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Vlachs

February 16, 2024

For other uses, see Vlachs (disambiguation).
"Vlach", "Wallach", and "Oláh" redirect here. For other uses, see Vlach (disambiguation), Wallach (disambiguation), and Oláh (disambiguation).

Vlach (English: /ˈvlɑːx/ or /ˈvlæk/), also Wallachian (and many other variants[1]), is a term and exonym used from the Middle Ages until the Modern Era to designate speakers of Eastern Romance languages living in Southeast Europe — south of the Danube (the Balkan peninsula) and north of the Danube.[2]

Théodore Valerio [fr], 1852: Pâtre valaque de Zabalcz ("Wallahian Shepherd from Zăbalț")

Although it has also been used to name present-day Romanians, the term "Vlach" today refers primarily to speakers of the Eastern Romance languages who live south of the Danube, in Albania, Bulgaria, northern Greece, North Macedonia and eastern Serbia. These people include the ethnic groups of the Aromanians, the Megleno-Romanians and, in Serbia, the Timok Romanians.[3] The term also became a synonym in the Balkans for the social category of shepherds.[4] and was also used for non-Romance-speaking peoples, in recent times in the western Balkans derogatively.[5] The term is also used to refer to the ethnographic group of Moravian Vlachs who speak a Slavic language but originate from Romanians, as well as for Morlachs and Istro-Romanians.[6]

Currently, Eastern Romance-speaking communities are estimated at 26–30 million people worldwide (including the Romanian diaspora and Moldovan diaspora).[citation needed]

Etymology edit

Further information: Walhaz

The word Vlach/Wallachian (and other variants such as Vlah, Valah, Valach, Voloh, Blac, oláh, Vlas, Ulah, etc.[1]) is etymologically derived from the ethnonym of a Celtic tribe,[5] adopted into Proto-Germanic *Walhaz, which meant "stranger", from *Wolkā-[7] (Caesar's Latin: Volcae, Strabo and Ptolemy's Greek: Ouolkai).[8] Via Latin, in Gothic, as *walhs, the ethnonym took on the meaning "foreigner" or "Romance-speaker" and later "shepherd, nomad".[8][5] The term was adopted into Greek as Vláhoi or Blachoi (Βλάχοι), Slavic as Vlah (pl. Vlasi) or Voloh, Hungarian as oláh and olasz, etc.[9][10][11] The root word was notably adopted in Germanic for Wales and Walloon, and in Switzerland for Romansh-speakers (German: Welsch),[5] and in Poland Włochy or in Hungary olasz became an exonym for Italians.[8][1] The Slovenian term Lahi has also been used to designate Italians.[12] The same name is still used in Polish[13][14](Włochy, Włosi, włoskie) and Hungarian[15][16] (Olasz, Olaszország) as an exonym for Italy, while in Slovakian[17] (Vlasi), Czech[18] (Vlachy) and Slovenian[19][20] (Laško[21], Láh, Láhinja, laško) it was replaced with the endonym Italia.

 
Medieval necropolis in Radimlja, Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Romanian scholars have suggested that the term Vlach appeared for the first time in the Eastern Roman Empire and was subsequently spread to the Germanic- and then Slavic-speaking worlds through the Norsemen (possibly by Varangians), who were in trade and military contact with Byzantium during the early Middle Ages (see also Blakumen).[22][23] According to them the forms which were recognised by linguist to designate the "Vlachs" are: Blaci, Blauen, Blachi found in Western medieval sources, Balachi, Walati found in Western sources derived from medieval German, while the Germanic population from Transylvania used also the variants Woloch, Blôch. French sources used mostly Valaques while the medieval Song of Roland used Blos. In English and in modern German the forms Wallachians, Walachen appear, respectively. In the Balkan Peninsula various names such as Rumer, Tzintzars, Morlachs, Maurovlachs, Armâns, Cincars, Koutzovlachs were used while muslim sources speak of Ulak, Ilak, Iflak.[24]

History edit

 
Hypothetical map projecting the transhumance paths of the Vlach shepherds in the past.

According to one origin theory, modern Romanians, Moldovans and Aromanians originated from Dacians.[25] According to some linguists and scholars, the Eastern Romance languages prove the survival of the Thraco-Romans in the lower Danube basin during the Migration Period.[26] On the other hand, most non-Romanian historian believe that Romanians, Moldovans, Aromanians and other Eastern Romance groups originated in the southern Balkans, what is now North-Macedonia, Kosovo, and Thessaly and migrated north from there from the 11th-12th centuries onwards.[27][28][29]

The term 'Vlach' first appeared in medieval sources and was used primarily as an exonym for speakers of the Eastern Romance languages, especially Romanians.[1][3] But testimonies from the 13th and the 14th centuries show that, although in Europe and beyond, they were called Vlachs or Wallachians (oláh in Hungarian, Vláchoi (Βλάχοι) in Greek, Volóxi (Воло́хи) in Russian, Walachen in German, Valacchi in Italian, Valaques in French, Valacos in Spanish), the Romanians used the endonym Rumân or Român, from the Latin Romanus, meaning "Roman".[1][30]

However, in historical sources the term "Vlach" could also refer to different peoples: "Slovak, Hungarian, Balkan, Transylvanian, Romanian, or even Albanian".[31] In late Byzantine documents, the Vlachs are mentioned as Bulgaro-Albano-Vlachs (Bulgaralbanitoblahos), or Serbo-Albano-Bulgaro-Vlachs.[32] According to the Serbian historian Sima Ćirković, the name "Vlach" in medieval sources had the same rank as the name "Greek", "Serb" or "Latin".[33]

 
Map depicting the current distribution of Eastern Romance-speaking peoples

During the early history of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans, there was a military class of Vlachs in Serbia and Ottoman Macedonia, made up of Christians who served as auxiliary forces and were exempted of certain taxes until the beginning of the 17th century.[4] Some Greeks used Vlacho[when?] as a pejorative term.[citation needed] In Žumberak, members of the Greek Catholic Church were called Vlachs, while in Carniola, all inhabitants of Žumberak were called as such.[citation needed] In the Posavina and Bihać areas, Muslims used the term Vlasi for all Christians (both Orthodox and Catholics), while the Catholics used that name to refer to Eastern Christian Orthodox.[citation needed] Under the Ottoman rule, a large part of the Dalmatian hinterland was repopulated by Slavic settlers, both Orthodox and Catholic, speaking the Shtokavian dialect and called Vlach or Morlach by the inhabitants of the Dalmatian coast and islands. In these areas, the term Vlah evolved to Vlaj (pl. Vlaji) and is still used as a derogatory term to refer to the rural inhabitants of the hinterland, both Croats and Serbs, as "peasants" and "ignorants".[34] In Istria, the ethnonym Vlach is used by the Chakavian-speaking Croatian inhabitants to refer to the Istro-Romanians and the Slavs who settled in the 15th and 16th centuries.[35]

Nowadays, the term Vlachs (also known under other names, such as "Koutsovlachs", "Tsintsars", "Karagouni", "Chobani", "Vlasi", etc.[36]) is used in scholarship for the Romance-speaking communities in the Balkans, especially those in Greece, Albania and North Macedonia.[37][38] In Serbia the term Vlach (Serbian Vlah, plural Vlasi) is also used to refer to Romanian speakers, especially those living in eastern Serbia.[3] Aromanians themselves use the endonym "Armãn" (plural "Armãni") or "Rãmãn" (plural "Rãmãni"), etymologically from "Romanus", meaning "Roman". Megleno-Romanians designate themselves with the Macedonian form Vla (plural Vlaš) in their own language.[3]

In modern Slovak, Valasi, other than denoting people of Vlachian ethnicity or origin, is synonymously and even more prominently used to describe shepherds, more commonly apprentice shepherds. The term originated following Vlachian arrival in mounts and hills of present-day Slovakia in 14th century and coinciding development in sheep herding and dairy industry.[39] Further west, in Czech Republic, the area of Moravian Wallachia is known as Valašsko and the inhabitants as Valaši, names usually translated in English as Wallachia and Wallachians, respectively.[40]

 
Théodore Valerio, 1852: Pâtre valaque de Zabalcz (Wallahian Shepherd from Zăbalț, Transylvania.)

Medieval usage edit

See also: History of Romania, Origin of the Romanians, and History of the Aromanians
 
The Jireček Line between Latin- and Greek-language Roman inscriptions

8th century edit

First uncertain data about Vlachs is in connection with the Vlachs of the Rynchos river (present-day North Macedonia). The original document containing this information is from the Konstamonitou monastery and was written in the 17th century. It is supposed that it is based on a 9th-century Byzantine source describing earlier events.[41][better source needed]

 

In this century is when the Vlahorinchians and the Sagudits are mentioned coming from Bulgaria, passing through Macedonia to reach Mount Athos during the iconoclastic crisis. The word Vlahorinhians can mean according to W.Tomaschek "Vlachs of the Rynchos River (a river in Macedonia)" or according to other historians it can mean Vlachs and Rinhini (a Slavic tribe that inhabited the same place).[42]

10th century edit

During the Middle Ages, the term "Magna Vlachia" appears in Byzantine documents, which means the ancestral homeland of the Vlachs. This name was used for Thessaly and present-day North Macedonia.[43][44][45][46]

John Skylitzes mentioned the Vlachs in 976, as guides and guards of Byzantine caravans in the Balkans. Between Prespa and Kastoria, they met and fought with a Bulgarian rebel named David. The Vlachs killed David in their first documented battle.[47]

Ibn al-Nadīm published in 998 the work Kitāb al-Fihrist mentioning "Turks, Bulgars and Vlahs" (using Blagha for Vlachs)[48][49] It is important to note, however, that Ibn al-Nadim is very clear that in this list he is talking about Turkic or Turkic-related peoples.[50]

A monastic document from Mount Athos mentions that 300 Vlach families live near the mountain, and in their own language they call their settlements "Catuns".[51]

Byzantine writer Kekaumenos, author of the Strategikon (1078), writes about a leader, Nikulitsa, who is given command by Basil II over the Vlachs in Hellada theme. Nikulitsa switched alliance to Samuel of Bulgaria after the conquest of Larissa by the Bulgarian Tsar.[52][53]

Mutahhar al-Maqdisi, "They say that in the Turkic neighbourhood there are the Khazars, Russians, Slavs, Waladj, Alans, Greeks and many other peoples".[54] According to other non-Romanian historians, based on the context, the "Waladj" are not the Vlachs, but a people living around the Volga.[55]

11th century edit

Vlachs were present in large numbers, on the Chalkidiki peninsula around 1000, according to monastic documents from Mount Athos. On the peninsula, the Vlachs were famous for their cheese and meat products. In these texts sometimes they are called "Vlachorynhinii", which may be a mixture of the name "Vlach" and "Rynhini" a Slavic tribe who settled in the same area in the 7th century.[56]

In 1013, a Byzantine document mentions the settlement of "Kimbalongu" in the mountains near Ohrid, which was a Vlach settlement.[57]

The names Blakumen or Blökumenn is mentioned in Nordic sagas dating between the 11th and 13th centuries, with respect to events that took place in either 1018 or 1019 somewhere at the northwestern part of the Black Sea and believed by some to be related to the Vlachs.[58][59] Other scholars on the subject, such as Omeljan Pritsak, however, point out that the texts probably refer to a nomadic Turkic people, since the "Blakumen" in the texts are "non-christian heathens" and nomadic horsemans.[60]

In 1020, the Archdiocese of Ohrid was founded, which was responsible for "the spiritual care of all the Vlachs".[61]

In 1022, Vlach sheperds from Thessaly and the Pindus mountains provided cheese for Constantinople.[62][63]

In 1025, the Annales Barenses mentions a people called "Vlach" who live near the river Vardar.[64]

The same chronicle the Annales Barenses describes that in 1027 the Byzantine army led by Orestes that tried to recapture Sicily from the Arabs, also included many Vlachs recruited from Macedonia.[65]

Kekaumenos writes about the revolt in 1066 in the region of Thessaly led by Nikoulitzas Delphinas, nephew of the homonymous 10th century military commander, and father in law of the writer.[66]

In 1071, a Byzantine document mentions that the herds of the Vlachs and their household spend the months of April to September beyond Thessaly, in the high mountains of Bulgaria, where it is very cold. (it is clear from the text that we are talking about the mountains of today's North Macedonia). The same text describes that the homeland of the Vlachs is Thessaly, precisely the part of the region divided by the river Pleres.[51][67][68] Florin Curta adds that Kekaumenos calls Vlachs "migrants from the northern parts", as Kekaumenos associates them with Dacians or Bessi of Antiquity.[69]

A Byzantine author, Kekaumenos writes about the Vlachs in Greece in connection about their origin and way of life in the Strategikon in 1075–1078.[70] According to Kekaumenos, the Vlachs were Dacians and Bessus, who lived near and south from the Danube and the Sava, where the Serbs live now. They feigned loyalty to the Romans while they were constantly attacked and pillaged, therefore, Trajan launched a war, their leader, Decebalus was also killed, and then the Vlachs were scattered in Macedonia, Epirus and Hellas.[71][72] Kekaumenos made the Dacians the ancestors of the Vlachs because he knew about the deceitfulness of the Dacians against the Romans, and according to him the Dacians and Vlachs had a perfectly matching nature, treachery and political unreliability, so much that in his opinion they should not be believed even if the Vlachs take an oath.[71][72] Kekaumenos arbitrarily identified the Vlachs with the Dacians according to the archaizing efforts of his time, because the tendency to refer to later peoples with classical names was common in Byzantium at the time of Kekaumenos.[71][70][72] Kekaumenos also confused the Roman province Dacia Traiana with Dacia Aureliana, and even he placed it further west where it actually was, that is why he mentioned the Serbian territory as the homeland,[70][72] the Bessus tribe was a neighbor of the Roman province Macedonia.[70]

Alexius Komnenos mentions that in 1082 he passed through a Vlach settlement called Exeva in Macedonia.[51]

Anna Komnene mentions in her Alexiad that in 1091 Emperor Alexios ordered Nikephoros Melissenos to raise an army against invading Pechenegs. Melissenos recruited, among others, Bulgarians and "the nomadic tribes called Vlachs in popular parlance".[73]

According to the Alexiad, in 1094–1095, Emperor Alexius Komnenos was notified by a Vlach chieftain called Poudila about the crossing of the Danube by a Cuman army, and that to prepare himself for the attack,[74][75] then the Vlachs likewise led the Cumans through the gorges of the Balkan Mountains.[75]

Also in 1094 the first mention of Vlachs in Moglena region is made, the document is kept in the archive of the monastery Great Lavra on Mount Athos. According to this Emperor Alexios I Komnenos replies to the monks of the monastery complaining that people on their domain are not paying taxes. The document contains some of the first Romanian names, such as Stan, Radu cel Şchiop, and Peducel.[76]

In 1097, many Vlachs were resettled from the Chalkidiki peninsula to the Peloponnese by order of the Byzantine emperor Komnenos Alexis.[77]

In 1099, crusading armies were attacked by Vlachs, in the mountains along the road from Braničevo to Niš.[75][66]

12th century edit

 
Map of Central-Southern Europe during the late Middle Ages/early Modern period by Transylvanian Saxon humanist Johannes Honterus.

The Russian Primary Chronicle, written c. 1113 states that the Slavs settled beside the Danube, then the Volochi people attacked the Slavs, settled among them and did them violance, leading to the Slavs departing and settling around the Vistula under the name of Leshi.[78] According to the chronicle the Slavs settled there first, and the Volochi seized the territory of the Slavs, later, the Hungarians drove the Volochi away, took their land and settled among the Slavs.[79][80] The Primary Chronicle thus contains a possible reference to Romanians.[11][78] Other non-Romanian historians consider the Volochi the Franks, as their country is placed west to Baltic Sea and near England by the author of the work, Nestor the Chronicler.[81][82][83] The Frankish Empire stretched from the North Sea to the Danube.

