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Agrarianism

Agrarianism is a political and social philosophy that has promoted subsistence agriculture, smallholdings, and egalitarianism, with agrarian political parties normally supporting the rights and sustainability of small farmers and poor peasants against the wealthy in society.[1][2] In highly developed and industrial nations or regions, it can denote use of financial and social incentives for self-sustainability, more community involvement in food production (such as allotment gardens) and smart growth that avoids urban sprawl, and also what many of its advocates contend are risks of human overpopulation; when overpopulation occurs, the available resources become too limited for the entire population to survive comfortably or at all in the long term.

Philosophy Edit

Some scholars suggest that agrarianism values rural society as superior to urban society and the independent farmer as superior to the paid worker, and sees farming as a way of life that can shape the ideal social values.[3] It stresses the superiority of a simpler rural life as opposed to the complexity of city life. For example, M. Thomas Inge defines agrarianism by the following basic tenets:[4]

  • Farming is the sole occupation that offers total independence and self-sufficiency.
  • Urban life, capitalism, and technology destroy independence and dignity and foster vice and weakness.
  • The agricultural community, with its fellowship of labor and co-operation, is the model society.
  • The farmer has a solid, stable position in the world order. They have "a sense of identity, a sense of historical and religious tradition, a feeling of belonging to a concrete family, place, and region, which are psychologically and culturally beneficial." The harmony of their life checks the encroachments of a fragmented, alienated modern society.
  • Cultivation of the soil "has within it a positive spiritual good" and from it the cultivator acquires the virtues of "honor, manliness, self-reliance, courage, moral integrity, and hospitality." They result from a direct contact with nature and, through nature, a closer relationship to God. The agrarian is blessed in that they follow the example of God in creating order out of chaos.

History Edit

The philosophical roots of agrarianism include European and Chinese philosophers. The Chinese school of Agriculturalism (农家/農家) was a philosophy that advocated peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism. In societies influenced by Confucianism, the farmer was considered an esteemed productive member of society, but merchants who made money were looked down upon.[5] That influenced European intellectuals like François Quesnay, an avid Confucianist and advocate of China's agrarian policies, in forming the French agrarian philosophy of physiocracy.[6] The physiocrats, along with the ideas of John Locke and the Romantic Era, formed the basis of modern European and American agrarianism.

Types of agrarianism Edit

Physiocracy Edit

 
François Quesnay, a physician who is considered the founding father of physiocracy, published the "Tableau économique" (Economic Table) in 1758
 
Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours, a prominent physiocrat. In his book La Physiocratie, du Pont advocated low tariffs and free trade.

Physiocracy (French: physiocratie; from the Greek for "government of nature") is an economic theory developed by a group of 18th-century Age of Enlightenment French economists who believed that the wealth of nations derived solely from the value of "land agriculture" or "land development" and that agricultural products should be highly priced.[7] Their theories originated in France and were most popular during the second half of the 18th century. Physiocracy became one of the first well-developed theories of economics.

François Quesnay (1694–1774), the marquis de Mirabeau (1715–1789) and Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot (1727–1781) dominated the movement,[8] which immediately preceded the first modern school, classical economics, which began with the publication of Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations in 1776.

The physiocrats made a significant contribution in their emphasis on productive work as the source of national wealth. This contrasted with earlier schools, in particular mercantilism, which often focused on the ruler's wealth, accumulation of gold, or the balance of trade. Whereas the mercantilist school of economics held that value in the products of society was created at the point of sale,[9] by the seller exchanging his products for more money than the products had "previously" been worth, the physiocratic school of economics was the first to see labor as the sole source of value. However, for the physiocrats, only agricultural labor created this value in the products of society.[9] All "industrial" and non-agricultural labors were "unproductive appendages" to agricultural labor.[9]

Quesnay was likely influenced by his medical training. The earlier work of William Harvey had explained how blood flow and the circulatory system is vital to the human body; Quesnay held that the circulation of wealth was vital to the economy. Societies at the time were also overwhelmingly agrarian. This may be why they viewed agriculture as the primary source of a nation's wealth. This is an idea which Quesnay purported to demonstrate with data, comparing a workshop to a farm. He analyzed "how money flowed between the three classes of farmers, proprietors, and artisans, in the same mechanical way that blood flows between different organs" and claimed only the farm produced a surplus that added to the nation's wealth. Physiocrats viewed the production of goods and services as equivalent to the consumption of the agricultural surplus, since human or animal muscle provided the main source of power and all energy derived from the surplus from agricultural production. Profit in capitalist production was really only the "rent" obtained by the owner of the land on which the agricultural production took place.[9]

"The physiocrats damned cities for their artificiality and praised more natural styles of living. They celebrated farmers."[10] They called themselves les Économistes, but are generally referred to as "physiocrats" to distinguish their beliefs from the many schools of economic thought that followed.[11]

Jeffersonian democracy Edit

 
Thomas Jefferson and his supporters idealised farmers as the citizens that the American Republic should be formed around.

The United States president Thomas Jefferson was an agrarian who based his ideas about the budding American democracy around the notion that farmers are "the most valuable citizens" and the truest republicans.[12] Jefferson and his support base were committed to American republicanism, which they saw as being in opposition to aristocracy and corruption, and which prioritized virtue, exemplified by the "yeoman farmer", "planters", and the "plain folk".[13] In praising the rural farmfolk, the Jeffersonians felt that financiers, bankers and industrialists created "cesspools of corruption" in the cities and should thus be avoided.[14]

The Jeffersonians sought to align the American economy more with agriculture than industry. Part of their motive to do so was Jefferson's fear that the over-industrialization of America would create a class of wage slaves who relied on their employers for income and sustenance. In turn, these workers would cease to be independent voters as their vote could be manipulated by said employers. To counter this, Jefferson introduced, as scholar Clay Jenkinson noted, "a graduated income tax that would serve as a disincentive to vast accumulations of wealth and would make funds available for some sort of benign redistribution downward" and tariffs on imported articles, which were mainly purchased by the wealthy.[15] In 1811, Jefferson, writing to a friend, explained: "these revenues will be levied entirely on the rich... . the rich alone use imported articles, and on these alone the whole taxes of the general government are levied. the poor man ... pays not a farthing of tax to the general government, but on his salt."[16]

There is general agreement that the substantial United States' federal policy of offering land grants (such as thousands of gifts of land to veterans) had a positive impact on economic development in the 19th century.[17]

Agrarian socialism Edit

Agrarian socialism is a form of agrarianism that is anti-capitalist in nature and seeks to introduce socialist economic systems in their stead.

Zapatismo Edit

 
Emiliano Zapata fought in the Mexican Revolution in the name of the Mexican peasants and sought to introduce reforms such as land redistribution.

Notable agrarian socialists include Emiliano Zapata who was a leading figure in the Mexican Revolution. As part of the Liberation Army of the South, his group of revolutionaries fought on behalf of the Mexican peasants, whom they saw as exploited by the landowning classes. Zapata published Plan of Ayala, which called for significant land reforms and land redistribution in Mexico as part of the revolution. Zapata was killed and his forces crushed over the course of the Revolution, but his political ideas lived on in the form of Zapatismo.

Zapatismo would form the basis for neozapatismo, the ideology of the Zapatista Army of National Liberation. Known as Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional or EZLN in Spanish, EZLN is a far-left libertarian socialist political and militant group that emerged in the state of Chiapas in southmost Mexico in 1994. EZLN and Neozapatismo, as explicit in their name, seek to revive the agrarian socialist movement of Zapata, but fuse it with new elements such as a commitment to indigenous rights and community-level decision making.

Subcommander Marcos, a leading member of the movement, argues that the peoples' collective ownership of the land was and is the basis for all subsequent developments the movement sought to create:

...When the land became property of the peasants ... when the land passed into the hands of those who work it ... [This was] the starting point for advances in government, health, education, housing, nutrition, women’s participation, trade, culture, communication, and information ...[it was] recovering the means of production, in this case, the land, animals, and machines that were in the hands of large property owners.”[18]

Maoism Edit

Maoism, the far-left ideology of Mao Zedong and his followers, places a heavy emphasis on the role of peasants in its goals. In contrast to other Marxist schools of thought which normally seek to acquire the support of urban workers, Maoism sees the peasantry as key. Believing that "political power grows out of the barrel of a gun",[19] Maoism saw the Chinese Peasantry as the prime source for a Marxist vanguard because it possessed two qualities: (i) they were poor, and (ii) they were a political blank slate; in Mao's words, “A clean sheet of paper has no blotches, and so the newest and most beautiful words can be written on it”.[20] During the Chinese Civil War and the Second Sino-Japanese War, Mao and the Chinese Communist Party made extensive use of peasants and rural bases in their military tactics, often eschewing the cities.

Following the eventual victory of the Communist Party in both wars, the countryside and how it should be run remained a focus for Mao. In 1958, Mao launched the Great Leap Forward, a social and economic campaign which, amongst other things, altered many aspects of rural Chinese life. It introduced mandatory collective farming and forced the peasantry to organize itself into communal living units which were known as people's communes. These communes, which consisted of 5,000 people on average, were expected to meet high production quotas while the peasants who lived on them adapted to this radically new way of life. The communes were run as co-operatives where wages and money were replaced by work points. Peasants who criticised this new system were persecuted as "rightists" and "counter-revolutionaries". Leaving the communes was forbidden and escaping from them was difficult or impossible, and those who attempted it were subjected to party-orchestrated "public struggle sessions," which further jeopardized their survival.[21] These public criticism sessions were often used to intimidate the peasants into obeying local officials and they often devolved into little more than public beatings.[22]

On the communes, experiments were conducted in order to find new methods of planting crops, efforts were made to construct new irrigation systems on a massive scale, and the communes were all encouraged to produce steel backyard furnaces as part of an effort to increase steel production. However, following the Anti-Rightist Campaign, Mao had instilled a mass distrust of intellectuals into China, and thus engineers often were not consulted with regard to the new irrigation systems and the wisdom of asking untrained peasants to produce good quality steel from scrap iron was not publicly questioned. Similarly, the experimentation with the crops did not produce results. In addition to this the Four Pests Campaign was launched, in which the peasants were called upon to destroy sparrows and other wild birds that ate crop seeds, in order to protect fields. Pest birds were shot down or scared away from landing until they dropped from exhaustion. This campaign resulted in an ecological disaster that saw an explosion of the vermin population, especially crop-eating insects, which was consequently not in danger of being killed by predators.

