 Rank s Seelenglaube translates to Soul Belief Rank s work had a significant influence on Ernest Becker s understanding of a universal interest in immortality In Denial of Death Becker describes soul in terms of Kierkegaard s use of self when he says what we call schizophrenia is an attempt by the symbolic self to deny the limitations of the finite body 123 Kierkegaard s use of self may be a bit confusing He uses it to include the symbolic self and the physical body It is a synonym really for total personality that goes beyond the person to include what we would now call the soul or the ground of being out of which the created person sprang Science EditAccording to Julien Musolino the vast majority of scientists hold that the mind is a complex machine that operates on the same physical laws as all other objects in the universe 124 According to Musolino there is currently no scientific evidence whatsoever to support the existence of the soul 124 The search for the soul however is seen to have been instrumental in driving the understanding of the anatomy and physiology of the human body particularly in the fields of cardiovascular and neurology 125 In the two dominant conflicting concepts of the soul one seeing it to be spiritual and immortal and the other seeing it to be material and mortal both have described the soul as being located in a particular organ or as pervading the whole body 125 Neuroscience Edit Neuroscience as an interdisciplinary field and its branch of cognitive neuroscience particularly operates under the ontological assumption of physicalism In other words it assumes that only the fundamental phenomena studied by physics exist Thus neuroscience seeks to understand mental phenomena within the framework according to which human thought and behavior are caused solely by physical processes taking place inside the brain and it operates by the way of reductionism by seeking an explanation for the mind in terms of brain activity 126 127 To study the mind in terms of the brain several methods of functional neuroimaging are used to study the neuroanatomical correlates of various cognitive processes that constitute the mind The evidence from brain imaging indicates that all processes of the mind have physical correlates in brain function 128 However such correlational studies cannot determine whether neural activity plays a causal role in the occurrence of these cognitive processes correlation does not imply causation and they cannot determine if the neural activity is either necessary or sufficient for such processes to occur Identification of causation and of necessary and sufficient conditions requires explicit experimental manipulation of that activity If manipulation of brain activity changes consciousness then a causal role for that brain activity can be inferred 129 130 Two of the most common types of manipulation experiments are loss of function and gain of function experiments In a loss of function also called necessity experiment a part of the nervous system is diminished or removed in an attempt to determine if it is necessary for a certain process to occur and in a gain of function also called sufficiency experiment an aspect of the nervous system is increased relative to normal 131 Manipulations of brain activity can be performed with direct electrical brain stimulation magnetic brain stimulation using transcranial magnetic stimulation psychopharmacological manipulation optogenetic manipulation and by studying the symptoms of brain damage case studies and lesions In addition neuroscientists are also investigating how the mind develops with the development of the brain 132 Physics Edit Physicist Sean M Carroll has written that the idea of a soul is incompatible with quantum field theory QFT He writes that for a soul to exist Not only is new physics required but dramatically new physics Within QFT there can t be a new collection of spirit particles and spirit forces that interact with our regular atoms because we would have detected them in existing experiments 133 Quantum