Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab
Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab ibn Sulayman al-Tamimi (Arabic: محمد بن عبد الوهاب بن سليمان, romanized: Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb ibn Sulaymān al-Tamīmī; 1703–1792) was an Arabian Islamic scholar, theologian, preacher, activist,[11] religious leader,[9] and reformer[12] from Najd in central Arabia, considered as the eponymous founder of the Wahhabi movement.[13][14][15][16] His prominent students included his sons Ḥusayn, Abdullāh, ʿAlī, and Ibrāhīm, his grandson ʿAbdur-Raḥman ibn Ḥasan, his son-in-law ʿAbdul-ʿAzīz ibn Muḥammad ibn Saʿūd, Ḥamād ibn Nāṣir ibn Muʿammar, and Ḥusayn āl-Ghannām.
Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb al-Tamīmī | |
|---|---|
محمد بن عبد الوهاب التميمي | |
Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb's name in Islamic calligraphy | |
| Chief Qadi of the Emirate of Dir'iyah | |
| In office 1744 C.E (1157 A.H) – 1773 C.E (1187 A.H) | |
| Succeeded by | Abdullah ibn Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab |
| Title | Imam, Shaykh |
| Personal | |
| Born | 1703 (1115 A.H) |
| Died | 1792 (aged 88–89) (1206 AH) |
| Religion | Islam |
| Children | List
|
| Denomination | Sunni |
| Jurisprudence | Hanbali,[2] Ahl al-Ḥadīth/Independent[3] |
| Creed | Atharī[4] |
| Movement | Muwahhidun (Wahhabi)[5] |
| Main interest(s) | ʿAqīdah (Islamic theology) |
| Notable work(s) | Kitāb at-Tawḥīd (Arabic: كتاب التوحيد; "The Book of Monotheism")[6] |
| Relatives | Sulayman (brother) |
| Muslim leader | |
| Arabic name | |
| Personal (Ism) | Muḥammad |
| Patronymic (Nasab) | ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb ibn Sulaymān ibn ʿAlī ibn Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rāshid |
| Teknonymic (Kunya) | Abū al-Ḥasan |
| Epithet (Laqab) | an-Najdī |
| Toponymic (Nisba) | at-Tamīmī |
The label "Wahhabi" is not claimed by his followers but rather employed by Western scholars as well as his critics.[9][17][18][19] Born to a family of jurists,[20] Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's early education consisted of learning a fairly standard curriculum of orthodox jurisprudence according to the Hanbali school of Islamic law, which was the school most prevalent in his area of birth.[20] He promoted strict adherence to traditional Islamic law, proclaiming the necessity of returning directly to the Quran and ḥadīth literature rather than relying on medieval interpretations, and insisted that every Muslim – male and female – personally read and study the Quran.[21] He opposed taqlid (following) and called for the use of ijtihad (independent legal reasoning through research of scripture).[22][23] Being given initial rudimentary training in classical Sunni Muslim tradition, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab gradually became opposed to many popular, yet contested, religious practices such as the visitation to and veneration of the shrines and tombs of Muslim saints,[24][20][25][26] which he felt amounted to heretical religious innovation or even idolatry.[20][25][27][26][28] His call for social reform in society was based on the key doctrine of tawhid (oneness of God), and was greatly inspired by the treatises of classical scholars Ibn Taymiyya (d. 728 A.H/ 1328 C.E) and Ibn Qayyim (d. 751 A.H/ 1350 C.E).[19][29][30][31]
Despite his teachings being rejected and opposed by various critics amongst the contemporary Sunni clergy,[7][20][28][32] such as his own father and brother,[7][20][28][32][33] Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab charted a religio-political pact with Muhammad bin Saud to help him to establish the Emirate of Diriyah, the first Saudi state,[24][34] and began a dynastic alliance and power-sharing arrangement between their families which continues to the present day in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.[24][9][35] The Al ash-Sheikh, Saudi Arabia's leading religious family, are the descendants of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab,[9][19][35] and have historically led the ulama in the Saudi state,[35][36] dominating the state's clerical institutions.[35][37]
Early years
Background
Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab is generally acknowledged to have been born in 1703[20][38] into the sedentary and impoverished Arab clan of Banu Tamim[39][40] in 'Uyayna, a village in the Najd region of central Arabia.[38][41] Before the emergence of the Wahhabi movement, there was a very limited history of Islamic education in the area.[40][42] For this reason, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab had modest access to Islamic education during his youth.[40] Despite this,[40][43][44][45] the area had nevertheless produced several notable jurists of the Hanbali school of orthodox Sunni jurisprudence, which was the school of law most prominently practiced in the area.[20] In fact, Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab's own family "had produced several doctors of the school,"[20] with his father, ʿAbd al-Wahhāb, having been the Hanbali jurisconsult of the Najd and his grandfather, Sulaymān, having been a judge of Hanbali law.[20]
Early studies
Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab's early education was taught by his father,[20] and consisted of learning the Quran by heart and studying a rudimentary level of Hanbali jurisprudence and Islamic theology as outlined in the works of Ibn Qudamah (d. 1223), one of the most influential medieval representatives of the Hanbali school, whose works were regarded "as having great authority" in the Najd.[20] The affirmation of Islamic sainthood and the ability of saints to perform miracles (karamat) by the grace of God had become a major aspect of Sunni Muslim belief throughout the Islamic world, being agreed-upon by majority of the classical Islamic scholars.[46][47][48][49] Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab had encountered various excessive beliefs and practices associated with saint-veneration and saint-cults which were prevalent in his area. During that era, various supernatural rituals and beliefs associated with magic, superstitions, occultism, numerology, etc. had become predominant across numerous towns and villages of Arabian Peninsula. He probably chose to leave Najd and look elsewhere for studies to see if such beliefs and rituals were as popular in the neighboring places of the Muslim world or the possibility that his home town offered inadequate educational resources. Even today, the reasoning for why he left Najd is unclear.[20][50]
Travels
Pilgrimage to Mecca
After leaving 'Uyayna around the age of twenty, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab performed the Greater Pilgrimage in Mecca, where the scholars appear to have held opinions and espoused teachings that were unpalatable to him.[20] After this, he went to Medina, the stay at which seems to have been "decisive in shaping the later direction of his thought."[20] In Medina, he met a Hanbali theologian from Najd named ʿAbd Allāh ibn Ibrāhīm al-Najdī, who had been a supporter of the works of Ibn Taymiyyah (d. 1328), the controversial medieval scholar whose teachings had been considered heterodox and misguided on several important points by the vast majority of Sunni Muslim scholars up to that point in history.[51][52][53][54]
Tutelage under Al-Sindhi
Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teacher, 'Abdallah ibn Ibrahim ibn Sayf, introduced the relatively young man to Mohammad Hayya Al-Sindhi in Medina, who belonged to the Naqshbandi order (tariqa) of Sufism,[55][56] and recommended him as a student.[57][58][59] Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab and al-Sindhi became very close, and Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab stayed with him for some time.[57] Muhammad Hayya taught Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab to reject popular religious practices associated with walis and their tombs. He also encouraged him to reject rigid imitation (Taqlid) of medieval legal commentaries and develop individual research of scriptures (Ijtihad).[57] Influenced by Al-Sindi's teachings, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab became critical of the established Madh'hab system, prompting him to disregard the instruments of Usul al-Fiqh in his intellectual approach. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab rarely made use of Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and various legal opinions in his writings, by and large forming views based on his direct understanding of Scriptures.[60]
Apart from his emphasis on hadith studies, aversion for the madhhab system and disregard for technical juristic discussions involving legal principles, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhāb's views on ziyārah (visitations to the shrines of Awliyaa) were also shaped by Al-Sindhi. Sindi encouraged his student to reject folk practices associated with graves and saints.[61] Various themes in Al-Sindi's writings, such as his opposition to erecting tombs and drawing human images, would be revived later by the Wahhabi movement.[62] Sindi instilled in Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab the belief that practices like beseeching the dead saints constituted apostasy and resembled the customs of the people of Jahiliyya (pre-Islamic era).[63] In a significant encounter between a young Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab and Al-Sindhi reported by the Najdi historian 'Uthman Ibn Bishr (d. 1288 A.H./ 1871/2 C.E.):
"... one day Shaykh Muḥammad [Ibn 'Abdi'l-Wahhāb] stood by the chamber of the Prophet where people were calling [upon him or supplicating] and seeking help by the Prophet's chamber, blessings and peace be upon him. He then saw Muḥammad Ḥayāt [al Sindī] and came to him. The shaykh [Ibn 'Abdi'l-Wahhāb] asked, "What do you say about them?" He [al-Sindī] said, "Verily that in which they are engaged shall be destroyed and their acts are invalid.""[64]
Journey to Basra
Following his early education in Medina, Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab traveled outside of the Arabian Peninsula, venturing first to Basra[43][65] which was still an active center of Islamic culture.[20] During his stay in Basra, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab studied Hadith and Fiqh under the Islamic scholar Muhammad al-Majmu'i. In Basra, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab came into contact with Shi'is and would write a treatise repudiating the theological doctrines of Rafidah, an extreme sect of Shiism. He also became influenced by the writings of Hanbali theologian Ibn Rajab (d. 1393 C.E/ 795 A.H) such as "Kalimat al-Ikhlas" which inspired Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's seminal treatise "Kitab al-Tawhid".[66][67]
Return to 'Uyaynah
Early preaching
His leave from Basra marked the end of his education and by the time of his return to 'Uyayna, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab had mastered various religious disciplines such as Islamic Fiqh (jurisprudence), theology, hadith sciences and Tasawwuf. His exposure to various practices centered around the cult of saints and grave veneration would eventually propel Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab to grow critical of Sufi superstitious accretions and practices.[68][69] Rather than targeting "Sufism" as a phenomenon or a group, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab denounced particular practices which he considered sinful.[70] He fashioned his reformist campaign in a manner that appealed to the socio-cultural dynamics of 18th century Arabia.[71] Many of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's scholarly treatises, pamphlets and speeches appropriated idioms of local Arab dialects, monologues of vernacular poetry and catchphrases of folk culture into his religious discourse.[72]
As a gifted communicator with a talent for breaking down his ideas into shorter units, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab entitled his treatises with terms such as qawāʿid ("principles"), masāʾil ("matters"), kalimāt ("phrases"), or uṣūl ("foundations"), simplifying his texts point by point for mass reading.[73] Calling upon the people to follow his call for religious revival (tajdid ) based on following the founding texts and the authoritative practices of the first generations of Muslims, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab declared:
"I do not - God be blessed - conform to any particular sufi order or faqih, nor follow the course of any speculative theologian (mutakalim) or any other Imam for that matter, not even such dignitaries as ibn al-Qayyim, al-Dhahabi, or ibn Kathir, I summon you only to God, and Only Him as well as observe the path laid by His Prophet, God's messenger."[74][75]
Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's call gradually began to attract followers, including the ruler of 'Uyayna, Uthman ibn Mu'ammar. Upon returning to Huraymila, where his father had settled, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab wrote his first work on the Unity of God.[20] With Ibn Mu'ammar, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab agreed to support Ibn Mu'ammar's political ambitions to expand his rule "over Najd and possibly beyond", in exchange for the ruler's support for Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's religious teachings. During the early years of preaching, he criticised various folk practices and superstitions peacefully through sermons. Starting from 1742, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab would shift towards an activist stance; and began to implement his reformist ideas.[76] First, he persuaded Ibn Mu'ammar to help him level the tomb of Zayd ibn al-Khattab, a companion of Muhammad, whose shrine was revered by locals. Secondly, he ordered the cutting down of trees considered sacred by locals, cutting down "the most glorified of all of the trees" himself. Third, he organized the stoning of a woman who confessed to having committed adultery.[77][78]
These actions gained the attention of Sulaiman ibn Muhammad ibn Ghurayr of the tribe of Bani Khalid, the chief of Al-Hasa and Qatif, who held substantial influence in Najd. Ibn Ghurayr threatened Ibn Mu'ammar by denying him the ability to collect a land tax for some properties that Ibn Mu'ammar owned in Al-Hasa if he did not kill or drive away from Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab. Consequently, Ibn Mu'ammar forced Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab to leave.[78][79]
The early Wahhabis had been protected by Ibn Mu'ammar in 'Uyayna, despite being persecuted in other settlements. As soon as Ibn Mu'ammar disowned them, Wahhabis were subject to excommunication (Takfir); exposing themselves to loss of lives and property. This experience of suffering reminded them of the Mihna against Ahmad Ibn Hanbal and his followers, and shaped the collective Wahhabi memory. As late as 1749, the sharif of Mecca imprisoned those Wahhabis who went to Mecca to perform the Hajj (annual pilgrimage).[80]
Pact with Muhammad bin Saud
Upon his expulsion from 'Uyayna, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab was invited to settle in neighboring Diriyah by its ruler Muhammad ibn Saud Al Muqrin. After some time in Diriyah, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab concluded his second and more successful agreement with a ruler.[81] Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab and Muhammad bin Saud agreed that, together, they would bring the Arabs of the peninsula back to the "true" principles of Islam as they saw it. According to the anonymous author of Lam al-Shihab (Brilliance of the Meteor), when they first met, Ibn Saud declared:
"This oasis is yours, do not fear your enemies. By the name of God, if all Nejd was summoned to throw you out, we will never agree to expel you."[82]
Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab replied:
"You are the settlement's chief and wise man. I want you to grant me an oath that you will perform jihad against the unbelievers. In return, you will be imam, leader of the Muslim community and I will be leader in religious matters."[83]
The agreement was confirmed with a mutual oath of loyalty (bay'ah) in 1744.[84] Once Al-Sa'ud made Dir'iyya a safe haven, Wahhabis from other towns took refuge. These included dissenters from Ibn Mu'ammar clan who had sworn allegiance to Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab. The nucleus of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's supporters all across Najd retreated to Dir'iyyah and formed the vanguard of the insurgency launched by Al-Saud against other towns.[85]
From a person who started his career as a lone activist, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab would become the spiritual guide of the nascent Emirate of Muhammad ibn Saud Al-Muqrin.[86] Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab would be responsible for religious matters and Ibn Saud in charge of political and military issues.[81] This agreement became a "mutual support pact"[87][88] and power-sharing arrangement[89] between the Aal Saud family, and the Aal ash-Sheikh and followers of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, which had remained in place for nearly 300 years,[90] providing the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion.[91] Reviving the teachings of Ibn Taymiyya, the Muwaḥḥidūn (Unitarian) movement emphasized strict adherence to Qur'an and Sunnah; while simultaneously championing the conception of an Islamic state based on the model of early Muslim community in Medina. Meanwhile, it's Muslim and Western opponents derogatorily labelled the movement as the "Wahhābiyyah" ( anglicised as "Wahhabism" ).[92][93][94]
Rise of Emirate of Dir'iyyah
The 1744 pact between Muhammad ibn Saud and Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab marked the rise of the First Saudi state, the Emirate of Diriyah, which was established in 1727. By offering the Al-Saud a clearly defined religious mission, the alliance provided the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion.[37] Deducing from his bitter experiences in 'Uyaynah, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab had understood the necessity of political backing from a strong Islamic political entity to transform the local socio-religious status quo and also safeguard Wahhabism's territorial base from external pressure. After consolidating his position in Diriyah, he wrote to the rulers and clerics of other towns; appealing them to embrace his doctrines. While some heeded his calls, others rejected it; accusing him of ignorance or sorcery.[95]
War with Riyadh (1746–1773)
Realising the significance of efficient religious preaching (da'wa), Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab called upon his students to master the path of reasoning and proselytising over warfare to convince other Muslims of their reformist endeavour.[96] Between 1744 and 1746, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's preaching continued in the same non-violent manner as before and spread widely across the people of Najd. Rulers of various towns across Najd pledged their allegiance to Ibn Suʿūd. This situation changed drastically around 1158/1746; when the powerful anti-Wahhabi chieftain of Riyadh, Dahhām ibn Dawwās (fl. 1187/1773), attacked the town of Manfuha which had pledged allegiance to Diriyah. This would spark a nearly 30-year long between Diriyah and Riyadh, which lasted until 1187/1773, barring some interruptions.[97] First conquering Najd, Muhammad ibn Saud's forces expanded the Wahhabi influence to most of the present-day territory of Saudi Arabia,[37] eradicating various popular practices they viewed as akin to polytheism and propagating the doctrines of ʿAbd al-Wahhab.[37][98]
Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb maintained that the military campaigns of the Emirate of Dirʿiyya were strictly defensive and rebuked his opponents as being the first to initiate Takfir (excommunication).[99] Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab had defined jihad as an activity that must have a valid religious justification and which can only be declared by an Imam whose purpose must be strictly defensive in nature.[100] Justifying the Wahhabi military campaigns as defensive operations against their enemies, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab asserts:
"As for warfare, until today, we did not fight anyone, except in defense of our lives and honor. They came to us in our area and did not spare any effort in fighting us. We only initiated fighting against some of them in retaliation for their continued aggression, [The recompense for an evil is an evil like thereof] (42:40)... they are the ones who started declaring us to be unbelievers and fighting us"[101][102]
Rebellion in Huraymila (1752–1755)
In 1753–4, the Wahhabis were confronted by an alarming number of towns renouncing allegiance and aligning with their opponents. Most prominent amongst these was the town of Huraymila, which had pledged allegiance to Dir'iyah in 1747. However, by 1752, a group of rebels encouraged by Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb's brother, Sulaymān, had initiated a coup in Huraymila and installed a new ruler that threatened to topple the Wahhābī order. A fierce war between Diriyah and Huraymila began in a magnitude that was unprecedented. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab held a convocation of Wahhabis from all the settlements across Najd. Reviewing the recent desertions and defeats, he encouraged them to hold fast to their faith and recommit to the struggle.[103][104]
The ensuing battles and the re-capture of Huraymila in 1168/1755, constituted a significant development in Wahhabi expansionist stage. Abd al-Azeez, the son of Muhammad ibn Saud, had emerged as the principal leader of the Wahhabi military operations. Alongside a force of 800 men, accompanied by an additional 200 under the command of the deposed ruler of Huraymila, Abd al Azeez was able to subdue the rebels. More significantly, the rationale behind the campaign was based on Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb's newly written epistle Mufīd al-mustafīd, which marked a shift from the earlier posture of defensive Jihad to justify a more aggressive one. In the treatise, compiled to justify Jihad pursued by Dir'iyyah and its allies, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab excommunicated the inhabitants of Huraymila and declared it as a duty of Wahhabi soldiers to fight them as apostates. He also quoted several Qur'anic verses indicative of offensive forms of jihād.[105]
Capture of Riyadh and Retirement (1773)
The last point of serious threat to the Saudi state was in 1764-1765. During this period, the Ismāʿīlī Shīʿa of Najrān alongside their allied tribe of 'Ujman, combined forces to inflict a major defeat on the Saudis at the Battle of Hair in October 1764, killing around 500 men. The anti-Wahhabi forces allied with the invaders and participated in the combined siege of Dirʿiyya. However, the defenders were able to hold onto their town due to the unexpected departure of the Najranis after a truce concluded with the Saudis. A decade later in 1773-'4, 'Abd al-Azeez had conquered Riyadh and secured the entirety of al-ʿĀriḍ, after its chieftain Dahham ibn Dawwas fled. By 1776/7, Sulayman ibn Abd al-Wahhab had surrendered. The capture of Riyadh marked the point at which Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab delegated all affairs of governing to 'Abd al-Azeez, withdrew from public life and devoted himself to teaching, preaching and worshipping. Meanwhile, 'Abd al-Azeez would proceed with his military campaigns, conquering towns like Sudayr (1196/1781), al-Kharj (1199/1784), etc. Opposition in towns to the North like al-Qaṣīm was stamped out by 1196/1781, and the rebels in ʿUnayza were subdued by 1202/1787. Further north, the town of Ḥāʾil, was captured in 1201/1786 and by the 1780s; Wahhābīs were able to establish their jurisdiction over most of Najd.[106][107][108]
Death
After his departure from public affairs, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab would remain a consultant to 'Abd al-Azeez, who followed his recommendations. However, he withdrew from any active military and political activities of the Emirate of Diriyah and devoted himself to educational endeavours, preaching, and worship. His last major activity in state affairs was in 1202/1787; when he called on the people to give bay'ah (allegiance) to Suʿūd, ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz's son, as heir apparent.
Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab fell ill and died in June 1792 C.E or 1206 A.H in the lunar month of Dhul-Qa'dah, at the age of eighty-nine. He was buried in an unmarked grave at al-Turayf in al-Dir'iyya.[109][110][111][112] He left behind four daughters and six sons. Many of his sons became clerics of greater or lesser distinction. The descendants of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab are known as the Aal Ash-Shaykhs and they continued to hold a special position in the Saudi state throughout its history, which still continues.
A clear separation of roles between the Saudi family and the Wahhabi clerics had begun to emerge during the interval between Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's retirement from front-line politics in 1773 and his death in 1792. Although the Aal Ash-Shaykhs did not engage in politics, they comprised a significant part of the designating group of notables who gave allegiance (bay'ah) to a new ruler and acclaimed his accession. After Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, his son 'Abd Allah, recognised by his critics as moderate and fair-minded, would succeed him as the dominant Wahhabi cleric. The Wahhabi cause would flourish for more than two decades after Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's death; until the defeat of the First Saudi State in the Ottoman-Saudi war. 'Abd Allah would spend his last days as an exile in Cairo, having witnessed the destruction of Dirʿiyya and the execution of his talented son Sulayman ibn 'Abd Allah in 1818.[113][114]
Family
According to academic publications such as the Encyclopædia Britannica, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab married an affluent woman during his studies in Baghdad. When she died, he inherited her property and wealth.[115][116] Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab had six sons; Hussain (died 1809), 'Abdallah (1751–1829), Hassan, Ali (died 1829), Ibrahim and 'Abdulazeez[117] who died in his youth. Four of his sons, Hussain, Abdullah, Ali and Ibrahim, established religious schools close to their home in Dir'iyah and taught the young students from Yemen, Oman, Najd and other parts of Arabia at their majlis (study circle).[117] One of their pupils was Husayn Ibn Abu Bakr Ibn Ghannam, a well-known Hanbali scholar and chronicler.[117] (Although Islamic scholar ibn 'Uthaymin writes about Ibn Ghannam that he was a Maliki scholar from al-Ahsa.)
Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab also had a daughter named Fatimah, who was a revered Islamic scholar known for her piety, valour and beauty. She was a committed adherent to her father's reformist ideals and taught numerous men and women. Fatimah travelled a lot and remained unmarried throughout her life inorder to research hadith sciences and concentrate on her scholarly endeavours. She witnessed the Fall of Dir'iyah and fled to Ras al-Khaimah in 1818; which was captured by the British the following year. As a result, she was again forced to emigrate along with her nephew; this time to Oman, wherein she became a major proponent of reformist teachings of the Muwahhidun and campaigned against various superstitions. Fatimah returned to Riyadh after the establishment of Emirate of Nejd in 1824. Due to her travels, she was often referred to by her appellation "Lady of the Two Migrations". As the daughter of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, Fatimah became a role model for Arabian women active in educational efforts and various social undertakings.[118][119]
The descendants of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, the Al ash-Sheikh, have historically led the ulama (clerical establishment) of the Saudi state,[36] dominating the state's religious institutions.[37] Within Saudi Arabia, the family is held in prestige similar to the Saudi royal family, with whom they share power, and has included several religious scholars and officials.[120] The arrangement between the two families is based on the Al Saud maintaining the Al ash-Sheikh's authority in religious matters and upholding and propagating the Salafi doctrine. In return, the Al ash-Sheikh support the Al Saud's political authority[121] thereby using its religious-moral authority to legitimize the royal family's rule.[122]
Views
On Tawhid
Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab sought to revive and purify Islam from what he perceived as non-Islamic popular religious beliefs and practices by returning to what, he believed, were the fundamental principles of the Islamic religion. His works were generally short, full of quotations from the Qur'an and Hadith, such as his main and foremost theological treatise, Kitāb at-Tawḥīd (Arabic: كتاب التوحيد; "The Book of Oneness").[20][9][123][124] He taught that the primary doctrine of Islam was the uniqueness and oneness of God (tawhid),[125][126] and denounced those religious beliefs and practices widespread amongst the people of Najd. Following Ibn Taymiyya's teachings on Tawhid, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab believed that much of Najd had descended into superstitious folk religion akin to the period of Jahiliyya (pre-Islamic era) and denounced much of their beliefs as polytheism (shirk).[127][128] He associated such practices with the culture of Taqlid (imitation to established customs) adored by pagan-cults of Jahiliyya era.[129] Based on the doctrine of Tawhid espoused in Kitab al-Tawhid, the followers of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab referred themselves by the designation "Al-Muwahhidun" (Unitarians).[94][130]
The "core" of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teaching is found in Kitāb at-Tawḥīd, a theological treatise which draws from material in the Qur'an and the recorded doings and sayings of the Islamic prophet Muhammad in the Hadith literature.[131] It preaches that worship in Islam includes conventional acts of worship such as the five daily prayers (Salat); fasting (Sawm); supplication (Dua); seeking protection or refuge (Istia'dha); seeking help (Ist'ana and Istigatha) of Allah.[132][page needed][non-primary source needed]
Traditionally, many Muslims throughout history had held the view that declaring the testimony of faith is sufficient in becoming a Muslim.[133] Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab did not agree with this. He asserted that an individual who believed in the existence of intercessors or intermediaries alongside God was guilty of shirk (polytheism or idolatry). This was the major difference between him and his opponents,[134] and led him to accuse his adversaries who engaged in these religious practices to be apostates (a practice known in Islamic jurisprudence as takfir) and idolaters (mushrikin).[135]
Another major doctrine of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was the concept known as Al-'Udhr bil Jahl ( excuse of ignorance), wherein any ignorant person unaware of core Islamic teachings is excused by default until clarification. As per this doctrine, those who fell into beliefs of shirk (polytheism) or kufr (disbelief) cannot be excommunicated until they have direct access to Scriptural evidences and get the opportunity to understand their mistakes and retract. If not, their affairs are to be delegated only to God. Hence, he believed that education and dialogue was the only effective path for the successful implementation of reforms.[136] Explaining this concept in various pamphlets addressed to the masses and other scholars, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab declared:
"What has been mentioned to you about me, that I make generalised takfīr, this is from the slanders of the enemies.. [Rather] we make takfīr of the one who affirms the religion of Allāh and His Messenger but then showed enmity towards it and hindered people from it; as well as the one who worshipped idols after he came to know that this is the religion of the polytheists and beautified it for the people [inviting them to it].. [In fact] every scholar on the face of the Earth makes takfīr of them, save an obstinate or ignorant... But we [only] make takfīr of the one who associates partners with Allāh in His sole right of worship (ilāhiyyah), after we have made clear to him the proof for the futility of shirk."[137]
Rejecting the allegations of his detractors who accused him of ex-communicating whoever didn't follow his doctrines, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab maintained that he only advocated orthodox Sunni doctrines.[138] In a letter addressed to the Iraqi scholar Abdul Rahman Al-Suwaidi who had sought clarification over the rumours spread against his mission, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab explains:
"I am a man of social standing in my village and the people respect my word. This led some chieftains to reject my call, because I called them to what contradicts the traditions they were raised to uphold.... the chieftains directed their criticism and enmity towards our enjoining Tawheed and forbidding Shirk... Among the false accusations they propagated, ... is the claim that I accuse all Muslims, except my followers, of being Kuffar (Unbelievers)... This is truly incredible. How can any sane person accept such accusations? Would a Muslim say these things? I declare that I renounce, before Allah, these statements that only a mad person would utter. In short, what I was accused of calling to, other than enjoining Tawheed and forbidding Shirk, is all false."[139]
On Taqlid
Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was highly critical of the practice of Taqlid ( blind-following), which in his view, deviated people away from Qur'an and Sunnah. He also advocated for Ijtihad of qualified scholars in accordance with the teachings of Qur'an and Hadith. In his legal writings, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab referred to a number of sources- Qur'an, hadith , opinions of companions, Salaf as well as the treatises of the 4 schools of thought. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab argued that Qur'an condemned blind emulation of forefathers and nowhere did it stipulate scholarly credentials for a person to refer to it directly. His advocacy of Ijtihad and harsh denunciation of Taqlid arose widespread condemnation from Sufi orthodoxy in Najd and beyond, compelling him to express many of his legal verdicts ( fatwas ) discreetly, using convincing juristic terms. He differed from Hanbali school in various points of law and in some cases, also departed from the positions of the 4 schools. In his treatise Usul al-Sittah (Six Foundations), Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab vehemently rebuked his detractors for raising the description of Mujtahids to what he viewed as humanely unattainable levels. He condemned the establishment clergy as a class of oppressors who ran a "tyranny of wordly possessions" by exploiting the masses to make money out of their religious activities. The teachings of Medinan hadith scholar Muhammad Hayat as Sindi highly influenced the anti-taqlid views of Ibn 'Abd al Wahhab.[140][141][142][143][144]
Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab opposed partisanship to madhabs (legal schools) and didn't consider it obligatory to follow a particular madhab. Rather, in his view, the obligation is to follow Qur'an and the Sunnah.[145] Referring to the classical scholars Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn Qayyim, ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab condemned the popular practice prevalent amongst his contemporary scholars to blindfollow latter-day legal works and urged Muslims to take directly from Qur'an and Sunnah. He viewed it as a duty upon every Muslim, laymen and scholar, male & female, to seek knowledge directly from the sources. Radically departing from both Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn Qayyim, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab viewed the entirety of the prevalent mad'hab system of jurisprudence (Fiqh) as a fundamentally corrupt institution, seeking a radical reform of scholarly institutions and preached the obligation of all Muslims to directly refer to the foundational texts of revelation. He advocated a form of scholarly authority based upon the revival of the practice of ittiba, i.e., laymen following the scholars only after seeking evidences. The prevalent legal system was, in his view, a "factory for the production of slavish emulators" symbolic of Muslim decline.[146]
On the nature of Nubuwwah (Prophethood)
Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab elucidated his concept on the nature of Prophethood in his book Mukhtaṣar sīrat al-Rasūl ("Abridgement of the life of the Prophet"), an extensive biographical work on the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Mukhtaṣar was written with the purpose of explaining Muhammad's role in universal history by undermining certain prophetologic conceptions that had come to prominence among Sunnī religious circles during the twelfth Islamic century. These included negating those concepts and beliefs that bestowed the Prophet with mystical attributes that elevated Muhammad beyond the status of ordinary humans. In his introduction to Mukhtasar, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab asserts that every Prophet came with the mission of upholding Tawhid and prohibiting shirk. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab further tries to undermine the belief in the pre-existence of Muḥammad as a divine light preceding all other creation, a salient concept that served as an aspect of Prophetic devotion during the eleventh Islamic century. Additionally, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb omitted mentioning other episodes narrated in various sirah (Prophetic biography) works such as trees and stones allegedly expressing veneration for Muḥammad, purification of Muhammad's heart by angels, etc. which suggested that Muḥammad possessed characteristics that transcend those of ordinary humans.[147]
Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab adhered to Ibn Taymiyya's understanding of the concept of Isma (infallibility) which insisted that ʿiṣma does not prevent prophets from committing minor sins or speaking false things. This differed from the alternative understanding of Sunni theologians like Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzi, Qāḍī ʿIyāḍ, etc. who had emphasised the complete independence of the Prophet from any form of error or sin. Following Ibn Taymiyya, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab affirmed the incident of qiṣṣat al-gharānīq (the "story of cranes" or "Satanic Verses") which demonstrated that Muhammad was afflicted by "Satanic interference". This idea of Ibn Taymiyya had been recently revived in the circles of Kurdish hadith scholar Ibrāhīm al-Kūrānī (1025/1616–1101/1686); whose son Abūl-Ṭāhir al-Kūrānī was the teacher of Muḥammad Ḥayāt al-Sindi, the master of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab. Using this concept to explain Tawhid al-ulūhiyya (Oneness of Worship), Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab rejected the idea that anybody could act as intercessor between God and man by employing the Qurʾānic verses related to the event. He also used these and other similar incidents to undermine the belief regarding prophets being completely free from sin, error, or Satanic afflictions.[147]
Furthermore, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab had given little importance to Prophetic miracles in his Mukhtaṣar. Although he hadn't denied miracles as an expression of Divine Omnipotence so long as they are attested by Qur'an or authentic hadith, Al-Mukhtasar represented an open protest against the exuberance of miracles that characterised later biographies of Muḥammad. In Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's view, miracles are of little significance in the life of Muḥammad in comparison to that of the previous prophets, since central to his prophethood were the institutionalisation of Jihād and the ḥudud punishments. Contrary to prevalent religious beliefs, Muḥammad was not portrayed as the central purpose of creation in the historical conception of Mukhtaṣar. Instead, he has a function within creation and for the created beings. Rather than being viewed as an extraordinary performer of miracles, Muhammad should instead be upheld as a model of emulation. By depriving the person of Muḥammad of all supernatural aspects not related to Wahy (revelation) and Divine intervention, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab also re-inforced his rejection of beliefs and practices related to cult of saints and veneration of graves. Thus, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb's conception of history emphasised the necessity to follow the role-model of Muḥammad and re-establish the Islamic order.[147]
Influence on Salafism
Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's movement is known today as Wahhabism (Arabic: الوهابية, romanized: Wahhābiyyah).[7][24][20][25][148][149] The designation of his doctrine as Wahhābiyyah actually derives from his father's name, ʿAbd al-Wahhab.[150] Many adherents consider the label "Wahhabism" as a derogatory term coined by his opponents,[9][17][18] and prefer it to be known as the Salafi movement.[151][152][153] Modern scholars of Islamic studies point out that "Salafism" is a term applied to several forms of puritanical Islam in various parts of the world, while Wahhabism refers to the specific Saudi school, which is seen as a more strict form of Salafism. However, modern scholars remark that Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's followers adopted the term "Salafi" as a self-designation much later.[17] His early followers denominated themselves as Ahl al-Tawhid[17] and al-Muwahhidun[7][9][17][18][25] ("Unitarians" or "those who affirm/defend the unity of God"),[7][9][17][18][25] and were labeled "Wahhabis" by their opponents.[9][17][18]