None of these new systems were working, but local leaders did not dare to state this, instead, they falsified reports so as not to be punished for failing to meet the quotas. In many cases they stated that they were greatly exceeding their quotas, and in turn, the Chinese state developed a completely false sense of success with regard to the commune system.[23]

All of this culminated in the Great Chinese Famine, which began in 1959, lasted 3 years, and saw an estimated 15 to 30 million Chinese people die.[24] A combination of bad weather and the new, failed farming techniques that were introduced by the state led to massive shortages of food. By 1962, the Great Leap Forward was declared to be at an end.

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Mao once again radically altered life in rural China with the launching of the Down to the Countryside Movement. As a response to the Great Chinese Famine, the Chinese President Liu Shaoqi began "sending down" urban youths to rural China in order to recover its population losses and alleviate overcrowding in the cities. However, Mao turned the practice into a political crusade, declaring that the sending down would strip the youth of any bourgeois tendencies by forcing them to learn from the unprivileged rural peasants. In reality, it was the Communist Party's attempt to reign in the Red Guards, who had become uncontrollable during the course of the Cultural Revolution. 10% of the 1970 urban population of China was sent out to remote rural villages, often in Inner Mongolia. The villages, which were still poorly recovering from the effects of the Great Chinese Famine, did not have the excess resources that were needed to support the newcomers. Furthermore, the so-called "sent-down youth" had no agricultural experience and as a result, they were unaccustomed to the harsh lifestyle that existed in the countryside, and their unskilled labor in the villages provided little benefit to the agricultural sector. As a result, many of the sent-down youth died in the countryside. The relocation of the youths was originally intended to be permanent, but by the end of the Cultural Revolution, the Communist Party relented and some of those who had the capacity to return to the cities were allowed to do so.[25]

In imitation of Mao's policies, the Khmer Rouge of Cambodia (who were heavily funded and supported by the People's Republic of China) created their own version of the Great Leap Forward which was known as "Maha Lout Ploh". With the Great Leap Forward as its model, it had similarly disastrous effects, contributing to what is now known as the Cambodian genocide. As a part of the Maha Lout Ploh, the Khmer Rouge sought to create an entirely agrarian socialist society by forcibly relocating 100,000 people to move from Cambodia's cities into newly created communes. The Khmer Rouge leader, Pol Pot sought to "purify" the country by setting it back to "Year Zero", freeing it from "corrupting influences".[26] Besides trying to completely de-urbanize Cambodia, ethnic minorities were slaughtered along with anyone else who was suspected of being a "reactionary" or a member of the "bourgeoisie", to the point that wearing glasses was seen as grounds for execution.[27] The killings were only brought to an end when Cambodia was invaded by the neighboring socialist nation of Vietnam, whose army toppled the Khmer Rouge.[28] However, with Cambodia's entire society and economy in disarray, including its agricultural sector, the country still plunged into renewed famine due to vast food shortages. However, as international journalists began to report on the situation and send images of it out to the world, a massive international response was provoked, leading to one of the most concentrated relief efforts of its time.[29]

Notable agrarian parties Edit

Peasant parties first appeared across Eastern Europe between 1860 and 1910, when commercialized agriculture and world market forces disrupted traditional rural society, and the railway and growing literacy facilitated the work of roving organizers. Agrarian parties advocated land reforms to redistribute land on large estates among those who work it. They also wanted village cooperatives to keep the profit from crop sales in local hands and credit institutions to underwrite needed improvements. Many peasant parties were also nationalist parties because peasants often worked their land for the benefit of landlords of different ethnicity.

Peasant parties rarely had any power before World War I but some became influential in the interwar era, especially in Bulgaria and Czechoslovakia. For a while, in the 1920s and the 1930s, there was a Green International (International Agrarian Bureau) based on the peasant parties in Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Serbia. It functioned primarily as an information center that spread the ideas of agrarianism and combating socialism on the left and landlords on the right and never launched any significant activities.

Europe Edit

Bulgaria Edit

In Bulgaria, the Bulgarian Agrarian National Union (BZNS) was organized in 1899 to resist taxes and build cooperatives. BZNS came to power in 1919 and introduced many economic, social, and legal reforms. However, conservative forces crushed BZNS in a 1923 coup and assassinated its leader, Aleksandar Stamboliyski (1879–1923). BZNS was made into a communist puppet group until 1989, when it reorganized as a genuine party.

Czechoslovakia Edit

In Czechoslovakia, the Republican Party of Agricultural and Smallholder People often shared power in parliament as a partner in the five-party pětka coalition. The party's leader, Antonín Švehla (1873–1933), was prime minister several times. It was consistently the strongest party, forming and dominating coalitions. It moved beyond its original agrarian base to reach middle-class voters. The party was banned by the National Front after the Second World War.[30]

France Edit

In France, the Hunting, Fishing, Nature, Tradition party is a moderate conservative, agrarian party, reaching a peak of 4.23% in the 2002 French presidential election. It would later on become affiliated to France's main conservative party, Union for a Popular Movement. More recently, the Resistons! movement of Jean Lassalle espoused agrarianism.

Hungary Edit

In Hungary, the first major agrarian party, the small-holders party was founded in 1908. The party became part of the government in the 1920s but lost influence in the government. A new party, the Independent Smallholders, Agrarian Workers and Civic Party was established in 1930 with a more radical program representing larger scale land redistribution initiatives. They implemented this program together with the other coalition parties after WWII. However, after 1949 the party was outlawed when a one-party system was introduced. They became part of the government again 1990–1994, and 1998-2002 after which they lost political support. The ruling Fidesz party has an agrarian faction, and promotes agrarian interest since 2010 with the emphasis now placed on supporting larger family farms versus small-holders.

Ireland Edit

 
Land League poster

In the late 19th century, the Irish National Land League aimed to abolish landlordism in Ireland and enable tenant farmers to own the land they worked on. The "Land War" of 1878–1909 led to the Irish Land Acts, ending absentee landlords and ground rent and redistributing land among peasant farmers.

Post-independence, the Farmers' Party operated in the Irish Free State from 1922, folding into the National Centre Party in 1932. It was mostly supported by wealthy farmers in the east of Ireland.

Clann na Talmhan (Family of the Land; also called the National Agricultural Party) was founded in 1938. They focused more on the poor smallholders of the west, supporting land reclamation, afforestation, social democracy and rates reform. They formed part of the governing coalition of the Government of the 13th Dáil and Government of the 15th Dáil. Economic improvement in the 1960s saw farmers vote for other parties and Clann na Talmhan disbanded in 1965.

Kazakhstan Edit

In Kazakhstan, the Peasants' Union, originally a communist organization, was formed as one of first agrarian parties in independent Kazakhstan and would win four seats in the 1994 legislative election.[31][32] The Agrarian Party of Kazakhstan, led by Romin Madinov, was founded in 1999, which favored the privatization of agricultural land, developments towards rural infrastructure, as well as changes in the tax system in agrarian economy.[33] The party would go on to win three Mäjilis seats in the 1999 legislative election and eventually unite with the Civic Party of Kazakhstan to form the pro-government Agrarian-Industrial Union of Workers (AIST) bloc that would be chaired by Madinov for the 2004 legislative election, with the AIST bloc winning 11 seats in the Mäjilis.[34][35] From there, the bloc remained short-lived as it would merge with the ruling Nur Otan party in 2006.[36]

Several other parties in Kazakhstan over the years have embraced agrarian policies in their programs in an effort to appeal towards a large rural Kazakh demographic base, which included Amanat, ADAL, and Respublica.[37][38][39]

Since late 2000s, the "Auyl" People's Democratic Patriotic Party remains the largest and most influential agrarian-oriented party in Kazakhstan, as its presidential candidate Jiguli Dairabaev had become the second-place frontrunner in the 2022 presidential election after sweeping 3.4% of the vote.[40] In the 2023 legislative election, the Auyl party for the first time was represented the parliament after winning nine seats in the lower chamber Mäjilis.[41] The party raises rural issues in regard to decaying villages, rural development and the agro-industrial complex, the issues of social security of the rural population, and has consistently opposed the ongoing rural flight in Kazakhstan.[42]

Latvia Edit

In Latvia, the Union of Greens and Farmers is supportive of traditional small farms and perceives them as more environmentally friendly than large-scale farming: Nature is threatened by development, while small farms are threatened by large industrial-scale farms.

Lithuania Edit

In Lithuania, as of 2017, the government is led by the Lithuanian Farmers and Greens Union, under the leadership of industrial farmer Ramūnas Karbauskis.

Nordic countries Edit

 
As well as sharing similar backgrounds and policies, Nordic agrarian parties share the use of a four leaf clover as their primary symbol

The Nordic agrarian parties,[43] also referred to as Scandinavian agrarian parties[44][45] or agrarian liberal parties,[46][47] are agrarian political parties that belong to a political tradition particular to the Nordic countries. Positioning themselves in the centre of the political spectrum, but fulfilling roles distinctive to Nordic countries, they remain hard to classify by conventional political ideology.

These parties are non-Socialist and typically combine a commitment to small businesses, rural issues and political decentralisation, and, at times, scepticism towards the European Union. The parties have divergent views on the free market and environmentalism. Internationally, they are most commonly aligned to the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (ALDE) and the Liberal International.

Historically farmers' parties, a declining farmer population after the Second World War made them broaden their scope to other issues and sections of society. At this time three of them renamed themselves to Centre Party, with the Finnish Centre Party being the last to do so, in 1965.[48] In modern period, the main agrarian parties are the Centre Party in Sweden, Venstre in Denmark, Centre Party in Finland, Centre Party in Norway and Progressive Party in Iceland.