The Byzantine princess and scholar Anna Komnene, in her book Alexiad, mentions a Vlach settlement called Ezeba, which was near Larissa and Androneia. In the same work she also describes the Vlachs as "the nomadic tribes, called Vlachs in popular parlance".[84]

In 1109, monks on Mount Athos mention the Vlachs in Chalkidiki and that the presence of women disturbed the monachal activities.[85]

Traveler Benjamin of Tudela (1130–1173) of the Kingdom of Navarre was one of the first writers to use the word Vlachs for a Romance-speaking population.[86] In his work he mentions that these Vlachs live high up in the mountains of Thessaly, and from there they sometimes come down to plunder, which they do quickly, as swift as deers, for which reasons there is no king to rule them.[87]

Byzantine historian John Kinnamos described Leon Vatatzes' military expedition along the northern Danube, where Vatatzes mentioned the participation of Vlachs in battles with the Magyars (Hungarians) in 1166.[88][89] John Kinnamos says Vlachs were "colonists brought from Italy".[90]

 
Plan of the fortress Prosek, seat of Dobromir Chrysos

The uprising of brothers Asen and Peter was a revolt of Bulgarians and Vlachs living in the theme of Paristrion of the Byzantine Empire, caused by a tax increase. It began on 26 October 1185, the feast day of St. Demetrius of Thessaloniki, and ended with the creation of the Second Bulgarian Empire, also known in its early history as the Empire of Bulgarians and Vlachs.[69]

According to Niketas Choniates, after the Byzantine emperor Isaac II Angelos lost his wife, he wanted to marry the daughter of Bela III of Hungary, but there was not enough money for the wedding, so he imposed taxes in the regions and cities of the empire, but he angered the "barbarians who dwelt in the Haemos mountains, who were once called Moesians, but are now called Vlachs".[91]

Mentions of Vlachs in Medieval Bulgaria also come from Niketas Choniates who writes about a Vlach called Dobromir Chrysos who established an autonomous polity in the upper region of Vardar river and Moglena.[92] A similar event is recorded by the same author in the area of Philippopolis where a Vlach called Ivanko, formerly a boyar at the Asen brothers' court was given military command by Emperor Isaac and expanded his rule to Smolyan, Mosynopolis, and Xanthi.[93]

According to Niketas Choniates, Thessaly and Macedonia is called "Magna Vlachia", Aetolia and Acarnata are called "Little Vlachia" and north-eastern Epirus is called "Upper Vlachia".[44][51]

According to Niketas Choniates, the Vlachs are the barbarians who live in the Balkan mountains, in Moesia.[94]

A Byzantine church document mentions that in 1190, "the Cumans and the Vlachs take the relics of Saint Ryli from Sofia to Tirnovo with a great pomp".[51]

According to the "Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja", the authenticity of which is highly disputed by historians, around 600 the Avars conquered Salona, then, attacking further south, ravaged Macedonia and the "land of the black Latins, now called Morvlachs".[95]

The first mention of Vlachs in Serbian medieval chronicles is dated from the time of Stefan Nemanjić, most likely 1198-1199, and it is related to a donation act towards restoration of Hilandar monastery with aid from the inhabitants of the area of Prizren.[96]

The "History of the Expedition of the Emperor Frederick" mention the Vlachs as people living in the mountains and forests of the Balkans. The chronicle also describes the Vlachs' homeland as being near Thessaloniki. The chronicle describes how the Crusaders captured several Vlachs who told them that the Vlachs live in Macedonia, Thessaly and Bulgaria, and that because they were heavily taxed, they were rebelling.[97]

Numerous Serbian documents from the very end of the 12th century speak of Vlach shepherds in the mountains between the Drina and the Morava.[98]

13th century edit

Kaloyan was given the title imperator Caloihannes dominus omnium Bulgarorum atque Blachorum ("Emperor Kaloyan, Lord of All Bulgarians and Vlachs") by Patriarch Basil I of Bulgaria[99] and the title Rex Bulgarorum et Blachorum ("King of the Bulgarians and the Vlachs") by Pope Innocent II.[100]

In 1204 and 1205 Raimbaut de Vaqueiras mentions the Vlachs as enemies of Boniface of Montferrat.[101]

After 1207 Geoffrey of Villehardouin mentions twelve times the Vlachs part of the armies of Kaloyan of Bulgaria, either as defenders against Henry of Flanders or among the attackers of Adrianopole.[102]

Around the same time Henry of Valenciennes writes about the country he calls Blasquie ruled by Burile (Borilă). Henry of Flanders conquers this land and awards it to Burile's cousin Esclas (Slav). From there on the country will be know as Blakie la Grant (Great Valachia).[101]

Sándor Timaru-Kast alleges that the Venetian Chronicle refers to the land that would become Wallachia as "Black Cumania", "the colony of black Vlachs who migrated northwards."[103]

According to the medieval Hungarian chronicle, the Gesta Hungarorum ("The deeds of the Hungarians"), written in the early 13th century, when the Hungarians of Grand Prince Árpád conquered the Carpathian Basin, at that time Slavs, Bulgarians and Blachij, and also the shepherds of the Romans (sclauij, Bulgarij et Blachij, ac pastores romanorum) inhabited Pannonia.[104] Most researchers say that the Blachij are the Vlachs,[105] others that they are the Bulaqs, a Turkic people.[106] The chronicle's authenticity is in question in historiography, because it confuses the peoples living in the area in the 12th century and the peoples of the 9th century. Among others, it includes the Cumans in Transylvania, who arrived only centuries later.[107][108][109][28] Romanian historian Ioan-Aurel Pop states that some exaggerations and inaccuracies, typical of a chronicle at the time and mostly in favour of the Royal House, are not a sufficient reason to discredit the entire document as a historical source.[110] It is important to note, however, that the chronicle mentions many rulers, but none of them is mentioned in any other contemporary chronicle.[81] According to Romanian historian Florin Curta and leading Romanian medievalist Radu Popa, during the 1960–1989 period, the archaeological evidences were manipulated to meet the demands of the nationalist policies of the Ceaușescu's regime, and Romanian archaeologists made every possible attempt to prove that the Gesta Hungarorum is a reliable source for the Romanian presence in Transylvania prior to the Hungarian conquest, however no archaeological evidence was found to prove the subject. Hungarian archaeologist István Bóna also accused Romanian archaeologists of hiding evidence that did not fit their interpretation regarding the Gesta Hungarorum during the excavation of the early medieval hillfort at Dăbâca as Gelou's capital city.[111] Wheter archeology supports the Gesta or not is disputed among historians.[112] British-Romanian historian Dennis Deletant states the analysis of the Gesta Hungarorum shows that is too naive to claim it is an immaculate source, just as it is foolhardy to totally discredit its reliability, and the conclusion, the cases for and against the existence of Gelou and the Vlachs simply cannot be proven.[113] British historian Carlile Aylmer Macartney writes in his critical and analytical guide of Anonymus that all Romanian historians refer to Anonymus, but they are not credible in the subject and the chronicle is not evidence for presence of Vlachs in Transylvania.[114] Madgearu attempts to prove that a Vlach-Slav population existed in Transylvania before the arrival of the Hungarians by recounting place names of Slavic origin he believes weren't adopted to Romanian via Hungarian.[112]

In 1213, an army of Vlachs, Saxons and Pechenegs, led by the Count of Sibiu, Joachim Türje, attacked the Second Bulgarian Empire - Bulgarians and Cumans in the fortress of Vidin.[115] After this, all Hungarian battles in the Carpathian region were supported by Romance-speaking soldiers from Transylvania.[116]

Stefan the First-Crowned donates 200 families of Vlachs from Prokletije and Peći to Žiča monastery.[117]

In 1220, king Stefan the First-Crowned proclaimed that all Vlachs of his kingdom belonged to the Eparchy of Žiča.[118]

A royal chancellery document from 1223, connected to the foundation of the Cistercian abbey at Cârța around 1202,[119] which was granted land, mentions it was built in the land of the Vlachs/Romanians.[120] This is also the very first mention of the Vlachs in Hungarian documents.[121][122]

In the Diploma Andreanum issued by King Andrew II of Hungary in 1224, "silva blacorum et bissenorum" was given to the Saxon settlers.[123]

The Orthodox Vlachs spread further northward along the Carpathians to the present day territory of Poland, Slovakia, and Czech Republic, and were granted autonomy under the ''Vlach law''.[124]

In 1230 Constantine Akropolites, in his writing about the conquests of Bulgarian Tsar Ivan Asen, notes that the "Magna Vlachia" is next to Albania.[125]

Pope Gregory IX wrote several letters to the Hungarian king, in which he talks about the conversion of the Cumans who lived in the southern part of present-day Romania (Wallachia). In one of his letters he mentions the Vlachs, asking King Béla IV of Hungary to let them into his country: "for the sake of God, give refuge to those poor Vlachs who tried to escape from their Cuman rulers."[126]

In 1247, Béla IV of Hungary gives the "Land of Severin" to the Knights Hospitallers with two polities (kenezatus of John and Farkas), except kenezatus of voivode Litovoi which was left to the Vlachs as they held it.[127] The land of Hateg is excepted, while the voivodate of Seneslaus the king keeps for himself.[128]

In 1247, a Hungarian royal document allowed the nobles of Hátszeg and Máramaros to settle Vlach families on their estates.[129]

In 1252 King Béla IV of Hungary, for his services in various foreign embassies, donates to Vince,Comes of the Szekler of Sebus, the land called Zek between the territory of the Vlachs of Kyrch, the Saxons of Barasu, and the Szeklers of Sebus, which once belonged to a Saxon estate called Fulkun, but has been uninhabited since the Mongol invasion.[130]

In 1256 King Béla IV of Hungary, upon the complaint of Archbishop Benedict of Esztergom, confirms the right of the archdiocese to tithes from mining wages and from animal taxes collected from the Szeklers and Vlachs to the king or anyone else, among the judicial, accommodation and taxation privileges of the archdiocese, with the exception of land rents from Saxons, but also from Vlachs from everywhere and from anywhere they came.[131]

King Ottokar II of Bohemia reports to Pope Alexander IV that about the defeated of King Béla IV of Hungary on 12 July 1260, on the border between Hungary and Austria, near the castle and town of Hemburg on the Moraua River. Among the people that fought in Béla's army Vlachs, called Walachorum, are named.[132]

In 1272, King Ladislaus donates the royal lands or villages of Budula and Tohou, also known as Olahteleky, to Simon's son, Nicholas of Brașov.[133]

From 1276 King Ladislaus allows the chapter of Alba Iulia to settle 60 Romanian households (mansiones) on the border of his estates called Fülesd and Enyed, separated from the episcopal lands, and to exempt them from all royal taxes, fiftieth and tithes.[134]

In a grant (around 1280) Queen Helena confirmed the grant given by Stefan Vladislav to the Vranjina monastery, the Vlachs are separately mentioned, along with Arbanasi (Albanians), Latins, and Serbs.[118]

In the 1280s, Simon of Kéza in the Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum mentions the Vlachs in his work three times: After the land had been conquered by King Attila, several people left Pannonia, the Vlachs (Blackis) were elected to remain in Pannonia who had been their shepherds and husbandmen. The Székelys were settled with the Vlachs (Blackis) in the border mountains, mingling with them, and adopting their alphabet. After the withdrawal of the Huns, the only people left in Pannonia were immigrants, Slavs, Greeks, Germans, Moravians, and Vlachs (Ulahis) who had been servants of Attila.[135][136][137][138] Hungarian historians point out that the (Ulahis advenis) "Vlach newcomer", the adjective classifying Romanians as immigrants was omitted from the Romanian translation.[138] Several scholars and historians noted that Simon of Kéza used different spellings for Blackis and Ulahis, arguing that Blackis were actually the Turkic people Bulaqs who were confused with the Vlachs.[139] According to Polish historian Ryszard Grzesik, the Vlachs appeared in Transylvania only in the 12th century, therefore Hungarian chroniclers identified the semi-nomadic lifestyle of the Vlachs as a distinguishing characteristic. Kézai wrote that the Vlachs gave script to the Székelys, but the reality is different, because Kézai wrote about the Székelys runs, and his opinion was based on the observation that the Vlach shepherds engraved symbols while counting their sheep.[135] Kézai confused the Székely runs with the Cyrillic script which was used by the Vlachs.[138]

Several sources cite that the passes of the Carpathians in Transylvania were defended by the Vlachs together with Székelys and Saxons during the Second Mongol invasion of Hungary in 1285.[140][141]

According to the old Russian chronicle, Ladislaus IV of Hungary asked for help from Rome and Constantinople because he feared an invasion by the Tartars. Constantinople sent an army of Vlachs from what is now Serbia, but after the victorious battle, the Vlachs refused to go home and settled in the territory of Maramures.[142]

Also in 1285, Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos decides to move the Vlachs from Thrace to Asia-Minor, fearing their possible alliance with the Tatars. The same Emperor, in 1289, confirms the rights of St. Andrew Monastery from Thessaly over the village Praktikatous or Vlachokatouna.[143]

According to a legend, in 1290 Ladislaus the Cuman was assassinated; the new Hungarian king allegedly drove voivode Radu Negru and his people across the Carpathians, where they formed Wallachia along with its first capital Câmpulung, as a Hungarian vassal state.[144]

In 1290 Andrew III of Hungary, in a document, grants three Transylvanian noble families the right to invite Vlachs into the country "from South of the mountains".[129]

In 1291 Andrew III of Hungary presides over a meeting of "Nobles, Saxons, Szeklers, and Vlachs" in Alba Iulia.[145]

In 1292, Andrew III of Hungary allows some Hungarian nobles to invite Vlachs to the country, to their estates called "Ilye", "Szád" and "Fenes".[146]

In 1293, Andrew III of Hungary, publishes an "angry" charter to the Transylvanian nobility, mentions that all the Vlachs were supposed to be settled on the royal crown's property called "Székes", not on their own estates.[57]

In November 1293, King Andrew confirms King Ladislaus's earlier concession to the chapter of Alba Iulia to keep the 60 households of Romanians (mansiones Olacorum) free from all taxes and services on the lands of Dalya, Ompaycza, Fylesd and Enugd, separated from the episcopal estates. These Romanians should not be forced by any royal tax collector to pay taxes, dues, or fiftieths. - The charter, confirmed by a double seal, is dated by the hand of Theodore, provost of Fehérvár, vice-chancellor.[147]

14th century edit

Stefan Milutin Serbian king donated 6 katuns to the church of St Nikita in Bania.[97]

Stefan Milutin, in another medieval Serbian document, mentions that 30 Vlach families live on a church estate near Pristina.[97]

In 1321 on the island of Krk, a priest gave land to the church, and the given land extended to the land of Kneže, where Vlachs lived.[148]

In a battle, Vlachs fought alongside Mladen Šubić near Trogir in 1322.[148]

 
Fra Mauro's map, sector XXIX, showing Vlachia Piccola in Thessaly and Monte de Murlachi in Dalmatia - ca. 1450 CE

King Władysław I Łokietek attacks Brandenburg with neighboring Vlach reinforcements "etiam vicinorum populorum, videlicet Ruthenorum, Walachorum et Lithwanorum stipatusc".[149]

Goods sold by the Vlachs are mentioned in after 1328 by Ragusan documents, among them formaedi vlacheschi, a type of cheese.[150]