The Salafiyya movement was not directly connected to Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's movement in Najd.[154] According to professor Abdullah Saeed, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab should rather be considered as one of the "precursors" of the modern Salafiyya movement since he called for a return to the pristine purity of the early eras of Islam by adhering to the Qur'an and the Sunnah, rejection of the blind following (Taqlid) of earlier scholars and advocating for Ijtihad.[124] Scholars like Adam J. Silverstein consider Wahhabi movement as "the most influential expression of Salafism of the Islamist sort, both for its role in shaping (some might say: 'creating') modern Islamism, and for disseminating salafi ideas widely across the Muslim world."[18]
On Fiqh
Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's approach to Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) was based on four major principles:[155][156]
- Prohibition on speaking about God without 'Ilm (knowledge)
- Ambiguous issues in Scriptures are a mercy to the community and is neither forbidden nor obligatory
- Obligation to abide by the clear evidences from Scriptures
- Rulings of halal (allowance) and haram (prohibition) are clear in the Scriptures and those issues which are unclear should be left as ambiguous
According to Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, the clear meaning of authentic hadiths takes precedence over the opinions of any other scholar, even if it went against the agreement of the eponyms of the four madhabs.[157] In line with these principles, he encouraged all believers to engage directly with the Scriptures while respecting Ikhtilaf (scholarly differences), writing:
"The companions of the Messenger of God, may God bless him and grant him peace, differed on various issues without denunciation, so long as the text was not clear. It is upon the believer to place his concern and intent to know the command of God and His Messenger in those matters of disagreement, and to act accordingly whilst respecting the people of knowledge, and respect them, even if they erred, but he does not take them as lords besides God; This is the way of those who are blessed. As for those who throw away their speech and do not respect, then this is the path of those who have incurred God's wrath."[158]
Throughout his epsitles like Arbaʿ qawāʿid tadūruʾl-aḥkām ʿalayhā (Four rules on which rulings revolve), Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab fiercely attacked the prevalent Hanbali Fiqh opinions; with a broader view of re-orienting the Fiqh tradition. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab challenged the madhhab system, by advocating for a direct understanding of the Scriptures. Rather than rejecting madhabs outright, he sought a reformation of the system by condemning prevalent trends within the madhabs. He criticised the madhhab partisans for adhering solely to medieval Fiqh manuals of later scholars and ignoring Qur'an, Hadith and opinions of early Imams. He rebuked the contemporary Shafi'i scholars for being partisans of Ibn Hajar al Haytami (d. 1566) and relying solely on his 16th-century manual Tuhfat al Muhtaj. Similarly, he critiqued the Malikis for being dependent on the Mukhtasar of the Egyptian jurist Khalil ibn Ishaq (d. 1365) rather than acting upon authentic traditions (hadith). In addition to criticising the Madhab partisans, he berated the advocates of Taqlid for discouraging the practice of Ijtihad and called on the laity to follow scholars only after asking for Scriptural evidences.[159][160][161] Most noticeably, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab rejected the authority of Al-Iqna and Al-Muntaha - two of the most important medieval Hanbali works for the regional clerics of Arabia - asserting:
"The Hanbalis are the least prone of all people to innovation. [Yet] most of the Iqna and the Muntahā [two late Hanbali authoritative works] conflicts with the view of Ahmad and his explicit statements, not to mention the hadith of the Messenger of God"[162][163]
In calling for a direct return to the Scriptures, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was not a literalist and often strongly objected to literalist approaches and ritualism of religion that came with it. He believed that pure intentions (Niyyah) constituted the essence of all virtous actions and upheld its superiority over dull ritualism. As a deferential and accomplished jurist with the experience of religious training under numerous masters in his travels, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab opposed the rigid, hardline views of the tradition-bound ulema who had excommunicated sinful, unrepenting Muslims; thereby making their blood forfeit based on their reading of the reports of Muhammad and Companions. On the other hand, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab contextualised those reports; arguing that they must be understood in recognition of historical circumstances. According to his view, sincerity and purity of intent (Ikhlas) could expiate the evil of sins committed in mistakes. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's legal approach began with hadith authentication, followed by contextualised intrapolation in consideration of Hanbali legal principles such as Maslaha (public welfate). Other legal criteria involved upholding the spirit of the law, Maqasid al-Sharia, and intent behind pronouncing legal verdicts which addressed various themes such as societal justice and safeguarding women. He also believed in a holistic legal understanding of Qur'anic verses and hadith, distinguishing between general rules applicable for all Muslims and rulings unique to various life-time situations.[164]
On Islamic revival
As a young scholar in Medina, Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was profoundly influenced by the revivalist doctrines taught by his teachers Muhammad Hayyat ibn Ibrahim al-Sindhi and Abdullah Ibn Ibrahim Ibn Sayf. Much of the Wahhabi teachings such as opposition to saint-cults, radical denunciation of blind-following medieval commentaries, adherence to Scriptures and other revivalist thoughts came from Muhammad Hayyat. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's revivalist efforts were based on a strong belief in Tawhid (Oneness of Allah) and a firm adherence to the Sunnah. His reformative efforts left exemplary marks on contemporary Islamic scholarship. Viewing Blind adherence ( Taqlid ) as an obstacle to the progress of Muslims, he dedicated himself to educating the masses for them to be vanguards of Islam. According to Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the degradation and lagging behind of Muslims was due to their neglect of the teachings of Islam, emphasizing that progress could be achieved only by firmly adhering to Islam. He also campaigned against popular Sufi practices associated with istigatha, myths and superstitions.[165][166]
On Sufism
Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab praised Tasawwuf. He stated the popular saying: "From among the wonders is to find a Sufi who is a faqih and a scholar who is an ascetic (zahid)".[167] He described Tasawwuf as "the science of the deeds of the heart, which is known as the science of Suluk", and considered it as an important branch of Islamic religious sciences.[168][169]
At the end of his treatise, Al-Hadiyyah al-Suniyyah, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's son 'Abd Allah speaks positively on the practice of tazkiah (purification of the inner self).[170][171] 'Abd Allah Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab ends his treatise saying:
We do not negate the way of the Sufis and the purification of the inner self from the vices of those sins connected to the heart and the limbs as long as the individual firmly adheres to the rules of Shari'ah and the correct and observed way. However, we will not take it on ourselves to allegorically interpret (ta'wil) his speech and his actions. We only place our reliance on, seek help from, beseech aid from and place our confidence in all our dealings in Allah Most High. He is enough for us, the best trustee, the best mawla and the best helper. May Allah send peace on our master Muhammad, his family and companions.
On social reforms
Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab concerned himself with the social reformation of his people. As an 18th-century reformer, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al Wahhab called for the re-opening of Ijtihad by qualified persons through strict adherence to Scriptures in reforming society. His thoughts reflected the major trends apparent in the 18th-century Islamic reform movements. Unlike other reform movements which were restricted to da'wa, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was also able to transform his movement into a successful Islamic state. Thus, his teachings had a profound influence on majority of Islamic reform-revivalist movements since the 18th century. Numerous significant socio-economic reforms would be advocated by the Imam during his lifetime. His reforms touched over various fields such as aqeeda, ibaadat (ritual acts of worship), muamalaat (social interactions), etc. In the affairs of mu'amalat, he harshly rebuked the practice of leaving endowments to prevent the rightful heirs (particularly the females) from receiving their deserved inheritance. He also objected to various forms of riba (usury) as well as the practice of presenting judges with gifts, which according to him, was nothing more than bribing. He also opposed and brought an end to numerous un-Islamic taxes that were forced upon the people.[174][175][176]
On women
The legal writings of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab reflected a general concern of female welfare and gender justice. In line with this approach, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab denounced the practice of instant triple talaq, counting it as only a single talaq (regardless of the number of pronouncements). The outlawing of triple talaq is considered to be one of the most significant reforms across the Islamic World in the 20th and 21st centuries. Following a balanced approach in issues of gender, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab advocated moderation between men and women in social interactions as well as spirituality. According to Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, women has a place in society with both rights and responsibility, with the society being obliged to respect her status and protect her. He also condemned forced marriages and declared any marriage contracted without the consent of a woman (be it minor, virgin or non-virgin) to be "invalid". This too was a significant reform as well as a break from the four Sunni schools which allowed the wali (ward/guardian) to compel minor daughters into marriage without consent. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab also stipulated the permission of the guardian as a condition in marriage (in line with traditional Hanbali, Shafi'i and Maliki schools). Nevertheless, as a practical jurist, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab allowed guardians to delegate the right to contract marriages to women herself, after which his permission cannot be denied. He also allowed women the right to stipulate favourable conditions for her in the marriage contract. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab also defended the woman's right to divorce through Khul' for various reasons, including in cases wherein she despised her husband. He also prohibited the killing of women, children and various non-combatants such as monks, elderly, blind, shaykhs, slaves and peasants in warfare.[177]
Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab believed in social participation of women for communal solidarity; as per Islamic codes of modesty (Haya) that was inclusive to all sections of society, especially the poor. He also campaigned for improving female literacy and asserted women's education as part of their religious rights and duties. Educated elite women played an important role in the Wahhabi movement through social activism and in some instances also weld significant political influence. Many women were trained in various religious disciplines, memorising Qur'an and being proficient in hadith sciences; which gained them civic respect as well as a source of income by teaching. As a result, the townsfolk of 19th-century Central Arabia had noticeably higher rates of literacy as observed by foreign travellers. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab also encouraged educated women to be active in various communal activities so as to bolster the reformist campaigns of the Muwahhidun, educating other women, generating awareness of superstitions as well as other cultural activities such as reciting poetry, playing tambourine during feasts, weddings and various social gatherings. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's own daughter, Fatima was an influential Islamic scholar active in social and communal affairs and would influence subsequent generations of Arabian women.[178][179]
On Muslim saints
Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab strongly condemned the veneration of Muslim saints (Which he described as worship) or associating divinity to beings other than God, labeling it as shirk.[20] Despite his great aversion to venerating the saints after their earthly passing and seeking their intercession, it should nevertheless be noted that Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab did not deny the existence of saints as such; on the contrary, he acknowledged that "the miracles of saints (karāmāt al-awliyāʾ) are not to be denied, and their right guidance by God is acknowledged" when they acted properly during their life.[150] Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab opposing the practice of the pilgrimage of the saint's tombs as it is considered as Bidʻah (heresy), such as the practice of the pilgrimage towards a tomb believed belong to a companion of the Prophet named Dhiraar ibn al-Azwar in the valley of Ghobaira.[180]
On non-Muslims
According to the political scientist Dore Gold,[181] Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab presented a strong anti-Christian and anti-Judaic stance in his main theological treatise Kitāb at-Tawḥīd,[181] describing the followers of both Christian and Jewish faiths as sorcerers[181] who believe in devil-worship,[181] and by citing a hadith attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad[Note 1] he stated that capital punishment for the sorcerer is "that he be struck with the sword".[181][182] Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab asserted that both the Christian and Jewish religions had improperly made the graves of their prophet into places of worship and warned Muslims not to imitate this practice.[181][183] Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab concluded that "The ways of the People of the Book are condemned as those of polytheists."[181][184]
However, Western scholar Natana J. DeLong-Bas defended the position of Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, stating that
despite his at times vehement denunciations of other religious groups for their supposedly heretical beliefs, Ibn Abd al Wahhab never called for their destruction or death ... he assumed that these people would be punished in the Afterlife ..."[185]
According to Vahid Hussein Ranjbar, "Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab saw it as his mission to restore a more purer and original form of the faith of Islam". In accordance with the his own theology, which upheld a strict doctrine of tawhid (oneness of God), Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab condemned the veneration of any personality other than God and sought the demolition of the tombs of Muslim saints (awliya). Those who didn't adhere to his interpretation of monotheism were considered disbelieving polytheists (including Sufi and Shia Muslims), Christians, Jews, and other Non-Muslims. He also advocated for a literalist interpretation of the Quran and its laws.[186]
Reception
By contemporaries
The doctrines of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab were criticized by a number of Islamic scholars during his lifetime, accusing him of disregarding Islamic history, monuments, traditions and the sanctity of Muslim life.[187] His critics were mainly ulama from his homeland, the Najd region of central Arabia, which was directly affected by the growth of the Wahhabi movement,[32] based in the cities of Basra, Mecca, and Medina.[32] The early opponents of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab classified his doctrine as a "Kharijite sectarian heresy".[17]
On the other hand, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb and his supporters held that they were the victims of aggressive warfare; accusing their opponents of starting the pronouncements of Takfir (excommunication) and maintained that the military operations of Emirate of Dirʿiyya were strictly defensive. The memory of the unprovoked military offensive launched by Dahhām ibn Dawwās (fl. 1187/1773), the powerful chieftain of Riyadh, on Diriyya in 1746 was deeply engrained in the Wahhabi tradition.[188][189] Early Wahhabi chronicler Ibn Ghannām states in his book Tarikh an-Najd (History of Najd) that Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb did not order the use of violence until his enemies excommunicated him and deemed his blood licit:
"He gave no order to spill blood or to fight against the majority of the heretics and the misguided until they started ruling that he and his followers were to be killed and excommunicated."