Poland Edit

In Poland, the Polish People's Party traces its tradition to an agrarian party in Austro-Hungarian-controlled Galician Poland. After the fall of the communist regime, PPP's biggest success came in 1993 elections, where it won 132 out of 460 parliamentary seats. Since then, PPP's support has steadily declined, until 2019, when they formed Polish Coalition with an anti- establishment, direct democracy Kukiz'15 party, and managed to get 8.5% of popular vote. Moreover, PPP tends to get much better results in local elections. In 2014 elections they have managed to get 23.88% of votes.

The right-wing Law and Justice party has also become supportive of agrarian policies in recent years and polls show that most of their support comes from rural areas.[49] AGROunia resembles the features of agrarianism.

Romania Edit

In Romania, older party parties from Transylvania, Moldavia, and Wallachia merged to become the National Peasants' Party (PNȚ) in 1926. Iuliu Maniu (1873–1953) was a prime minister with an agrarian cabinet from 1928 to 1930 and briefly in 1932–1933, but the Great Depression made proposed reforms impossible. The forcefully-introduced and illegal communist regime dissolved the party in 1947 (along with other historical parties such as the National Liberal Party), but it reformed in 1989 after they fell from power.

The reformed party, which also incorporated elements of Christian democracy in its ideology, governed Romania as part of the Romanian Democratic Convention (CDR) between 1996 and 2000.

Serbia Edit

In Serbia, Nikola Pašić (1845–1926) and his People's Radical Party dominated Serbian politics after 1903. The party also monopolized power in Yugoslavia from 1918 to 1929. During the dictatorship of the 1930s, the prime minister was from that party.

Ukraine Edit

In Ukraine, the Radical Party of Oleh Lyashko has promised to purify the country of oligarchs "with a pitchfork".[50] The party advocates a number of traditional left-wing positions (a progressive tax structure, a ban on agricultural land sale and eliminating the illegal land market, a tenfold increase in budget spending on health, setting up primary health centres in every village)[51] and mixes them with strong nationalist sentiments.[52]

United Kingdom Edit

In land law the heyday of English, Irish (and thus Welsh) agrarianism was c. 1500 to 1603, led by the Tudor royal advisors, who sought to maintain a broad pool of agricultural commoners from which to draw military men, against the interests of larger landowners who sought enclosure (meaning complete private control of common land, over which by custom and common law lords of the manor always enjoyed minor rights). The heyday was eroded by hundreds of Acts of Parliament to expressly permit enclosure, chiefly from 1650 to the 1810s. Politicians standing strongly as reactionaries to this included the Levellers, those anti-industrialists (Luddites) going beyond opposing new weaving technology and, later, radicals such as William Cobbett.

A high level of net national or local self-sufficiency has a strong base in campaigns and movements. In the 19th century such empowered advocates included Peelites and most Conservatives. The 20th century saw the growth or start of influential non-governmental organisations, such as the National Farmers' Union of England and Wales, Campaign for Rural England, Friends of the Earth (EWNI) and of the England Wales, Scottish and Northern Irish political parties prefixed by and focussed on Green politics. The 21st century has seen decarbonisation already in electricity markets. Following protests and charitable lobbying local food has seen growing market share, sometimes backed by wording in public policy papers and manifestos. The UK has many sustainability-prioritising businesses, green charity campaigns, events and lobby groups ranging from espousing allotment gardens (hobby community farming) through to a clear policy of local food and/or self-sustainability models.

Oceania Edit

Australia Edit

Historian F.K. Crowley finds that:

Australian farmers and their spokesman have always considered that life on the land is inherently more virtuous, as well as more healthy, more important and more productive, than life in the towns and cities....The farmers complained that something was wrong with an electoral system which produced parliamentarians who spent money beautifying vampire-cities instead of developing the interior.[53]

The National Party of Australia (formerly called the Country Party), from the 1920s to the 1970s, promulgated its version of agrarianism, which it called "countrymindedness". The goal was to enhance the status of the graziers (operators of big sheep stations) and small farmers and justified subsidies for them.[54]

New Zealand Edit

The New Zealand Liberal Party aggressively promoted agrarianism in its heyday (1891–1912). The landed gentry and aristocracy ruled Britain at this time. New Zealand never had an aristocracy but its wealthy landowners largely controlled politics before 1891. The Liberal Party set out to change that by a policy it called "populism." Richard Seddon had proclaimed the goal as early as 1884: "It is the rich and the poor; it is the wealthy and the landowners against the middle and labouring classes. That, Sir, shows the real political position of New Zealand."[55] The Liberal strategy was to create a large class of small landowning farmers who supported Liberal ideals. The Liberal government also established the basis of the later welfare state such as old age pensions and developed a system for settling industrial disputes, which was accepted by both employers and trade unions. In 1893, it extended voting rights to women, making New Zealand the first country in the world to do so.

To obtain land for farmers, the Liberal government from 1891 to 1911 purchased 3,100,000 acres (1,300,000 ha) of Maori land. The government also purchased 1,300,000 acres (530,000 ha) from large estate holders for subdivision and closer settlement by small farmers. The Advances to Settlers Act (1894) provided low-interest mortgages, and the agriculture department disseminated information on the best farming methods. The Liberals proclaimed success in forging an egalitarian, anti-monopoly land policy. The policy built up support for the Liberal Party in rural North Island electorates. By 1903, the Liberals were so dominant that there was no longer an organized opposition in Parliament.[56][57]

North America Edit

The United States and Canada both saw a rise of Agrarian-oriented parties in the early twentieth century as economic troubles motivated farming communities to become politically active. It has been proposed that different responses to agrarian protest largely determined the course of power generated by these newly-energized rural factions. According to Sociologist Barry Eidlin:

"In the United States, Democrats adopted a co-optive response to farmer and labor protest, incorporating these constituencies into the New Deal coalition. In Canada, both mainstream parties adopted a coercive response, leaving these constituencies politically excluded and available for an independent left coalition."[58]

These reactions may have helped determine the outcome of agrarian power and political associations in the US and Canada.

United States of America Edit

Kansas Edit

Economic desperation experienced by farmers across the state of Kansas in the nineteenth century spurred the creation of The People's Party in 1890, and soon-after would gain control of the governor's office in 1892. This party, consisting of a mix of Democrats, Socialists, Populists, and Fusionists, would find itself buckling from internal conflict regarding the unlimited coinage of silver. The Populists permanently lost power in 1898.[59]

Oklahoma Edit

Oklahoma farmers considered their political activity during the early twentieth century due to the outbreak of war, depressed crop prices, and an inhibited sense of progression towards owning their own farms. Tenancy had been reportedly as high as 55% in Oklahoma by 1910.[60] These pressures saw agrarian counties in Oklahoma supporting Socialist policies and politics, with the Socialist platform proposing a deeply agrarian-radical platform:

...the platform proposed a "Renters and Farmer's Program" which was strongly agrarian radical in its insistence upon various measures to put land into "The hands of the actual tillers of the soil." Although it did not propose to nationalize privately owned land, it did offer numerous plans to enlarge the state's public domain, from which land would be rented at prevailing share rents to tenants until they had paid rent equal to the land's value. The tenant and his children would have the right of occupancy and use, but the 'title' would remind in the 'commonwealth', an arrangement that might be aptly termed 'Socialist fee simple'. They proposed to exempt from taxation all farm dwellings, animals, and improvements up to the value of $1,000. The State Board of Agriculture would encourage 'co-operative societies' of farmers to make plans f or the purchase of land, seed, tools, and for preparing and selling produce. In order to give farmers essential services at cost, the Socialists called for the creation of state banks and mortgage agencies, crop insurance, elevators, and warehouses.[61]

This agrarian-backed Socialist party would win numerous offices, causing a panic within the local Democratic party. This agrarian-Socialist movement would be inhibited by voter suppression laws aimed at reducing the participation of voters of color, as well as national wartime policies intended to disrupt political elements considered subversive. This party would peak in power in 1914.

Back-to-the-land movement Edit

Agrarianism is similar to but not identical with the back-to-the-land movement. Agrarianism concentrates on the fundamental goods of the earth, on communities of more limited economic and political scale than in modern society, and on simple living, even when the shift involves questioning the "progressive" character of some recent social and economic developments. Thus, agrarianism is not industrial farming, with its specialization on products and industrial scale.[62]

See also Edit

References Edit

  1. ^ "Definition of agrarianism". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 3 April 2020. ..] a social or political movement designed to bring about land reforms or to improve the economic status of the farmer
  2. ^ "Definition of 'agrarian'". collinsdictionary.com. Retrieved 3 April 2020. Agrarian means relating to the ownership and use of land, especially farmland, or relating to the part of a society or economy that is concerned with agriculture.
  3. ^ Thompson, Paul. 2010. “Interview Eighteen” in Sustainability Ethics: 5 Questions Ed. Ryne Raffaelle, Wade Robinson, and Evan Selinger. United States: Automatic Press
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  6. ^ L.A. Maverick, "Chinese Influences upon the Physiocrats," Economic History, 3:54–67 (February 1938),
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  10. ^ Why Americans Value Rural Life by David B. Danbom
  11. ^ The Penguin Dictionary of Economics, George Bannock, R. E. Baxter and Evan Davis. 5th Edition. Penguin Books 1992 p. 329.
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  13. ^ Wood, Gordon S. The American Revolution: A History. p. 100.
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Further reading Edit

Agrarian values Edit

  • Brass, Tom. Peasants, Populism and Postmodernism: The Return of the Agrarian Myth (2000)
  • Brass, Tom (2014). Class, Culture and the Agrarian Myth. doi:10.1163/9789004273948. ISBN 9789004273948.
  • Danbom, David B. (1991). "Romantic Agrarianism in Twentieth-Century America". Agricultural History. 65 (4): 1–12. JSTOR 3743942.
  • Grampp, William D. (1945). "John Taylor: Economist of Southern Agrarianism". Southern Economic Journal. 11 (3): 255–268. doi:10.2307/1053268. JSTOR 1053268.
  • Hofstadter, Richard (1941). "Parrington and the Jeffersonian Tradition". Journal of the History of Ideas. 2 (4): 391–400. doi:10.2307/2707018. JSTOR 2707018.* Inge, M. Thomas. Agrarianism in American Literature (1969)
  • Kolodny, Annette. The Land before Her: Fantasy and Experience of the American Frontiers, 1630–1860 (1984). online edition
  • Marx, Leo. The Machine in the Garden: Technology and the Pastoral Ideal in America (1964).
  • Murphy, Paul V. The Rebuke of History: The Southern Agrarians and American Conservative Thought (2000)
  • Parrington, Vernon. Main Currents in American Thought (1927), 3-vol online 2015-03-17 at the Wayback Machine
  • Quinn, Patrick F. (1940). "Agrarianism and the Jeffersonian Philosophy". The Review of Politics. 2: 87–104. doi:10.1017/S0034670500004563. S2CID 146298740.
  • Thompson, Paul, and Thomas C. Hilde, eds. The Agrarian Roots of Pragmatism (2000)