indeterminism has been invoked as an explanatory mechanism for possible soul brain interaction but neuroscientist Peter Clarke found errors with this viewpoint noting there is no evidence that such processes play a role in brain function Clarke concluded that a Cartesian soul has no basis from quantum physics 134 need quotation to verify Parapsychology EditSome parapsychologists have attempted to establish by scientific experiment whether a soul separate from the brain exists as is more commonly defined in religion rather than as a synonym of psyche or mind Milbourne Christopher 1979 and Mary Roach 2010 have argued that none of the attempts by parapsychologists have yet succeeded 135 136 Weight of the soul Edit In 1901 Duncan MacDougall conducted an experiment in which he made weight measurements of patients as they died He claimed that there was weight loss of varying amounts at the time of death he concluded the soul weighed 21 grams based on measurements of a single patient and discarding conflicting results 137 138 The physicist Robert L Park wrote that MacDougall s experiments are not regarded today as having any scientific merit and the psychologist Bruce Hood wrote that because the weight loss was not reliable or replicable his findings were unscientific 139 140 See also EditAncient Egyptian concept of the soul Being Chinese room Ekam History of the location of the soul Kami Knowledge argument Metaphysical naturalism Mind body problem Nafs in Islam Nishimta in Mandaeism The Over Soul essay Paramatman or oversoul Philosophical zombie Open individualism Qualia Self Self awareness Shade mythology Soul dualism Soul flight Substance dualism Vitalism Vertiginous questionReferences Edit soul Britannica Retrieved 19 June 2022 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint url status link soul n OED Online Oxford University Press Retrieved 23 June 2022 Immortality of the Soul www jewishencyclopedia com Archived from the original on 20 December 2016 Retrieved 14 December 2016 Peter Eardley and Carl Still Aquinas A Guide for the Perplexed London Continuum 2010 pp 34 35 Soul The Columbia Encyclopedia Sixth Edition 2001 07 Retrieved 12 November 2008 Found An Ancient Monument to the Soul The New York Times 17 November 2008 Archived from the original on 24 April 2009 Retrieved 18 November 2008 In a mountainous kingdom in what is now southeastern Turkey there lived in the eighth century B C a royal official Kuttamuwa who oversaw the completion of an inscribed stone monument or stele to be erected upon his death The words instructed mourners to commemorate his life and afterlife with feasts for my soul that is in this stele Baha u llah 1976 Gleanings from the Writings of Baha u llah Wilmette Illinois Bahaʼi Publishing Trust pp 158 63 ISBN 978 0 87743 187 9 Retrieved 23 February 2016 Baha u llah 1976 Gleanings from the Writings of Baha u llah Wilmette Illinois Bahaʼi Publishing Trust pp 155 58 ISBN 978 0 87743 187 9 Retrieved 23 February 2016 a b Taherzadeh Adib 1976 The Revelation of Baha u llah Volume 1 Oxford George Ronald ISBN 978 0 85398 270 8 Archived from the original on 3 March 2016 Retrieved 23 February 2016 Arxim Blaxos Iero8eos 30 September 1985 Kefalaio G PDF Or8odo3h PSyxo8erapeia in Greek Edessa p Ti einai h psyxh Retrieved 25 January 2023 Do Embryos Have Souls Father Tadeusz Pacholczyk PhD Catholic Education Resource Center Catholiceducation org Archived from the original on 29 June 2011 Retrieved 13 November 2011 Matthew Syed 12 May 2008 Embryos have souls What nonsense The Times UK Archived from the original on 18 September 2011 Retrieved 13 November 2011 The Soul of the Embryo An Enquiry into the Status of the Human Embryo in the Christian Tradition by David Albert Jones Continuum Press 2005 ISBN 978 0 8264 6296 1 Soul newadvent org 1 July 1912 Archived from the original on 28 November 2011 Retrieved 13 November 2011 In St Paul we find a more technical phraseology employed with great consistency Psyche is now appropriated to the purely natural life pneuma to the life of