First mention of a Vlach called Radul in 1329, in the Istrian Peninsula.[151]

In 1330 Stefan Dečanski gifts to Visoki Dečani monastery the Vlach pastures and katuns along Drim and Lim rivers.[118]

Croatian chronicler Miha de Barbazanis writes that Vlachs from the area of Cetina River fought for Mladen II Šubić of Bribir against Charles I of Hungary and Ban John Babonić.[152][153]

In the list of Papal Tithes from 1332–1337 in the Kingdom of Hungary, one settlement mentioned in the source as Romanian: "Căprioara". This Romanian place-name is the very first recorded Romanian toponym in the Kingdom of Hungary, including Transylvania.[154][155]

In 1335, a royal commissioner, on the orders of the King of Hungary, arranges for a Vlach voivode named Bogdan to move to the Kingdom of Hungary "with his entire household and people". According to the charter, the settlement of the Vlach voivode and his people lasted from 1 November 1334 to 15 August 1335.[156]

In 1341, a Hungarian royal document notes that the Hungarian Czibak noble family can invite and settle more Vlachs to their Mező-Telegd estate, "from the south".[157][158]

Stefan Dušan styles himself "Imperator Raxie et Romanie, dispotus Lartae et Blachie comes" - Emperor of Rascia and Romania, despot of Arta and ispan of Vlachia.[159]

Stefan Dušan donates 320 Vlach families to the Bistrica monastery.[97]

A charter, issued by Stefan Dušan, mentions that, Dobrodoliane is inhabited by Vlachs.[125]

Morlachs are first recorded in 1344, during the struggle between the counts of the Kurjaković and Nelipić families, in the regions near Knin and Krbava, when a region called "Morlacorum" mentioned.[6]

A letter from 1345 from Pope Clement VI to the Hungarian king Louis I, the phrase quod Olachi Romani appears, which can be interpreted as an expression of the papal chancellery's conviction about the Roman origin of the Wallachians.[160]

In 1349, another Hungarian royal charter mentions the Vlachs, allowing the Wallachian voivode to send a Vlach priest to Transylvania, thus encouraging more Vlachs to settle in the Hungarian kingdom from the south.[157][161]

A Hungarian charter of 1352 states that, the lord lieutenant of Krassó County Szeri Pósa invited Vlachs to Hungary, to populate the area around the Mutnok stream.[142]

Around 1355, Bogdan of Cuhea, former Voivode of Maramureș, but now in conflict with Louis I of Hungary, crosses the mountains with other Vlachs from Maramureș and takes over Moldavia.[162]

In 1358, a Hungarian royal chronicler named Márk mentions Transylvania and its peoples: "It is the richest part of the Hungarian Kingdom, where Hungarian and Saxon cities bloom with industry and commerce, while the fertile lands of Hungarian farmers produce good wine, fat cattle, and plenty of grain for bread. High upon the mountains Vlach herdsmen tend to their sheep, and bring down good tasting cheese to the market-places".[129]

In 1359, the King of Hungary allowed a Vlach noble family and their household to settle in the country, first giving them 13 villages, and then 6 years later another 5 villages in the Banat.[156]

Also in 1359, the village of Lakság "near Várad", reports in a letter to the bishop of Várad that "the first Vlach inhabitants have arrived".[157][163]

In 1365 Balc, son of Voivode Sas of Moldavia, defeated by Bogdan, moves to the Kingdom of Hungary and is given by Louis I of Hungary the confiscated domains of his opponent. Later, Balc became the head of Szatmár (Sătmar), Ugocsa and Máramaros (Maramureș) counties in the Kingdom of Hungary, and he was also invested with the title of Count of the Székelys.[164]

Vlachs from the domain of Vidčeselo, between Lika and Zrmanja, are rewarded for their military support by the ban of Croatia .[165]

In June 1366 King Louis I of Hungary grants through the Decree of Turda special privileges to the Transylvanian noblemen to take measures against malefactors belonging to any nation, especially the Vlachs.[166]

In 1370, Louis I of Hungary decreed that only those Vlach settlers who were Catholic could receive royal grants.[142]

The village of Wołodź in Ruthenia was first documented in 1373 as a Vlach settlement.[167]

In a letter dates to 1374, the Cathedral chapter of Várad complains that he has only 9 Vlach villages, and asks for permission "to invite more Vlachs into the country" and to "settle them on his estates". Also in the same letter, he asks the " border nobles " that " if strangers come from Wallachia, do not stop them".[157][161]

Papal documents from late 14th century reference the conquest of Medieș fortress "from the hands of schismatic Vlachs" by an unnamed King of Hungary. Historian Ioan-Aurel Pop places this event close to the Fourth Council of the Lateran[145]

In 1374, the Cathedral chapter of Várad complained that the Vlachs living in its territory are not willing to give up their nomadic lifestyle.[157]

In 1374, Bishop László of Várad obliges his successors not to prevent the Vlach knezes from settle further "foreigners" to the border areas of Bónafalva, Királybányatoplica and Keresztényfalva.[157][161]

In 1376 the ban of Knin is also called "comes Holachorum".[168]

In 1381 Croatian documents from Knin mention "universitas Valachorum".[169]

In 1383 the so-called "Peace convention of Christian" is signed by Saxons and Romanians (Vlachs) from the area of Sibiu, aimed to ensure the peace between the two communities.[170]

In 1385, the King of Hungary settles 10 Vlachs villages on the royal estate of Aranyosmedgyes in the area of Szilágy.[129]

Vlachs are a documented presence in Belz region since the rule of Siemowit IV, Duke of Masovia, probaly as early as 1388.[171]

In the 14th century, royal charters from the Kingdom of Serbia included segregation policies stating that "a Serb shall not marry a Vlach."[172][173] However, these laws were not successful and intermarriage between Slavs, Vlachs and also Albanians did take place.[172]

15th century edit

In 1404, Archbishop Johannes de Galonifontibus, in his Libellus de notitia orbis, notes that the Vlachs originated from Macedonia, but were already living in "Great Vlachia" too, which corresponds to Wallachia.[174]

In 1412, the captain of Zadar saved 3000 ducats to organise an army against the looting Morlachs, who lived in Ostravica, whose castle has even been taken by them. The leader of the Morlahcs was a person called Sandallor.[175]

The biggest caravan shipment between Podvisoki in Bosnia and Republic of Ragusa was recorded on 9 August 1428, where Vlachs transported 1500 modius of salt with 600 horses.[176][177]

In 1433 Vlach knezes, voievodes, and juzi from Croatia vow to respect the property right of the local St. John church.[169]

Vlachs are mentioned in a document of Grand Duke Švitrigaila, in Kremenets, as part of the local population subject to mayor of Busk legal authority.[178]

Nicholas of Ilok styled himself as "Bosniae and Valachiae Rex".[179]

In 1450, the Vlachs are granted a privilege in Šibenik, allowing the Vlachs to enter the town if they call themselves Croats.[148]

Italian humanist Poggio Bracciolini claims in 1450 that Trajan left a colony among the Sarmatians which still retains much of the Latin vocabulary, and that its members say: "oculum, digitum, manum, panem, and many other things, from which it appears that the Latins, who remained there as settlers, used the Latin language".[180]

In 1453, Flavio Biondo notes that "the Dacians or Vlachs claim to have Roman origins and they think this fact is a decoration in itself" and that "when they spoke the language of their common and simple people it scent of a grammatically incorrect peasant Latin".[181]

King Matthias confirmed the liberties of the Vlachs in an open letter, issued March 31, 1474 in the town of Ružomberok.[182]

Jan Długosz in his Annales seu cronici incliti regni Poloniae wrote about Vlachs in Medieval Poland - Małopolska region, theorizing their origin as a population that came from Italy or Rome who expeled the Ruthenian (Slavic) population from the Danube settlements, and then they themselves settled in the fertile lands there.[160]

An attested reference to Romanian comes from a Latin title of an oath made in 1485 by the Moldavian Prince Stephen the Great to the Polish King Casimir, in which it is reported that "Haec Inscriptio ex Valachico in Latinam versa est sed Rex Ruthenica Lingua scriptam accepta"—"This Inscription was translated from Valachian (Romanian) into Latin, but the King has received it written in the Ruthenian language (Slavic)".[183][184]

Toponymy edit

In addition to the ethnic groups of Aromanians, Megleno-Romanians and Istro-Romanians who emerged during the Migration Period, other Vlachs could be found as far north as Poland, as far west as Moravia and Dalmatia.[185] In search of better pasture, they were called Vlasi or Valaši by the Slavs. States mentioned in medieval chronicles were:[citation needed]

Regions and places are:

Shepherd culture edit

As national states appeared in the area of the former Ottoman Empire, new state borders were developed that divided the summer and winter habitats of many of the transhumance groups. During the Middle Ages, many Vlachs were shepherds who drove their flocks through the mountains of Central and Eastern Europe. Vlach shepherds may be found as far north as southern Poland (Podhale) and the eastern Czech Republic (Moravia) by following the Carpathians, the Dinaric Alps in the west, the Pindus Mountains in the south, and the Caucasus Mountains in the east.[192] In Slovak language, the term Valasi became a synonym for apprentice shepherds.[39]

Some researchers, like Bogumil Hrabak and Marian Wenzel, theorized that the origins of Stećci tombstones, which appeared in medieval Bosnia between 12th and 16th century, could be attributed to Vlach burial culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina of that times.[193]

Gallery edit

Legacy edit

According to Ilona Czamańska "for several recent centuries the investigation of the Vlachian ethnogenesis was so much dominated by political issues that any progress in this respect was incredibly difficult." The transhumance of Vlachs, the heirs of Roman citizens, may be a key for solving the problem of ethnogenesis, but the problem is that many migrations were in multiple directions during the same time. These migrations were not just part of the Balkans and the Carpathians, they exist and in the Caucasus, the Adriatic islands and possibly over the entire region of the Mediterranean Sea. Because of this, our knowledge concerning primary migrations of the Vlachs and the ethnogenesis is more than modest.[194]

Researcher have also raised a concern about cultural appropriation of Vlach heritage in the Balkans, denial of Vlach descend of various groups and personalities, and exclusion from political life.[195]

See also edit

Notes edit

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  7. ^ Ringe, Don. "Inheritance versus lexical borrowing: a case with decisive sound-change evidence." Language Log, January 2009.
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  • A. Keramopoulos, Ti einai oi koutsovlachoi [What are the Koutsovlachs?], publ 2 University Studio Press, Thessaloniki 2000.
  • Birgül Demirtaş-Coşkun; Ankara University. Center for Eurasian Strategic Studies (2001). The Vlachs: a forgotten minority in the Balkans. Frank Cass.
  • Victor A. Friedman, "The Vlah Minority in Macedonia: Language, Identity, Dialectology, and Standardization" in Selected Papers in Slavic, Balkan, and Balkan Studies, ed. Juhani Nuoluoto, et al. Slavica Helsingiensa: 21, Helsinki: University of Helsinki. 2001. 26–50. full text Though focussed on the Vlachs of North Macedonia, has in-depth discussion of many topics, including the origins of the Vlachs, their status as a minority in various countries, their political use in various contexts, and so on.
  • Asterios I. Koukoudis, The Vlachs: Metropolis and Diaspora, 2003, ISBN 960-7760-86-7
  • Tanner, Arno (2004). The Forgotten Minorities of Eastern Europe: The History and Today of Selected Ethnic Groups in Five Countries. East-West Books. pp. 203–. ISBN 978-952-91-6808-8.
  • Th Capidan, Aromânii, Dialectul Aromân, ed2 Εditură Fundaţiei Culturale Aromâne, București 2005
  • Trifon, Nicolas.
  • Kristó, Gyula (2003). Early Transylvania (895–1324). Budapest: Lucidus. ISBN 963-9465-12-7.
  • Miskolczy, Ambrus (2021). A román középkor időszerű kérdései [Timely questions of the Romanian Middle Ages] (PDF) (in Hungarian). Budapest: Magyarságkutató Intézet. ISBN 978-615-6117-41-0. ISSN 2677-0261.

Further reading edit

  • The Watchmen, a documentary film by Alastair Kenneil and Tod Sedgwick (USA) 1971 describes life in the Vlach village of Samarina in Epiros, Northern Greece
  • John Kennedy Campbell, 'Honour Family and Patronage' A Study of Institutions and Moral Values in a Greek Mountain Community, Oxford University Press, 1974
  • Gheorghe Bogdan, MEMORY, IDENTITY, TYPOLOGY: AN INTERDISCIPLINARY RECONSTRUCTION OF VLACH ETHNOHISTORY, B.A., University of British Columbia, 1992
  • Franck Vogel, a photo-essay on the Valchs published by GEO magazine (France), 2010. 14 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine
  • Adina Berciu-Drăghicescu, Aromâni, meglenoromâni, istroromâni : aspecte identitare şi culturale, Editura Universităţii din București, 2012, ISBN 978-606-16-0148-6
  • Octavian Ciobanu, "The Role of the Vlachs in the Bogomils' Expansion in the Balkans.", Journal of Balkan and Black Sea Studies, Year 4, Issue 7, December 2021, pp. 11–32.
  • A.J.B Wace,M.A. & M.S. Thompson, M.A. 'The Nomads of The Balkans' An Account Of Life And Customs Among The Vlachs of Northen Pindus, Methuen & Co. LTD. London, 1914

External links edit

 
Look up Vlach in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Vlachs.
 