Primary sources Edit

  • Sorokin, Pitirim A. et al., eds. A Systematic Source Book in Rural Sociology (3 vol. 1930) vol 1 pp. 1–146 covers many major thinkers down to 1800

Europe Edit

  • Batory, Agnes; Sitter, Nick (2004). "Cleavages, competition and coalition-building: Agrarian parties and the European question in Western and East Central Europe". European Journal of Political Research. 43 (4): 523–546. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6765.2004.00164.x.
  • Bell, John D. Peasants in Power: Alexander Stamboliski and the Bulgarian Agrarian National Union, 1899–1923(1923)
  • Donnelly, James S. Captain Rock: The Irish Agrarian Rebellion of 1821–1824 (2009)
  • Donnelly, James S. Irish Agrarian Rebellion, 1760–1800 (2006)
  • Gross, Feliks, ed. European Ideologies: A Survey of 20th Century Political Ideas (1948) pp. 391–481 online edition, on Russia and Bulgaria
  • Kubricht, Andrew Paul. "The Czech Agrarian Party, 1899-1914: a study of national and economic agitation in the Habsburg monarchy" (PhD thesis, Ohio State University Press, 1974)
  • Merlan, Francesca (2009). Tracking Rural Change: Community, Policy and Technology in Australia, New Zealand and Europe. ANU E Press. p. 60. ISBN 9781921536533.
  • Narkiewicz, Olga A. The Green Flag: Polish Populist Politics, 1867–1970 (1976).
  • Oren, Nissan. Revolution Administered: Agrarianism and Communism in Bulgaria (1973), focus is post 1945
  • Paine, Thomas. Agrarian Justice (1794)
  • Patterson, James G. (2008). In the Wake of the Great Rebellion. doi:10.7228/manchester/9780719076930.001.0001. ISBN 9780719076930.
  • Roberts, Henry L. Rumania: Political Problems of an Agrarian State (1951).
  • Zagorin, Perez (1982). Rebels and Rulers, 1500–1660. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511562839. ISBN 9780521244732.

North America Edit

  • Eisinger, Chester E. (1947). "The Influence of Natural Rights and Physiocratic Doctrines on American Agrarian Thought during the Revolutionary Period". Agricultural History. 21 (1): 13–23. JSTOR 3739767.
  • Griswold, A. Whitney (1946). "The Agrarian Democracy of Thomas Jefferson". American Political Science Review. 40 (4): 657–681. doi:10.2307/1950410. JSTOR 1950410. S2CID 144145932.
  • Goodwyn, Lawrence. The Populist Moment: A Short History of the Agrarian Revolt in America (1978), 1880s and 1890s in U.S.
  • Hofstadter, Richard (1941). "Parrington and the Jeffersonian Tradition". Journal of the History of Ideas. 2 (4): 391–400. doi:10.2307/2707018. JSTOR 2707018.
  • Johnson, Jeffrey K. (2010). "The Countryside Triumphant: Jefferson's Ideal of Rural Superiority in Modern Superhero Mythology". The Journal of Popular Culture. 43 (4): 720–737. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5931.2010.00767.x.
  • Lipset, Seymour Martin. Agrarian socialism: the Coöperative Commonwealth Federation in Saskatchewan (1950), 1930s-1940s
  • McConnell, Grant. The decline of agrarian democracy(1953), 20th century U.S.
  • Mark, Irving. Agrarian conflicts in colonial New York, 1711–1775 (1940)
  • Ochiai, Akiko. Harvesting Freedom: African American Agrarianism in Civil War Era South Carolina (2007)
  • Robison, Dan Merritt. Bob Taylor and the agrarian revolt in Tennessee (1935)
  • Stine, Harold E. The agrarian revolt in South Carolina;: Ben Tillman and the Farmers' Alliance (1974)
  • Summerhill, Thomas. Harvest of Dissent: Agrarianism in Nineteenth-Century New York (2005)
  • Szatmary, David P. Shays' Rebellion: The Making of an Agrarian Insurrection (1984), 1787 in Massachusetts
  • Woodward, C. Vann. Tom Watson: Agrarian Rebel (1938) online edition
  • Woodward, C. Vann (1938). "Tom Watson and the Negro in Agrarian Politics". The Journal of Southern History. 4 (1): 14–33. doi:10.2307/2191851. JSTOR 2191851.

Global South Edit

  • Brass, Tom (ed.). New Farmers' Movements in India (1995) 304 pages.
  • Brass, Tom (2004). Brass, Tom (ed.). Latin American Peasants. doi:10.4324/9780203505663. ISBN 9780203505663.
  • Ginzberg, Eitan (1998). "State Agrarianism versus Democratic Agrarianism: Adalberto Tejeda's Experiment in Veracruz, 1928–32". Journal of Latin American Studies. 30 (2): 341–372. doi:10.1017/S0022216X98005070. S2CID 144631366.
  • Handy, Jim. Revolution in the Countryside: Rural Conflict and Agrarian Reform in Guatemala, 1944–1954 (1994)
  • Jacoby, Erich H. (1949). Agrarian Unrest in Southeast Asia. doi:10.7312/jaco90206. hdl:2027/mdp.39015021933091. ISBN 9780231877589.
  • Newbury, David; Newbury, Catharine (2000). "Bringing the Peasants Back In: Agrarian Themes in the Construction and Corrosion of Statist Historiography in Rwanda". The American Historical Review. 105 (3): 832. doi:10.2307/2651812. JSTOR 2651812.
  • Paige, Jeffery M. Agrarian revolution: social movements and export agriculture in the underdeveloped world (1978) 435 pages excerpt and text search
  • Sanderson, Steven E. Agrarian populism and the Mexican state: the struggle for land in Sonora (1981)
  • Stokes, Eric. The Peasant and the Raj: Studies in Agrarian Society and Peasant Rebellion in Colonial India (1980)
  • Springer, Simon (2013). "Illegal Evictions? Overwriting Possession and Orality with Law's Violence in Cambodia". Journal of Agrarian Change. 13 (4): 520–546. doi:10.1111/j.1471-0366.2012.00368.x.
  • Tannenbaum, Frank. The Mexican Agrarian Revolution (1930)