supernatural religion the principle of which is the Holy Spirit dwelling and operating in the heart The opposition of flesh and spirit is accentuated afresh Romans 1 18 etc This Pauline system presented to a world already prepossessed in favour of a quasi Platonic Dualism occasioned one of the earliest widespread forms of error among Christian writers the doctrine of the Trichotomy According to this man perfect man teleios consists of three parts body soul spirit soma psyche pneuma paragraph 363 Catechism of the Catholic Church Archived from the original on 16 November 2011 Retrieved 13 November 2011 via Vatican va paragraph 382 Catechism of the Catholic Church Archived from the original on 16 November 2011 Retrieved 13 November 2011 via Vatican va Helm Paul 2006 John Calvin s Ideas p 129 The Immortality of the Soul As we saw when discussing Calvin s Christology Calvin is a substance dualist Grafton Anthony Most Glenn W Settis Salvatore 2010 The Classical Tradition p 480 On several occasions Luther mentioned contemptuously that the Council Fathers had decreed the soul immortal Marius Richard 1999 Martin Luther The Christian between God and death p 429 Luther believing in soul sleep at death held here that in the moment of resurrection the righteous will rise to meet Christ in the air the ungodly will remain on earth for judgment Birmingham Amended Statement of Faith Archived from the original on 16 February 2014 Soul Sleep Adventist Review adventistreview org 3 September 2020 Retrieved 12 August 2022 beckettj What Is Your Soul According to the Bible Adventist org Retrieved 12 August 2022 Do you have an immortal soul The Watchtower 15 July 2007 p 3 Archived from the original on 31 December 2014 What Does the Bible Really Teach p 211 88 15 Doctrine and Covenants Salt Lake City UT The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter day Saints via Google Books And the spirit and the body is the soul of man 6 51 Moses Salt Lake City UT The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter day Saints Retrieved 23 February 2016 via churchofjesuschrist org 12 9 Hebrews Salt Lake City UT The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter day Saints Retrieved 23 February 2016 via churchofjesuschrist org 131 7 8 Doctrine and Covenants Salt Lake City UT The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter day Saints via churchofjesuschrist org Joseph Smith goes so far as to say that these spirits are made of a finer matter that we cannot see in our current state Alma Book of Mormon Salt Lake City UT The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter day Saints 5 15 11 43 45 40 23 41 2 93 33 34 Doctrine and Covenants via churchofjesuschrist org 93 29 30 Doctrine and Covenants Salt Lake City UT The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter day Saints via churchofjesuschrist org Chapter 37 Joseph F Smith Teachings of Presidents of the Church Salt Lake City UT The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter day Saints 2011 pp 331 338 Spirit Guide to the Scriptures Salt Lake City UT The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter day Saints Retrieved 7 April 2014 via churchofjesuschrist org Chapter 41 The Postmortal Spirit World Gospel Principles Salt Lake City UT The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter day Saints Retrieved 23 February 2016 via churchofjesuschrist org Boot W J 2014 3 Spirits Gods and Heaven in Confucian thought In Huang Chun chieh Tucker John Allen eds Dao Companion to Japanese Confucian Philosophy Dao Companions to Chinese Philosophy Vol 5 Dordrecht Springer p 83 ISBN 9789048129218 Retrieved 27 April 2019 Confucius combines qi with the divine and the essential and the corporeal soul with ghosts opposes the two as yang against yin spiritual soul against corporal soul and explains that after death the first will rise up and the second will return to the earth while the flesh and bones will disintegrate a Atman Archived 23 December 2015 at the Wayback Machine Oxford Dictionaries Oxford University