By 1802, the Ottoman Empire had officially begun to wage religious campaigns against the Wahhabis, issuing tracts condemning them as Kharijites.[191] In contrast, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab profoundly despised the "decorous, arty tobacco-smoking, music happy, drum pounding, Egyptian and Ottoman nobility who traveled across Arabia to pray at Mecca each year",[192] and intended to either subjugate them to his doctrine or overthrow them.[192] A handful of Arabian Hanbalis participated on the Ottoman side of the controversy. Muhammad ibn 'Abdullah ibn Humayd's 19th century biographical dictionary sheds light on those Hanbali scholars.[193] However, the reliability of his biography itself is disputed for its inherent biases, which portrays Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab and his followers as heretics. It also misrepresents many Najdi Hanbali scholars as on the side of Ottoman Hanbalis.[194]
Ibn Humayd's maternal lineage, Al-Turki, was of some local renown for its religious scholars, including two men who opposed the Wahhabi movement. One of them, named Ibn Muhammad, compared Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab with Musaylimah.[195] He also accused Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab of wrongly declaring fellow Muslims to be infidels based on a misguided reading of Quranic passages and prophetic traditions (Hadith),[195] and of wrongly declaring all scholars as infidels who did not agree with his "deviant innovation".[195] In contrast to this anti-Wahhabi family tradition, Ibn Humayd's early education included extensive studies under two Wahhabi Shaykhs, both praised in his biographical dictionary. He then travelled to Damascus and Mecca, wherein he attended lessons of men known for strong anti-Wahhabi convictions. Ibn Humayd's compatibility with Ottoman religious outlook made him eligible for the post of Ottoman Mufti in Mecca.[195]
Another Hanbali scholar whom Ibn Humayd portrays as a central figure in rejecting Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's doctrine was Ibn Fayruz Al-Tamimi al-Ahsai (1729/30 – 1801/02). Ibn Fayruz publicly repudiated Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teachings when he sent an envoy to him. Ibn Fayruz then wrote to Sultan Abdul Hamid I and requested Ottoman assistance to subjugate Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's followers, whom he referred to as the "seditious Kharijites" of Najd. The Wahhabis, in turn, came to view him as one of their worst enemies and an exemplar of idolatry.[196]
According to Ibn Humayd, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's father criticized his son for his unwillingness to specialize in jurisprudence and disagreed with his doctrine and declared that he would be the cause of wickedness.[197] Similarly his brother, Sulayman ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, wrote one of the first treatises refuting the Wahhabi doctrine,[33][150][197] The Divine Thunderbolts in Refutation of Wahhabism (Al-Šawā'iq Al-Ilāhiyya fī Al-radd 'alā Al-Wahhābiyya),[33][150] alleging that Muhammad was ill-educated and intolerant, and classing his views as fringe and fanatical.[187][33] Sulayman's first anti-Wahhabi treatise was followed by a second book, The Unmistakable Judgment in the Refutation of Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab (Faṣl al-Ḫiṭāb fī Al-radd 'alā Muḥammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhāb).[33] Later Muwahhidun scholarly figures like Abdullah ibn Abd al-Latif Aal al-Shaykh (d. 1921 C.E) would respond to these accusations by asserting that Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab refrained from making Takfir:
" Shaykh Muhammad (May God have Mercy on him) never made takfeer of the people in the beginning; except via establishing the proofs and the da'wah, because at that time there was a dearth of knowledge of the message (of Islām) and for that reason he said 'due to their ignorance and the lack of anyone who makes them aware'. However, as for those on whom the proofs are established, then there is nothing to prevent takfeer being made on such people"[198]
Both Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's father and brother disagreed with him and didn't share his doctrinal statements because they considered his doctrine, and the way he intended to impose it in Arabia, too extreme and intolerant.[199] The Arabian historian Ahmad ibn al-Zayni Dahlan, Shaykh al-Islām[200] and Grand Mufti of the Shafi'i madhab in Mecca,[201][202] recorded the account of the dispute between Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab and his brother Sulayman, reporting that:
Sulayman [ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab] once asked his brother Muhammad [ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab], "How many are the pillars of Islam?" "Five," he answered. Sulayman replied, "No, you have added a sixth one: He who does not follow you is not a Muslim. This, to you, is the sixth pillar of Islam."[203]
According to various historical records, Sulayman repented and joined the religious mission of his brother.[204] However, there is a disagreement regarding his repentance. While earlier Najdi chroniclers like Ibn Ghannam reported he repented and embraced Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's cause in Diriyah, later historians like Ibn Bishr simply mentions his departure to Diriyah with his family and his last years under the protection of Diriyah, while being allowed by state-allotted stipend. A letter attributed to Sulayman also mentions his public repentance.[205]
The Ottoman Grand Mufti of Mecca, Ahmad Zayni Dahlan (d. 1886), wrote an anti-Wahhabi treatise, in which he listed the religious practices that the Najdi Hanbalis considered idolatrous: visiting the tomb of Muhammad, seeking the intercession of saints, venerating Muhammad and obtaining the blessings of saints.[206] He also accused Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab of not adhering to the Hanbali school and that he was deficient in learning.[206] However, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab had believed that visiting the tomb of Muhammad was a righteous deed, referring to it as "among the best of deeds" while condemning its excesses.[207][208] The medieval theologians Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn Qayyim, who inspired Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, had issued Fatwas declaring the visitations to the tomb of Muhammad to be haram (forbidden); which would lead to their imprisonment.[209][210]
In response, the British Indian Ahl-i Hadith scholar Muhammad Bashir Sahsawani (1834-1908 C.E) wrote the treatise Sayaanah al-Insaan an Waswaswah al-Shaikh Dahlaan in order to refute Dahlan. Sahsawani asserted that after his correspondence with various scholars of the Muwahhidun movement and study of their creedal works; he came to the conclusion that the allegation that they excommunicated "non-Wahhabis" were false and slanderous.[211][212]
The Islamic scholar Muhammad Rashid Rida (d. 1935 C.E/ 1354 A.H) in his introduction to al-Sahsawani's refutation of Dahlan, described Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab as a mujaddid repelling the innovations and deviations in Muslim life. Through his Al-Manar magazine, Rashid Rida greatly contributed to the spread of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teachings in the Islamic world. He was a strong supporter of Ibn Taymiyyah and scholars of Najd, publishing works in his magazine entitled Majmooah al-Rasaail wa al-Masaail al-Najdiyyah and al-Wahhaabiyoon wa al-Hijaaz.[213] Rida notes that given Dahlan's position in Mecca, and availability there of the works of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, he must have simply chosen to write otherwise. Rida also argued that Dahlan simply wrote what he heard from people, and criticised him for not verifying reports and seeking out the writings of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab. He condemned Dahlan for his ignorance and his sanctioning of acts of kufr and shirk; based on his reinterpretation of Islamic texts.[214]
Rashid Rida contended that Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was a victim of persecution by the combined oppression of three forces: i) the power of state and its rulers ii) power of hypocritical scholars and iii) power of tyrannical commoners.[215] Fiercely rebuking his opponents, Rashid Rida declared:
"The best weapon they brandished against him was that he contradicted the majority of Muslims. Who were the majority of Muslims Muhammad Ibn Abdul Wahhab contradicted in his Da'wah? They were Bedouins of the desert, worse than the people of Jahiliyyah, intent on looting and theft. They allowed shedding the blood of Muslims and non-Muslims, just to earn a living. They took their tyrants as judges in every matter and denied many aspects of Islam on which there is consensus [especially among scholars], matters in which no Muslim can claim ignorance."[216]
Ali Bey el Abbassi, a Spanish explorer who was in Mecca in 1803, shortly after the Wahhabi conquest of Hejaz, presented a starkly different view of the Wahhabis. He was surprised to find that they were fairly "moderate, reasonable and civilized". He further observed that, rather than engaging in rampant violence and destruction, the Wahhabis were pleasant and well-organized. According to Ali Bey, there were major differences in the political approach of Muhammad ibn Saud Al Muqrin, and that of his son, Abdulaziz bin Muhammad Al Saud, during whose reign Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was retired from active public life. Ali Bey asserts that unlike the fair-minded Muhammad Ibn Saud; his son 'Abd Al-Azeez began employing a "convert or die" approach for the acquirment of wealth and stabilising the state.[217] Ali Bey writes in his Travels:
"I discovered much reason and moderation among the Wehhabites to whom I spoke, and from whom I obtained the greater part of the information which I have given concerning their nation..... The reformer Abdoulwehhab did not invest himself with any honour or public character: he was only the chief of the sect, and did not require any personal distinction. After his death, his son, who succeeded him, preserved the same simplicity."[218]
British diplomat Harford Jones-Brydges, who was stationed in Basra in 1784 attributed the popular hysteria about the Wahhabis to a different cause. Unlike Ottoman depictions, Brydges believed that Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's doctrine was in keeping with the teachings of Quran, was "perfectly orthodox", "consonant to the purest and best interpretations of that volume", and that Ottomans feared its spread precisely on that basis.[219]
The Egyptian historian and Azhari Islamic scholar Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti (1753–1825 C.E) was a great admirer of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab and his movement. He defended his doctrines in Egypt and held the movement in high regard, viewing its doctrines as having a great prospective to spearhead future Islamic revival.[220] Al-Jabarti had the chance to personally meet with various Wahhabi scholars in Egypt in 1814. Finding them to be friendly and knowledgeable, Al-Jabarti stated that the Wahhabis were "modest men of good morals, well trained in oratory, in the principles of religion, the branches of fiqh, and the disagreements of the Schools of Law. In all this they were extraordinary."[221] He described Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab as a man who "summoned men to Qur'an and the Prophet's Sunna, bidding them to abandon innovations in worship". Through his writings, Al-Jabarti repeatedly stressed that the beliefs and doctrines championed by Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab were nothing other than orthodox Sunni Islam.[222]
Moroccan military leader 'Abd al-Karim al-Khattabi (1882-1963 C.E) praised Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's reform endeavour as a "promising voice" that sparked spiritual and intellectual Awakening across the Islamic World.[223]
Prominent Syrian Hanbali scholar 'Abd al-Qadir ibn Badran (1864-1927 C.E/ 1280-1346 A.H) praised the efforts of Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab in his treatise Al-Madkhal ila Madhhab il-Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal (An Introduction to the Madhab of Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal), writing:
"When he [i.e, Ibn 'Abd al Wahhab] learned the narrations and the Sunnah and became expertised in the madhab of Ahmad; he began supporting the Truth, fighting bid'ah and resisting what illiterates have made part of this monotheistic religion and Sharia of moderation. Some people supported him and made their worship solely to The One God following his path, which was to establish pure Tawhid, call sincerely to monotheism and direct worship in all of its forms solely to The Creator of creation alone. Some people resisted him; they were used to rigidity in following what their forefathers did and they armoured themselves with laziness instead of seeking the truth."[224]
Modern reception
Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab is often compared to the 15th-century German Christian pastor Martin Luther, for their efforts in launching religious movements that challenged the authority of the dominant clerical and political hierarchy of their societies. Despite being of different religious persuasions; both of them were inspired by an idealised vision of the past and shared similar themes such as the social and economic upliftment of their societies empowered through mass-education enabled by calls for open access to Scriptures.[225] He is honoured by many scholars of the Salafi tradition as a juristic authority and source of reference. Salafi scholars Rashid Rida and 'Abd al-Aziz ibn Baz considered him a mujaddid.[226] The Albanian Salafi revivalist Al-Albani (d. 1999) believed that Ibn Abd al-Wahhab was not a mujtahid in fiqh, as he 'blindlly' followed the Hanbali school.[227] Al-Albani also questioned Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's knowledge of hadith.[228]
According to the 20th-century Austro-Hungarian scholar Muhammad Asad, all modern Islamic Renaissance movements took inspiration from the spiritual impetus set in motion in the 18th century by Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab.[229] Crediting Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab for his contributions to Islamic Renaissance and spread of revolutionary ideals across the Muslim world, Tunisian Islamist intellectual Rached Gannouchi writes:
"Just as in the West in the age of Renaissance, the Muslim world was stirred by a great awakening. Muhammad bin Abd al-Wahhab’s message of jihad and ijtihad inspired an unbroken movement... to push the umma towards jihad against its enemies, to abandon the guise of tradition (taqlid) and to unite its divisions around the mystical origins of Islam and Islamic thought."[230]
Rashid Ahmad Gangohi, one of the founders of the Deobandi school praised Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab as a virtuous scholar who upheld the Sunnah and campaigned against polytheistic and superstitious beliefs and practices.[231][232] Hence, the contemporary ulema of Deoband mostly respect him while being critical of the Salafi movement. Major scholars of Tabligh Jamaat -a Deobandi-inspired missionary movement- such as Muhammad Zakariya, Muhammad Ilyas Kandhlawi, Yusuf Kandhalawi, etc. were supportive of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's ideals. Senior Deobandi scholar Manzur Numani penned the treatise "Sheikh Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab ke Khilaf Propaganda" (The Propaganda against Sheikh Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab) in defense of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab. Thus, many activists of Deobandi persuasion view Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's movement as an example for establishing an Islamic state in contemporary Muslim societies.[233][234]
Islamic scholar Yusuf Al-Qārādawī praised Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab as a Mujaddid (religious reviver) of the Arabian Peninsula who defended the purity of Tawhid from various superstitions and polytheistic beliefs.[235] Praising Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's efforts, Muhammad Rashīd Ridá wrote:
"Muhammad bin Abd al-Wahhab al-Najdi was one of those Mujaddids, [who] called for the upholding of Tawhid and the sincerity of worship to God alone with what He legislated in His Book and on the tongue of His Messenger, the Seal of the Prophets; ... abandoning heresies and sins, establishing the abandoned rituals of Islam, and venerating its violated sanctities."[235]
In his book "Saviours of the Islamic Spirit", Islamic scholar Abul Hasan Ali Nadwi (1913-1999 C.E) acclaimed Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab as a "great reformer" who called his people to Tawhid, revived injunctions based on Qur'an and Sunnah and eradicated superstitious rites prevalent amongst the illiterate masses of Central Arabia. Nadwi compared his movement to that of the contemporary South Asian Islamic revivalist Shah Waliullah Dehlawi (1703-1762 C.E/ 1114-1176 A.H) who had expounded similar ideas such as differentiating between Tawhid-i-Uluhiyyat (Oneness of Worship) and Tawhid-i-Rububiyat (Oneness of Lordship) and promotion of strict adherence to Qur'an and Hadith. In Nadwi's opinion, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was able to make outstanding efforts with far-reaching impact compared to other contemporary reformers since he played the role of a revolutionary reformer whose initiatives were implemented through a newly established Islamic state and thus his movement was highly pertinent for the people of his time.[236]
In 2010, Prince Salman bin Abdulaziz, at the time serving as the governor of Riyadh, said that the doctrine of Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab was pure Islam, and said regarding his works:
"I dare anyone to bring a single alphabetical letter from the Sheikh's books that goes against the book of Allah and the teachings of his prophet, Muhammad."
Western Reception
In the 21st century Western security discourse, Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's movement, Wahhabism, is often associated with various Jihadi movements across the Islamic World. According to various Western analysts, the Islamist terrorist organization Al-Qaeda has been influenced by the Wahhabi doctrine.[238][239][240][241] Other scholars note that the ideology of Al-Qaeda is Salafi jihadism that emerged as a synthesis of the Qutbist doctrine with Salafism. The Taliban in Afghanistan was often conflated with Wahhabis in the early 2000s; however, the Taliban emerged from the Deobandi school rather than the Wahhabi movement.[242][243][244] According to other sources, Salafis are fundamentally opposed to the ideology of Al-Qaeda.[245] According to various scholars, the ideology of Islamic State, another Islamic terrorist organization, has also been inspired by Wahhabi doctrines,[27][26][246] alongside Salafism, Qutbism,[247][248] and Salafi jihadism.[249][250]
During the Post-9/11 period, when the FBI listed al-Qaeda as "the number one terrorist threat to the United States", American neo-conservative journalist Lulu Schwartz, and former U.S. Senator and Republican politician Jon Kyl asserted during the hearing before the Subcommittee on Terrorism, Technology, and Homeland Security of the U.S. Senate in June 2003 that "Wahhabism is the source of the overwhelming majority of terrorist atrocities in today's world". Their recommendations would become influential in the 21st century US foreign policy:[251]
Nearly 22 months have passed since the atrocity of September 11th. Since then, many questions have been asked about the role in that day's terrible events and in other challenges we face in the war against terror of Saudi Arabia and its official sect, a separatist, exclusionary and violent form of Islam known as Wahhabism. It is widely recognized that all of the 19 suicide pilots were Wahhabi followers. In addition, 15 of the 19 were Saudi subjects. Journalists and experts, as well as spokespeople of the world, have said that Wahhabism is the source of the overwhelming majority of terrorist atrocities in today's world, from Morocco to Indonesia, via Israel, Saudi Arabia, Chechnya. In addition, Saudi media sources have identified Wahhabi agents from Saudi Arabia as being responsible for terrorist attacks on U.S. troops in Iraq. The Washington Post has confirmed Wahhabi involvement in attacks against U.S. forces in Fallujah. To examine the role of Wahhabism and terrorism is not to label all Muslims as extremists. Indeed, I want to make this point very, very clear. It is the exact opposite. Analyzing Wahhabism means identifying the extreme element that, although enjoying immense political and financial resources, thanks to support by a sector of the Saudi state, seeks to globally hijack Islam [...] The problem we are looking at today is the State-sponsored doctrine and funding of an extremist ideology that provides the recruiting grounds, support infrastructure and monetary life blood of today's international terrorists. The extremist ideology is Wahhabism, a major force behind terrorist groups, like al Qaeda, a group that, according to the FBI, and I am quoting, is the "number one terrorist threat to the U.S. today".[251]
Meanwhile, contemporary Western historians and researchers have taken a more nuanced approach on the history and evolution of the Muwahhidun movement; pointing out the discrepancy between the Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's teachings, some of his later followers and the actions of contemporary militant Jihadist groups.[252] Various scholars assert that many writings of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab were revised during the 19th century by authorities of the Second Saudi State; transforming them away from a poetic-vernacular style of communication with mass appeal to a more rigid and purist understanding that aligned with the interests of the ruling class and the clerical establishment.[253] David E. Long believes that modern Jihadist movements are more influenced by the ideological worldview of Egyptian Islamist extremism of the 20th century, rather than Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's socio-religious reformism. Although many Salafi-Jihadists maybe inspired by Wahhabi ideals, it doesn't credibly explain their inclinations towards lethal violence.[254]
Western scholars like Michael Ryan assert that Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's reformist teachings were a rationalist enterprise that sought to eradicate superstitions widespread in the context of tribal rivalry within the Arabian Peninsula. Moreover, the regional background of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's intellectual efforts in the chaotic context of the 18th-century Arabian Peninsula had been distinct from the 21st century global Jihad ideology of organisations like Al-Qaeda or IS. Consequently, his scholarly heirs, including the prestigious Aal al-Shaykhs constitute the primary ideological nemesis of groups such as Al-Qaeda. Since the Saudi population overwhelmingly prefers their traditional religious institutions and scholars to Bin Laden's claims to revolutionary Jihadi-Salafism; Al-Qaeda harshly attacks these mainstream Saudi clerics with much theological vitriol.[255]
Various scholars have also contested Orientalist portrayals of Wahhabi movement as "ultra-conservative" or "stagnant".[256] Asserting the dynamic nature of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's call and its capability of multiple interpretations; Professor of Philosophy at the University of Kentucky, Oliver Leaman states:
"the development of the hadith, whose importance cannot be over-emphasized, incorporated dynamism into the very heart of Islam. When Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab criticized local customs in Arabia on the basis of their incongruence with the past he was indeed trying to get back to a former golden age, but that is a very modern thing to do... What the Wahhabis were doing was to criticize current society and seek to undermine the existing order, something that the earlier Ibn Taymiyya fell foul of when for having similar views he was tortured and threatened with death."[257]
Contemporary recognition
Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's thoughts would greatly influence the pan-Islamic movement of the 19th century.[258] The national mosque of Qatar is named after him.[259] The "Imam Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab Mosque" was opened in 2011, with the Emir of Qatar presiding over the occasion.[260] The mosque has the capacity to host a congregation of 30,000 people.[261] In 2017, there was a request published in the Saudi Arabian newspaper Okaz signed by 200 descendants of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab that the name of the mosque be changed, because according to their statement "it does not carry its true Salafi path", even though most Qataris adhere to Wahhabism.[262]
The Turaif district in Diriyah, the capital of the First Saudi state,[263][264] was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2010. In 2011, Saudi Arabia announced its plans for large-scale development of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's domain Diriyah; to establish a national cultural site in Diriyah and turn it into a major tourist attraction.[265][266] Other features in the area include the Sheikh Muhammad bin Abdul Wahab Foundation, which is planned to include a light and sound presentation[267] located near the Mosque of Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahab.[268]
Works
Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab has been described as a "prolific writer" whose scholarly treatises are collected into fourteen large volumes; which consists of various legal books, Qur'anic commentaries, creedal works, and compilation of fatwas.[269] Some of his major works include:
- Risālah Aslu Dīn Al-Islām wa Qā'idatuhu
- Kitab al-Quran (The book of Allah)
- Kitab at-Tawhid (The Book of the Oneness of God)
- Kashf ush-Shubuhaat (Clarification of the Doubts)
- Al-Usool-uth-Thalaatha (The Three Fundamental Principles)
- Al Qawaaid Al 'Arbaa (The Four Foundations)
- Al-Usool us Sittah (The Six Fundamental Principles)
- Nawaaqid al Islaam (Nullifiers of Islam)
- Adab al-Mashy Ila as-Salaa (Manners of Walking to the Prayer)
- Usul al-Iman (Foundations of Faith)
- Fada'il al-Islam (Excellent Virtues of Islam)
- Fada'il al-Qur'an (Excellent Virtues of the Qur'an)
- Majmu'a al-Hadith 'Ala Abwab al-Fiqh (Compendium of the Hadith on the Main Topics of the Fiqh)
- Mukhtasar al-Iman (Abridgement of the Faith; i.e. the summarised version of a work on Faith)
- Mukhtasar al-Insaf wa'l-Sharh al-Kabir (Abridgement of the Equity and the Great Explanation)
- Mukhtasar Seerat ar-Rasul (Summarised Biography of the Prophet)
- Kitaabu l-Kabaair (The Book of Great Sins)
- Kitabu l-Imaan (The Book of Trust)
- Al-Radd 'ala al-Rafida (The Refutation of the Rejectionists)
See also
Sources
Two of the earliest sources for the biography of Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab and early history of the Wahhabi movement have been documented by its followers:
- Wahhabi chronicler and scholar Ibn Ghannam's Rawdhat al-Afkar wal-Afham or Tarikh Najd (History of Najd) and Husain ibn Ghannam (d. 1811), an alim from al-Hasa was the only historian to have observed the beginnings of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's movement first-hand. His chronicle ends at the year 1797.[270][271]
- Najdi Historian Ibn Bishr's Unwan al-Majd fi Tarikh Najd (The Glorious History of Najd). Ibn Bishr's chronicle, which stops at the year 1854, was written a generation later than Ibn Ghannam's but is considered valuable partly because Ibn Bishr was a native of Najd and because he adds many details to Ibn Ghannam's account.[270]
A third account, covering Arabian history between the 1730s to 1817 is Lam' al-Shihab (The Brilliance of the Meteor) written by an anonymous author who respectfully disapproved of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's movement, regarding it as a bid'ah (heresy).