External links Edit

  • The New Agrarian

agrarianism, political, social, philosophy, that, promoted, subsistence, agriculture, smallholdings, egalitarianism, with, agrarian, political, parties, normally, supporting, rights, sustainability, small, farmers, poor, peasants, against, wealthy, society, hi. Agrarianism is a political and social philosophy that has promoted subsistence agriculture smallholdings and egalitarianism with agrarian political parties normally supporting the rights and sustainability of small farmers and poor peasants against the wealthy in society 1 2 In highly developed and industrial nations or regions it can denote use of financial and social incentives for self sustainability more community involvement in food production such as allotment gardens and smart growth that avoids urban sprawl and also what many of its advocates contend are risks of human overpopulation when overpopulation occurs the available resources become too limited for the entire population to survive comfortably or at all in the long term Contents 1 Philosophy 2 History 3 Types of agrarianism 3 1 Physiocracy 3 2 Jeffersonian democracy 3 3 Agrarian socialism 3 3 1 Zapatismo 3 3 2 Maoism 4 Notable agrarian parties 4 1 Europe 4 1 1 Bulgaria 4 1 2 Czechoslovakia 4 1 3 France 4 1 4 Hungary 4 1 5 Ireland 4 1 6 Kazakhstan 4 1 7 Latvia 4 1 8 Lithuania 4 1 9 Nordic countries 4 1 10 Poland 4 1 11 Romania 4 1 12 Serbia 4 1 13 Ukraine 4 1 14 United Kingdom 4 2 Oceania 4 2 1 Australia 4 2 2 New Zealand 4 3 North America 4 3 1 United States of America 4 3 1 1 Kansas 4 3 1 2 Oklahoma 5 Back to the land movement 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 8 1 Agrarian values 8 2 Primary sources 8 3 Europe 8 4 North America 8 5 Global South 9 External linksPhilosophy EditSome scholars suggest that agrarianism values rural society as superior to urban society and the independent farmer as superior to the paid worker and sees farming as a way of life that can shape the ideal social values 3 It stresses the superiority of a simpler rural life as opposed to the complexity of city life For example M Thomas Inge defines agrarianism by the following basic tenets 4 Farming is the sole occupation that offers total independence and self sufficiency Urban life capitalism and technology destroy independence and dignity and foster vice and weakness The agricultural community with its fellowship of labor and co operation is the model society The farmer has a solid stable position in the world order They have a sense of identity a sense of historical and religious tradition a feeling of belonging to a concrete family place and region which are psychologically and culturally beneficial The harmony of their life checks the encroachments of a fragmented alienated modern society Cultivation of the soil has within it a positive spiritual good and from it the cultivator acquires the virtues of honor manliness self reliance courage moral integrity and hospitality They result from a direct contact with nature and through nature a closer relationship to God The agrarian is blessed in that they follow the example of God in creating order out of chaos History EditMain article History of agrarianism The philosophical roots of agrarianism include European and Chinese philosophers The Chinese school of Agriculturalism 农家 農家 was a philosophy that advocated peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism In societies influenced by Confucianism the farmer was considered an esteemed productive member of society but merchants who made money were looked down upon 5 That influenced European intellectuals like Francois Quesnay an avid Confucianist and advocate of China s agrarian policies in forming the French agrarian philosophy of physiocracy 6 The physiocrats along with the ideas of John Locke and the Romantic Era formed the basis of modern European and American agrarianism Types of agrarianism EditPhysiocracy Edit This section is an excerpt from Physiocracy edit nbsp Francois Quesnay a physician who is considered the founding father of physiocracy published the Tableau economique Economic Table in 1758 nbsp Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours a prominent physiocrat In his book La Physiocratie du Pont advocated low tariffs and free trade nbsp Look up physiocracy in Wiktionary the free dictionary Physiocracy French physiocratie from the Greek for government of nature is an economic theory developed by a group of 18th century Age of Enlightenment French economists who believed that the wealth of nations derived solely from the value of land agriculture or land development and that agricultural products should be highly priced 7 Their theories originated in France and were most popular during the second half of the 18th century Physiocracy became one of the first well developed theories of economics Francois Quesnay 1694 1774 the marquis de Mirabeau 1715 1789 and Anne Robert Jacques Turgot 1727 1781 dominated the movement 8 which immediately preceded the first modern school classical economics which began with the publication of Adam Smith s The Wealth of Nations in 1776 The physiocrats made a significant contribution in their emphasis on productive work as the source of national wealth This contrasted with earlier schools in particular mercantilism which often focused on the ruler s wealth accumulation of gold or the balance of trade Whereas the mercantilist school of economics held that value in the products of society was created at the point of sale 9 by the seller exchanging his products for more money than the products had previously been worth the physiocratic school of economics was the first to see labor as the sole source of value However for the physiocrats only agricultural labor created this value in the products of society 9 All industrial and non agricultural labors were unproductive appendages to agricultural labor 9 Quesnay was likely influenced by his medical training The earlier work of William Harvey had explained how blood flow and the circulatory system is vital to the human body Quesnay held that the circulation of wealth was vital to the economy Societies at the time were also overwhelmingly agrarian This may be why they viewed agriculture as the primary source of a nation s wealth This is an idea which Quesnay purported to demonstrate with data comparing a workshop to a farm He analyzed how money flowed between the three classes of farmers proprietors and artisans in the same mechanical way that blood flows between different organs and claimed only the farm produced a surplus that added to the nation s wealth Physiocrats viewed the production of goods and services as equivalent to the consumption of the agricultural surplus since human or animal muscle provided the main source of power and all energy derived from the surplus from agricultural production Profit in capitalist production was really only the rent obtained by the owner of the land on which the agricultural production took place 9 The physiocrats damned cities for their artificiality and praised more natural styles of living They celebrated farmers 10 They called themselves les Economistes but are generally referred to as physiocrats to distinguish their beliefs from the many schools of economic thought that followed 11 Jeffersonian democracy Edit nbsp Thomas Jefferson and his supporters idealised farmers as the citizens that the American Republic should be formed around Main articles Jeffersonian democracy and land grant Further information Economic history of the United States Land grants The United States president Thomas Jefferson was an agrarian who based his ideas about the budding American democracy around the notion that farmers are the most valuable citizens and the truest republicans 12 Jefferson and his support base were committed to American republicanism which they saw as being in opposition to aristocracy and corruption and which prioritized virtue exemplified by the yeoman farmer planters and the plain folk 13 In praising the rural farmfolk the Jeffersonians felt that financiers bankers and industrialists created cesspools of corruption in the cities and should thus be avoided 14 The Jeffersonians sought to align the American economy more with agriculture than industry Part of their motive to do so was Jefferson s fear that the over industrialization of America would create a class of wage slaves who relied on their employers for income and sustenance In turn these workers would cease to be independent voters as their vote could be manipulated by said employers To counter this Jefferson introduced as scholar Clay Jenkinson noted a graduated income tax that would serve as a disincentive to vast accumulations of wealth and would make funds available for some sort of benign redistribution downward and tariffs on imported articles which were mainly purchased by the wealthy 15 In 1811 Jefferson writing to a friend explained these revenues will be levied entirely on the rich the rich alone use imported articles and on these alone the whole taxes of the general government are levied the poor man pays not a farthing of tax to the general government but on his salt 16 There is general agreement that the substantial United States federal policy of offering land grants such as thousands of gifts of land to veterans had a positive impact on economic development in the 19th century 17 Agrarian socialism Edit Main article Agrarian socialism Agrarian socialism is a form of agrarianism that is anti capitalist in nature and seeks to introduce socialist economic systems in their stead Zapatismo Edit nbsp Emiliano Zapata fought in the Mexican Revolution in the name of the Mexican peasants and sought to introduce reforms such as land redistribution Notable agrarian socialists include Emiliano Zapata who was a leading figure in the Mexican Revolution As part of the Liberation Army of the South his group of revolutionaries fought on behalf of the Mexican peasants whom they saw as exploited by the landowning classes Zapata published Plan of Ayala which called for significant land reforms and land redistribution in Mexico as part of the revolution Zapata was killed and his forces crushed over the course of the Revolution but his political ideas lived on in the form of Zapatismo Zapatismo would form the basis for neozapatismo the ideology of the Zapatista Army of National Liberation Known as Ejercito Zapatista de Liberacion Nacional or EZLN in Spanish EZLN is a far left libertarian socialist political and militant group that emerged in the state of Chiapas in southmost Mexico in 1994 EZLN and Neozapatismo as explicit in their name seek to revive the agrarian socialist movement of Zapata but fuse it with new elements such as a commitment to indigenous rights and community level decision making Subcommander Marcos a leading member of the movement argues that the peoples collective ownership of the land was and is the basis for all subsequent developments the movement sought to create When the land became property of the peasants when the land passed into the hands of those who work it This was the starting point for advances in government health education housing nutrition women s participation trade culture communication and information it was recovering the means of production in this case the land animals and machines that were in the hands of large property owners 18 Maoism Edit Maoism the far left ideology of Mao Zedong and his followers places a heavy emphasis on the role of peasants in its goals In contrast to other Marxist schools of thought which normally seek to acquire the support of urban workers Maoism sees the peasantry as key Believing that political power grows out of the barrel of a gun 19 Maoism saw the Chinese Peasantry as the prime source for a Marxist vanguard because it possessed two qualities i they were poor and ii they were a political blank slate in Mao s words A clean sheet of paper has no blotches and so the newest and most beautiful words can be written on it 20 During the Chinese Civil War and the Second Sino Japanese War Mao and the Chinese Communist Party made extensive use of peasants and rural bases in their military tactics often eschewing the cities Following the eventual victory of the Communist Party in both wars the countryside and how it should be run remained a focus for Mao In 1958 Mao launched the Great Leap Forward a social and economic campaign which amongst other things altered many aspects of rural Chinese life It introduced mandatory collective farming and forced the peasantry to organize itself into communal living units which were known as people s communes These communes which consisted of 5 000 people on