Press 2012 Quote 1 real self of the individual 2 a person s soul b John Bowker 2000 The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 280094 7 See entry for Atman c WJ Johnson 2009 A Dictionary of Hinduism Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 861025 0 See entry for Atman self a b David Lorenzen 2004 The Hindu World Editors Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby Routledge ISBN 0 415 21527 7 pp 208 09 Quote Advaita and nirguni movements on the other hand stress an interior mysticism in which the devotee seeks to discover the identity of individual soul atman with the universal ground of being brahman or to find god within himself Chad Meister 2010 The Oxford Handbook of Religious Diversity Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 534013 6 p 63 Quote Even though Buddhism explicitly rejected the Hindu ideas of Atman soul and Brahman Hinduism treats Sakyamuni Buddha as one of the ten avatars of Vishnu Deussen Paul and Geden A S The Philosophy of the Upanishads Cosimo Classics 1 June 2010 p 86 ISBN 1 61640 240 7 Richard King 1995 Early Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0 7914 2513 8 p 64 Quote Atman as the innermost essence or soul of man and Brahman as the innermost essence and support of the universe Thus we can see in the Upanishads a tendency towards a convergence of microcosm and macrocosm culminating in the equating of atman with Brahman K N Jayatilleke 2010 Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge ISBN 978 81 208 0619 1 pp 246 49 from note 385 onwards Steven Collins 1994 Religion and Practical Reason Editors Frank Reynolds David Tracy State Univ of New York Press ISBN 978 0 7914 2217 5 p 64 Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not self Pali anatta Sanskrit anatman the opposed doctrine of atman is central to Brahmanical thought Put very briefly this is the Buddhist doctrine that human beings have no soul no self no unchanging essence Edward Roer Translator Shankara s Introduction p 2 at Google Books to Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad pp 2 4 Katie Javanaud 2013 Is The Buddhist No Self Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana Archived 6 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine Philosophy Now Matthew Hall 2011 Plants as Persons A Philosophical Botany State University of New York Press p 76 ISBN 978 1 4384 3430 8 a b 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Netherlands p 594 doi 10 1007 978 94 024 0852 2 100397 ISBN 978 94 024 0851 5 Sangave Vilas Adinath 2001 Aspects of Jaina religion 3 ed Bharatiya Jnanpith pp 15 16 ISBN 81 263 0626 2 Forgotten Gandhi Virchand Gandhi 1864 1901 Advocate of Universal Brotherhood All Famous Quotes Archived from the original on 21 September 2013 Zohar Rayah Mehemna Terumah 158b See Leibowitz Aryeh 2018 The Neshamah A Study of the Human Soul Feldheim Publishers pp 27 110 ISBN 1 68025 338 7 The only person mentioned in the Torah celebrating birthday party is the wicked pharaoh of Egypt Genesis 40 20 22 About Jewish Birthdays Judaism 101 Aish com Archived from the original on 22 August 2013 Retrieved 11 July 2013 Soul jewishencyclopedia com Archived from the original on 8 March 2016 Nurturing The Human Soul From Cradle To Grave Chizuk Shaya Dvar Torah Resource 6 January 2013 Retrieved 10 June 2022 a b c Views on Heaven or Hell Individuals as Eternal Spiritual Beings Official Church of Scientology Official 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Merkur Daniel 1985 Becoming Half Hidden Shamanism and Initiation among the Inuit Stockholm Almqvist amp Wiksell pp 61 222 223 226 240 ISBN 91 22 00752 0 Kulmar Tarmo in Estonian Conceptions of soul in old Estonian religion a b c Tan Michael L 2008 Revisiting Usog Pasma Kulam University of the Philippines Press ISBN 9789715425704 a b Clifford Sather 2018 A work of love Awareness and expressions of emotion in a Borneo healing ritual In James J Fox ed Expressions of Austronesian Thought and Emotions ANU Press pp 57 63 ISBN 9781760461928 Harrell Stevan 1979 