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Vlachs".
  • ROMÂNII BALCANICI AROMÂNII—Maria Magiru about Aromanians (in Romanian)
  • The Vlach Connection and Further Reflections on Roman History
  • Orbis Latinus: Wallachians, Walloons, Welschen
  • Vlachs in Greece
  • Cultural appropriation of Vlachs' heritage
  • French Vlachs Association (in Vlach, EN and FR)
  • Studies on the Vlachs 13 August 2007 at the Wayback Machine, by Asterios Koukoudis
  • Vlachs' in Greece (in Greek)
  • Consiliul A Tinirlor Armanj, Youth Aromanian community and their Projects (in Vlach, EN and RO)
  • Old Wallachia—a short Czech film from 1955 depicting life of Vlachs in Czech Moravia
  • Western Balkan Vlachs

February 16, 2024
vlachs, other, uses, disambiguation, vlach, wallach, oláh, redirect, here, other, uses, vlach, disambiguation, wallach, disambiguation, oláh, disambiguation, vlach, english, ɑː, also, wallachian, many, other, variants, term, exonym, used, from, middle, ages, u. For other uses see Vlachs disambiguation Vlach Wallach and Olah redirect here For other uses see Vlach disambiguation Wallach disambiguation and Olah disambiguation Vlach English ˈ v l ɑː x or ˈ v l ae k also Wallachian and many other variants 1 is a term and exonym used from the Middle Ages until the Modern Era to designate speakers of Eastern Romance languages living in Southeast Europe south of the Danube the Balkan peninsula and north of the Danube 2 Theodore Valerio fr 1852 Patre valaque de Zabalcz Wallahian Shepherd from Zăbalț Although it has also been used to name present day Romanians the term Vlach today refers primarily to speakers of the Eastern Romance languages who live south of the Danube in Albania Bulgaria northern Greece North Macedonia and eastern Serbia These people include the ethnic groups of the Aromanians the Megleno Romanians and in Serbia the Timok Romanians 3 The term also became a synonym in the Balkans for the social category of shepherds 4 and was also used for non Romance speaking peoples in recent times in the western Balkans derogatively 5 The term is also used to refer to the ethnographic group of Moravian Vlachs who speak a Slavic language but originate from Romanians as well as for Morlachs and Istro Romanians 6 Currently Eastern Romance speaking communities are estimated at 26 30 million people worldwide including the Romanian diaspora and Moldovan diaspora citation needed Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 3 Medieval usage 3 1 8th century 3 2 10th century 3 3 11th century 3 4 12th century 3 5 13th century 3 6 14th century 3 7 15th century 4 Toponymy 5 Shepherd culture 6 Gallery 7 Legacy 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External linksEtymology editFurther information WalhazThe word Vlach Wallachian and other variants such as Vlah Valah Valach Voloh Blac olah Vlas Ulah etc 1 is etymologically derived from the ethnonym of a Celtic tribe 5 adopted into Proto Germanic Walhaz which meant stranger from Wolka 7 Caesar s Latin Volcae Strabo and Ptolemy s Greek Ouolkai 8 Via Latin in Gothic as walhs the ethnonym took on the meaning foreigner or Romance speaker and later shepherd nomad 8 5 The term was adopted into Greek as Vlahoi or Blachoi Blaxoi Slavic as Vlah pl Vlasi or Voloh Hungarian as olah and olasz etc 9 10 11 The root word was notably adopted in Germanic for Wales and Walloon and in Switzerland for Romansh speakers German Welsch 5 and in Poland Wlochy or in Hungary olasz became an exonym for Italians 8 1 The Slovenian term Lahi has also been used to designate Italians 12 The same name is still used in Polish 13 14 Wlochy Wlosi wloskie and Hungarian 15 16 Olasz Olaszorszag as an exonym for Italy while in Slovakian 17 Vlasi Czech 18 Vlachy and Slovenian 19 20 Lasko 21 Lah Lahinja lasko it was replaced with the endonym Italia nbsp Medieval necropolis in Radimlja Bosnia and Herzegovina Romanian scholars have suggested that the term Vlach appeared for the first time in the Eastern Roman Empire and was subsequently spread to the Germanic and then Slavic speaking worlds through the Norsemen possibly by Varangians who were in trade and military contact with Byzantium during the early Middle Ages see also Blakumen 22 23 According to them the forms which were recognised by linguist to designate the Vlachs are Blaci Blauen Blachi found in Western medieval sources Balachi Walati found in Western sources derived from medieval German while the Germanic population from Transylvania used also the variants Woloch Bloch French sources used mostly Valaques while the medieval Song of Roland used Blos In English and in modern German the forms Wallachians Walachen appear respectively In the Balkan Peninsula various names such as Rumer Tzintzars Morlachs Maurovlachs Armans Cincars Koutzovlachs were used while muslim sources speak of Ulak Ilak Iflak 24 History edit nbsp Hypothetical map projecting the transhumance paths of the Vlach shepherds in the past According to one origin theory modern Romanians Moldovans and Aromanians originated from Dacians 25 According to some linguists and scholars the Eastern Romance languages prove the survival of the Thraco Romans in the lower Danube basin during the Migration Period 26 On the other hand most non Romanian historian believe that Romanians Moldovans Aromanians and other Eastern Romance groups originated in the southern Balkans what is now North Macedonia Kosovo and Thessaly and migrated north from there from the 11th 12th centuries onwards 27 28 29 The term Vlach first appeared in medieval sources and was used primarily as an exonym for speakers of the Eastern Romance languages especially Romanians 1 3 But testimonies from the 13th and the 14th centuries show that although in Europe and beyond they were called Vlachs or Wallachians olah in Hungarian Vlachoi Blaxoi in Greek Voloxi Volo hi in Russian Walachen in German Valacchi in Italian Valaques in French Valacos in Spanish the Romanians used the endonym Ruman or Roman from the Latin Romanus meaning Roman 1 30 However in historical sources the term Vlach could also refer to different peoples Slovak Hungarian Balkan Transylvanian Romanian or even Albanian 31 In late Byzantine documents the Vlachs are mentioned as Bulgaro Albano Vlachs Bulgaralbanitoblahos or Serbo Albano Bulgaro Vlachs 32 According to the Serbian historian Sima Cirkovic the name Vlach in medieval sources had the same rank as the name Greek Serb or Latin 33 nbsp Map depicting the current distribution of Eastern Romance speaking peoplesDuring the early history of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans there was a military class of Vlachs in Serbia and Ottoman Macedonia made up of Christians who served as auxiliary forces and were exempted of certain taxes until the beginning of the 17th century 4 Some Greeks used Vlacho when as a pejorative term citation needed In Zumberak members of the Greek Catholic Church were called Vlachs while in Carniola all inhabitants of Zumberak were called as such citation needed In the Posavina and Bihac areas Muslims used the term Vlasi for all Christians both Orthodox and Catholics while the Catholics used that name to refer to Eastern Christian Orthodox citation needed Under the Ottoman rule a large part of the Dalmatian hinterland was repopulated by Slavic settlers both Orthodox and Catholic speaking the Shtokavian dialect and called Vlach or Morlach by the inhabitants of the Dalmatian coast and islands In these areas the term Vlah evolved to Vlaj pl Vlaji and is still used as a derogatory term to refer to the rural inhabitants of the hinterland both Croats and Serbs as peasants and ignorants 34 In Istria the ethnonym Vlach is used by the Chakavian speaking Croatian inhabitants to refer to the Istro Romanians and the Slavs who settled in the 15th and 16th centuries 35 Nowadays the term Vlachs also known under other names such as Koutsovlachs Tsintsars Karagouni Chobani Vlasi etc 36 is used in scholarship for the Romance speaking communities in the Balkans especially those in Greece Albania and North Macedonia 37 38 In Serbia the term Vlach Serbian Vlah plural Vlasi is also used to refer to Romanian speakers especially those living in eastern Serbia 3 Aromanians themselves use the endonym Arman plural Armani or Raman plural Ramani etymologically from Romanus meaning Roman Megleno Romanians designate themselves with the Macedonian form Vla plural Vlas in their own language 3 In modern Slovak Valasi other than denoting people of Vlachian ethnicity or origin is synonymously and even more prominently used to describe shepherds more commonly apprentice shepherds The term originated following Vlachian arrival in mounts and hills of present day Slovakia in 14th century and coinciding development in sheep herding and dairy industry 39 Further west in Czech Republic the area of Moravian Wallachia is known as Valassko and the inhabitants as Valasi names usually translated in English as Wallachia and Wallachians respectively 40 nbsp Theodore Valerio 1852 Patre valaque de Zabalcz Wallahian Shepherd from Zăbalț Transylvania Medieval usage editSee also History of Romania Origin of the Romanians and History of the Aromanians nbsp The Jirecek Line between Latin and Greek language Roman inscriptions8th century edit First uncertain data about Vlachs is in connection with the Vlachs of the Rynchos river present day North Macedonia The original document containing this information is from the Konstamonitou monastery and was written in the 17th century It is supposed that it is based on a 9th century Byzantine source describing earlier events 41 better source needed nbsp In this century is when the Vlahorinchians and the Sagudits are mentioned coming from Bulgaria passing through Macedonia to reach Mount Athos during the iconoclastic crisis The word Vlahorinhians can mean according to W Tomaschek Vlachs of the Rynchos River a river in Macedonia or according to other historians it can mean Vlachs and Rinhini a Slavic tribe that inhabited the same place 42 10th century edit During the Middle Ages the term Magna Vlachia appears in Byzantine documents which means the ancestral homeland of the Vlachs This name was used for Thessaly and present day North Macedonia 43 44 45 46 John Skylitzes mentioned the Vlachs in 976 as guides and guards of Byzantine caravans in the Balkans Between Prespa and Kastoria they met and fought with a Bulgarian rebel named David The Vlachs killed David in their first documented battle 47 Ibn al Nadim published in 998 the work Kitab al Fihrist mentioning Turks Bulgars and Vlahs using Blagha for Vlachs 48 49 It is important to note however that Ibn al Nadim is very clear that in this list he is talking about Turkic or Turkic related peoples 50 A monastic document from Mount Athos mentions that 300 Vlach families live near the mountain and in their own language they call their settlements Catuns 51 Byzantine writer Kekaumenos author of the Strategikon 1078 writes about a leader Nikulitsa who is given command by Basil II over the Vlachs in Hellada theme Nikulitsa switched alliance to Samuel of Bulgaria after the conquest of Larissa by the Bulgarian Tsar 52 53 Mutahhar al Maqdisi They say that in the Turkic neighbourhood there are the Khazars Russians Slavs Waladj Alans Greeks and many other peoples 54 According to other non Romanian historians based on the context the Waladj are not the Vlachs but a people living around the Volga 55 11th century edit Vlachs were present in large numbers on the Chalkidiki peninsula around 1000 according to monastic documents from Mount Athos On the peninsula the Vlachs were famous for their cheese and meat products In these texts sometimes they are called Vlachorynhinii which may be a mixture of the name Vlach and Rynhini a Slavic tribe who settled in the same area in the 7th century 56 In 1013 a Byzantine document mentions the settlement of Kimbalongu in the mountains near Ohrid which was a Vlach settlement 57 The names Blakumen or Blokumenn is mentioned in Nordic sagas dating between the 11th and 13th centuries with respect to events that took place in either 1018 or 1019 somewhere at the northwestern part of the Black Sea and believed by some to be related to the Vlachs 58 59 Other scholars on the subject such as Omeljan Pritsak however point out that the texts probably refer to a nomadic Turkic people since the Blakumen in the texts are non christian heathens and nomadic horsemans 60 In 1020 the Archdiocese of Ohrid was founded which was responsible for the spiritual care of all the Vlachs 61 In 1022 Vlach sheperds from Thessaly and the Pindus mountains provided cheese for Constantinople 62 63 In 1025 the Annales Barenses mentions a people called Vlach who live near the river Vardar 64 The same chronicle the Annales Barenses describes that in 1027 the Byzantine army led by Orestes that tried to recapture Sicily from the Arabs also included many Vlachs recruited from Macedonia 65 Kekaumenos writes about the revolt in 1066 in the region of Thessaly led by Nikoulitzas Delphinas nephew of the homonymous 10th century military commander and father in law of the writer 66 In 1071 a Byzantine document mentions that the herds of the Vlachs and their household spend the months of April to September beyond Thessaly in the high mountains of Bulgaria where it is very cold it is clear from the text that we are talking about the mountains of today s North Macedonia The same text describes that the homeland of the Vlachs is Thessaly precisely the part of the region divided by the river Pleres 51 67 68 Florin Curta adds that Kekaumenos calls Vlachs migrants from the northern parts as Kekaumenos associates them with Dacians or Bessi of Antiquity 69 A Byzantine author Kekaumenos writes about the Vlachs in Greece in connection about their origin and way of life in the Strategikon in 1075 1078 70 According to Kekaumenos the Vlachs were Dacians and Bessus who lived near and south from the Danube and the Sava where the Serbs live now They feigned loyalty to the Romans while they were constantly attacked and pillaged therefore Trajan launched a war their leader Decebalus was also killed and then the Vlachs were scattered in Macedonia Epirus and Hellas 71 72 Kekaumenos made the Dacians the ancestors of the Vlachs because he knew about the deceitfulness of the Dacians against the Romans and according to him the Dacians and Vlachs had a perfectly matching nature treachery and political unreliability so much that in his opinion they should not be believed even if the Vlachs take an oath 71 72 Kekaumenos arbitrarily identified the Vlachs with the Dacians according to the archaizing efforts of his time because the tendency to refer to later peoples with classical names was common in Byzantium at the time of Kekaumenos 71 70 72 Kekaumenos also confused the Roman province Dacia Traiana with Dacia Aureliana and even he placed it further west where it actually was that is why he mentioned the Serbian territory as the homeland 70 72 the Bessus tribe was a neighbor of the Roman province Macedonia 70 Alexius Komnenos mentions that in 1082 he passed through a Vlach settlement called Exeva in Macedonia 51 Anna Komnene mentions in her Alexiad that in 1091 Emperor Alexios ordered Nikephoros Melissenos to raise an army against invading Pechenegs Melissenos recruited among others Bulgarians and the nomadic tribes called Vlachs in popular parlance 73 According to the Alexiad in 1094 1095 Emperor Alexius Komnenos was notified by a Vlach chieftain called Poudila about the crossing of the Danube by a Cuman army and that to prepare himself for the attack 74 75 then the Vlachs likewise led the Cumans through the gorges of the Balkan Mountains 75 Also in 1094 the first mention of Vlachs in Moglena region is made the document is kept in the archive of the monastery Great Lavra on Mount Athos According to this Emperor Alexios I Komnenos replies to the monks