average were expected to meet high production quotas while the peasants who lived on them adapted to this radically new way of life The communes were run as co operatives where wages and money were replaced by work points Peasants who criticised this new system were persecuted as rightists and counter revolutionaries Leaving the communes was forbidden and escaping from them was difficult or impossible and those who attempted it were subjected to party orchestrated public struggle sessions which further jeopardized their survival 21 These public criticism sessions were often used to intimidate the peasants into obeying local officials and they often devolved into little more than public beatings 22 On the communes experiments were conducted in order to find new methods of planting crops efforts were made to construct new irrigation systems on a massive scale and the communes were all encouraged to produce steel backyard furnaces as part of an effort to increase steel production However following the Anti Rightist Campaign Mao had instilled a mass distrust of intellectuals into China and thus engineers often were not consulted with regard to the new irrigation systems and the wisdom of asking untrained peasants to produce good quality steel from scrap iron was not publicly questioned Similarly the experimentation with the crops did not produce results In addition to this the Four Pests Campaign was launched in which the peasants were called upon to destroy sparrows and other wild birds that ate crop seeds in order to protect fields Pest birds were shot down or scared away from landing until they dropped from exhaustion This campaign resulted in an ecological disaster that saw an explosion of the vermin population especially crop eating insects which was consequently not in danger of being killed by predators None of these new systems were working but local leaders did not dare to state this instead they falsified reports so as not to be punished for failing to meet the quotas In many cases they stated that they were greatly exceeding their quotas and in turn the Chinese state developed a completely false sense of success with regard to the commune system 23 All of this culminated in the Great Chinese Famine which began in 1959 lasted 3 years and saw an estimated 15 to 30 million Chinese people die 24 A combination of bad weather and the new failed farming techniques that were introduced by the state led to massive shortages of food By 1962 the Great Leap Forward was declared to be at an end In the late 1960s and early 1970s Mao once again radically altered life in rural China with the launching of the Down to the Countryside Movement As a response to the Great Chinese Famine the Chinese President Liu Shaoqi began sending down urban youths to rural China in order to recover its population losses and alleviate overcrowding in the cities However Mao turned the practice into a political crusade declaring that the sending down would strip the youth of any bourgeois tendencies by forcing them to learn from the unprivileged rural peasants In reality it was the Communist Party s attempt to reign in the Red Guards who had become uncontrollable during the course of the Cultural Revolution 10 of the 1970 urban population of China was sent out to remote rural villages often in Inner Mongolia The villages which were still poorly recovering from the effects of the Great Chinese Famine did not have the excess resources that were needed to support the newcomers Furthermore the so called sent down youth had no agricultural experience and as a result they were unaccustomed to the harsh lifestyle that existed in the countryside and their unskilled labor in the villages provided little benefit to the agricultural sector As a result many of the sent down youth died in the countryside The relocation of the youths was originally intended to be permanent but by the end of the Cultural Revolution the Communist Party relented and some of those who had the capacity to return to the cities were allowed to do so 25 In imitation of Mao s policies the Khmer Rouge of Cambodia who were heavily funded and supported by the People s Republic of China created their own version of the Great Leap Forward which was known as Maha Lout Ploh With the Great Leap Forward as its model it had similarly disastrous effects contributing to what is now known as the Cambodian genocide As a part of the Maha Lout Ploh the Khmer Rouge sought to create an entirely agrarian socialist society by forcibly relocating 100 000 people to move from Cambodia s cities into newly created communes The Khmer Rouge leader Pol Pot sought to purify the country by setting it back to Year Zero freeing it from corrupting influences 26 Besides trying to completely de urbanize Cambodia ethnic minorities were slaughtered along with anyone else who was suspected of being a reactionary or a member of the bourgeoisie to the point that wearing glasses was seen as grounds for execution 27 The killings were only brought to an end when Cambodia was invaded by the neighboring socialist nation of Vietnam whose army toppled the Khmer Rouge 28 However with Cambodia s entire society and economy in disarray including its agricultural sector the country still plunged into renewed famine due to vast food shortages However as international journalists began to report on the situation and send images of it out to the world a massive international response was provoked leading to one of the most concentrated relief efforts of its time 29 Notable agrarian parties EditMain article List of agrarian parties Peasant parties first appeared across Eastern Europe between 1860 and 1910 when commercialized agriculture and world market forces disrupted traditional rural society and the railway and growing literacy facilitated the work of roving organizers Agrarian parties advocated land reforms to redistribute land on large estates among those who work it They also wanted village cooperatives to keep the profit from crop sales in local hands and credit institutions to underwrite needed improvements Many peasant parties were also nationalist parties because peasants often worked their land for the benefit of landlords of different ethnicity Peasant parties rarely had any power before World War I but some became influential in the interwar era especially in Bulgaria and Czechoslovakia For a while in the 1920s and the 1930s there was a Green International International Agrarian Bureau based on the peasant parties in Bulgaria Czechoslovakia Poland and Serbia It functioned primarily as an information center that spread the ideas of agrarianism and combating socialism on the left and landlords on the right and never launched any significant activities Europe Edit Bulgaria Edit In Bulgaria the Bulgarian Agrarian National Union BZNS was organized in 1899 to resist taxes and build cooperatives BZNS came to power in 1919 and introduced many economic social and legal reforms However conservative forces crushed BZNS in a 1923 coup and assassinated its leader Aleksandar Stamboliyski 1879 1923 BZNS was made into a communist puppet group until 1989 when it reorganized as a genuine party Czechoslovakia Edit In Czechoslovakia the Republican Party of Agricultural and Smallholder People often shared power in parliament as a partner in the five party petka coalition The party s leader Antonin Svehla 1873 1933 was prime minister several times It was consistently the strongest party forming and dominating coalitions It moved beyond its original agrarian base to reach middle class voters The party was banned by the National Front after the Second World War 30 France Edit In France the Hunting Fishing Nature Tradition party is a moderate conservative agrarian party reaching a peak of 4 23 in the 2002 French presidential election It would later on become affiliated to France s main conservative party Union for a Popular Movement More recently the Resistons movement of Jean Lassalle espoused agrarianism Hungary Edit In Hungary the first major agrarian party the small holders party was founded in 1908 The party became part of the government in the 1920s but lost influence in the government A new party the Independent Smallholders Agrarian Workers and Civic Party was established in 1930 with a more radical program representing larger scale land redistribution initiatives They implemented this program together with the other coalition parties after WWII However after 1949 the party was outlawed when a one party system was introduced They became part of the government again 1990 1994 and 1998 2002 after which they lost political support The ruling Fidesz party has an agrarian faction and promotes agrarian interest since 2010 with the emphasis now placed on supporting larger family farms versus small holders Ireland Edit nbsp Land League posterIn the late 19th century the Irish National Land League aimed to abolish landlordism in Ireland and enable tenant farmers to own the land they worked on The Land War of 1878 1909 led to the Irish Land Acts ending absentee landlords and ground rent and redistributing land among peasant farmers Post independence the Farmers Party operated in the Irish Free State from 1922 folding into the National Centre Party in 1932 It was mostly supported by wealthy farmers in the east of Ireland Clann na Talmhan Family of the Land also called the National Agricultural Party was founded in 1938 They focused more on the poor smallholders of the west supporting land reclamation afforestation social democracy and rates reform They formed part of the governing coalition of the Government of the 13th Dail and Government of the 15th Dail Economic improvement in the 1960s saw farmers vote for other parties and Clann na Talmhan disbanded in 1965 Kazakhstan Edit In Kazakhstan the Peasants Union originally a communist organization was formed as one of first agrarian parties in independent Kazakhstan and would win four seats in the 1994 legislative election 31 32 The Agrarian Party of Kazakhstan led by Romin Madinov was founded in 1999 which favored the privatization of agricultural land developments towards rural infrastructure as well as changes in the tax system in agrarian economy 33 The party would go on to win three Majilis seats in the 1999 legislative election and eventually unite with the Civic Party of Kazakhstan to form the pro government Agrarian Industrial Union of Workers AIST bloc that would be chaired by Madinov for the 2004 legislative election with the AIST bloc winning 11 seats in the Majilis 34 35 From there the bloc remained short lived as it would merge with the ruling Nur Otan party in 2006 36 Several other parties in Kazakhstan over the years have embraced agrarian policies in their programs in an effort to appeal towards a large rural Kazakh demographic base which included Amanat ADAL and Respublica 37 38 39 Since late 2000s the Auyl People s Democratic Patriotic Party remains the largest and most influential agrarian oriented party in Kazakhstan as its presidential candidate Jiguli Dairabaev had become the second place frontrunner in the 2022 presidential election after sweeping 3 4 of the vote 40 In the 2023 legislative election the Auyl party for the first time was represented the parliament after winning nine seats in the lower chamber Majilis 41 The party raises rural issues in regard to decaying villages rural development and the agro industrial complex the issues of social security of the rural population and has consistently opposed the ongoing rural flight in Kazakhstan 42 Latvia Edit In Latvia the Union of Greens and Farmers is supportive of traditional small farms and perceives them as more environmentally friendly than large scale farming Nature is threatened by development while small farms are threatened by large industrial scale farms Lithuania Edit In Lithuania as of 2017 the government is led by the Lithuanian Farmers and Greens Union under the leadership of industrial farmer Ramunas Karbauskis Nordic countries Edit nbsp As well as sharing similar backgrounds and policies Nordic agrarian parties share the use of a four leaf clover as their primary symbolThis section is an excerpt from Nordic agrarian parties edit The Nordic agrarian parties 43 also referred to as Scandinavian agrarian parties 44 45 or agrarian liberal parties 46 47 are agrarian political parties that belong to a political tradition particular to the Nordic countries Positioning themselves in the centre of the political spectrum but fulfilling roles distinctive to Nordic countries they remain hard to classify by conventional political ideology These parties are non Socialist and typically combine a commitment to small businesses rural