The Concept of Soul in Chinese Folk Religion The Journal of Asian Studies 38 3 519 528 doi 10 2307 2053785 JSTOR 2053785 S2CID 162507447 a b c McClelland Norman C 2010 Encyclopedia of Reincarnation and Karma McFarland amp Company Inc pp 251 258 ISBN 978 0 7864 4851 7 Hoppal Mihaly 1994 Samanok Lelkek es jelkepek Shamans Souls and symbols Budapest Helikon Kiado p 225 ISBN 963 208 298 2 Yu Jose Vidamor B 2000 Inculturation of Filipino Chinese Culture Mentality Interreligious and Intercultural Investigations Vol 3 Editrice Pontifica Universita Gregoriana pp 148 149 ISBN 9788876528484 Robert Blust Stephen Trussel du Austronesian Comparative Dictionary Retrieved 7 July 2018 Leonardo N Mercado 1991 Soul and Spirit in Filipino Thought Philippine Studies 39 3 287 302 JSTOR 42633258 Zeus A Salazar 2007 Faith healing in the Philippines An historical perspective PDF Asian Studies 43 2v 1 15 Kleivan amp Sonne 1985 pp 17 18 Gabus 1970 p 211 SGGS M 1 p 1153 SGGS M 4 p 1325 SGGS M 1 p 1030 Encyclopedia of Death and Dying 2008 Deathreference com Archived from the original on 5 November 2011 Retrieved 13 November 2011 Ginzberg Louis 1909 The Legends of the Jews Vol I Chapter II Adam Archived 1 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine Translated by Henrietta Szold Philadelphia Jewish Publication Society Citation God had fashioned his Adam s soul with particular care She is the image of God and as God fills the world so the soul fills the human body as God sees all things and is seen by none so the soul sees but cannot be seen as God guides the world so the soul guides the body as God in His holiness is pure so is the soul and as God dwells in secret so doth the soul Ginzberg Louis 1909 The Legends of the Jews Vol I Chapter II The Soul of Man Archived 1 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine Translated by Henrietta Szold Philadelphia Jewish Publication Society Ramsay Tamasin September 2010 Custodians of Purity An Ethnography of the Brahma Kumaris Thesis Monash University p 105 Creeger Rudolf Steiner translated by Catherine E 1994 Theosophy an introduction to the spiritual processes in human life and in the cosmos 3rd ed Hudson NY Anthroposophic Press pp 42 46 ISBN 978 0 88010 373 2 Baba Meher 1987 Discourses Myrtle Beach SC Sheriar Press p 222 ISBN 978 1 880619 09 4 Klemp H 2009 The call of soul Minneapolis MN Eckankar Gurdjieff George Ivanovitch 25 February 1999 Life is real only then when I am London ISBN 978 0 14 019585 9 OCLC 41073474 Soul noun Oxford English Dictionary Online ed Oxford University Press Retrieved 1 December 2016 Subscription or participating institution membership required Lorenz Hendrik 2009 Zalta Edward N ed The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Summer 2009 ed Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University Francis M Cornford Greek Religious Thought p 64 referring to Pindar Fragment 131 Erwin Rohde Psyche 1928 a b c Campbell Douglas 2021 Self Motion and Cognition Plato s Theory of the Soul The Southern Journal of Philosophy 59 523 544 Jones David 2009 The Gift of Logos Essays in Continental Philosophy Cambridge Scholars Publishing pp 33 35 ISBN 978 1 4438 1825 4 Retrieved 23 February 2016 Cornford Francis 1941 The Republic of Plato Oxford Oxford University Press pp xxv Campbell Douglas 2021 Self Motion and Cognition Plato s Theory of the Soul The Southern Journal of Philosophy 59 523 544 Plato Republic Book 1 353d Translation found in Campbell 2021 523 Broadie Sarah 2001 Soul and Body in Plato and Descartes Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 101 295 308 Frede Dorothea 1978 The Final Proof of the Immortality of the Soul in Plato s Phaedo 102a 107a Phronesis 23 1 27 41 Aristotle On The Soul p 412b5 Aristotle Physics Book VIII Chapter 5 pp 256a5 22 Aristotle Nicomachean Ethics Book I Chapter 7 pp 1098a7 17 Aristotle Physics Book III Chapter 1 pp 201a10 25 Aristotle On The Soul Book III Chapter 5 pp 430a24 25 Shields Christopher 2011 supplement The Active Mind of De Anima iii 5 Aristotle s Psychology