It is also commonly cited in Orientalist circles because it is considered to be a relatively objective and unofficial treatment of the subject. However, unlike Ibn Ghannam and Ibn Bishr, its author did not live in Najd and his work contains various tales, apocryphal and legendary materials concerning the details of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's life.[45][272]
References
Notes
- ^ The attribution of this hadith is disputed; according to other sources it should be attributed to 'Umar ibn al-Khattab, companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and second caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate.
Citations
- ^ "?Abd Al-Wahhab, Muhammad Ibn (1703-1792)". Encyclopedia.com. 29 December 2021. Retrieved 30 December 2021.
- ^ "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad - Oxford Islamic Studies Online". www.oxfordislamicstudies.com. New York: Oxford University Press. 2020. from the original on 15 July 2020. Retrieved 15 July 2020.
- ^ Glasse, Cyril (2001). The New Encyclopedia of Islam. Lanham, Maryland: AltaMira Press. pp. 469–70.
The Wahhabis are often said to 'belong' to the Hanbali School of Law (madhhab), but strictly speaking, like the Ahl al-Hadith ... they are ghayr muqallidun ('non-adherents'), and do not see themselves as belonging to any school, any more than the first Muslim generations did.
- ^ Halverson 2010, p. 48.
- ^ Brown 2009, pp. 245–47.
- ^ a b "Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb Muslim theologian". Britannica.com. 29 December 2021. Retrieved 30 December 2021.
- ^ a b c d e f Brown 2009, p. 245.
- ^ Wagemakers 2021, p. 341.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Haykel 2013, pp. 231–32.
- ^ Bradford, Joe (2022). "IbnʿAbd al-Wahhāb, Muḥammad". In L. Esposito, John (ed.). Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World: Digital Collection. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780197669419.001.0001. ISBN 9780197669419.
- ^ Mouline, Nabil (2014). The Clerics of Islam: Religious Authority and Political Power in Saudi Arabia. London: Yale University Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-300-17890-6.
He was not a great intellectual like Ibn Qudama, Ibn Taymiyya, or Ibn al-Qayyim but rather an activist.
- ^ "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (d. 1791 )". Oxford Islamic Studies Online. from the original on 12 July 2016.
- ^ L. Esposito, John (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 123. ISBN 0-19-512558-4.
lbn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (d.1791) Saudi fuabian conservative theologian, Hanbali jurist, reformer, and ideologue of the Wahhabi movement. Prodaimed the necessity of returning directly to the Quran and hadith, rather than relying on medieval interpretations.
- ^ Richard Netton, Ian (2008). "IBN 'ABD AL-WAHHAB, MUHAMMAD (1703–92)". Encyclopedia of Islamic Civilisation and Religion. New York: Routledge. p. 246. ISBN 978-0-7007-1588-6.
- ^ Schacht, J; Lewis, B; Pellat, C; Ménage, V.L., eds. (1986). "The Encyclopaedia of Islam". The Encyclopaedia of Islam: New Edition. Vol. III. Leiden, The Netherlands: E.J. Brill. pp. 677–679. ISBN 90-04-08118-6.
- ^ E. Campo, Juan (2009). Encyclopedia of Islam. New York: Facts on File Inc. pp. 324–325. ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1.
Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (1703–1791) conservative religious reformer who launched the Wahhabi movement.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Commins 2015, p. 151.
- ^ a b c d e f Silverstein 2010, pp. 112–13.
- ^ a b c Bokhari & Senzai 2013, pp. 82–3.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Laoust, H. (2012) [1993]. "Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb". In Bearman, P. J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E. J.; Heinrichs, W. P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Vol. 11. Leiden: Brill Publishers. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3033. ISBN 978-9004161214.
- ^ J. Delong-Bas, Natana (2004). Wahhabi Islam:From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 29, 30, 117, 28, 37. ISBN 0195169913.
- ^ "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (d. 1791 )". Oxford Islamic Studies. from the original on 12 July 2016.
- ^ J. Delong-Bas, Natana (2004). Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 14, 21, 29. ISBN 0195169913.
- ^ a b c d Esposito 2004, p. 123.
- ^ a b c d e Ágoston & Masters 2009, p. 260.
- ^ a b c Crooke, Alastair (30 March 2017) [First published 27 August 2014]. "You Can't Understand ISIS If You Don't Know the History of Wahhabism in Saudi Arabia". The Huffington Post. New York. from the original on 28 August 2014. Retrieved 10 September 2020.
- ^ a b Armstrong, Karen (27 November 2014). . New Statesman. London. Archived from the original on 27 November 2014. Retrieved 8 September 2020.
- ^ a b c Khatab 2011, pp. 56–76.
- ^ "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (d. 1791 )". Oxford Islamic Studies Online. from the original on 12 July 2016.
Plans for socioreligious reform in society were based on the key doctrine of tawhid (oneness of God)
- ^ J. Delong-Bass, Natana (2004). Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 13. ISBN 0195169913.
- ^ Weismann, Itzchak (2001). "7: Local Renaissance under the Centralizing Regimes (1883-1918)". Taste of Modernity: Sufism, Salafiyya, and Arabism in Late Ottoman Damascus. Koninklijke Brill nv, Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. p. 268. ISBN 90-04-11908-6.
- ^ a b c d Traboulsi, Samer (January 2002). Brunner, Rainer (ed.). "An Early Refutation of Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb's Reformist Views". Die Welt des Islams. Leiden: Brill Publishers. 42 (3: Arabic Literature and Islamic Scholarship in the 17th/18th Century: Topics and Biographies): 373–415. doi:10.1163/15700600260435038. eISSN 1570-0607. ISSN 0043-2539. JSTOR 1571420.
- ^ a b c d e Gaye 2021, p. 212.
- ^ Hourani 1992: 257–58
- ^ a b c d Nawaf E. Obaid (September 1999). "The Power of Saudi Arabia's Islamic Leaders". Middle East Quarterly. Middle East Forum. 6 (3): 51–58. from the original on 6 August 2011. Retrieved 8 September 2020.
- ^ a b Abir 1987: 4, 5, 7
- ^ a b c d e Metz 1992
- ^ a b Philby 1930: 8
- ^ Glassé 2003: 470
- ^ a b c d Shahi, Afshin (2013). The Politics of Truth Management in Saudi Arabia. Routledge. p. 46. ISBN 978-1134653195.
- ^ EI1: 1086
- ^ Navalk Post Graduate School Thesis, September 2009, Michael R. Dillon: Wahhabism: Is it a factor in the spread of global terrorism?, p. 13 7 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine Linked 3 March 2015
- ^ a b ibn Ghannam: 75–76
- ^ Hopwood 1972: 55
- ^ a b EI2: 677–78
- ^ Al-Ashʿarī, al-Ibāna ʿan uṣūl al-diyāna, ed. Fawqiyya Ḥusayn Maḥmūd (Cairo: Dār al-Anṣār, 1397/1977), 31, 33: "It is possible for God to single out the righteous (ṣāliḥīn) by making signs (āyāt) appear at their hands."
- ^ Al-Ṭaḥāwī, Matn al-ʿaqīda al-ṭaḥāwiyya, ed. Muḥammad Nāṣir al-Dīn al-Albānī (Beirut: al-Maktab al-Islāmī, 1398/1978), 59: "[W]e believe in what has come via sound transmission through trustworthy narrators (ṣaḥḥa ʿan al-thiqāt min ruwātihim) from among their [the saints'] miracles."
- ^ Ibn Qudamah, cited in Ahmet T. Karamustafa, Sufism: The Formative Period (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007, p. 132).
- ^ Radtke, B.; Lory, P.; Zarcone, P.; DeWeese, Th.; Gaborieau, D.; Denny, M., F. M.; Aubin, Françoise; Hunwick, J. O.; Mchugh, N. (2012) [1993]. "Walī". In Bearman, P. J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E. J.; Heinrichs, W. P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Vol. 11. Leiden: Brill Publishers. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1335. ISBN 978-9004161214.
- ^ Samin, Nadav (18 February 2022). "Poetry, Magic, and the Formation of Wahhabism". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 65 (1–2): 1–26. doi:10.1163/15685209-12341561. S2CID 247162037 – via Brill.
- ^ Rapoport, Yossef; Ahmed, Shahab (1 January 2010). Ibn Taymiyya and His Times. Oxford University Press. p. 305.
- ^ Ibn Hajar al-Haytami, in Rapoport, Yossef; Ahmed, Shahab (1 January 2010). Ibn Taymiyya and His Times. Oxford University Press. p. 274.
- ^ Ibn Hajar al-Haytami: "Ibn Taymiyya is a servant whom God has forsaken, led astray, made blind and deaf, and degraded. Such is the explicit verdict of the leading scholars who have exposed the rottenness of his ways and the errors of his statements" (in Rapoport, Yossef; Ahmed, Shahab (1 January 2010). Ibn Taymiyya and His Times. Oxford University Press. p. 271.
- ^ Taqi al-Din al-Hisni referred to Ibn Taymiyyah as a "heretic from Harran"; see Rapoport, Yossef; Ahmed, Shahab (1 January 2010). Ibn Taymiyya and His Times. Oxford University Press. p. 271
- ^ John L. Esposito (ed.), The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, Oxford University Press (2004), p. 296
- ^ Islamic Law and Society. E.J. Brill. 2006. p. 216.
- ^ a b c Voll 1975: 32–39 "Scholars have described Muhammad Hayya as having an important influence on Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, encouraging him in his developing determination to denounce rigid imitation of medieval commentaries and to utilize informed individual analysis (ijtihad). Muhammad Hayya also taught Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab a rejection of popular religious practices associated with 'saints' and their tombs that is similar to later Wahhdbi teachings."
- ^ ibn 'Hajar: 17–19
- ^ Official sources on Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's life put his visits to these cities in different chronological orders, and the full extent of such travels remains disputed among historians. As well, dates are missing in a great many cases, making it difficult to reconstruct a chronology of his life up until his return to 'Uyayna in 1740.
- ^ M. Naf'i, Basheer (2006). "A Teacher of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhāb: Muḥammad Ḥayāt al-Sindī and the Revival of Asḥāb al-Ḥadīth's Methodology". Islamic Law and Society. Brill Publishers. 13 (2): 208, 240. doi:10.1163/156851906776917552. JSTOR 40377907.
- ^ Cameron, Zargar (2017). "Origins of Wahhabism from Hanbali Fiqh". UCLA Journal of Islamic and Near Eastern Law. University of California. 16 (1): 96–97. doi:10.5070/N4161038736.
- ^ M. Naf'i, Basheer (2006). "A Teacher of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhāb: Muḥammad Ḥayāt al-Sindī and the Revival of Asḥāb al-Ḥadīth's Methodology". Islamic Law and Society. Brill Publishers. 13 (2): 217. JSTOR 40377907.
Certain themes that Hayat al-Sindl discussed in his writings, such as his opposition to erecting tombs and drawing human images, would soon resurface in the teachings of Muhammad b. 'Abd al-Wahhab.
- ^ Cameron, Zargar (2017). "Origins of Wahhabism from Hanbali Fiqh". UCLA Journal of Islamic and Near Eastern Law. University of California. 16 (1): 97.
- ^ Cameron, Zargar (2017). "Origins of Wahhabism from Hanbali Fiqh". UCLA Journal of Islamic and Near Eastern Law. University of California. 16 (1): 96.
- ^ ibn Bishr: 7–8
- ^ J. Delong-Bas, Natana (2004). Wahhabi Islam:From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 22. ISBN 0195169913.
Ibn Abd al-Wahhab set out for Basra (located in modern Iraq), where he pursued additional studies in hadith and fiqh with an important scholar and madrasa (Islamic school) teacher, Muhammad al-Majmu'i... It is believed that Ibn Abd al-Wahhab came into contact with Shiis during this stay in Basra,... he specifically targeted only one particular extremist sect, the Rafidah, in only one treatise.
- ^ Bradford, Joe (2022). "IbnʿAbd al-Wahhāb, Muḥammad". In L. Esposito, John (ed.). Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World: Digital Collection. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780197669419.001.0001. ISBN 9780197669419.
- ^ Haj, Samira (April 1997). "Reordering Islamic Orthodoxy: Muhammad ibn 'Abdul Wahhab". The Muslim World. 92 (3–4): 338. doi:10.1111/j.1478-1913.2002.tb03747.x – via Wiley Online Library.
- ^ Schacht, J; Lewis, B; Pellat, C; Ménage, V.L., eds. (1986). "The Encyclopaedia of Islam". The Encyclopaedia of Islam: New Edition. Vol. III. Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill. p. 678. ISBN 90-04-08118-6.
- ^ J. Delong-Bas, Natana (2004). Wahhabi Islam:From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 84. ISBN 0195169913.
- ^ Nakissa, Aria (29 June 2022). "Reconceptualizing the Global Transformation of Islam in the Colonial Period: Early Islamic Reform in British-Ruled India and Egypt". Arabica. Brill. 69 (1–2): 216. doi:10.1163/15700585-12341630. S2CID 251145936 – via Brill.com.
- ^ Samin, Nadav (18 February 2022). "Poetry, Magic, and the Formation of Wahhabism". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 65 (1–2): 1–26. doi:10.1163/15685209-12341561. S2CID 247162037 – via Brill.
- ^ M. Bunzel, Cole (2018). Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932). Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University. p. 177.
- ^ Haj, Samira (April 1997). "Reordering Islamic Orthodoxy: Muhammad ibn 'Abdul Wahhab". The Muslim World. 92 (3–4): 338. doi:10.1111/j.1478-1913.2002.tb03747.x – via Wiley Online Library.
- ^ De Jong, Radtke, Frederick, Bernd; Peskes, Esther (1999). "The Wahhabiyya and Sufism in the Eighteenth Century". Islamic Mysticism Contested: Thirteen Centuries of Controversied and Polemics. Koninklijke Brill NV, Ledien, the Netherlands: Brill. p. 147. ISBN 9004113002.
- ^ Mouline, Nabil (2014). The Clerics of Islam: Religious Authority and Political Power in Saudi Arabia. London: Yale University Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-300-17890-6.