issues and political decentralisation and at times scepticism towards the European Union The parties have divergent views on the free market and environmentalism Internationally they are most commonly aligned to the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe ALDE and the Liberal International Historically farmers parties a declining farmer population after the Second World War made them broaden their scope to other issues and sections of society At this time three of them renamed themselves to Centre Party with the Finnish Centre Party being the last to do so in 1965 48 In modern period the main agrarian parties are the Centre Party in Sweden Venstre in Denmark Centre Party in Finland Centre Party in Norway and Progressive Party in Iceland Poland Edit In Poland the Polish People s Party traces its tradition to an agrarian party in Austro Hungarian controlled Galician Poland After the fall of the communist regime PPP s biggest success came in 1993 elections where it won 132 out of 460 parliamentary seats Since then PPP s support has steadily declined until 2019 when they formed Polish Coalition with an anti establishment direct democracy Kukiz 15 party and managed to get 8 5 of popular vote Moreover PPP tends to get much better results in local elections In 2014 elections they have managed to get 23 88 of votes The right wing Law and Justice party has also become supportive of agrarian policies in recent years and polls show that most of their support comes from rural areas 49 AGROunia resembles the features of agrarianism Romania Edit In Romania older party parties from Transylvania Moldavia and Wallachia merged to become the National Peasants Party PNȚ in 1926 Iuliu Maniu 1873 1953 was a prime minister with an agrarian cabinet from 1928 to 1930 and briefly in 1932 1933 but the Great Depression made proposed reforms impossible The forcefully introduced and illegal communist regime dissolved the party in 1947 along with other historical parties such as the National Liberal Party but it reformed in 1989 after they fell from power The reformed party which also incorporated elements of Christian democracy in its ideology governed Romania as part of the Romanian Democratic Convention CDR between 1996 and 2000 Serbia Edit In Serbia Nikola Pasic 1845 1926 and his People s Radical Party dominated Serbian politics after 1903 The party also monopolized power in Yugoslavia from 1918 to 1929 During the dictatorship of the 1930s the prime minister was from that party Ukraine Edit In Ukraine the Radical Party of Oleh Lyashko has promised to purify the country of oligarchs with a pitchfork 50 The party advocates a number of traditional left wing positions a progressive tax structure a ban on agricultural land sale and eliminating the illegal land market a tenfold increase in budget spending on health setting up primary health centres in every village 51 and mixes them with strong nationalist sentiments 52 United Kingdom Edit In land law the heyday of English Irish and thus Welsh agrarianism was c 1500 to 1603 led by the Tudor royal advisors who sought to maintain a broad pool of agricultural commoners from which to draw military men against the interests of larger landowners who sought enclosure meaning complete private control of common land over which by custom and common law lords of the manor always enjoyed minor rights The heyday was eroded by hundreds of Acts of Parliament to expressly permit enclosure chiefly from 1650 to the 1810s Politicians standing strongly as reactionaries to this included the Levellers those anti industrialists Luddites going beyond opposing new weaving technology and later radicals such as William Cobbett A high level of net national or local self sufficiency has a strong base in campaigns and movements In the 19th century such empowered advocates included Peelites and most Conservatives The 20th century saw the growth or start of influential non governmental organisations such as the National Farmers Union of England and Wales Campaign for Rural England Friends of the Earth EWNI and of the England Wales Scottish and Northern Irish political parties prefixed by and focussed on Green politics The 21st century has seen decarbonisation already in electricity markets Following protests and charitable lobbying local food has seen growing market share sometimes backed by wording in public policy papers and manifestos The UK has many sustainability prioritising businesses green charity campaigns events and lobby groups ranging from espousing allotment gardens hobby community farming through to a clear policy of local food and or self sustainability models Oceania Edit Australia Edit Historian F K Crowley finds that Australian farmers and their spokesman have always considered that life on the land is inherently more virtuous as well as more healthy more important and more productive than life in the towns and cities The farmers complained that something was wrong with an electoral system which produced parliamentarians who spent money beautifying vampire cities instead of developing the interior 53 The National Party of Australia formerly called the Country Party from the 1920s to the 1970s promulgated its version of agrarianism which it called countrymindedness The goal was to enhance the status of the graziers operators of big sheep stations and small farmers and justified subsidies for them 54 New Zealand Edit The New Zealand Liberal Party aggressively promoted agrarianism in its heyday 1891 1912 The landed gentry and aristocracy ruled Britain at this time New Zealand never had an aristocracy but its wealthy landowners largely controlled politics before 1891 The Liberal Party set out to change that by a policy it called populism Richard Seddon had proclaimed the goal as early as 1884 It is the rich and the poor it is the wealthy and the landowners against the middle and labouring classes That Sir shows the real political position of New Zealand 55 The Liberal strategy was to create a large class of small landowning farmers who supported Liberal ideals The Liberal government also established the basis of the later welfare state such as old age pensions and developed a system for settling industrial disputes which was accepted by both employers and trade unions In 1893 it extended voting rights to women making New Zealand the first country in the world to do so To obtain land for farmers the Liberal government from 1891 to 1911 purchased 3 100 000 acres 1 300 000 ha of Maori land The government also purchased 1 300 000 acres 530 000 ha from large estate holders for subdivision and closer settlement by small farmers The Advances to Settlers Act 1894 provided low interest mortgages and the agriculture department disseminated information on the best farming methods The Liberals proclaimed success in forging an egalitarian anti monopoly land policy The policy built up support for the Liberal Party in rural North Island electorates By 1903 the Liberals were so dominant that there was no longer an organized opposition in Parliament 56 57 North America EditThe United States and Canada both saw a rise of Agrarian oriented parties in the early twentieth century as economic troubles motivated farming communities to become politically active It has been proposed that different responses to agrarian protest largely determined the course of power generated by these newly energized rural factions According to Sociologist Barry Eidlin In the United States Democrats adopted a co optive response to farmer and labor protest incorporating these constituencies into the New Deal coalition In Canada both mainstream parties adopted a coercive response leaving these constituencies politically excluded and available for an independent left coalition 58 These reactions may have helped determine the outcome of agrarian power and political associations in the US and Canada United States of America Edit Kansas Edit Economic desperation experienced by farmers across the state of Kansas in the nineteenth century spurred the creation of The People s Party in 1890 and soon after would gain control of the governor s office in 1892 This party consisting of a mix of Democrats Socialists Populists and Fusionists would find itself buckling from internal conflict regarding the unlimited coinage of silver The Populists permanently lost power in 1898 59 Oklahoma EditOklahoma farmers considered their political activity during the early twentieth century due to the outbreak of war depressed crop prices and an inhibited sense of progression towards owning their own farms Tenancy had been reportedly as high as 55 in Oklahoma by 1910 60 These pressures saw agrarian counties in Oklahoma supporting Socialist policies and politics with the Socialist platform proposing a deeply agrarian radical platform the platform proposed a Renters and Farmer s Program which was strongly agrarian radical in its insistence upon various measures to put land into The hands of the actual tillers of the soil Although it did not propose to nationalize privately owned land it did offer numerous plans to enlarge the state s public domain from which land would be rented at prevailing share rents to tenants until they had paid rent equal to the land s value The tenant and his children would have the right of occupancy and use but the title would remind in the commonwealth an arrangement that might be aptly termed Socialist fee simple They proposed to exempt from taxation all farm dwellings animals and improvements up to the value of 1 000 The State Board of Agriculture would encourage co operative societies of farmers to make plans f or the purchase of land seed tools and for preparing and selling produce In order to give farmers essential services at cost the Socialists called for the creation of state banks and mortgage agencies crop insurance elevators and warehouses 61 This agrarian backed Socialist party would win numerous offices causing a panic within the local Democratic party This agrarian Socialist movement would be inhibited by voter suppression laws aimed at reducing the participation of voters of color as well as national wartime policies intended to disrupt political elements considered subversive This party would peak in power in 1914 Back to the land movement EditAgrarianism is similar to but not identical with the back to the land movement Agrarianism concentrates on the fundamental goods of the earth on communities of more limited economic and political scale than in modern society and on simple living even when the shift involves questioning the progressive character of some recent social and economic developments Thus agrarianism is not industrial farming with its specialization on products and industrial scale 62 See also Edit nbsp Agropedia portal nbsp Look up agrarianism in Wiktionary the free dictionary Agrarian socialism Farmer Labor Party USA early 20th century Jeffersonian democracy Labour Farmer Party Japan 1920s Minnesota Farmer Labor Party USA early 20th century Nordic agrarian parties Yeoman English farmersReferences Edit Definition of agrarianism merriam webster com Retrieved 3 April 2020 a social or political movement designed to bring about land reforms or to improve the economic status of the farmer Definition of agrarian collinsdictionary com Retrieved 3 April 2020 Agrarian means relating to the ownership and use of land especially farmland or relating to the part of a society or economy that is concerned with agriculture Thompson Paul 2010 Interview Eighteen in Sustainability Ethics 5 Questions Ed Ryne Raffaelle Wade Robinson and Evan Selinger United States Automatic Press M Thomas Inge ed Agrarianism in American Literature 1969 introduction paraphrased Archived 2017 07 17 at the Wayback Machine Deutsch Eliot Ronald Bontekoei 1999 A companion to world philosophies Wiley Blackwell p 183 L A Maverick Chinese Influences upon the Physiocrats Economic History 3 54 67 February 1938 physiocrat Oxford Dictionaries Oxford University Press Archived from the original on July 4 2014 Retrieved 27 October 2013 Steiner 2003 pp 61 62 a b c d Karl Marx and Frederick Engels 1988 pp 348 355 358 Why Americans Value Rural Life by David B Danbom The Penguin Dictionary of Economics George Bannock R E Baxter and Evan Davis 5th Edition Penguin Books 1992 p 329 Thomas P Govan Agrarian and Agrarianism A Study in the Use and Abuse of Words Journal of Southern History Vol 30 1 Feb 1964 pp 35 47 in JSTOR Wood Gordon S The American Revolution A History p 100 Elkins and McKitrick 1995 ch 5 Wallace Hettle The Peculiar Democracy Southern Democrats in Peace and Civil War 2001 p 15 Jenkinson Becoming Jefferson s People p 26 Founders Online Thomas Jefferson to Tadeusz