The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Retrieved 12 December 2013 Smith J S Trans 1973 Introduction to Aristotle Chicago University of Chicago Press pp 155 59 Nahyan A G Fancy 2006 Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection The Interaction of Medicine Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al Nafis d 1288 pp 209 10 Electronic Theses and Dissertations University of Notre Dame Arabic and Islamic Psychology and Philosophy of Mind Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 29 May 2012 Floating Man The Art and Popular Culture Encyclopedia www artandpopularculture com Archived from the original on 26 April 2018 Retrieved 25 April 2018 Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Oliver Leaman 1996 History of Islamic Philosophy p 315 Routledge ISBN 0 415 13159 6 Nahyan A G Fancy 2006 Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection The Interaction of Medicine Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al Nafis d 1288 Electronic Theses and Dissertations University of Notre Dame Thesis University of Notre Dame pp 209 210 Archived from the original on 4 April 2015 Aquinas Thomas Quaestiones Disputatae de Veritate in Latin Archived from the original on 4 March 2016 Retrieved 23 February 2016 Aquinas Thomas Super Boetium De Trinitate in Latin Archived from the original on 4 March 2016 Retrieved 23 February 2016 Cited in Summa Th 1 118 2 Objection 4 Summa Theologiae of St Thomas Aquinas Pars I Quaestio 76 Article 3 Whether besides the intellectual soul there are in man other souls essentially different from one another Translated by Fathers of the English Dominican Province 1920 Full citation of the canon Nor do we say that there are two souls in one man as James and other Syrians write one animal by which the body is animated and which is mingled with the blood the other spiritual which obeys the reason but we say that it is one and the same soul in man that both gives life to the body by being united to it and orders itself by its own reasoning Summa th Pars I Quaestion 76 Article 3 Reply to Objection 1 Immanuel Kant proposed the existence of certain mathematical truths 2 2 4 m that are not tied to matter or soul Bishop Paul 2000 Synchronicity and Intellectual Intuition in Kant Swedenborg and Jung Lewiston New York Edwin Mellen Press pp 262 67 ISBN 978 0 7734 7593 9 Ryle Gilbert 1949 The Concept of Mind University of Chicago Press Rank Otto 1950 Psychology and the Soul Otto Rank s Seelenglaube und Psychologie translated by William D Turner Philadelphia p 11 Becker Ernest 1973 The Denial of Death New York Simon amp Schuster p 76 ISBN 0 684 83240 2 a b Musolino Julien 2015 The Soul Fallacy What Science Shows We Gain from Letting Go of Our Soul Beliefs Amherst New York Prometheus Books pp 21 38 ISBN 978 1 61614 962 8 a b Santoro G Wood MD Merlo L Anastasi GP Tomasello F Germano A October 2009 The anatomic location of the soul from the heart through the brain to the whole body and beyond a journey through Western history science and philosophy Neurosurgery 65 4 633 43 discussion 643 doi 10 1227 01 NEU 0000349750 22332 6A PMID 19834368 S2CID 27566267 O Carter Snead Cognitive Neuroscience and the Future of Punishment Archived 5 November 2014 at the Wayback Machine 2010 Kandel ER Schwartz JH Jessell TM Siegelbaum SA Hudspeth AJ Principles of Neural Science Fifth Edition 2012 Andrea Eugenio Cavanna Andrea Nani Hal Blumenfeld Steven Laureys Neuroimaging of Consciousness 2013 Farah Martha J Murphy Nancey February 2009 Neuroscience and the Soul Science 323 5918 1168 doi 10 1126 science 323 5918 1168a PMID 19251609 S2CID 6636610 Max Velmans Susan Schneider The Blackwell Companion to Consciousness 2008 p 560 Matt Carter Jennifer C Shieh Guide to Research Techniques in Neuroscience 2009 Squire L et al Fundamental Neuroscience 4th edition 2012 Chapter 43 Carroll Sean M 2011 Physics and the Immortality of the Soul Archived 6 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine Scientific American Retrieved 2014 10 11 Clarke Peter 2014 