of the monastery complaining that people on their domain are not paying taxes The document contains some of the first Romanian names such as Stan Radu cel Schiop and Peducel 76 In 1097 many Vlachs were resettled from the Chalkidiki peninsula to the Peloponnese by order of the Byzantine emperor Komnenos Alexis 77 In 1099 crusading armies were attacked by Vlachs in the mountains along the road from Branicevo to Nis 75 66 12th century edit nbsp Map of Central Southern Europe during the late Middle Ages early Modern period by Transylvanian Saxon humanist Johannes Honterus The Russian Primary Chronicle written c 1113 states that the Slavs settled beside the Danube then the Volochi people attacked the Slavs settled among them and did them violance leading to the Slavs departing and settling around the Vistula under the name of Leshi 78 According to the chronicle the Slavs settled there first and the Volochi seized the territory of the Slavs later the Hungarians drove the Volochi away took their land and settled among the Slavs 79 80 The Primary Chronicle thus contains a possible reference to Romanians 11 78 Other non Romanian historians consider the Volochi the Franks as their country is placed west to Baltic Sea and near England by the author of the work Nestor the Chronicler 81 82 83 The Frankish Empire stretched from the North Sea to the Danube The Byzantine princess and scholar Anna Komnene in her book Alexiad mentions a Vlach settlement called Ezeba which was near Larissa and Androneia In the same work she also describes the Vlachs as the nomadic tribes called Vlachs in popular parlance 84 In 1109 monks on Mount Athos mention the Vlachs in Chalkidiki and that the presence of women disturbed the monachal activities 85 Traveler Benjamin of Tudela 1130 1173 of the Kingdom of Navarre was one of the first writers to use the word Vlachs for a Romance speaking population 86 In his work he mentions that these Vlachs live high up in the mountains of Thessaly and from there they sometimes come down to plunder which they do quickly as swift as deers for which reasons there is no king to rule them 87 Byzantine historian John Kinnamos described Leon Vatatzes military expedition along the northern Danube where Vatatzes mentioned the participation of Vlachs in battles with the Magyars Hungarians in 1166 88 89 John Kinnamos says Vlachs were colonists brought from Italy 90 nbsp Plan of the fortress Prosek seat of Dobromir ChrysosThe uprising of brothers Asen and Peter was a revolt of Bulgarians and Vlachs living in the theme of Paristrion of the Byzantine Empire caused by a tax increase It began on 26 October 1185 the feast day of St Demetrius of Thessaloniki and ended with the creation of the Second Bulgarian Empire also known in its early history as the Empire of Bulgarians and Vlachs 69 According to Niketas Choniates after the Byzantine emperor Isaac II Angelos lost his wife he wanted to marry the daughter of Bela III of Hungary but there was not enough money for the wedding so he imposed taxes in the regions and cities of the empire but he angered the barbarians who dwelt in the Haemos mountains who were once called Moesians but are now called Vlachs 91 Mentions of Vlachs in Medieval Bulgaria also come from Niketas Choniates who writes about a Vlach called Dobromir Chrysos who established an autonomous polity in the upper region of Vardar river and Moglena 92 A similar event is recorded by the same author in the area of Philippopolis where a Vlach called Ivanko formerly a boyar at the Asen brothers court was given military command by Emperor Isaac and expanded his rule to Smolyan Mosynopolis and Xanthi 93 According to Niketas Choniates Thessaly and Macedonia is called Magna Vlachia Aetolia and Acarnata are called Little Vlachia and north eastern Epirus is called Upper Vlachia 44 51 According to Niketas Choniates the Vlachs are the barbarians who live in the Balkan mountains in Moesia 94 A Byzantine church document mentions that in 1190 the Cumans and the Vlachs take the relics of Saint Ryli from Sofia to Tirnovo with a great pomp 51 According to the Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja the authenticity of which is highly disputed by historians around 600 the Avars conquered Salona then attacking further south ravaged Macedonia and the land of the black Latins now called Morvlachs 95 The first mention of Vlachs in Serbian medieval chronicles is dated from the time of Stefan Nemanjic most likely 1198 1199 and it is related to a donation act towards restoration of Hilandar monastery with aid from the inhabitants of the area of Prizren 96 The History of the Expedition of the Emperor Frederick mention the Vlachs as people living in the mountains and forests of the Balkans The chronicle also describes the Vlachs homeland as being near Thessaloniki The chronicle describes how the Crusaders captured several Vlachs who told them that the Vlachs live in Macedonia Thessaly and Bulgaria and that because they were heavily taxed they were rebelling 97 Numerous Serbian documents from the very end of the 12th century speak of Vlach shepherds in the mountains between the Drina and the Morava 98 13th century edit Kaloyan was given the title imperator Caloihannes dominus omnium Bulgarorum atque Blachorum Emperor Kaloyan Lord of All Bulgarians and Vlachs by Patriarch Basil I of Bulgaria 99 and the title Rex Bulgarorum et Blachorum King of the Bulgarians and the Vlachs by Pope Innocent II 100 In 1204 and 1205 Raimbaut de Vaqueiras mentions the Vlachs as enemies of Boniface of Montferrat 101 After 1207 Geoffrey of Villehardouin mentions twelve times the Vlachs part of the armies of Kaloyan of Bulgaria either as defenders against Henry of Flanders or among the attackers of Adrianopole 102 Around the same time Henry of Valenciennes writes about the country he calls Blasquie ruled by Burile Borilă Henry of Flanders conquers this land and awards it to Burile s cousin Esclas Slav From there on the country will be know as Blakie la Grant Great Valachia 101 Sandor Timaru Kast alleges that the Venetian Chronicle refers to the land that would become Wallachia as Black Cumania the colony of black Vlachs who migrated northwards 103 According to the medieval Hungarian chronicle the Gesta Hungarorum The deeds of the Hungarians written in the early 13th century when the Hungarians of Grand Prince Arpad conquered the Carpathian Basin at that time Slavs Bulgarians and Blachij and also the shepherds of the Romans sclauij Bulgarij et Blachij ac pastores romanorum inhabited Pannonia 104 Most researchers say that the Blachij are the Vlachs 105 others that they are the Bulaqs a Turkic people 106 The chronicle s authenticity is in question in historiography because it confuses the peoples living in the area in the 12th century and the peoples of the 9th century Among others it includes the Cumans in Transylvania who arrived only centuries later 107 108 109 28 Romanian historian Ioan Aurel Pop states that some exaggerations and inaccuracies typical of a chronicle at the time and mostly in favour of the Royal House are not a sufficient reason to discredit the entire document as a historical source 110 It is important to note however that the chronicle mentions many rulers but none of them is mentioned in any other contemporary chronicle 81 According to Romanian historian Florin Curta and leading Romanian medievalist Radu Popa during the 1960 1989 period the archaeological evidences were manipulated to meet the demands of the nationalist policies of the Ceaușescu s regime and Romanian archaeologists made every possible attempt to prove that the Gesta Hungarorum is a reliable source for the Romanian presence in Transylvania prior to the Hungarian conquest however no archaeological evidence was found to prove the subject Hungarian archaeologist Istvan Bona also accused Romanian archaeologists of hiding evidence that did not fit their interpretation regarding the Gesta Hungarorum during the excavation of the early medieval hillfort at Dăbaca as Gelou s capital city 111 Wheter archeology supports the Gesta or not is disputed among historians 112 British Romanian historian Dennis Deletant states the analysis of the Gesta Hungarorum shows that is too naive to claim it is an immaculate source just as it is foolhardy to totally discredit its reliability and the conclusion the cases for and against the existence of Gelou and the Vlachs simply cannot be proven 113 British historian Carlile Aylmer Macartney writes in his critical and analytical guide of Anonymus that all Romanian historians refer to Anonymus but they are not credible in the subject and the chronicle is not evidence for presence of Vlachs in Transylvania 114 Madgearu attempts to prove that a Vlach Slav population existed in Transylvania before the arrival of the Hungarians by recounting place names of Slavic origin he believes weren t adopted to Romanian via Hungarian 112 In 1213 an army of Vlachs Saxons and Pechenegs led by the Count of Sibiu Joachim Turje attacked the Second Bulgarian Empire Bulgarians and Cumans in the fortress of Vidin 115 After this all Hungarian battles in the Carpathian region were supported by Romance speaking soldiers from Transylvania 116 Stefan the First Crowned donates 200 families of Vlachs from Prokletije and Peci to Zica monastery 117 In 1220 king Stefan the First Crowned proclaimed that all Vlachs of his kingdom belonged to the Eparchy of Zica 118 A royal chancellery document from 1223 connected to the foundation of the Cistercian abbey at Carța around 1202 119 which was granted land mentions it was built in the land of the Vlachs Romanians 120 This is also the very first mention of the Vlachs in Hungarian documents 121 122 In the Diploma Andreanum issued by King Andrew II of Hungary in 1224 silva blacorum et bissenorum was given to the Saxon settlers 123 The Orthodox Vlachs spread further northward along the Carpathians to the present day territory of Poland Slovakia and Czech Republic and were granted autonomy under the Vlach law 124 In 1230 Constantine Akropolites in his writing about the conquests of Bulgarian Tsar Ivan Asen notes that the Magna Vlachia is next to Albania 125 Pope Gregory IX wrote several letters to the Hungarian king in which he talks about the conversion of the Cumans who lived in the southern part of present day Romania Wallachia In one of his letters he mentions the Vlachs asking King Bela IV of Hungary to let them into his country for the sake of God give refuge to those poor Vlachs who tried to escape from their Cuman rulers 126 In 1247 Bela IV of Hungary gives the Land of Severin to the Knights Hospitallers with two polities kenezatus of John and Farkas except kenezatus of voivode Litovoi which was left to the Vlachs as they held it 127 The land of Hateg is excepted while the voivodate of Seneslaus the king keeps for himself 128 In 1247 a Hungarian royal document allowed the nobles of Hatszeg and Maramaros to settle Vlach families on their estates 129 In 1252 King Bela IV of Hungary for his services in various foreign embassies donates to Vince Comes of the Szekler of Sebus the land called Zek between the territory of the Vlachs of Kyrch the Saxons of Barasu and the Szeklers of Sebus which once belonged to a Saxon estate called Fulkun but has been uninhabited since the Mongol invasion 130 In 1256 King Bela IV of Hungary upon the complaint of Archbishop Benedict of Esztergom confirms the right of the archdiocese to tithes from mining wages and from animal taxes collected from the Szeklers and Vlachs to the king or anyone else among the judicial accommodation and taxation privileges of the archdiocese with the exception of land rents from Saxons but also from Vlachs from everywhere and from anywhere they came 131 King Ottokar II of Bohemia reports to Pope Alexander IV that about the defeated of King Bela IV of Hungary on 12 July 1260 on the border between Hungary and Austria near the castle and town of Hemburg on the Moraua River Among the people that fought in Bela s army Vlachs called Walachorum are named 132 In 1272 King Ladislaus donates the royal lands or villages of Budula and Tohou also known as Olahteleky to Simon s son Nicholas of Brașov 133 From 1276 King Ladislaus allows the chapter of Alba Iulia to settle 60 Romanian households mansiones on the border of his estates called Fulesd and Enyed separated from the episcopal lands and to exempt them from all royal taxes fiftieth and tithes 134 In a grant around 1280 Queen Helena confirmed the grant given by Stefan Vladislav to the Vranjina monastery the Vlachs are separately mentioned along with Arbanasi Albanians Latins and Serbs 118 In the 1280s Simon of Keza in the Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum mentions the Vlachs in his work three times After the land had been conquered by King Attila several people left Pannonia the Vlachs Blackis were elected to remain in Pannonia who had been their shepherds and husbandmen The Szekelys were settled with the Vlachs Blackis in the border mountains mingling with them and adopting their alphabet After the withdrawal of the Huns the only people left in Pannonia were immigrants Slavs Greeks Germans Moravians and Vlachs Ulahis who had been servants of Attila 135 136 137 138 Hungarian historians point out that the Ulahis advenis Vlach newcomer the adjective classifying Romanians as immigrants was omitted from the Romanian translation 138 Several scholars and historians noted that Simon of Keza used different spellings for Blackis and Ulahis arguing that Blackis were actually the Turkic people Bulaqs who were confused with the Vlachs 139 According to Polish historian Ryszard Grzesik the Vlachs appeared in Transylvania only in the 12th century therefore Hungarian chroniclers identified the semi nomadic lifestyle of the Vlachs as a distinguishing characteristic Kezai wrote that the Vlachs gave script to the Szekelys but the reality is different because Kezai wrote about the Szekelys runs and his opinion was based on the observation that the Vlach shepherds engraved symbols while counting their sheep 135 Kezai confused the Szekely runs with the Cyrillic script which was used by the Vlachs 138 Several sources cite that the passes of the Carpathians in Transylvania were defended by the Vlachs together with Szekelys and Saxons during the Second Mongol invasion of Hungary in 1285 140 141 According to the old Russian chronicle Ladislaus IV of Hungary asked for help from Rome and Constantinople because he feared an invasion by the Tartars Constantinople sent an army of Vlachs from what is now Serbia but after the victorious battle the Vlachs refused to go home and settled in the territory of Maramures 142 Also in 1285 Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos decides to move the Vlachs from Thrace to Asia Minor fearing their possible alliance with the Tatars The same Emperor in 1289 confirms the rights of St Andrew Monastery from Thessaly over the village Praktikatous or Vlachokatouna 143 According to a legend in 1290 Ladislaus the Cuman was assassinated the new Hungarian king allegedly drove voivode Radu Negru and his people across the Carpathians where they formed Wallachia along with its first capital Campulung as a Hungarian vassal state 144 In 1290 Andrew III of Hungary in a document grants three Transylvanian noble families the right to invite Vlachs into the country from South of the mountains 129 In 1291 Andrew III of Hungary presides over a meeting of Nobles Saxons Szeklers and Vlachs in Alba Iulia 145 In 1292 Andrew III of Hungary allows some Hungarian nobles to invite Vlachs to the country to their estates called Ilye Szad and Fenes 146 In 1293 Andrew III of Hungary publishes an angry charter to the Transylvanian nobility mentions that all the Vlachs were supposed to be settled on the royal crown s property called Szekes not on their own estates 57 In November 1293 King