Kosciuszko 16 April 1811 founders archives gov Whaples R 1995 Where is there consensus among American economic historians The results of a survey on forty propositions The Journal of Economic History 55 1 139 154 See The Zapatistas Dignified Rage Final Public Speeches of Subcommander Marcos Edited by Nick Henck Translated by Henry Gales Chico AK Press 2018 pp 81 82 Quotations From Chairman Mao Peking Foreign Languages Press Retrieved 1 April 2018 Gregor A James Chang Maria Hsia 1978 Maoism and Marxism in Comparative Perspective The Review of Politics 40 3 pp 307 327 Thaxton Ralph A Jr 2008 Catastrophe and Contention in Rural China Mao s Great Leap Forward Famine and the Origins of Righteous Resistance in Da Fo Village Archived 2019 02 26 at the Wayback Machine Cambridge University Press p 3 ISBN 0 521 72230 6 Thaxton 2008 p 212 Hinton William 1984 Shenfan The Continuing Revolution in a Chinese Village New York Vintage Books pp 236 245 ISBN 978 0 394 72378 5 Holmes Leslie Communism A Very Short Introduction Oxford University Press 2009 ISBN 978 0 19 955154 5 p 32 Most estimates of the number of Chinese people who died range from 15 to 30 million Up to the mountains down to the villages 1968 chineseposters net Archived from the original on 2019 04 28 Retrieved 2019 04 10 Taylor Adam 7 August 2014 Why the world should not forget Khmer Rouge and the killing fields of Cambodia The Washington Post Retrieved 3 April 2020 Khmer Rouge Cambodia s years of brutality BBC News 16 November 2018 Retrieved 3 April 2020 Hersh Seymour M 8 August 1979 2 25 Million Cambodians Are Said to Face Starvation The New York Times Retrieved 3 April 2020 Hawk David 14 July 1984 Cambodia Famine Fear And Fanaticism The Washington Post Retrieved 3 April 2020 Sharon Werning Rivera Historical cleavages or transition mode Influences on the emerging party systems in Poland Hungary and Czechoslovakia Party Politics 1996 2 2 177 208 Wilson Andrew 2005 Virtual Politics Faking Democracy in the Post Soviet World Yale University Press p 106 ISBN 0 300 09545 7 Buyers Lydia M 2003 Central Asia in Focus Political and Economic Issues New York Nova Science Publishers Inc p 83 ISBN 1 59033 153 2 Kassymova Didar Kundakbayeva Zhanat Markus Ustina 2012 Historical Dictionary of Kazakhstan The Scarecrow Press p 19 ISBN 978 0 8108 6782 6 Alibekov Ibragim 2004 09 27 Kazakhstan Election results harden opposition Refworld Retrieved 2023 07 03 Final Kazakh Election Results Announced Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty Reuters AFP 2004 10 05 Retrieved 2023 07 03 Pannier Bruce 2006 12 22 Ruling Party Gets Even Bigger Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty Retrieved 2023 07 03 Zhussupova Aiman 2020 12 09 Political Parties Present Their Platforms Ahead of Majilis Election The Astana Times Retrieved 2023 07 03 Satubaldina Assel 2023 02 10 Closer Look at Kazakh Political Parties as They Prepare to Campaign The Astana Times Retrieved 2023 07 03 Tzanov Metodi 2023 03 14 Kazakhstan Ruling Amanat dominates campaign remains clear favourite Tellimer Retrieved 2023 07 03 Kumenov Almaz 2022 11 21 Kazakhstan Tokayev wins election with ease amid general apathy eurasianet org Retrieved 2023 07 03 Temirgaliyeva Arailym 2023 03 27 Six political parties admitted to Majilis Kazinform Retrieved 2023 07 03 Partiya turaly auyl kz in Kazakh Retrieved 2023 07 03 Arter David 2001 From Farmyard to City Square The Electoral Adaptation of the Nordic Agrarian Parties 1 ed Routledge ISBN 9781138258297 Lori Thorlakson 2006 Agrarian Parties In Tony Fitzpatrick Huck ju Kwon Nick Manning James Midgley Gillian Pascall eds International Encyclopedia of Social Policy Routledge pp 15 17 ISBN 978 1 136 61004 2 Arter David 1999 Scandinavian Politics Today Manchester University Press p 79 ISBN 9780719051333 Simon Hix Christopher Lord 1997 Political Parties in the European Union St Martin s Press p 33 Gary Marks Carole Wilson 1999 Thomas Banchoff Mitchell P Smith eds National parties and the contestation of Europe p 124 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a work ignored help Arter 1999 p 78 Children pigs and cows how PiS is winning the rural vote POLITICO 2019 10 07 Retrieved 2022 02 03 Wilson Andrew 24 October 2014 Ukraine election What to look for BBC News The Communist Party May Be on Its Last Legs But Social Populism is Still Alive The Ukrainian Week 23 October 2014 Herszenhorn David M 25 October 2014 With Stunts and Vigilante Escapades a Populist Gains Ground in Ukraine The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 F K Crowley Modern Australia in Documents 1901 1939 1973 pp 77 78 Rae Wear Countrymindedness Revisited Australian Political Science Association 1990 online edition Archived 2011 07 23 at the Wayback Machine Leslie Lipson 1948 The Politics of Equality New Zealand s Adventures in Democracy U of Chicago Press James Belich Paradise Reforged A history of the New Zealanders 2001 pp 39 46 Tom Brooking Busting Up the Greatest Estate of All Liberal Maori Land Policy 1891 1911 New Zealand Journal of History 1992 26 1 pp 78 98 online Eidlin Barry June 2016 Why Is There No Labor Party in the United States Political Articulation and the Canadian Comparison 1932 to 1948 American Sociological Review 81 3 488 516 doi 10 1177 0003122416643758 JSTOR 24756497 S2CID 148406595 via JSTOR Lee Alton R 2020 When Sunflowers Bloomed Red Kansas and the Rise of Socialism in America University of Nebraska Press p 58 Bisset Jim 1999 Agrarian Socialism in America Marx Jefferson and Jesus in the Oklahoma Countryside 1904 1920 University of Oklahoma Press p 11 Burbank Gavin 1971 Agrarian Radicals and Their Opponents Political Conflict in Southern Oklahoma The Journal of American History 58 1 5 23 doi 10 2307 1890078 JSTOR 1890078 Jeffrey Carl Jacob New Pioneers The Back to the Land Movement and the Search for a Sustainable Future Penn State University Press 1997 Further reading EditThis further reading section may contain inappropriate or excessive suggestions that may not follow Wikipedia s guidelines Please ensure that only a reasonable number of balanced topical reliable and notable further reading suggestions are given removing less relevant or redundant publications with the same point of view where appropriate Consider utilising appropriate texts as inline sources or creating a separate bibliography article April 2020 Learn how and when to remove this template message Agrarian values Edit Brass Tom Peasants Populism and Postmodernism The Return of the Agrarian Myth 2000 Brass Tom 2014 Class Culture and the Agrarian Myth doi 10 1163 9789004273948 ISBN 9789004273948 Danbom David B 1991 Romantic Agrarianism in Twentieth Century America Agricultural History 65 4 1 12 JSTOR 3743942 Grampp William D 1945 John Taylor Economist of Southern Agrarianism Southern Economic Journal 11 3 255 268 doi 10 2307 1053268 JSTOR 1053268 Hofstadter Richard 1941 Parrington and the Jeffersonian Tradition Journal of the History of Ideas 2 4 391 400 doi 10 2307 2707018 JSTOR 2707018 Inge M Thomas Agrarianism in American Literature 1969 Kolodny Annette The Land before Her Fantasy and Experience of the American Frontiers 1630 1860 1984 online edition Marx Leo The Machine in the Garden Technology and the Pastoral Ideal in America 1964 Murphy Paul V The Rebuke of History The Southern Agrarians and American Conservative Thought 2000 Parrington Vernon Main Currents in American Thought 1927 3 vol online Archived 2015 03 17 at the Wayback Machine Quinn Patrick F 1940 Agrarianism and the Jeffersonian Philosophy The Review of Politics 2 87 104 doi 10 1017 S0034670500004563 S2CID 146298740 Thompson Paul and Thomas C Hilde eds The Agrarian Roots of Pragmatism 2000 Primary sources Edit Sorokin Pitirim A et al eds A Systematic Source Book in Rural Sociology 3 vol 1930 vol 1 pp 1 146 covers many major thinkers down to 1800Europe Edit Batory Agnes Sitter Nick 2004 Cleavages competition and coalition building Agrarian parties and the European question in Western and East Central Europe European Journal of Political Research 43 4 523 546 doi 10 1111 j 1475 6765 2004 00164 x Bell John D Peasants in Power Alexander Stamboliski and the Bulgarian Agrarian National Union 1899 1923 1923 Donnelly James S Captain Rock The Irish Agrarian Rebellion of 1821 1824 2009 Donnelly James S Irish Agrarian Rebellion 1760 1800 2006 Gross Feliks ed European Ideologies A Survey of 20th Century Political Ideas 1948 pp 391 481 online edition on Russia and Bulgaria Kubricht Andrew Paul The Czech Agrarian Party 1899 1914 a study of national and economic agitation in the Habsburg monarchy PhD thesis Ohio State University Press 1974 Merlan Francesca 2009 Tracking Rural Change Community Policy and Technology in Australia New Zealand and Europe ANU E Press p 60 ISBN 9781921536533 Narkiewicz Olga A The Green Flag Polish Populist Politics 1867 1970 1976 Oren Nissan Revolution Administered Agrarianism and Communism in Bulgaria 1973 focus is post 1945 Paine Thomas Agrarian Justice 1794 Patterson James G 2008 In the Wake of the Great Rebellion doi 10 7228 manchester 9780719076930 001 0001 ISBN 9780719076930 Roberts Henry L Rumania Political Problems of an Agrarian State 1951 Zagorin Perez 1982 Rebels and Rulers 1500 1660 doi 10 1017 CBO9780511562839 ISBN 9780521244732 North America Edit Eisinger Chester E 1947 The Influence of Natural Rights and Physiocratic Doctrines on American Agrarian Thought during the Revolutionary Period Agricultural History 21 1 13 23 JSTOR 3739767 Griswold A Whitney 1946 The Agrarian Democracy of Thomas Jefferson American Political Science Review 40 4 657 681 doi 10 2307 1950410 JSTOR 1950410 S2CID 144145932 Goodwyn Lawrence The Populist Moment A Short History of the Agrarian Revolt in America 1978 1880s and 1890s in U S Hofstadter Richard 1941 Parrington and the Jeffersonian Tradition Journal of the History of Ideas 2 4 391 400 doi 10 2307 2707018 JSTOR 2707018 Johnson Jeffrey K 2010 The Countryside Triumphant Jefferson s Ideal of Rural Superiority in Modern Superhero Mythology The Journal of Popular Culture 43 4 720 737 doi 10 1111 j 1540 5931 2010 00767 x Lipset Seymour Martin Agrarian socialism the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation in Saskatchewan 1950 1930s 1940s McConnell Grant The decline of agrarian democracy 1953 20th century U S Mark Irving Agrarian conflicts in colonial New York 1711 1775 1940 Ochiai Akiko Harvesting Freedom African American Agrarianism in Civil War Era South Carolina 2007 Robison Dan Merritt Bob Taylor and the agrarian revolt in Tennessee 1935 Stine Harold E The agrarian revolt in South Carolina Ben Tillman and the Farmers Alliance 1974 Summerhill Thomas Harvest of Dissent Agrarianism in Nineteenth Century New York 2005 Szatmary David P Shays Rebellion The Making of an Agrarian Insurrection 1984 1787 in Massachusetts Woodward C Vann Tom Watson Agrarian Rebel 1938 online edition Woodward C Vann 1938 Tom Watson and the Negro in Agrarian Politics The Journal of Southern History 4 1 14 33 doi 10 2307 2191851 JSTOR 2191851 Global South Edit Brass Tom ed New Farmers Movements in India 1995 304 pages Brass Tom 2004 Brass Tom ed Latin American Peasants doi 10 4324 9780203505663 ISBN 9780203505663 Ginzberg Eitan 1998 State Agrarianism versus Democratic Agrarianism Adalberto Tejeda s Experiment in Veracruz 1928 32 Journal of Latin American Studies 30 2 341 372 doi 10 1017 S0022216X98005070 S2CID 144631366 Handy Jim Revolution in the Countryside Rural Conflict and Agrarian Reform in Guatemala 1944 1954 1994 Jacoby Erich H 1949 Agrarian Unrest in Southeast Asia doi 10 7312 jaco90206 hdl 2027 mdp 39015021933091 ISBN 9780231877589 Newbury David Newbury Catharine 2000 Bringing the Peasants Back In Agrarian Themes in the Construction and Corrosion of Statist Historiography in Rwanda The American Historical Review 105 3 832 doi 10 2307 2651812 JSTOR 2651812 Paige Jeffery M Agrarian revolution social movements and export agriculture in the underdeveloped world 1978 435 pages excerpt and text search Sanderson Steven E Agrarian populism and the Mexican state the struggle for land in Sonora 1981 Stokes Eric The Peasant and the Raj Studies in Agrarian Society and Peasant Rebellion in Colonial India 1980 Springer Simon 2013 Illegal Evictions Overwriting Possession and Orality with Law s Violence in Cambodia Journal of Agrarian Change 13 4 520 546 doi 10 1111 j 1471 0366 2012 00368 x Tannenbaum Frank The Mexican Agrarian Revolution 1930 External links EditWritings of a Deliberate Agrarian The New Agrarian Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Agrarianism amp oldid 1172377401, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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