- ^ Lacey 1983: 56
- ^ a b Delong-Bas 2004, p. 24.
- ^ ibn 'Hajar: 28
- ^ Crawford, Michael (2014). "3: Guide of the Community". Makers of the Muslim World: Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab. London: One World Publications. p. 43. ISBN 978-1-78074-589-3.
- ^ a b Delong-Bas 2004, p. 34.
- ^ Al-Rasheed, Madawi (2010). "1: Society and politics, 1744-1818 and 1824–1891". A History of Saudi Arabia: Second Edition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-521-76128-4.
- ^ Al-Rasheed, Madawi (2010). "1: Society and politics, 1744-1818 and 1824–1891". A History of Saudi Arabia: Second Edition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-521-76128-4.
- ^ Ibnsaud.info 2008
- ^ Crawford, Michael (2014). "3: Guide of the community". Makers of the Muslim World: Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab. London: One World Publications. pp. 43–44. ISBN 978-1-78074-589-3.
- ^ Crawford, Michael (2014). "Chapter 2: Agitator for God". Makers of the Muslim World: Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab. London: One World Publications. p. 27. ISBN 978-1-78074-589-3.
Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's formal output was limited. He was above all a preacher, teacher and activist.
- ^ Parker T. Hart (1998). Saudi Arabia and the United States: Birth of a Security Partnership. Indiana University Press. p. 7. ISBN 0253334608.
- ^ Sebastian Maisel; John A. Shoup (2009). Saudi Arabia and the Gulf Arab States Today: An Encyclopedia of Life in the Arab States. Greenwood Press. p. 228. ISBN 978-0313344428. from the original on 4 May 2016.
- ^ Hunt Janin; André Kahlmeyer (2007). Islamic Law: The Sharia from Muhammad's Time to the Present. McFarland. p. 92. ISBN 978-1476608815. from the original on 28 May 2016.
- ^ Obaid 1999: 51–58
- ^ Faksh 1997: 89–90
- ^ Naghma (2015). Impact of the Ahl-e-Hadith Movement on Contemporary Muslim Society in India. Aligarh, India: Aligarh Muslim University. pp. 58, 71.
- ^ Esposito, John L. (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 333. ISBN 0-19-512558-4.
- ^ a b Martin, Richard C. (2004). Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. New York: Macmillan Reference USA. p. 727. ISBN 0-02-865603-2.
- ^ Crawford, Michael (2014). Makers of the Muslim World: Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab. London: One World Publications. p. 44. ISBN 978-1-78074-589-3.
- ^ Romero, Juan (2022). Terrorism: The Power and Weakness of Fear. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. pp. 243, 251. doi:10.4324/9781003260943. ISBN 978-1-032-19806-4.
- ^ M. Bunzel, Cole (2018). Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932). Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University. pp. 243–244.
- ^ EBO History of Arabia 2011
- ^ M. Bunzel, Cole (2018). Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932). Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University. p. 244.
- ^ J. Delong-Bas, Natana (2004). Wahhabi Islam:From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 202–203. ISBN 0195169913.
Ibn Abd al-Wahhab described jihad as an activity that must always have a religious justification and can only be declared by the religious leader (imam) and whose intent and purpose must be strictly defensive in nature.
- ^ M. Bunzel, Cole (2018). Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932). Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University. p. 244.
- ^ Abu alrub, Jalal (2013). Mencke, Alaa (ed.). Biography and Mission of Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab: Second Edition. Madinah Punlishers and Distributors. pp. 267, 276. ISBN 978-0-9856326-9-4.
- ^ M. Bunzel, Cole (2018). Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932). Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University. p. 247.
- ^ Crawford, Michael (2014). Makers of the Muslim World: Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab. London: One World Publications. p. 47. ISBN 978-1-78074-589-3.
- ^ M. Bunzel, Cole (2018). Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932). Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University. pp. 247–249.
- ^ M. Bunzel, Cole (2018). Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932). Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University. pp. 249–250.
- ^ Crawford, Michael (2014). Makers of the Muslim World: Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab. London: One World Publications. pp. 47–48. ISBN 978-1-78074-589-3.
- ^ Abu alrub, Jalal (2013). Mencke, Alaa (ed.). Biography and Mission of Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab: Second Edition. Madinah Punlishers and Distributors. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-9856326-9-4.
- ^ Crawford, Michael (2014). Makers of the Muslim World: Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab. London: One World Publications. pp. 47–48. ISBN 978-1-78074-589-3.
- ^ Abu alrub, Jalal (2013). Mencke, Alaa (ed.). Biography and Mission of Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab: Second Edition. Madinah Punlishers and Distributors. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-9856326-9-4.
- ^ J. Delong-Bas, Natana (2004). Wahhabi Islam:From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 39–40. ISBN 0195169913.
- ^ M. Bunzel, Cole (2018). Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932). Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University. p. 254.
- ^ M. Bunzel, Cole (2018). Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932). Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University. pp. 254–255.
- ^ Crawford, Michael (2014). Makers of the Muslim World: Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab. London: One World Publications. pp. 48, 99, 104–105. ISBN 978-1-78074-589-3.
- ^ EBO Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb 2011
- ^ "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. from the original on 8 June 2016. Retrieved 12 December 2016.
- ^ a b c Tarik K. Firro (2013). "The Political Context of Early Wahhabi Discourse of Takfir". Middle Eastern Studies. 49 (5): 770. doi:10.1080/00263206.2013.811648. S2CID 144357200.
- ^ Mukhlid al-Harbi, Dalal (2008). Ann Roberg-Abahsain, Jill (ed.). Prominent Women from Central Arabia (in Arabic). Translated by M. Abahsain, A. al-Furaih, Dr Muhammad, Dr Mohammad (First ed.). 8 Southern Court, South Street, Reading, RG1 4QS, UK: Ithaca Press. pp. 32–34. ISBN 978-0-86372-327-8.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) - ^ J. DeLong-Bas, Natana (2022). "1: The Role of Women in Solidifying Eighteenth-Century Revival and Reform Initiatives into Ongoing Mass Movements". Islam, Revival, and Reform: Redefining Tradition for the Twenty-First Century - Essays Inspired by John O. Voll (1st ed.). Syracuse, New York 13244-5290: Syracuse University Press. pp. 9, 16. ISBN 978-0-8156-3753-0.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) - ^ Ottaway 2008: 176
- ^ Nyrop 2008: 50
- ^ Bligh 1985: 37–50
- ^ Khatab 2011, pp. 65–67.
- ^ a b Saeed 2013, pp. 29–30.
- ^ Esposito 2003, p. 333
- ^ "Allah". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. from the original on 13 May 2008. Retrieved 28 May 2008.
- ^ L. Esposito, El-Din Shahin, John, Emad; Saeed, Abdullah (2013). "2: Salafiya, Modernism, and Revival". The Oxford Handbook of Islam and Politics. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 29. ISBN 978-0195395891.
- ^ Weismann, Itzchak (2001). "7: Local Renaissance under the Centralizing Regimes (1883-1918)". Taste of Modernity: Sufism, Salafiyya, and Arabism in Late Ottoman Damascus. Koninklijke Brill nv, Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. p. 268. ISBN 90-04-11908-6.
- ^ Riexinger, Martin (2022). "2: Model, Not Idol The Recasting of the Image of Muḥammad in Mukhtaṣar sīrat al-rasūl by Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-Wahhāb (d. 1792)". In Chih, Rachida; Jordan, David; Reichmuth, Stefan (eds.). The Presence of the Prophet in Early Modern and Contemporary Islam. Vol. 2. Heirs of the Prophet: Authority and Power. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. p. 55. ISBN 978-90-04-46674-6.
- ^ Martin, Richard C. (2016). Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World (2nd ed.). Farmington Hills, MI: Gale. p. 1236. ISBN 978-0-02-866269-5.
- ^ Commins, David (2009). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. I.B. Tauris. p. 12.
This brief essay is of tremendous significance for the Wahhabi mission and the subject of enduring controversy between supporters and detractors. It represents the core of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teaching and the foundation of the Wahhabi canon.
- ^ Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Kitab al-Tawhid
- ^ Commins, David (2006). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. I.B. Tauris. p. vii. ISBN 978-1845110802. from the original on 5 January 2020.
- ^ Commins, David (2006). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. I.B. Tauris. p. vii. ISBN 978-1845110802. from the original on 5 January 2020.
Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab included in the category of such acts popular religious practices that made holy men into intercessors with God. That was the core of the controversy between him and his adversaries, including his brother.
- ^ Commins, David (2006). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. New York: I.B. Tauris. p. 23. ISBN 978-1845110802. from the original on 5 January 2020.
- ^ Romero, Juan (2022). "1: Ancient, medieval and early modern extremist movements". Terrorism: The Power and Weakness of Fear. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. pp. 19–21. doi:10.4324/9781003260943. ISBN 978-1-032-19806-4.
- ^ ibn Abd al-Wahhab, 'Abd al-Aziz, Muhammad (1976). الرسالة التاسعة: رسالته إلى عامة المسلمين [Ninth Message: his Message to the Common Muslims]. In Bin Zaid Al-Roumi; Beltaji, Muhammad; Hijab, Sayyed (eds.). مؤلفات الشيخ الإمام محمد بن عبد الوهاب [Works of Shaykh and Imam Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab] (in Arabic). Vol. 7: Book of Personal Messages. Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University. pp. 58–60.
- ^ Abu alrub, Jalal (2013). Mencke, Alaa (ed.). Biography and Mission of Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab: Second Edition. Madinah Punlishers and Distributors. pp. 462–463. ISBN 978-0-9856326-9-4.
- ^ Abu alrub, Jalal (2013). Mencke, Alaa (ed.). Biography and Mission of Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab: Second Edition. Madinah Punlishers and Distributors. pp. 462–465. ISBN 978-0-9856326-9-4.
- ^ J DeLong-Bas, Natana (2004). Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 8, 12, 20–21, 94–95, 100, 109–110. ISBN 0-19-516991-3.
- ^ Haj, Samira (April 1997). "Reordering Islamic Orthodoxy: Muhammad ibn 'Abdul Wahhab". The Muslim World. 92 (3–4): 340, 343. doi:10.1111/j.1478-1913.2002.tb03747.x – via Wiley Online Library.
(his criticism)... was also directed against the blind acceptance of religious authority (taqlid ) and by implication the 'ulama for confining independent reasoning (ijtihad ) and for their uncritical acceptance of medieval Islamic sources as the final authority on these questions. Instead, he maintained that final authoritative sources are those of the Qur'an and the Sunnah of the Prophet along with the precedents of the early Companions, who considered ijtihad as necessary for the continuous interpretation of Islamic law" ... "By upholding the absolute supremacy of the Qur'an and the early Sunnah, his intention was to undercut the authority of ijma, the consensus arrived at by the established 'ulama and extend the practice of independent reasoning [as against taqlid (traditionalism) ].
- ^ Farquhar, Michael (2013). Expanding the Wahhabi Mission: Saudi Arabia, the Islamic University of Medina and the Transnational Religious Economy. London: The London School of Economics and Political Science. p. 64.
..Muhammad Hayya al-Sindi in Medina influenced a shift on the part of Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab towards criticism of taqlīd and many popular religious practices
- ^ ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad. "The Six Foundations" (PDF). Salafi Publications. (PDF) from the original on 20 December 2020.
- ^ Crawford, Michael (2014). "Chapter 7: The Regime of Godliness and The Political Order". Makers of the Muslim World: Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab. Oneworld Publications, London: One World Publishers. p. 88. ISBN 978-1-78074-589-3.
- ^ "Guidelines for following Madhabs". Salafi Publications. from the original on 24 January 2021.
- ^ M. Bunzel, Cole (2018). "MANIFEST ENMITY: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932)". Near Eastern Studies. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University: 153–161.
Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb employs this proof in pursuit of a more radical conclusion than the one reached by Ibn Taymiyya. He uses it to inveigh against the entire educational institution surrounding Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh), which he takes as emblematic of the sad state of learning in Islam"... "Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb considered the institution of fiqh as a kind of factory for the production of slavish emulators. The real task of a scholar, he argued, is to return to the texts of revelation, not to the opinions of men" ... "Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb drew on both Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn al-Qayyim... Yet neither of them wrote off the entire field of jurisprudence as irredeemable, as Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb did"... "he describes his position with respect to scholarly authority as... ittibāʿ (following)
- ^ a b c Riexinger, Martin (2022). "2: Model, Not Idol The Recasting of the Image of Muḥammad in Mukhtaṣar sīrat al-rasūl by Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-Wahhāb (d. 1792)". In Chih, Rachida; Jordan, David; Reichmuth, Stefan (eds.). The Presence of the Prophet in Early Modern and Contemporary Islam. Vol. 2. Heirs of the Prophet: Authority and Power. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. pp. 44–73. ISBN 978-90-04-46674-6.
- ^ Moosa 2015, p. 97.
- ^ Asad, Talal (2003). Formations of the Secular: Christianity, Islam, Modernity. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 222. ISBN 978-0804747684. from the original on 11 June 2020. Retrieved 8 September 2020.
- ^ a b c d Ende, W.; Peskes, Esther (2012) [1993]. "Wahhābiyya". In Bearman, P. J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E. J.; Heinrichs, W. P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Vol. 11. Leiden: Brill Publishers. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1329. ISBN 978-9004161214.
- ^ The National, March 18, 2010: There is no such thing as Wahhabism, Saudi prince says 27 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine Linked 3 March 2015
- ^ Commins, David (2009). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. New York: I.B. Tauris. p. ix.
Thus, the mission's devotees contend that 'Wahhabism' is a misnomer for their efforts to revive correct Islamic belief and practice. Instead of the Wahhabi label, they prefer either salafi, one who follows the ways of the first Muslim ancestors (salaf), or muwahhid, one who professes God's unity.
- ^ Delong-Bas 2004, p. 4.
- ^ S. Moussalli, Ahmad (1999). Historical Dictionary of Islamic Fundamentalist Movements in the Arab World, Iran and Turkey. Folkestone, Kent: The Scarecrow Press. p. 258. ISBN 0-8108-3609-2.
AL-SALAFIYYA. .. It was not directly connected to the movement of Shaykh Muhammad Bin 'Abd al-Wahhab in Najd.
- ^ M. Bunzel, Cole (2018). Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932). Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University. p. 40.
- ^ Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad. أربع قواعد تدور الأحكام عليها [Arbaʿ qawāʿid tadūruʾl-aḥkām ʿalayhā (Four rules on which rulings revolve)] (in Arabic). Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University. pp. 3–14.
- ^ E. Vogel, Frank (2000). "Two- Ijtihad as Law: Doctrines for Theory and Practice". Islamic Law and Legal System: Studies of Saudi Arabia. Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. p. 72. ISBN 90-04-110623.
- ^ Ibn Muhammad ibn Qasim al-Asimi, 'Abdur-Rahman (1996). "في أصول مأخذهم" [Fi Usul Ma'khadahum (On the origins of their take)]. الدرر السنية في الأجوبة النجدية [Al Durar al-Sunniyya Fil Ajwab al-Nakdiyya (Sunni Pearls in Najd Answers)] (in Arabic). Vol. 4. p. 10.
- ^ M. Bunzel, Cole (2018). Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932). Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University. pp. 40–41.
- ^ Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad. أربع قواعد تدور الأحكام عليها [Arbaʿ qawāʿid tadūruʾl-aḥkām ʿalayhā (Four rules on which rulings revolve)] (in Arabic). Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University. pp. 3–14.
- ^ Ibn Muhammad ibn Qasim al-Asimi, 'Abdur-Rahman (1996). "في أصول مأخذهم" [Fi Usul Ma'khadahum (On the origins of their take)]. الدرر السنية في الأجوبة النجدية [Al Durar al-Sunniyya Fil Ajwab al-Nakdiyya (Sunni Pearls in Najd Answers)] (in Arabic). Vol. 4. pp. 57–60.
- ^ E. Vogel, Frank (2000). "Two- Ijtihad as Law: Doctrines for Theory and Practice". Islamic Law and Legal System: Studies of Saudi Arabia. Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. pp. 72–73. ISBN 90-04-110623.
- ^ Ibn Muhammad ibn Qasim al-Asimi, 'Abdur-Rahman (1996). "في أصول مأخذهم" [Fi Usul Ma'khadahum (On the origins of their take)]. الدرر السنية في الأجوبة النجدية [Al Durar al-Sunniyya Fil Ajwab al-Nakdiyya ( Sunni Pearls in Najd Answers)] (in Arabic). Vol. 4. p. 11.
- ^ J. Delong-Bas, Natana (2004). Wahhabi Islam:From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 32, 50–51, 84, 94–95, 115–118, 158, 160, 240, 283–285. ISBN 0-19-516991-3.
- ^ Voll, John (1975). "Muḥammad Ḥayyā al-Sindī and Muḥammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab: An Analysis of an Intellectual Group in Eighteenth-Century Madīna". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 38 (1): 32–39. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00047017. JSTOR 614196. S2CID 162450741.
Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhāb came to Madina as a relatively young scholar and studied under Muhammad Hayyā al-Sindi.... Scholars have described Muhammad Hayyā as having an impor- tant influence on Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhāb, encouraging him in his developing determination to denounce rigid imitation of medieval commentaries and to utilize informed individual analysis (ijtihād). Muhammad Hayyà also taught Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhāb a rejection of popular religious practices associated with saints and their tombs that is similar to later Wahhābi teachings.
- ^ bin Ridha Murad, Mahmoud (2000). The Life & the Aqeedah of Muhammad Bin Abdul-Wahhab. pp. 17–20.
- ^ Hafiz Al-Makki, Mawlana Abd-Al (1 January 2011). "Shaykh Muhammad bin 'Abd Al-Wahhab and Sufism". Deoband Org. from the original on 11 January 2015.
From among the wonders is to find a Sufi who is a faqih and a scholar who is an ascetic (zahid).
- ^ 'Abd al-Hafiz al-Makki, Mawlana (1 January 2011). "Shaykh Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab and Sufism". Deoband org. from the original on 11 January 2015.
- ^ "Kitab al Fiqh". Mu'allafat al-Imam al-Shaykh Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab. Vol. 2. p. 4.
- ^ al-Makki, 'Abd al-Hafiz. . Deoband.org. Deoband.org. Archived from the original on 11 January 2015. Retrieved 3 April 2015.
- ^ Rida, Rashid (1925). Commentary of Shaykh 'Abd Allah bin Shaykh Muhammad bin 'Abd al-Wahhab al-Najdi's Al-Hadiyyah al-Suniyyah. Egypt: Al Manar Publishers. p. 50.
- ^ al-Makki, Mawlana 'Abd Al-Hafiz (1 January 2011). "Shaykh Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab and Sufism". Deoband org. from the original on 11 January 2015.
- ^ Rida, Rashid (1925). Commentary of Shaykh 'Abd Allah bin Shaykh Muhammad bin 'Abd al-Wahhab al-Najdi's Al-Hadiyyah al-Suniyyah. Egypt: Al-Manar Publishers. p. 50.
- ^ al-Din M. Zarabozo, Jamaal (2003). The Life, Teachings and Influence of Muhammad ibn Abdul-Wahhaab. Riyadh: The Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Endowments, Dawah and Guidance, The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. pp. 20–22, 44, 134–139, 164–165. ISBN 9960-29-500-1.
- ^ bin Ridha Murad, Mahmoud (2000). The Life & the Aqeedah of Muhammad Bin Abdul-Wahhab. p. 17.
- ^ Martin, Richard C. (2004). Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. Macmillan Reference USA. p. 6. ISBN 0-02-865603-2.
Ibn Abd al-Wahhab called for the reopening of ijtihad (independent legal judgment) by qualified persons to reform Islam..
- ^ J. DeLong-Bas, Natana (2004). Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 8, 109–110, 124, 135–136, 173, 183, 204–205. ISBN 0-19-516991-3.
- ^ "1: The Role of Women in Solidifying Eighteenth-Century Revival and Reform Initiatives into Ongoing Mass Movements". Islam, Revival, and Reform: Redefining Tradition for the Twenty-First Century - Essays Inspired by John O. Voll (1st ed.). Syracuse, New York 13244-5290: Syracuse University Press. 2022. pp. 3–29. ISBN 978-0-8156-3753-0.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) - ^ Mukhlid al-Harbi, Dalal (2008). Ann Roberg-Abahsain, Jill (ed.). Prominet Women from Central Arabia (in Arabic). Translated by M. Abahsain, A. al-Furaih, Dr Muhammad, Dr Mohammad (First ed.). 8 Southern Court, South Street, Reading, RG1 4QS, UK: Ithaca Press. ISBN 978-0-86372-327-8.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) - ^ Masʻūd ʻĀlam Nadvī (1983). Mohammad Bin Abdul Wahhab, a Slandered Reformer (Muslims -- Biography -- Saudi Arabia, Wahhābīyah -- Biography -- Saudi Arabia). Translated by M. Rafiq Khan. Idaratul Buhoosil Islamia. p. 10. Retrieved 27 February 2022.
- ^ a b c d e f g Gold, Dore (2003). Hatred's Kingdom: How Saudi Arabia Supports the New Global Terrorism. Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publishing. p. 25. ISBN 0895261359.
- ^ Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, Kitab al-Tawhid (Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 1996) Chapter 24, particularly p. 97
- ^ Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, Kitab al-Tawhid (Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 1996, p. 83)
- ^ Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, Kitab al-Tawhid (Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 1996, Chapter 9, p. 51)
- ^ Delong-Bas 2004, p. 61.
- ^ Ranjbar, Vahid Houston (12 September 2019). "Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab and Shaykh Ahmad". Medium.
- ^ a b El Fadl, Khaled A. (2007) [2005]. "The Rise of the Early Puritans". The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists. San Francisco: HarperOne. pp. 56–57. ISBN 978-0-06-118903-6.
- ^ M. Bunzel, Cole (2018). Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932). Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University. p. 244.
- ^ Crawford, Michael (2014). Makers of the Muslim World: Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab. London: One World Publications. p. 72. ISBN 978-1-78074-589-3.
- ^ M. Bunzel, Cole (2018). Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932). Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University. p. 244.
- ^ Commins, David (2006). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. London: I.B. Tauris. p. 30. ISBN 1-84511-080-3.
By 1802, the Ottomans were mounting a doctrinal campaign, sending official tracts refuting Wahhabi positions and likening them to the Kharijites of early Islamic times.
- ^ a b Aydınlı, Ersel (2018) [2016]. "The Jihadists pre-9/11". Violent Non-State Actors: From Anarchists to Jihadists. Routledge Studies on Challenges, Crises, and Dissent in World Politics (1st ed.). London and New York: Routledge. p. 66. ISBN 978-1-315-56139-4. LCCN 2015050373.
- ^ Weismann,Zachs, Itzchak,Fruma (2005). Ottoman Reform and Muslim Regeneration. New York: I.B Taurus. p. 81. ISBN 1850437572.
- ^ Weismann, Zachs, Itzchak, Fruma (2005). Ottoman Reform and Muslim Regeneration. New York: I.B Tauris. pp. 84–86. ISBN 1850437572.
- ^ a b c d Mannah, Buṭrus Abū; Weismann, Itzchak; Zachs, Fruma (2005). Ottoman Reform and Muslim Regeneration. I.B. Tauris. p. 83. ISBN 978-1850437574. from the original on 1 July 2020.
- ^ Mannah, Buṭrus Abū; Weismann, Itzchak; Zachs, Fruma (2005). Ottoman Reform and Muslim Regeneration. I.B. Tauris. pp. 86–87. ISBN 978-1850437574. from the original on 1 July 2020.
- ^ a b Mannah, Buṭrus Abū; Weismann, Itzchak; Zachs, Fruma (2005). Ottoman Reform and Muslim Regeneration. I.B. Tauris. p. 89. ISBN 978-1850437574. from the original on 1 July 2020.
- ^ ibn Muhammad ibn Qasim Al-Najdi, 'Abd al-Rahman, ed. (1996). الدرر السنية في الأجوبة النجدية [Al-Durar Al-Sunniyya Fil Ajwabatil Najdiyya (Sunni Pearls from Najdi Answers)] (in Arabic). Vol. 10. Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University. pp. 434–435.
- ^ Khatab 2011, pp. 63–75.
- ^ Muhammad Hisham Kabbani (2004). The Naqshbandi Sufi Tradition Guidebook of Daily Practices and Devotions. Islamic Supreme Council of America. p. 187. ISBN 978-1930409224.
- ^ Eric Tagliacozzo (2009). Southeast Asia and the Middle East: Islam, Movement, and the Longue Durée. NUS Press. p. 125. ISBN 978-9971694241.
- ^ Countering Suicide Terrorism: An International Conference. International Institute for Counter-Terrorism (ICT). 2001. p. 72. ISBN 978-1412844871.
- ^ Khatab 2011, p. 71.
- ^ Commins, David (2006). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. London: I.B Tauris. p. 22. ISBN 1845110803.
Later reports claim that Sulayman eventually repented his errors, but those may well represent efforts to smooth over the historical record
- ^ al-Din M. Zarabozo, Jamaal (2005). The Life, Teachings and Influence of Muhammad ibn Abdul-Wahhaab. Riyadh: The Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Endowments, Dawah and Guidance The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. p. 209. ISBN 9960295001.
There is a difference of opinion concerning whether Sulaimaan eventually gave up his opposition and joined the call of his brother Muhammad ibn Abdul-Wahhaab. Ibn Ghannaam, the earliest chronicler, specifically states that he repented from his previous position and joined his brother in al-Diriyyah. Ibn Bishr simply states that he moved to al-Diriyyah with his family and remained there while receiving a stipend, which may or may not be a sign that he had changed his views. There is actually a letter that was supposedly written by Sulaimaan in which he stated that he repented from his earlier views. Al-Bassaam in Ulamaa Najd presents logical evidence to show that that letter is false and Sulaimaan actually never changed his position
- ^ a b Mannah, Buṭrus Abū; Weismann, Itzchak; Zachs, Fruma (2005). Ottoman Reform and Muslim Regeneration. I.B. Tauris. p. 91. ISBN 978-1850437574. from the original on 1 July 2020.
- ^ J. Delong-Bas, Natana (2004). "The Theology and Worldview of Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab". Wahhabi Islam:From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 67. ISBN 0195169913.
Consequently, 'Abd al-Wahhab noted that although visiting Muhammad's grave was a worthy act it must not be done in a spirit or intent that compromises monotheism. Finally, prayer should never be conducted in a cemetery
- ^ ibn Abdul Wahhab, Muhammad. "Chapter 22 The protectiveness of Al-Mustafa (May Allah be pleased with him) of Tawhid and his blockading every path leading to Shirk". Kitab At-Tauhid (PDF). Dar us Salam Publications.
4) The Prophet (May the peace and blessing of Allah be upon him) forbade visiting his grave in a certain manner, though visiting his grave is among the best of deeds. 5) The Prophet (May the peace and blessing of Allah be upon him) forbade us making excessive visits to his grave
- ^ Beranek, Tupek; Ondrej, Pavel (2009). "From Visiting Graves to Their Destruction The Question of Ziyara through the Eyes of Salafis". Brandeis University Crown Center for Middle East Studies: 2, 12, 15 – via Brandeis University.
Ibn Taymiyya spent a large portion of his life in prison for his teachings; his last imprisonment was caused by his issuance of a legal opinion reportedly denouncing the visitation of the Prophet's grave... He was arrested, imprisoned without trial, and by a decree of the sultan, which was read out in the Umayyad Mosque, deprived of the right to issue legal opinions (ifta'). The reason for this was the discovery of Ibn Taymiyya's fatwa on grave visitation, authored by him seventeen years earlier and exploited by Ibn Taymiyya's adversaries. This event was connected with yet another incident. After Ibn al-Qayyim, in full accordance with his master's teaching, had preached in Jerusalem about the intercession of the prophets and denied that one could set out to visit the Prophet's grave without first going to the Prophet's mosque, a group of Ibn Taymiyya's sympathizers was arrested. Ibn al Qayyim, after he had been beaten and paraded on a donkey, was imprisoned along with Ibn Taymiyya.. Ibn Taymiyya prohibits traveling exclusively for the purpose of visiting the Prophet's grave, but it is customary (sunna) to visit it after praying in his mosque, because it was the way of the sahaba... Ibn Taymiyya criticizes hadiths encouraging visitation of the Prophet's grave, pronouncing them all forgeries (mawdu') and lies (kidhb)...
- ^ "Travel Towards Prophet's Resting Place". Islami Education. 17 October 2008.
- ^ al-Din M. Zarabozo, Jamaal (2005). The Life, Teachings and Influence of Muhammad ibn Abdul-Wahhaab. Riyadh: The Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Endowments, Dawah and Guidance The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. pp. 218, 234. ISBN 9960295001.
Muhammad Basheer ibn Muhammad al-Sahsawaani from India (1250–1326 A.H.). He was a scholar from India who went to Makkah and met with and debated Dahlaan. Later he wrote a large volume refuting the false claims and misinterpretations of Dahlaan, entitled Sayaanah al-Insaan an Waswasah al-Shaikh Dahlaan.".. "Similarly, al-Sahsawaani stated that he met more than one scholar of the followers of ibn Abdul-Wahhaab and he read many of their books and he did not find any evidence for the false claim that they declared "non-Wahhabis" disbelievers
- ^ "[Biography] – Allamah Muhammad Bashir Sehsawani [1326H]". Salafi Research Institute. August 2015. from the original on 25 January 2019.
- ^ al-Din M. Zarabozo, Jamaal (2005). The Life, Teachings and Influence of Muhammad ibn Abdul-Wahhaab. Riyadh: The Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Endowments, Dawah and Guidance The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. pp. 172–73. ISBN 9960295001.
He was a strong supporter of ibn Taimiyyah—publishing his works—as well as of the scholars of Najd—publishing their works in his magazine and in a separate anthology entitled Majmooah al-Rasaail wa al-Masaail al-Najdiyyah. In his introduction to al-Sahwasaani's refutation of Dahlaan, Ridha, in a lengthy passage, described ibn Abdul-Wahhaab as a mujaddid ("religious revivalist"), repelling the innovations and deviations in Muslim life. Through his magazine, al-Manaar, Muhammad Rasheed Ridha greatly contributed to the spread of ibn Abdul-Wahhaab's teachings in the whole Muslim world. In fact, he published some of his articles from that magazine in a work entitled al-Wahhaabiyoon wa al-Hijaaz ("The Wahhabis and the Hijaz"). His magazine was unique in its thought and popularity.
- ^ Al Din M.Zarabazo, Jamal (2005). The Life, Teachings and Influence of Muhammad ibn Abdul-Wahhaab. Riyadh: The Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Endowments, Dawah and Guidance The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. pp. 213, 242–43. ISBN 9960295001.
"Muhammad Rasheed Ridha notes that given Dahlaan's position in Makkah and the availability there of works about the call, it is hard to believe that Dahlaan was not aware of the truth about the teachings of ibn Abdul Wahhab and his followers. He must have simply chosen to write otherwise. He further argues that even if he did not see such writings and he relied simply on what he heard from people, it would have been incumbent upon him to verify those reports and to seek out ibn Abdul Wahhab's writings to see if such reports could possibly have been true." ... "Muhammad Rasheed Ridha described the situation best when he wrote, "From the amazing aspects of the ignorance of Dahlaan and others similar to him is that they think that what Allah describes concerning the falsehood of the shirk of the polytheists applies only to them [that is, the polytheists at the time of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him)]. They think that such are not proofs against anyone who does similar to what they did. It is as if it is permissible for a Muslim to commit shirk due to his Islamic citizenship, even if he commits every type of associating of partners with Allah enumerated in the Quran. Based on that, he cannot conceive of any kind of apostasy from Islam because anyone who is called a Muslim must also have his kufr and shirk called Islamic [kufr and shirk]. Or it is considered permissible for him or, at the very least, forbidden. Indeed, they considered it sanctioned based on a reinterpretation of the texts." Rasheed Ridha, footnotes to Siyaanah al-Insaan, pp. 479–80
- ^ Abu alrub, Jalal (2013). Mencke, Alaa (ed.). Biography and Mission of Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab: Second Edition. Madinah Punlishers and Distributors. p. 412. ISBN 978-0-9856326-9-4.
- ^ Abu alrub, Jalal (2013). Mencke, Alaa (ed.). Biography and Mission of Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab: Second Edition. Madinah Punlishers and Distributors. p. 412. ISBN 978-0-9856326-9-4.
- ^ J. Delong-Bas, Natana (2004). Wahhabi Islam:From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 244–45. ISBN 0195169913.
- ^ Bey, Ali (1816). Travels of Ali Bey, In Morocco, Tripoli, Cyprus, Egypt, Arabia, Syria and Turkey Vol.II. Philadelphia: The New York Public Library. pp. 79, 157.
- ^ J. Delong-Bas, Natana (2004). Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 245–46. ISBN 0195169913.
- ^ al-Din M. Zarabozo, Jamaal (2003). The Life, Teachings and Influence of Muhammad ibn Abdul-Wahhaab. Riyadh: The Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Endowments, Dawah and Guidance: The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. p. 171. ISBN 9960295001.
The historian and Azhari scholar Abdul-Rahmaan al-Jabarti (1167–1237 A.H.) was very influenced and impressed by the followers of ibn Abdul-Wahhaab and he spread their thoughts in Egypt. He saw in them the greatest potential to revive the Muslim world.
- ^ J. Delong-Bas, Natana (2004). Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 245. ISBN 0195169913.
The Egyptian historian Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti, who encountered Wahhabis in Egypt ten years later, in 1814, was similarly impressed by the knowledge of the Wahhabi scholars he encountered, despite all of the negative things he had heard about them. The two Wahhabis with whom al-Jabarti met had come to Egypt in search of hadith collections and Hanbali exegetical discussions of the Quran (tafsir) and jurisprudence (fiqh): "I myself met with the two Wahhabis twice and found them to be friendly and articulate, knowledgeable and well versed in historical events and curiosities. They were modest men of good morals, well trained in oratory, in the principles of religion, the branches of fiqh, and the disagreements of the Schools of Law. In all this they were extraordinary.