Andrew confirms King Ladislaus s earlier concession to the chapter of Alba Iulia to keep the 60 households of Romanians mansiones Olacorum free from all taxes and services on the lands of Dalya Ompaycza Fylesd and Enugd separated from the episcopal estates These Romanians should not be forced by any royal tax collector to pay taxes dues or fiftieths The charter confirmed by a double seal is dated by the hand of Theodore provost of Fehervar vice chancellor 147 14th century edit Stefan Milutin Serbian king donated 6 katuns to the church of St Nikita in Bania 97 Stefan Milutin in another medieval Serbian document mentions that 30 Vlach families live on a church estate near Pristina 97 In 1321 on the island of Krk a priest gave land to the church and the given land extended to the land of Kneze where Vlachs lived 148 In a battle Vlachs fought alongside Mladen Subic near Trogir in 1322 148 nbsp Fra Mauro s map sector XXIX showing Vlachia Piccola in Thessaly and Monte de Murlachi in Dalmatia ca 1450 CEKing Wladyslaw I Lokietek attacks Brandenburg with neighboring Vlach reinforcements etiam vicinorum populorum videlicet Ruthenorum Walachorum et Lithwanorum stipatusc 149 Goods sold by the Vlachs are mentioned in after 1328 by Ragusan documents among them formaedi vlacheschi a type of cheese 150 First mention of a Vlach called Radul in 1329 in the Istrian Peninsula 151 In 1330 Stefan Decanski gifts to Visoki Decani monastery the Vlach pastures and katuns along Drim and Lim rivers 118 Croatian chronicler Miha de Barbazanis writes that Vlachs from the area of Cetina River fought for Mladen II Subic of Bribir against Charles I of Hungary and Ban John Babonic 152 153 In the list of Papal Tithes from 1332 1337 in the Kingdom of Hungary one settlement mentioned in the source as Romanian Căprioara This Romanian place name is the very first recorded Romanian toponym in the Kingdom of Hungary including Transylvania 154 155 In 1335 a royal commissioner on the orders of the King of Hungary arranges for a Vlach voivode named Bogdan to move to the Kingdom of Hungary with his entire household and people According to the charter the settlement of the Vlach voivode and his people lasted from 1 November 1334 to 15 August 1335 156 In 1341 a Hungarian royal document notes that the Hungarian Czibak noble family can invite and settle more Vlachs to their Mezo Telegd estate from the south 157 158 Stefan Dusan styles himself Imperator Raxie et Romanie dispotus Lartae et Blachie comes Emperor of Rascia and Romania despot of Arta and ispan of Vlachia 159 Stefan Dusan donates 320 Vlach families to the Bistrica monastery 97 A charter issued by Stefan Dusan mentions that Dobrodoliane is inhabited by Vlachs 125 Morlachs are first recorded in 1344 during the struggle between the counts of the Kurjakovic and Nelipic families in the regions near Knin and Krbava when a region called Morlacorum mentioned 6 A letter from 1345 from Pope Clement VI to the Hungarian king Louis I the phrase quod Olachi Romani appears which can be interpreted as an expression of the papal chancellery s conviction about the Roman origin of the Wallachians 160 In 1349 another Hungarian royal charter mentions the Vlachs allowing the Wallachian voivode to send a Vlach priest to Transylvania thus encouraging more Vlachs to settle in the Hungarian kingdom from the south 157 161 A Hungarian charter of 1352 states that the lord lieutenant of Krasso County Szeri Posa invited Vlachs to Hungary to populate the area around the Mutnok stream 142 Around 1355 Bogdan of Cuhea former Voivode of Maramureș but now in conflict with Louis I of Hungary crosses the mountains with other Vlachs from Maramureș and takes over Moldavia 162 In 1358 a Hungarian royal chronicler named Mark mentions Transylvania and its peoples It is the richest part of the Hungarian Kingdom where Hungarian and Saxon cities bloom with industry and commerce while the fertile lands of Hungarian farmers produce good wine fat cattle and plenty of grain for bread High upon the mountains Vlach herdsmen tend to their sheep and bring down good tasting cheese to the market places 129 In 1359 the King of Hungary allowed a Vlach noble family and their household to settle in the country first giving them 13 villages and then 6 years later another 5 villages in the Banat 156 Also in 1359 the village of Laksag near Varad reports in a letter to the bishop of Varad that the first Vlach inhabitants have arrived 157 163 In 1365 Balc son of Voivode Sas of Moldavia defeated by Bogdan moves to the Kingdom of Hungary and is given by Louis I of Hungary the confiscated domains of his opponent Later Balc became the head of Szatmar Sătmar Ugocsa and Maramaros Maramureș counties in the Kingdom of Hungary and he was also invested with the title of Count of the Szekelys 164 Vlachs from the domain of Vidceselo between Lika and Zrmanja are rewarded for their military support by the ban of Croatia 165 In June 1366 King Louis I of Hungary grants through the Decree of Turda special privileges to the Transylvanian noblemen to take measures against malefactors belonging to any nation especially the Vlachs 166 In 1370 Louis I of Hungary decreed that only those Vlach settlers who were Catholic could receive royal grants 142 The village of Wolodz in Ruthenia was first documented in 1373 as a Vlach settlement 167 In a letter dates to 1374 the Cathedral chapter of Varad complains that he has only 9 Vlach villages and asks for permission to invite more Vlachs into the country and to settle them on his estates Also in the same letter he asks the border nobles that if strangers come from Wallachia do not stop them 157 161 Papal documents from late 14th century reference the conquest of Medieș fortress from the hands of schismatic Vlachs by an unnamed King of Hungary Historian Ioan Aurel Pop places this event close to the Fourth Council of the Lateran 145 In 1374 the Cathedral chapter of Varad complained that the Vlachs living in its territory are not willing to give up their nomadic lifestyle 157 In 1374 Bishop Laszlo of Varad obliges his successors not to prevent the Vlach knezes from settle further foreigners to the border areas of Bonafalva Kiralybanyatoplica and Keresztenyfalva 157 161 In 1376 the ban of Knin is also called comes Holachorum 168 In 1381 Croatian documents from Knin mention universitas Valachorum 169 In 1383 the so called Peace convention of Christian is signed by Saxons and Romanians Vlachs from the area of Sibiu aimed to ensure the peace between the two communities 170 In 1385 the King of Hungary settles 10 Vlachs villages on the royal estate of Aranyosmedgyes in the area of Szilagy 129 Vlachs are a documented presence in Belz region since the rule of Siemowit IV Duke of Masovia probaly as early as 1388 171 In the 14th century royal charters from the Kingdom of Serbia included segregation policies stating that a Serb shall not marry a Vlach 172 173 However these laws were not successful and intermarriage between Slavs Vlachs and also Albanians did take place 172 15th century edit In 1404 Archbishop Johannes de Galonifontibus in his Libellus de notitia orbis notes that the Vlachs originated from Macedonia but were already living in Great Vlachia too which corresponds to Wallachia 174 In 1412 the captain of Zadar saved 3000 ducats to organise an army against the looting Morlachs who lived in Ostravica whose castle has even been taken by them The leader of the Morlahcs was a person called Sandallor 175 The biggest caravan shipment between Podvisoki in Bosnia and Republic of Ragusa was recorded on 9 August 1428 where Vlachs transported 1500 modius of salt with 600 horses 176 177 In 1433 Vlach knezes voievodes and juzi from Croatia vow to respect the property right of the local St John church 169 Vlachs are mentioned in a document of Grand Duke Svitrigaila in Kremenets as part of the local population subject to mayor of Busk legal authority 178 Nicholas of Ilok styled himself as Bosniae and Valachiae Rex 179 In 1450 the Vlachs are granted a privilege in Sibenik allowing the Vlachs to enter the town if they call themselves Croats 148 Italian humanist Poggio Bracciolini claims in 1450 that Trajan left a colony among the Sarmatians which still retains much of the Latin vocabulary and that its members say oculum digitum manum panem and many other things from which it appears that the Latins who remained there as settlers used the Latin language 180 In 1453 Flavio Biondo notes that the Dacians or Vlachs claim to have Roman origins and they think this fact is a decoration in itself and that when they spoke the language of their common and simple people it scent of a grammatically incorrect peasant Latin 181 King Matthias confirmed the liberties of the Vlachs in an open letter issued March 31 1474 in the town of Ruzomberok 182 Jan Dlugosz in his Annales seu cronici incliti regni Poloniae wrote about Vlachs in Medieval Poland Malopolska region theorizing their origin as a population that came from Italy or Rome who expeled the Ruthenian Slavic population from the Danube settlements and then they themselves settled in the fertile lands there 160 An attested reference to Romanian comes from a Latin title of an oath made in 1485 by the Moldavian Prince Stephen the Great to the Polish King Casimir in which it is reported that Haec Inscriptio ex Valachico in Latinam versa est sed Rex Ruthenica Lingua scriptam accepta This Inscription was translated from Valachian Romanian into Latin but the King has received it written in the Ruthenian language Slavic 183 184 Toponymy editIn addition to the ethnic groups of Aromanians Megleno Romanians and Istro Romanians who emerged during the Migration Period other Vlachs could be found as far north as Poland as far west as Moravia and Dalmatia 185 In search of better pasture they were called Vlasi or Valasi by the Slavs States mentioned in medieval chronicles were citation needed Wallachia between the Southern Carpathians and the Danube Ţara Romanească in Romanian Bassarab Wallachia Bassarab s Wallachia and Ungro Wallachia or Wallachia Transalpina in administrative sources which Moldavia between the Carpathians and the Dniester river Bogdano Wallachia Bogdan s Wallachia citation needed Moldo Wallachia or Maurovlachia Black Wallachia Moldovlachia or Rousso Vlachia in Byzantine sources 186 Second Bulgarian Empire between the Carpathians and the Balkan Mountains Regnum Bulgarorum et Blachorum in documents by Pope Innocent III which citation needed Terra Prodnicorum or Terra Brodnici mentioned by Pope Honorius III in 1222 Vlachs led by Ploskanea supported the Tatars in the 1223 Battle of Kalka Vlach lands near Galicia in the west Volhynia in the north Moldova in the south and the Bolohoveni lands in the east were conquered by Galicia 187 neutrality is disputed Regions and places are White Wallachia in Moesia 188 need quotation to verify Great Wallachia Megalh Blaxia Megali vlahia in Thessaly 188 Small Wallachia Mikrh Blaxia Mikri vlahia in Aetolia Acarnania Dorida and Locrida 188 Morlachia in Lika Dalmatia Upper Wallachia Anw Blaxia Ano Vlahia in southern Macedonia Albania and Epirus Magna Vlachia in southern Macedonia Albania and Epirus 44 Stari Vlah the Old Vlach a region in southwestern Serbia Maior Vlachia a region in southwestern part of Croatia mentioned in 1373 151 Romanija mountain Romanija planina in eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina 189 Vlașca County a former county of southern Wallachia derived from Slavic Vlaska Greater Wallachia an older name for the region of Muntenia southeastern Romania Lesser Wallachia an older name for the region of Oltenia southwestern Romania An Italian writer called the Banat Valachia citeriore Wallachia on this side in 1550 190 Valahia transalpina including Făgăraș and Hațeg Moravian Wallachia Czech Moravske Valassko in the Beskid Mountains Czech Beskydy of the Czech Republic 191 Shepherd culture editAs national states appeared in the area of the former Ottoman Empire new state borders were developed that divided the summer and winter habitats of many of the transhumance groups During the Middle Ages many Vlachs were shepherds who drove their flocks through the mountains of Central and Eastern Europe Vlach shepherds may be found as far north as southern Poland Podhale and the eastern Czech Republic Moravia by following the Carpathians the Dinaric Alps in the west the Pindus Mountains in the south and the Caucasus Mountains in the east 192 In Slovak language the term Valasi became a synonym for apprentice shepherds 39 Some researchers like Bogumil Hrabak and Marian Wenzel theorized that the origins of Stecci tombstones which appeared in medieval Bosnia between 12th and 16th century could be attributed to Vlach burial culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina of that times 193 Gallery edit nbsp Theodore Valerio Paysans valaques des environs de Lugos Vlach Romanian peasants from around Lugoj 1851 nbsp Vlach shepherd of Banat Auguste Raffet c 1837 nbsp A Morlach couple Vlachs that live in Croatia Christian Geissler before 1844 nbsp Romanian immigrants in Ellis Island United States nbsp Vlach women in traditional dress North Macedonia Greece Van Den Brule Alfred 1907 nbsp Vlach revolutionaries in the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization against the Ottoman Empire from Veria today in northern Greece between 1900 and 1908 nbsp Vlachs returning to their village in Koutso Greece 1915 Legacy editAccording to Ilona Czamanska for several recent centuries the investigation of the Vlachian ethnogenesis was so much dominated by political issues that any progress in this respect was incredibly difficult The transhumance of Vlachs the heirs of Roman citizens may be a key for solving the problem of ethnogenesis but the problem is that many migrations were in multiple directions during the same time These migrations were not just part of the Balkans and the Carpathians they exist and in the Caucasus the Adriatic islands and possibly over the entire region of the Mediterranean Sea Because of this our knowledge concerning primary migrations of the Vlachs and the ethnogenesis is more than modest 194 Researcher have also raised a concern about cultural appropriation of Vlach heritage in the Balkans denial of Vlach descend of various groups and personalities and exclusion from political life 195 See also editOlah Morlachs Romania in the Early Middle Ages Statuta Valachorum Supplex Libellus Valachorum Vlach Ottoman social class Vlach law Vlachs in medieval Serbia Vlachs in the history of Croatia Vlachs in medieval Bosnia and HerzegovinaNotes edit a b c d e Ioan Aurel Pop On the Significance of Certain Names Romanian Wallachian and Romania Wallachia PDF Retrieved 18 June 2018 Valah Dicționare ale limbii romane dexonline ro Retrieved 18 June 2018 a b c d Vlach at the Encyclopaedia Britannica a b Sugar Peter F 1996 Southeastern Europe under Ottoman Rule 1354 1804 University of Washington Press p 39 ISBN 0 295 96033 7 a b c d Tanner 2004 p 203 a b Ivan Muzic 2011 Hrvatska kronika u Ljetopisu pop Dukljanina PDF Split Muzej hrvatski arheoloskih spomenika p 66 Crni Latini 260 qui illo tempore Romani vocabantur modo vero Moroulachi hoc est Nigri Latini vocantur In some Croatian and Latin redactions of the Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja from 16th century Ringe Don Inheritance versus lexical borrowing a case with decisive sound change evidence Language Log January 2009 a b c Juhani Nuorluoto Martti Leiwo Jussi Halla aho 2001 Papers in Slavic Baltic and Balkan studies Dept of Slavonic and Baltic Languages and Literatures University of Helsinki ISBN 978 952 10 0246 5 Kelley L Ross 2003 Decadence Rome and Romania the Emperors Who Weren t and Other Reflections on Roman History The Proceedings of the Friesian School Retrieved 13 January 2008 Note The Vlach Connection Entangled Histories of the Balkans