Neuroscience Quantum Indeterminism and the Cartesian Soul Archived 10 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine Brain and cognition 84 109 17 Milbourne Christopher 1979 Search for the Soul An Insider s Report on the Continuing Quest by Psychics and Scientists for Evidence of Life After Death Thomas Y Crowell Publishers Mary Roach 2010 Spook Science Tackles the Afterlife Canongate Books Ltd ISBN 978 1 84767 080 9 MacDougall Duncan 1907 The Soul Hypothesis Concerning Soul Substance Together with Experimental Evidence of the Existence of Such Substance American Medicine New Series 2 240 43 How much does the soul weights Live Science December 2012 Archived from the original on 28 April 2016 Park Robert L 2009 Superstition Belief in the Age of Science Princeton University Press p 90 ISBN 978 0 691 13355 3 Hood Bruce 2009 Supersense From Superstition to Religion The Brain Science of Belief Constable p 165 ISBN 978 1 84901 030 6Further reading EditBatchelor Stephen 1998 Buddhism Without Beliefs Bloomsbury Publishing Bellarmine Robert 1902 Sermon 47 The Value of the Soul Sermons from the Latins Benziger Brothers Bremmer Jan 1983 The Early Greek Concept of the Soul Princeton Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 03131 6 Retrieved 16 August 2007 Chalmers David J 1996 The Conscious Mind In Search of a Fundamental Theory New York and Oxford Oxford University Press Christopher Milbourne 1979 Search for the Soul An Insider s Report on the Continuing Quest By Psychics amp Scientists For Evidence of Life After Death Thomas Y Crowell Publishers Clarke Peter 2014 Neuroscience Quantum Indeterminism and the Cartesian Soul Brain and Cognition 84 1 109 17 doi 10 1016 j bandc 2013 11 008 PMID 24355546 S2CID 895046 Hood Bruce 2009 Supersense From Superstition to Religion The Brain Science of Belief Constable ISBN 978 1 84901 030 6 McGraw John J 2004 Brain amp Belief An Exploration of the Human Soul Aegis Press Martin Michael Augustine Keith 2015 The Myth of an Afterlife The Case against Life After Death Rowman amp Littlefield ISBN 978 0 8108 8677 3 Park Robert L 2009 Superstition Belief in the Age of Science Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 13355 3 Rohde Erwin 1925 Psyche The Cult of Souls and Belief in Immortality Among the Greeks London Kegan Paul Trench Trubner amp Co Ltd Ryle Gilbert 1949 The Concept of Mind London Hutchinson Spenard Michael 2011 Dueling with Dualism the forlorn quest for the immaterial soul essay An historical account of mind body duality and a comprehensive conceptual and empirical critique on the position ISBN 978 0 578 08288 2 Swinburne Richard 1997 The Evolution of the Soul Oxford Oxford University Press Leibowitz Aryeh 2018 The Neshama A Study of the Human Soul Feldheim Publishers ISBN 1 68025 338 7 Kleivan Inge Sonne B 1985 Arctic peoples Eskimos Greenland and Canada Institute of Religious Iconography Iconography of religions Leiden The Netherland State University Groningen via E J Brill section VIII fascicle 2 ISBN 90 04 07160 1 Gabus Jean 1970 A karibu eszkimok in Hungarian Budapest Gondolat Kiado Translation of the original Gabus Jean 1944 Vie et coutumes des Esquimaux Caribous Libraire Payot Lausanne External links Edit Wikiquote has quotations related to Soul Wikimedia Commons has media related to Soul Quantum Theory Won t Save The Soul What Science Really Says About the Soul by Stephen Cave Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Ancient Theories of the Soul The soul in Judaism at Chabad org The Old Testament Concept of the Soul by Heinrich J Vogel Body Soul and Spirit Article in the Journal of Biblical Accuracy Is Another Human Living Inside You Herbermann Charles ed 1913 Soul Catholic Encyclopedia New York Robert Appleton Company The Soul BBC Radio 4 discussion with Richard Sorabji Ruth Padel and Martin Palmer In Our Time 6 June 2002 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Soul amp oldid 1136218035, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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