- ^ Commins, David (2006). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. London: I.B Tauris. p. 31. ISBN 1845110803.
Whereas Ottoman writers disparaged Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the Egyptian author described him as a man who summoned men to God's book and the Prophet's Sunna, bidding them to abandon innovations in worship. To the Wahhabis' discredit, al-Jabarti reported the 1803 massacre at Ta'if, where Wahhabi forces slaughtered the men and enslaved the women and children. But when it came to doctrinal matters, he reproduced an epistle that the Wahhabis had sent to the religious leader of a Moroccan pilgrim caravan. The epistle set forth their views on idolatry, intercession, festooning the graves of holy men and adhering to the Sunni mainstream. It emphasized that the Wahhabis did not bring anything new but followed classical authorities
- ^ Abu alrub, Jalal (2013). Mencke, Alaa (ed.). Biography and Mission of Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab: Second Edition. Madinah Punlishers and Distributors. p. 419. ISBN 978-0-9856326-9-4.
- ^ Ibn Badran al-Dimashqi, 'Abd al-Qadir (1920). المدخل الى مذهب احمد بن حنبل [al-Madkhal ila Madhhab al-Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal (An Introduction to the Madhab of Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal)] (in Arabic). New York: Columbia University in City of New York: Libraries. pp. 229–230.
- ^ Al Salem, Abdulaziz Abdullah (2019). Authoring reform: A comparative study of Martin Luther and Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab through cultural materialism (PhD). Glasgow, Scotland, UK: University of Glasgow. doi:10.5525/gla.thesis.75078.
- ^ al-Din M. Zarabozo, Jamal (2003). The Life, Teachings and Influence of Muhammad ibn Abdul-Wahhab. Riyadh: The Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Endowments, Dawah and Guidance, The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. p. 369. ISBN 9960295001.
- ^ Ismail, Raihan (2021). Rethinking Salafism: The Transnational Networks of Salafi 'Ulama in Egypt, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-094895-5.
- ^ Gauvain 2013, p. 9.
- ^ Assad, Muhammad (2004). The Road to Makkah. Noida (Ghaziabad): Islamic Book Service. p. 160. ISBN 8172311605.
- ^ Greenberg, Nathaniel (2019). "6: Philosophy and Revolution". How Information Warfare Shaped the Arab Spring: The Politics of Narrative in Tunisia and Egypt. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press. p. 128. ISBN 978-1-4744-5395-0.
- ^ Moj, Muhammad (2015). "5- Deobandi Islam: Countering Folk Islam and Popular Custom". The Deoband Madrassah Movement: Countercultural Trends and Tendencies. Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA: Anthem Press. p. 133. ISBN 978-1-78308-388-6.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) - ^ ibn Adam, Muhammad (1 July 2004). "Shaykh Rashid Ahmad Gangohi's Stance on the Najdis". Dar ul Iftaa. from the original on 20 September 2020.
Question: What kind of a person was (Muhammad ibn) Abd al-Wahhab al-Najdi?" "Answer: People call Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab a Wahhabi. He was a good person, and I have heard that he was a follower of the Hanbali School of Islamic law and acted upon the Hadith. He used to prevent people from Shirk and innovation (bid'a), but he was harsh (shadid) in his attitude." Question: Who are the Wahhabis and what was the belief of Abd al-Wahhab al-Najdi? What was his Madhhab and what type of person was he? What is the difference in belief between the people of Najd and Sunni Hanafis?" "Answer: The followers of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab are called Wahhabis. They had good (umdah) beliefs and their school of thought was Hanbali. However, they were very stringent in their attitude but he and his followers were good people. But, yes, those who exceeded the limits were overcome by wrongness (fasad). And basic beliefs of everyone are united. The difference they have in actions is (like that) of Hanafi, Shafi'i, Maliki and Hanbali." (Fatawa Rashidiyya, pp. 241–42) ...
- ^ Syed, Pio, Kamran, Zaidi, Jawad, Edwina, Tahir, Abbas (2016). Syed, Jawad; Pio, Edwina; Kamran, Tahir; Zaidi, Abbas (eds.). Faith-Based Violence and Deobandi Militancy in Pakistan. London: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 255, 324–325. doi:10.1057/978-1-349-94966-3. ISBN 978-1-349-94965-6.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Moj, Muhammad (2015). The Deoband Madrassah Movement: Countercultural Trends and Tendencies. Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA: Anthem Press. pp. 133, 190. ISBN 978-1-78308-388-6.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) - ^ a b Muhammad Jabir, Sharif (2 October 2017). "Hal Kaana Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab Da'ishiyya?". Aljazeera.net. from the original on 5 November 2021.
- ^ Ali Nadwi, Syed Abul Hasan (2004). "XI: Sons, Disciples and Eminent Contemporaries of Shah Waliullah". Saviours of Islamic Spirit: Volume IV. 253. Lucknow: Academy of Islamic Research & Publications. pp. 282–283.
- ^ "There is no such thing as Wahabism, Saudi prince says". The National. 18 March 2010. from the original on 20 August 2019. Retrieved 20 August 2019.
- ^ Commins, David (2009). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. London and New York: I.B. Tauris. p. 172.
- ^ Wright, Lawrence (2006). The Looming Tower: Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. New York: Knopf. p. 79. ISBN 978-0375414862.
- ^ Moghadam, Assaf (2008). The Globalization of Martyrdom: Al Qaeda, Salafi Jihad, and the Diffusion of Suicide Attacks. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 48. ISBN 978-0801890550.
- ^ Livesey, Bruce (25 January 2005). "Special Reports – The Salafist Movement: Al Qaeda's New Front". PBS Frontline. WGBH educational foundation. Retrieved 18 October 2011.Geltzer, Joshua A. (2011). US Counter-Terrorism Strategy and al-Qaeda: Signalling and the Terrorist World-View (Reprint ed.). London and New York: Routledge. p. 83. ISBN 978-0415664523.
- ^ Maley, William (2001). Fundamentalism Reborn? Afghanistan and the Taliban. C Hurst & Co. p. 14. ISBN 978-1850653608.
- ^ "Taliban - Oxford Islamic Studies Online". www.oxfordislamicstudies.com.
- ^ R. Dillon, Michael (September 2009). "(Thesis) Wahhabism: Is it a Factor in the Spread of Global Terrorism?". Naval Postgraduate School.
the Taliban ... movement emerged more from the Deobandi School and not Wahhabism ... the Saudi government cooperated fully, ... , with U.S. operations in Afghanistan (Operation Enduring Freedom) by allowing U.S. forces to use Saudi air bases to control U.S. aircraft ... the ideology of Osama bin Laden and al-Qaeda is not Wahhabi. ... The ideology of al-Qaeda is not a simple affair, and it is a serious mistake to reduce it to Wahhabism. To do so is to ignore the extent to which al-Qaeda broke with the traditional geo-political outlook of Wahhabism, which had never entered into politico-military opposition to the West and was indeed in alliance with the U.S. from 1945 onwards. ...
- ^ R. Dillon, Michael (September 2009). "(Thesis) Wahhabism: Is it a Factor in the Spread of Global Terrorism?". Naval Postgraduate School.
.. Saudi Arabia is serious about fighting Al-Qaeda
- ^ Sells, Michael (22 December 2016). "Wahhabist Ideology: What It Is And Why It's A Problem". The Huffington Post. New York. from the original on 8 April 2020. Retrieved 30 September 2020.
- ^ Ahmad, Aftab (19 June 2014). "Qutbism at the Root of Al Qaeda, ISIS and Taliban". NewAgeIslam.com. from the original on 23 October 2021.
- ^ Angìo, Francesco Saverio (January 2018). "Islamic State's Qutbist Statehood". Paix et Securité Internationales: 181–198. doi:10.25267/Paix_secur_int.2017.i5.07 – via ResearchGate.
- ^ Bunzel, Cole (March 2015). "From Paper State to Caliphate: The Ideology of the Islamic State" (PDF). The Brookings Project on U.S. Relations with the Islamic World. Washington, D.C.: Center for Middle East Policy (Brookings Institution). 19: 1–48. (PDF) from the original on 21 March 2015. Retrieved 10 September 2020.
- ^ Wood, Graeme (March 2015). "What ISIS Really Wants". The Atlantic. Washington, D.C. from the original on 16 February 2015. Retrieved 10 September 2020.
- ^ a b "Terrorism: Growing Wahhabi Influence in the United States". www.govinfo.gov. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Publishing Office. 26 June 2003. from the original on 15 December 2018. Retrieved 26 June 2021.
- ^ Romero, Juan (2022). "1: Ancient, medieval and early modern extremist movements". Terrorism: The Power and Weakness of Fear. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. pp. 17, 21. doi:10.4324/9781003260943. ISBN 978-1-032-19806-4.
- ^ Samin, Nadav (18 February 2022). "Poetry, Magic, and the Formation of Wahhabism". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 65 (1–2): 1–26. doi:10.1163/15685209-12341561. S2CID 247162037 – via Brill.
- ^ E. Long, David (1 October 2009). . Middle East Institute. Archived from the original on 26 June 2019.
- ^ W.S Ryan, Michael (2 December 2010). . The Jamestown Foundation. Archived from the original on 23 September 2018.
In the Arabian Peninsula and especially in Saudi Arabia, Salafism can be traced to the teachings of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703-1792). This version of Salafism was and is primarily reformist. It is not revolutionary. Usually, the term "Wahhabism" is used to characterize Salafism in Saudi Arabia. Saudis consider this term pejorative because it makes mainstream religion of Saudi Arabia sound like a cult centered on one man... His reformist approach, however, like Ibn Taymiyya's, was meant to be a rational enterprise that opposed superstition as well as innovation in religion.. his focus was the chaotic eighteenth century tribal rivalry within the Arabian Peninsula, not the world. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's theology thus does not support al-Qaeda's ideology of global jihad. His heirs today are the religious scholars who are the pillars of the modern Saudi state and al-Qaeda's enemies. The Saudi population overwhelmingly prefers its religious institutions and scholars to the revolutionary Salafism of Bin Laden. Al-Qaeda attacks these mainstream Saudi clerics with the vitriol they usually reserve for the United States.
- ^ Leaman, Oliver (2013). "2: Islam and the Qur'an". Controversies in Contemporary Islam. 711 Third Avenue, New York: Routledge. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-0-415-67612-0.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) - ^ Leaman, Oliver (2013). "2: Islam and the Qur'an". Controversies in Contemporary Islam. 711 Third Avenue, New York: Routledge. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-0-415-67612-0.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) - ^ Aydin, Cemil (2017). "Chapter 1: An Imperial Ummah Before the Nineteenth Century". The Idea of the Muslim World. Cambridge, Massachusetts, & London, England: Harvard University Press. pp. 32–33. ISBN 9780674050372.
- ^ "Imam Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab Mosque in Doha - Qatar". Beautiful Mosque. from the original on 12 June 2015. Retrieved 19 June 2015.
- ^ . Doha News. 6 December 2011. Archived from the original on 19 June 2015. Retrieved 19 June 2015.
- ^ "Imam Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab Mosque in Doha - Qatar". Beautiful Mosque. from the original on 2 August 2017. Retrieved 2 August 2017.
- ^ "Descendants of Saudi Wahhabism founder distance themselves from Qatar". Reuters. 29 May 2017. from the original on 2 August 2017. Retrieved 10 June 2020.
- ^ "At-Turaif District in ad-Dir'iyah". UNESCO World Heritage Centre.
- ^ "Turaif Quarter in Al-Diriyyah". Pictures, info and travel reports. World Heritage Site.
- ^ Hubbard, Ben (31 May 2015). "Saudis Turn Birthplace of Wahhabism Ideology Into Tourist Spot". The New York Times. from the original on 18 June 2016. Retrieved 27 May 2016.
- ^ Estimo Jr, Rodolfo (5 January 2017). "Diriyah on course to become world-class tourist spot". Arab News. from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 2 August 2017.
- ^ Humaidan, Muhammad (22 November 2011). "Diriyah – a symbol of Saudi heritage". Arab News. from the original on 30 July 2018. Retrieved 2 August 2017.
- ^ "Mosque of Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahab". Saudi Tour. from the original on 2 August 2017. Retrieved 2 August 2017.
- ^ J. Delong-Bas, Natana (2004). "Introduction". Wahhabi Islam:From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 5. ISBN 0-19-516991-3.
- ^ a b Vasilʹev 1998: 13
- ^ EI2
- ^ Vasilʹev 1998: 14
Sources
- Ágoston, Gábor; Masters, Bruce, eds. (2009). "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad". Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. New York: Facts On File. pp. 260–61. ISBN 978-0816062591. LCCN 2008020716. Retrieved 6 July 2020.
- Bokhari, Kamran; Senzai, Farid, eds. (2013). "Conditionalist Islamists: The Case of the Salafis". Political Islam in the Age of Democratization. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 81–100. doi:10.1057/9781137313492_5. ISBN 978-1-137-31349-2.
- Brown, Daniel W. (2009). "The Wahhābī Movement". A New Introduction to Islam. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 245–47. ISBN 978-1405158077.
- Commins, David (2015). "From Wahhabi to Salafi". In Haykel, Bernard; Hegghammer, Thomas; Lacroix, Stéphane (eds.). Saudi Arabia in Transition: Insights on Social, Political, Economic and Religious Change. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 151–66. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139047586.011. ISBN 978-1139047586. from the original on 27 June 2016. Retrieved 25 June 2021.
- Delong-Bas, Natana J. (2004). Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195169913.
- Esposito, John L., ed. (2004). "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (d. 1791)". The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 123. ISBN 0195125592.
- Gaye, Abdoul Aziz (2021). "The Violent Wahhabism and the Use of Islamic Texts to Justify Armed Violence Against Muslims and Non-Muslims". In Donlin-Smith, Thomas; Shafiq, Muhammad (eds.). The (De)Legitimization of Violence in Sacred and Human Contexts. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 195–218. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-51125-8. ISBN 978-3030511241. S2CID 241136571.
- Halverson, Jeffry R. (2010). Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam: The Muslim Brotherhood, Ash'arism, and Political Sunnism. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 48. ISBN 978-1349287215.
- Haykel, Bernard (2013). "Ibn ‛Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (1703–92)". In Böwering, Gerhard; Crone, Patricia; Kadi, Wadad; Mirza, Mahan; Stewart, Devin J.; Zaman, Muhammad Qasim (eds.). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. pp. 231–32. ISBN 978-0691134840. Retrieved 15 June 2020.
- Khatab, Sayed (2011). "Wahhabism". Understanding Islamic Fundamentalism: The Theological and Ideological Basis. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press. pp. 56–76. ISBN 978-9774164996. Retrieved 6 July 2020.
- Moosa, Ebrahim (2015). What Is a Madrasa?. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1469620138. Retrieved 1 June 2020.
- Saeed, Abdullah (2013). "Precursors of the Modernist-Salafiya Movement". In Esposito, John L.; Shahin, Emad El-Din (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Islam and Politics. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 29–30. ISBN 978-0195395891. Retrieved 17 June 2020.
- Silverstein, Adam J. (2010). "Wahhabism". Islamic History: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 112–13. ISBN 978-0199545728.
- Van Bruinessen, Martin (2009). "Sufism, 'Popular' Islam and the Encounter with Modernity". In Masud, Muhammad Khalid; Salvatore, Armando; Van Bruinessen, Martin (eds.). Islam and Modernity: Key Issues and Debate. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 125–57. ISBN 978-0748637928.
- Wagemakers, Joas (2021). "Part 3: Fundamentalisms and Extremists – The Citadel of Salafism". In Cusack, Carole M.; Upal, M. Afzal (eds.). Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements. Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion. Vol. 21. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. pp. 333–347. doi:10.1163/9789004435544_019. ISBN 978-90-04-43554-4. ISSN 1874-6691.
- White, Jonathan R. (2017). "Militant Scholars and Strategists". Terrorism and Homeland Security (9th ed.). Boston: Cengage Learning. pp. 252–53. ISBN 978-1305633773. LCCN 2015951183.
Further reading
- Valentine, S. R., "Force & Fanaticism: Wahhabism in Saudi Arabia and Beyond", Hurst & Co, London, 2015, ISBN 978-1849044646
- Gauvain, Richard (2013). Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God. Routledge. ISBN 9780710313560.
- Abualrub, Jalal (2003). Muhammad ibn Abdil Wahhab: his life-story and mission. Madinah Publishers and Distributors. ISBN 978-0970376657. Retrieved 25 December 2011.
- al-Rasheed, Madawi (2009). Kingdom without borders: Saudi political, religious and media frontiers. Capstone. ISBN 978-0231700689.
Online
- Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb: Muslim theologian, in Encyclopædia Britannica Online, by The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica, Parul Jain, Satyavrat Nirala and Adam Zeidan
External links
- Wheeler Thatcher, Griffithes (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 28 (11th ed.). p. 245.
- Biodata at MuslimScholars.info