Volume One National Ideologies and Language Policies BRILL 2013 pp 42 ISBN 978 90 04 25076 5 a b Pop Ioan Aurel 1996 Romanii si maghiarii in secolele IX XIV Geneza statului medieval in Transilvania Romanians and Hungarians from the 9th to the 14th Century The Genesis of the Transylvanian Medieval State Center for Transylvanian Studies p 32 Thomas M Wilson Hastings Donnan 2005 Culture and Power at the Edges of the State National Support and Subversion in European Border Regions LIT Verlag Munster pp 122 ISBN 978 3 8258 7569 5 Wlochy profil kraju czlonkowskiego UE Unia Europejska european union europa eu in Polish Retrieved 16 July 2023 Dlaczego mowimy Wlochy a nie Italia Nasz Swiat 21 May 2022 Archived from the original on 21 May 2022 Retrieved 16 July 2023 Nyelvek tobbnyelvuseg nyelvhasznalati szabalyok Europai Unio european union europa eu in Hungarian Retrieved 16 July 2023 Olaszorszag Az unios tagorszag bemutatasa Europai Unio european union europa eu in Hungarian Retrieved 16 July 2023 Slovenske slovniky slovnik juls savba sk Retrieved 16 July 2023 Italians in Mala Strana ENGLISH Open House Praha Open House Praha www openhousepraha cz 2 November 2022 Retrieved 16 July 2023 Fran iskanje laski Fran in Slovenian Retrieved 16 July 2023 Fran Pravopis Fran in Slovenian Retrieved 16 July 2023 Snoj Marko 2009 Etimoloski slovar slovenskih zemljepisnih imen Ljubljana Modrijan Zalozba ZRC pp 106 227 ISBN 978 961 241 360 6 Ilie Gherghel Cateva considerațiuni la cuprinsul noțiunii cuvantului Vlach București Convorbiri Literare 1920 p 4 8 G Popa Lisseanu Continuitatea romanilor in Dacia Editura Vestala Bucuresti 2014 p 78 Pintescu Florin April 2020 Vlachs and Scandinavians in the Early Middle Ages ResearchGate Retrieved 9 August 2023 Fine John V A Jr 1991 1983 The Early Medieval Balkans A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century Ann Arbor University of Michigan Press p 10 ISBN 0 472 08149 7 According to Cornelia Bodea Stefan Pascu Liviu Constantinescu Romania Atlas Istorico geografic Academia Romană 1996 ISBN 973 27 0500 0 chap II Historical landmarks p 50 English text the survival of the Thraco Romans in the Lower Danube basin during the Migration Period is an obvious fact Thraco Romans haven t vanished in the soil amp Vlachs haven t appeared after 1000 years by spontaneous generation Malcolm Noel 1998 Kosovo a short history London Macmilan pp 22 40 The name Vlach was a word used by the Slavs for those they encountered who spoke a strange usually Latinate language the Vlachs own name for themselves is Aromanians Aromani As this name suggests the Vlachs are closely linked to the Romanians their two languages which with a little practice are mutually intelligible diverged only in the ninth or tenth century While Romanian historians have tried to argue that the Romanian speakers have always lived in the territory of Romania originating it is claimed from Romanized Dacian tribes and or Roman legionaries there is compelling evidence to show that the Romanian speakers were originally part of the same population as the Vlachs whose language and way of life were developed somewhere to the south of the Danube Only in the twelfth century did the early Romanian speakers move northwards into Romanian territory a b Macartney Carlile Aylmer 1953 The Medieval Hungarian Historians A Critical amp Analytical Guide Gottfried Schramm 2013 Similarities between Romanian and Albanian are not limited to their common Balkan features and the assumed substrate words the two languages share calques and proverbs and display analogous phonetic changes H C Darby 1957 The face of Europe on the eve of the great discoveries The New Cambridge Modern History Vol 1 p 34 Jan Gawron 2020 Locators of the settlements under Wallachian law in the Sambor starosty in XVth and XVIth c Territorial ethnic and social origins p 274 275 BALCANICA POSNANIENSIA xxVI 1 Noel Malcolm 1996 Bosnia A Short History p 101 NYU Press ISBN 0814755615 Cirkovic Sima 2020 Ziveti sa istorijom Belgrade Helsinski odbor za ljudska prava u Srbiji p 309 Stjepanovic Dejan 2018 Multiethnic regionalisms in Southeastern Europe statehood alternatives London Palgrave Macmillan p 110 ISBN 978 1 137 58585 1 OCLC 1004716379 Spicijaric Paskvan Nina 2014 Vlasi i krcki Vlasi u literaturi i povijesnim izvorima Vlachs from the Island Krk in the Primary Historical and Literature Sources PDF In Editura Fundaţiei ed Studii si cercetări Actele Simpozionului Banat istorie si multiculturalitate Zrenianin 2012 Resiţa 2013 in Croatian Novi Sad Zrenjanin p 348 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link The Balkan Vlachs Born to Assimilate at culturalsurvival org Demirtas Coskun 2001 sfn error no target CITEREFDemirtas Coskun2001 help Tanner 2004 a b Horvath Stanislav 9 October 2017 Valasi Centrum pre tradicnu ľudovu kulturu in Slovak Archived from the original on 29 May 2023 Retrieved 29 May 2023 Kostalova Petra 2022 Contested Landscape Moravian Wallachia and Moravian Slovakia Revue des Etudes Slaves 93 99 124 doi 10 4000 res 5138 S2CID 249359362 Retrieved 9 August 2023 Stelian Brezeanu O istorie a Bizanțului Editura Meronia București 2005 p 126 fontes historiae dacoromanae iv pdf p7 https www vistieria ro carti istoria romanilor fontes historiae dacoromanae i pdf Istvan Schutz 2006 Feher foltok a Balkanon Etnikai mozgasok kolcsonhatasok nagy birodalmak in Hungarian a b c Sandor Timaru Kast A romanok eredeterol Magna Vlachiatol Ungrovlachiaig A Karpat regio magyar foldrajza PDF in Hungarian p 334 Blagojevic Milos 1997 Lexikon des Mittelalters p 8 Schramm Gottfried 1981 Eroberer und Eingesessene Geographische Lehnnamen Sudosteuropas im 1 Jahrtausend n Chr Stuttgart a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Spinei V 2009 The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid Thirteenth Century Brill p 152 Ibn al Nadim al Fihrist English translation The Fihrist of al Nadim Editor și traducător B Dodge New York Columbia University Press 1970 p 37 with n 82 Spinei Victor The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid Thirteenth Century Brill 2009 p 83 ibn Isḥaq al Nadim Abu al Faraj Muḥammad 987 Kitab al Fihrist in Arabic and English pp 36 37 Remarks about the Turks and Those Related to Them The Turks the Bulgars the Blagha the Burghaz the Khazar the Llan and the types with small eyes and extreme blondness have no script except that the Bulgarians and the Tibetans write with Chinese and Manichean whereas the Khazars write Hebrew My information about the Turks is what Abu al Hasan Muhammad ibn al Hasan ibn Ashnas related to me a b c d e Foldes Janos Az Olah erdei pasztorneprol in Hungarian Szekely es Illes pp 4 7 G Murnu Cand si unde se ivesc romanii intaia dată in istorie in Convorbiri Literare XXX pp 97 112 Madgearu Alexandru 2001 Originea medievală a focarelor de conflict din peninsula Balcanică The Medieval Origin of Conflict Centers in the Balkan Peninsula Editura Corint p 52 ISBN 973 653 191 0 A Decei V Ciociltan La mention des Roumains Walah chez Al Maqdisi in Romano arabica I Bucharest 1974 pp 49 54 Huart Clement Ibid pp 62 63 Bujduveanu Tănase 2002 Aromani si Muntele Athos Societatea Academica Moscopolitană a b Pal Hunfalvy Hogyan csinalodik nemely historia in Hungarian Magyar Tudomanyos Akademia pp 60 71 Egils saga einhenda ok Asmundar berserkjabana in Drei lygisogur ed A Lagerholm Halle Saale 1927 p 29 V Spinei The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid Thirteenth Century Brill 2009 p 106 ISBN 9789047428800 Pritsak Omeljan 1981 The Origin of Rus Old Scandinavian Sources Other than the Sagas Harvard University Press ISBN 0 674 64465 4 Miskolczy 2021 p 96 97 David Jacoby Byzantium Latin Romania and the Mediterranean St Edmundsbury Press Bury St Edmunds Suffolk 1984 p 522 Alan Harvey Economic Expansion in the Byzantine Empire 900 1200 Cambridge University Press 2003 p 172 Sandor Biro 1977 A roman nep tortenete Budapest ELTE BTK Olajos Terezia 1988 A felhasznalhatatlan Bizanci forras a Roman nep tortenetehez in Hungarian Magyar Tudomanyos Akademia p 514 a b Madgearu Alexandru 2001 Originea medievală a focarelor de conflict din peninsula Balcanică The Medieval Origin of Conflict Centers in the Balkan Peninsula Editura Corint pp 57 58 ISBN 973 653 191 0 Kekaumenos 1964 DAS STRATEGIKON in German Translated by Hans Georg Beck Kekaumenos 2000 Consilia et Narrationes in Spanish Translated by J Signes Codoner a b Florin Curta Imaginea vlahilor la cronicarii cruciadei a IV a page 37 2015 a b c d Mocsy Andras 1987 A dunai balkani terseg romanizacioja Romanization of the Danube Balkan region PDF Vilagtortenet in Hungarian 3 9 a b c Miskolczy 2021 p 97 98 a b c d Elekes Lajos Gyoni Matyas A legregibb velemeny a roman nep eredeterol Kekaumenos muvei mint a roman tortenet forrasai Matyas Gyoni The oldest opinion about the origin of the Romanian people Kekaumenos works as sources of Romanian history PDF Szazadok A magyar tortenelmi tarsulat kozlonye Bulletin of the Hungarian Historical Society 310 312 Florin Curta Imaginea vlahilor la cronicarii cruciadei a IV a page 39 2015 Curta Florin 2015 Imaginea vlahilor la cronicarii Cruciadei a IV a Pană unde răzbate ecoul discuțiilor intelectuale de la Constantinopol Archeologia Moldovei XXXVIII in Romanian București Suceava Romanian Academy p 38 a b c Miskolczy 2021 p 98 Emil Țircomnicu Historical Aspects Regarding the Megleno Romanian Groups in Greece the FY Republic of Macedonia Turkey and Romania page 15 Laszlo Botos 2001 Ut a trianoni bekeparancshoz Magna Lingua p 212 a b THE RUSSIAN PRIMARY CHRONICLE AND THE VLACHS OF EASTERN EUROPE Demetrius Dvoichenko Markov Byzantion Vol 49 1979 pp 175 187 Peeters Publishers Samuel Hazzard Cross et Olgerd P Sherbowitz Wetzor English The Russian Primary Chronicle Laurentian Text The Medieval Academy of America Cambridge Massachusetts 2012 p 62 C A Macartney The Habsburg Empire 1790 1918 Faber amp Faber 4 sept 2014 paragraf 185 a b Kristo Gyula 2003 Early Transylvania 895 1324 Lucidus Kiado ISBN 963 9465 12 7 Deletant Dennis 1992 Ethnos and Mythos in the History of Transylvania the case of the chronicler Anonymus Historians and the History of Transylvania Vol East European Monographs New York Columbia University Press ISBN 0880332298 Ferincz Istvan Balogh Laszlo Font Marta Kovacs Szilvia Polgar Szabolcs Zimonyi Istvan 2015 Zimonyi Istvan Balogh Laszlo Kovacs Szilvia eds Regmult idok elbeszelese A Kijevi Rusz elso kronikaja The first chronicle of Kievan Rus PDF in Hungarian Budapest Balassi Kiado Szegedi Tudomanyegyetem Kozepkori Egyetemes Torteneti Tanszek University of Szeged Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Department of Medieval History pp 18 20 ISBN 978 963 506 970 5 ISSN 1215 4024 Comnena Anna 2000 The Alexiad Translated by A S Dawes Elizabeth Ontario In parentheses Publications Byzantine Series Cambridge pp 90 141 Tanașoca Anca Tanașoca Nicolae Șerban 2004 Unitate romanică și diversitate balcanică Academia edu p 64 Retrieved 21 August 2023 Tudela Miskolczy 2021 p 96 A Decei op cit p 25 V Spinei The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta From the Tenth to the Mid Thirteenth Century Brill 2009 p 132 ISBN 9789004175365 Florin Curta Imaginea vlahilor la cronicarii cruciadei a IV a page 40 2015 Hunfalvy Pal Az Olahok Tortenete History of the Romanians in Hungarian I ed Budapest Magyar Tudomanyos Akademia Hungarian Academy of Sciences p 274 Octavian Ciobanu The Role of the Vlachs in the Bogomils Expansion in the Balkans page 15 Octavian Ciobanu The Role of the Vlachs in the Bogomils Expansion in the Balkans page 14 Niketas Choniates 1984 O City of Byzantium Annals of Niketas Choniates Translated by Harry J Magoulias Detroit Wayne State University Press provoking the barbarians who lived in the vicinity of Mount Haimos formerly called Mysians and now named Vlachs to declare war against him and the Romans Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja Medieval Histrical Sources East and West Octavian Ciobanu The heritage of Western Balkan Vlachs a b c d Jancso Benedek A roman nemzetisegi torekvesek tortenete es jelenlegi allapota 1 pp 126 129 A ROMANOK FOLDJE Arcanum com 2023 Madgearu Alexandru 2016 The Asanids the political and military history of the Second Bulgarian Empire 1185 1280 Brill ISBN 978 90 04 33319 2 Nyagulov Blagovest 2012 Ideas of federation and personal union with regard to Bulgaria and Romania Bulgarian Historical Review 3 4 36 61 ISSN 0204 8906 a b Florin Curta Imaginea vlahilor la cronicarii cruciadei a IV a page 27 2015 Florin Curta Imaginea vlahilor la cronicarii cruciadei a IV a page 29 2015 Timaru Kast Sandor 2019 A romanok eredeterol Magna Vlachiatol Ungrovlachiaig A Karpat regio magyar foldrajza PDF in Hungarian Rady Martyn October 2009 The Gesta Hungarorum of Anonymus the Anonymous Notary of King Bela PDF Slavonic and East European Review Modern Humanities Research Association 87 4 doi 10 1353 see 2009 0062 S2CID 141192138 E g Armbruster Adolf 1972 Romanitatea romanilor Istoria unei idei Kristo Gyula 2002 Magyar historiografia I Tortenetiras a kozepkori Magyarorszagon Spinei Victor 2009 The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid Thirteenth century E g Gyorffy Gyorgy 1963 Az Arpad kori Magyarorszag Torteneti Foldrajza Farago Imre 2017 Terkepeszeti foldrajz Rasonyi Laszlo 1979 Bulaqs and Oguzs in Medieval Transylvania Thoroczkay Gabor 2009 Irasok az Arpad korrol Rona Tas Andras 1999 Hungarians and Europe in the Early Middle Ages An Introduction to Early Hungarian History Gyula Kristo 2002 Magyar historiografia I Tortenetiras a kozepkori Magyarorszagon Pop Ioan Aurel 1996 Romanii si maghiarii in secolele IX XIV Geneza statului medieval in Transilvania Romanians and Hungarians from the 9th to the 14th Century The Genesis of the Transylvanian Medieval State Center for Transylvanian Studies pages 84 85 Curta Florin 2001 Transylvania around A D 1000 Europe around the year 1000 Urbanczyk Przemyslaw ed Warsaw Wydawn DiG pp 141 165 ISBN 978 83 7181 211 8 a b Madgearu Alexandru 2019 Expansiunea maghiară in Transilvania in Romanian Cetatea de Scaun pp 42 43 78 150 151 ISBN 978 606 537 443 0 Deletant Dennis 1992 Ethnos and Mythos in the History of Transylvania the case of the chronicler Anonymus Historians and the History of Transylvania Vol East European Monographs New York Columbia University Press pp 71 85 ISBN 0880332298 Macartney Carlile Aylmer 2 January 1953 The medieval Hungarian historians a critical and analytical guide pp 61 75 Curta 2006 p 385 S Papacostea Romanii in secolul al XIII lea intre cruciată si imperiul mongol București 1993 36 A Lukacs Ţara Făgărasului 156 T Sălăgean Transilvania in a doua jumătate a secolului al XIII lea Afirmarea regimului congregaţional Cluj Napoca 2003 26 27 Zef Mirdita 1995 Balkanski Vlasi u svijetlu podataka Bizantskih autora Povijesni Prilozi in Serbo Croatian Zagreb Croatian History Institute 14 14 27 31 Serbian 31 33 Crusades a b c Zef Mirdita 1995 Balkanski Vlasi u svijetlu podataka Bizantskih autora Povijesni Prilozi in Serbo Croatian Zagreb Croatian History Institute 14 14 27 31 Serbian 31 33 Crusades Curta 2006 p 354 sfn error no target CITEREFCurta2006 help Makkai 1994 p 189 sfn error no target CITEREFMakkai1994 help Makkai Laszlo 2001 Anonymus on the Hungarian Conquest of Transylvania History of Transylvania Volume I From the Beginnings to 1606 III Transylvania in the Medieval Hungarian Kingdom 896 1526 1 Transylvania s Indigenous Population at the Time of the Hungarian Conquest Columbia University Press The Hungarian original by Institute of History Of The Hungarian Academy of Sciences ISBN 0 88033 479 7 Kristo 2003 p 140 141 J DEER Der Weg zur Goldenen Bulle Andreas II Von 1222 in Schweizer Beitrage zur Allgemeinen Geschichte 10 1952 pp 104 138 Oczko Anna 2016 Traces of Vlach Migrations in the Toponymy of Polish Podtatrze Region Academia edu Retrieved 8 August 2023 a b Lorant Ballai 1990 Szkenderbeg a tortenelmi es irodalmi hos in Hungarian p 79 Dr Balogh Sandor 2010 Separating Myths and Facts In the History of Transylvania p 7 Roller Mihail 1951 Documente privind istoria romanilor Documents Regarding Romanian History Editura Academiei Republicii Populare Romane pp 329 333 Erdelyi okmanytar I 1023 1300 Magyar Orszagos Leveltar kiadvanyai II Forraskiadvanyok 26 Budapest 1997 Konyvtar Hungaricana library hungaricana hu p 191 Retrieved 18 August 2023 a b c d Wass de Czege Albert 1977 Documented Facts and Figures on Transylvania Florida Astor The Danubian Research Centre pp 15 19 Erdelyi okmanytar I 1023 1300 Magyar Orszagos Leveltar kiadvanyai II Forraskiadvanyok 26 Budapest 1997 Konyvtar Hungaricana library hungaricana hu p 196 Retrieved 18 August 2023 Erdelyi okmanytar I 1023 1300 Magyar Orszagos Leveltar kiadvanyai II Forraskiadvanyok 26 Budapest 1997 Konyvtar Hungaricana library hungaricana hu p 197 Retrieved 18 August 2023 Erdelyi okmanytar I 1023 1300 Magyar Orszagos Leveltar kiadvanyai II Forraskiadvanyok 26 Budapest 1997 Konyvtar Hungaricana library hungaricana hu p 203 Retrieved 18 August 2023 Erdelyi okmanytar I 1023 1300 Magyar Orszagos Leveltar kiadvanyai II Forraskiadvanyok 26 Budapest 1997 Konyvtar Hungaricana library hungaricana hu p 231 Retrieved 18 August 2023 Erdelyi okmanytar I 1023 1300 Magyar Orszagos Leveltar kiadvanyai II Forraskiadvanyok 26 Budapest 1997 Konyvtar Hungaricana library hungaricana hu p 238 Retrieved 18 August 2023 a b Grzesik Ryszard 2016 IUS VALACHICUM The Valachian Way of Life in Stories About Domestic Origins in the Hungarian Medieval Chronicles Balcanica Posnaniensia Acta et studia Poznan 23 Simon of Keza 1999 Veszpremy Laszlo Schaer Frank eds The Deeds of the Hungarians Central European University ISBN 978 963 9116 31 3 Szabo Karoly Kezai Simon mester Magyar Kronikaja in Hungarian a b c Miskolczy 2021 p 127 155 156 Vasary Istvan 2005 Cumans and Tatars Oriental Military in the Pre Ottoman Balkans 1185 1365 Cambridge University Press p 29 ISBN 978 1 139 44408 8 Madgearu Alexandru 2018 The Mongol domination and the detachment of the Romanians of Wallachia from the domination of the Hungarian Kingdom De Medio Aevo 219 220 Sofalvi Andras 2012 A szekelyseg szerepe a kozepkori es fejedelemseg kori hatarvedelemben The role of Szekelys in border defense during the Middle Ages and the age of Principality in Hungarian Kolozsvar Erdelyi Muzeum Egyesulet Transylvanian Museum Association sed siculi olachi et Saxones omnes vias ipsorum cum indaginibus stipaverunt sive giraverunt et sic de vita ipsorum omnino sunt de necessitate cogente ibidem castra eorum sunt metati a b c Dr Jancso Benedek Erdely Tortenete in Hungarian pp 61 66 Tanașoca Anca Tanașoca Nicolae Șerban 2004 Unitate romanică și diversitate balcanică Academia edu p 33 Retrieved 21 August 2023 D CĂPRĂROIU ON THE BEGINNINGS OF THE TOWN OF CAMPULUNG Historia Urbana t XVI nr 1 2 2008 pp 37 64 a b Ioan Aurel Pop Istoria Romaniei Transilvania Volumul I Edit George Barițiu Cluj Napoca 1997 p 467 Tamas Lajos Romanok Magyar Tortenelmi Tarsulat p 7 Erdelyi okmanytar I 1023 1300 Magyar Orszagos Leveltar kiadvanyai II Forraskiadvanyok 26 Budapest 1997 Konyvtar Hungaricana library hungaricana hu p 300 Retrieved 18 August 2023 a b c Muzic Ivan 2010 Vlasi u starijoj hrvatskoj historiografiji pp 10 11 Obara Pawlowska Anna 20 February 2018 Obraz Wolochow w pismiennictwie Jana Dlugosza Core ac uk p 209 Retrieved 8 August 2023 Caciur Dana 4 August 2023 In the Name of the Morlachs The Memory of an Identity Along Centuries Some working Hypotheses Academia edu Retrieved 4 August 2023 a b Madgearu Alexandru 2001 Originea medievală a focarelor de conflict din peninsula Balcanică The Medieval Origin of Conflict Centers in the Balkan Peninsula Editura Corint p 59 ISBN 973 653 191 0 Dragomir Silviu 1924 Originea coloniilor romane din Istria Origin of Romanian Colonies in Istria Cultura Națională pp 3 4 Srđan Rudic Selim Aslantas State and Society in the Balkans Before and After Establishment of Ottoman Rule 2017 pages 33 34 Makkai Laszlo 2001 The Cumanian Country and the Province of Severin History of Transylvania Volume I From the Beginnings to 1606 III Transylvania in the Medieval Hungarian Kingdom 896 1526 2 From the Hungarian Conquest to the Mongol Invasion New York Columbia University Press The Hungarian original by Institute of History Of The Hungarian Academy of Sciences ISBN 0 88033 479 7 Kristo Gyula 1986 Az 1332 1337 evi papai tizedjegyzek es az erdelyi romansag letszama The list of papal tithes from 1332 1337 and the number of Romanians in Transylvania Acta Historica in Hungarian Szeged University of Szeged Magyar Medievisztikai Kutatocsoport Hungarian Medieval Research Group ISSN 0324 6965 a b Dr Makkai Laszlo Az erdelyi Romanok a kozepkori Magyar oklevelekben The Romanians of Transylvania in medieval Hungarian documents in Hungarian Minerva Nyomda pp 7 15 a b c d e f Vincze Bunyitay Biharvarmegye Olahjai in Hungarian Budapest Magyar Tudomanyos Akademia pp 287 298 Istvan Nagy Anjou kor in Hungarian IV ed Budapest Magyar Tudomanyos Akademia p 79 Timaru Kast Sandor 2019 A romanok eredeterol Magna Vlachiatol Ungrovlachiaig A Karpat regio magyar foldrajza PDF in Hungarian a b Obara Pawlowska Anna 20 February 2018 Obraz Wolochow w pismiennictwie Jana Dlugosza Core ac uk Retrieved 8 August 2023 a b c Istvan Lipovniczky A Varadi Puspokseg Tortenete History of the Bishopric of Varad in Hungarian p 192 Ioan Aurel Pop Istoria Romaniei Transilvania Volumul I Edit George Barițiu Cluj Napoca 1997 p 473 Dr Karacsonyi Janos Tortenelmi hazugsagok Budapest Szent Istvan Tarsulat p 729 Engel Pal Magyarorszag vilagi archontologiaja 1301 1457 Tanașoca Anca Tanașoca Nicolae Șerban 2004 Unitate romanică și diversitate balcanică Academia edu p 36 Retrieved 21 August 2023 I Dani K Gundish et al eds Documenta Romaniae Historica vol XIII Transilvania 1366 1370 Editura Academiei Romane Bucharest 1994 p 161 162 Jawor Grzegorz 2016 Seasonal pastoral exploitation of forests in the area of Subcarpathia in the 15th and 16th century bibliotekanauki pl Retrieved 10 August 2023 Tanașoca Anca Tanașoca Nicolae Șerban 2004 Unitate romanică și diversitate balcanică Academia edu p 283 Retrieved 21 August 2023 a b Tanașoca Anca Tanașoca Nicolae Șerban 2004 Unitate romanică și diversitate balcanică Academia edu pp 282 283 Retrieved 21 August 2023 Cosma Ela September 2022 Enacted Jus Valachicum in South Transylvania 14th 18th Centuries ResearchGate p 4 Retrieved 31 August 2023 Jawor Grzegorz 2016 Northern Extent of Settlements on the Wallachian Law in Medieval Poland Academia edu p 44 Retrieved 8 August 2023 a b Sima Cirkovic 2004 The Serbs p 130 Wiley Blackwell ISBN 0631204717 Srđan Rudic Selim Aslantas State and Society in the Balkans Before and After Establishment of Ottoman Rule 2017 page 31 Johannes de Galonifontibus Libellus de notitia orbis in Latin Caciur Dana 2021 The Morlachs of Dalmatia during the 15th and 16th century Poznan p 154 ISBN 978 83 66355 68 2 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Kurtovic Esad January 2014 Esad Kurtovic Konj u srednjovjekovnoj Bosni Filozofski fakultet Sarajevo 2014 Filozofski Fakultet Sarajevo 205 Crainich Miochouich et Stiepanus Glegieuich ad meliustenendem super se et omnia eorum bona se obligando promiserunt ser Thome de Bona presenti et acceptanti conducere et salauum dare in Souisochi in Bosna Dobrassino Veselcouich nomine dicti ser Thome modia salis mille quingenta super equis siue salmis sexcentis Et dicto sale conducto et presentato suprascripto Dobrassino in Souisochi medietatem illius salis dare et mensuratum consignare dicto Dobrassino Et aliam medietatem pro eorum mercede conducenda dictum salem pro ipsius conductoribus retinere et habere Promittentes vicissim omnia et singularia suprascripta firma et rata habere et tenere ut supra sub obligatione omnium suorum bonorum Renuntiando 09 08 1428 g Div Canc XLV 31v Jawor Grzegorz April 2023 Kolonizacja woloska na obszarach Wolynia w XV i XVI wieku ResearchGate Retrieved 8 August 2023 Madgearu Alexandru 2001 Originea medievală a focarelor de conflict din peninsula Balcanică The Medieval Origin of Conflict Centers in the Balkan Peninsula Editura Corint p 58 ISBN 973 653 191 0 Apud superiores Sarmatas colonia est ab Traiano ut aiunt derelicta quae nunc etiam inter tantam barbariem multa retinet latina vocabula ab Italis qui eo profecti sunt notata Oculum dicunt digitum manum panem multaque alia quibus apparet ab Latinis qui coloni ibidem relicti fureant manasse eamque coloniam fuisse latino sermone usam Poggio Bracciolini Historia convivalis utrum priscis Romanis latina lingua omnibus communis fuerit in Mirko Tavoni Latino grammatica volgare storia di una questione umanistica 1984 p 58 Et qui e regione Danubio item adiacent Ripenses Daci sive Valachi originem quam ad decus prae se ferunt praedicantque Romanam loquela ostendunt quos catholice christianos Romam quotannis et Apostolorum limina invisentes aliquando gavisi sumus ita loquentes audire ut quae vulgari communique gentis suae more dicunt rusticam male grammaticam redoleant latinitatem Flavio Biondo Ad Alphonsum Aragonensem serenissimum regem de expeditione in Turchos Blondus Flavius Forliviensis in Mirko Tavoni Latino grammatica volgare storia di una questione umanistica 1984 p 58 Diaconescu Marius 2015 Census Valachorum in mid 16th century Upper Hungary Academia edu Retrieved 8 August 2023 Dahmen Wolfgang 2008 Externe Sprachgeschichte des Rumanischen In Ernst Gerhard Glessgen Martin Dietrich Schmitt Christian Schweickard Wolfgang eds Romanische Sprachgeschichte Ein internationales Handbuch zur Geschichte der romanischen Sprachen in German Vol 1 Berlin Walter de Gruyter p 738 ISBN 978 3 11 014694 3 Tomescu Mircea 1968 Istoria cărții romanești de la inceputuri pană la 1918 in Romanian București Editura Științifică p 40 Hammel E A and Kenneth W Wachter The Slavonian Census of 1698 Part I Structure and Meaning European Journal of Population University of California Vasary Istvan 2005 Cumans and Tatars Oriental Military in the Pre Ottoman Balkans 1185 1365 Cambridge University Press pp 142 143 ISBN 978 0 521 83756 9 A Boldur Istoria Basarabiei Editura Victor Frunza Bucuresti 1992 pp 98 106 a b c Since Theophanes Confessor and Kedrenos in A D Xenopol Istoria Romanilor din Dacia Traiană Nicolae Iorga Teodor Capidan C Giurescu Istoria Romanilor Petre Ș Năsturel Studii și Materiale de Istorie Medie vol XVI 1998 Map of Yugoslavia file East sq B f Istituto Geografico de Agostini Novara in Le Million encyclopedie de tous les pays du monde vol IV ed Kister Geneve Switzerland 1970 pp 290 291 and many other maps amp old atlases these names disappear after 1980 Mircea Mușat Ion Ardeleanu 1985 From Ancient Dacia to Modern Romania Editura Științifică și Enciclopedică that in 1550 a foreign writer the Italian Gromo called the Banat Valachia citeriore the Wallachia that stands on this side Z Konecny F Mainus Stopami minulosti Kapitoly z dejin Moravy a Slezska Traces of the Past Chapters from the History of Moravia and Silesia Brno Blok 1979 Silviu Dragomir Vlahii din nordul peninsulei Balcanice in evul mediu 1959 p 172 Marian Wenzel Bosnian and Herzegovinian Tombstobes Who Made Them and Why Sudost Forschungen 21 1962 102 143 Ilona Czamanska 2015 The Vlachs several research problems p 14 BALCANICA POSNANIENSIA XXII 1 IUS VALACHICUM I 2 Octavian Ciobanu Cultural appropriation of the Vlachs heritage in BalkansReferences edithttps www vistieria ro carti istoria romanilor fontes historiae dacoromanae i pdf G Weigand Die Aromunen Bd A B J A Barth A Meiner Leipzig 1895 1894 George Murnu Istoria romanilor din Pind Vlahia Mare 980 1259 History of the Romanians of the Pindus Greater Vlachia 980 1259 Bucharest 1913 Ilie Gherghel Cateva consideraţiuni la cuprinsul noţiunii cuvantului Vlach Bucuresti Convorbiri Literare 1920 Theodor Capidan Aromanii dialectul aroman Studiul lingvistic Aromanians Aromanian dialect Linguistic Study Bucharest 1932 A Haciu Aromanii Comerţ Industrie Arte Expasiune Civiliytie tip Cartea Putnei Focsani 1936 Steriu T Hagigogu Romanus si valachus sau Ce este romanus roman roman aroman valah si vlah Bucharest 1939 T Winnifrith The Vlachs The History of a Balkan People Duckworth 1987 A Koukoudis Oi mitropoleis kai i diaspora ton Vlachon Major Cities and Diaspora of the Vlachs publ University Studio Press Thessaloniki 1999 A Keramopoulos Ti einai oi koutsovlachoi What are the Koutsovlachs publ 2 University Studio Press Thessaloniki 2000 Birgul Demirtas Coskun Ankara University Center for Eurasian Strategic Studies 2001 The Vlachs a forgotten minority in the Balkans Frank Cass Victor A Friedman The Vlah Minority in Macedonia Language Identity Dialectology and Standardization in Selected Papers in Slavic Balkan and Balkan Studies ed Juhani Nuoluoto et al Slavica Helsingiensa 21 Helsinki University of Helsinki 2001 26 50 full text Though focussed on the Vlachs of North Macedonia has in depth discussion of many topics including the origins of the Vlachs their status as a minority in various countries their political use in various contexts and so on Asterios I Koukoudis The Vlachs Metropolis and Diaspora 2003 ISBN 960 7760 86 7 Tanner Arno 2004 The Forgotten Minorities of Eastern Europe The History and Today of Selected Ethnic Groups in Five Countries East West Books pp 203 ISBN 978 952 91 6808 8 Th Capidan Aromanii Dialectul Aroman ed2 Editură Fundaţiei Culturale Aromane București 2005 Trifon Nicolas Les Aroumains un peuple qui s en va Paris 2005 Cincari narod koji nestaje Beograd 2010 Kristo Gyula 2003 Early Transylvania 895 1324 Budapest Lucidus ISBN 963 9465 12 7 Miskolczy Ambrus 2021 A roman kozepkor idoszeru kerdesei Timely questions of the Romanian Middle Ages PDF in Hungarian Budapest Magyarsagkutato Intezet ISBN 978 615 6117 41 0 ISSN 2677 0261 Further reading editThe Watchmen a documentary film by Alastair Kenneil and Tod Sedgwick USA 1971 describes life in the Vlach village of Samarina in Epiros Northern Greece John Kennedy Campbell Honour Family and Patronage A Study of Institutions and Moral Values in a Greek Mountain Community Oxford University Press 1974 Gheorghe Bogdan MEMORY IDENTITY TYPOLOGY AN INTERDISCIPLINARY RECONSTRUCTION OF VLACH ETHNOHISTORY B A University of British Columbia 1992 Franck Vogel a photo essay on the Valchs published by GEO magazine France 2010 Archived 14 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine Adina Berciu Drăghicescu Aromani meglenoromani istroromani aspecte identitare si culturale Editura Universităţii din București 2012 ISBN 978 606 16 0148 6 Octavian Ciobanu The Role of the Vlachs in the Bogomils Expansion in the Balkans Journal of Balkan and Black Sea Studies Year 4 Issue 7 December 2021 pp 11 32 A J B Wace M A amp M S Thompson M A The Nomads of The Balkans An Account Of Life And Customs Among The Vlachs of Northen Pindus Methuen amp Co LTD London 1914External links edit nbsp Look up Vlach in Wiktionary the free dictionary nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Vlachs nbsp Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica article Vlachs ROMANII BALCANICI AROMANII Maria Magiru about Aromanians in Romanian The Vlach Connection and Further Reflections on Roman History Orbis Latinus Wallachians Walloons Welschen Vlachs in Greece Cultural appropriation of Vlachs heritage French Vlachs Association in Vlach EN and FR Studies on the Vlachs Archived 13 August 2007 at the Wayback Machine by Asterios Koukoudis Vlachs in Greece in Greek Consiliul A Tinirlor Armanj Youth Aromanian community and their Projects in Vlach EN and RO Old Wallachia a short Czech film from 1955 depicting life of Vlachs in Czech Moravia Western Balkan Vlachs Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Vlachs amp oldid 1206210558, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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