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Ur

March 10, 2023

This article is about the ancient city-state in Mesopotamia. For other uses, see Ur (disambiguation).
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Ur (/ΚŠΙ™r/; Sumerian: π’ŒΆπ’† , 𒋀𒀕𒆠, or π’‹€π’€Šπ’† [1] Urim;[2] Akkadian: 𒋀𒀕𒆠 Uru;[3] Arabic: Ψ£ΩΩˆΩ’Ψ±, romanized:Β ΚΎΕ«r; Hebrew: אוּר, romanized:Β ΚΎΕ«r) was an important Sumerian city-state in ancient Mesopotamia, located at the site of modern Tell el-Muqayyar (Arabic: ΨͺΩ„ Ω±Ω„Ω’Ω…ΩΩ‚ΩŽΩŠΩŽΩ‘Ψ±) in south Iraq's Dhi Qar Governorate in the Arabian Peninsula.[4] Although Ur was once a coastal city near the mouth of the Euphrates on the Persian Gulf, the coastline has shifted and the city is now well inland, on the south bank of the Euphrates, 16 kilometres (9.9 miles) from Nasiriyah in modern-day Iraq.[5] The city dates from the Ubaid period circa 3800Β BC, and is recorded in written history as a city-state from the 26th century BC, its first recorded king being Mesannepada.

Ur
π’ŒΆπ’†  URI5KI, 𒋀𒀕𒆠 URIM2KI or π’‹€π’€Šπ’†  URIM5KI Urim (Sumerian)
𒋀𒀕𒆠 Uru (Akkadian)
Ψ£ΩΩˆΩ’Ψ± ΚΎΕ«r (Arabic)
Ur
Shown within Iraq
Ur
Ur (Near East)
Ur
Ur (West and Central Asia)
LocationTell el-Muqayyar, Dhi Qar Governorate, Iraq
RegionMesopotamia, Middle East
Coordinates30Β°57β€²42β€³N 46Β°06β€²18β€³E / 30.9616529Β°N 46.1051259Β°E / 30.9616529; 46.1051259Coordinates: 30Β°57β€²42β€³N 46Β°06β€²18β€³E / 30.9616529Β°N 46.1051259Β°E / 30.9616529; 46.1051259
TypeSettlement
History
Foundedc. 3800 BC
Abandonedafter 500 BC
PeriodsUbaid period to Iron Age
CulturesSumerian
Site notes
ExcavationΒ dates1853–1854, 1922–1934
ArchaeologistsJohn George Taylor, Charles Leonard Woolley
OfficialΒ nameUr Archaeological City
Part ofAhwar of Southern Iraq
CriteriaMixed:Β (iii)(v)(ix)(x)
Reference1481-006
Inscription2016 (40th Session)
Area71Β ha (0.27Β sqΒ mi)
BufferΒ zone317Β ha (1.22Β sqΒ mi)

The city's patron deity was Nanna (in Akkadian, Sin), the Sumerian and Akkadian moon god, and the name of the city is in origin derived from the god's name, UNUGKI, literally "the abode (UNUG) of Nanna".[5] The site is marked by the partially restored ruins of the Ziggurat of Ur, which contained the shrine of Nanna, excavated in the 1930s. The temple was built in the 21st century BC (short chronology), during the reign of Ur-Nammu and was reconstructed in the 6th century BC by Nabonidus, the last king of Babylon. The ruins cover an area of 1,200 metres (3,900Β ft) northwest to southeast by 800 metres (2,600Β ft) northeast to southwest and rise up to about 20 metres (66Β ft) above the present plain level.[6]

Layout

Β 
Sumer and Elam c. 2350 BC. Ur was located close to the coastline near the mouth of the Euphrates.

The city, said to have been planned by Ur-Nammu, was apparently divided into neighbourhoods, with merchants living in one quarter, artisans in another. There were streets both wide and narrow, and open spaces for gatherings. Many structures for water resource management and flood control are in evidence. Houses were constructed from mudbricks and mud plaster. In major buildings, the masonry was strengthened with bitumen and reeds. For the most part, foundations are all that remain today. People were often buried (separately and alone; sometimes with jewellery, pots, and weapons) in chambers or shafts beneath the house floors.[7]

Β 
The name π’‹€π’€Šπ’†  URIM5KI for "Country of Ur" on a seal of King Ur-Nammu

Ur was surrounded by sloping ramparts 8 metres (26 feet) high and about 25 metres (82 feet) wide, bordered in some places by a brick wall. Elsewhere, buildings were integrated into the ramparts. The Euphrates River complemented these fortifications on the city's western side.[7]

Society and culture

Archaeological discoveries have shown unequivocally that Ur was a major Sumerian urban center on the Mesopotamian plain. Especially the discovery of the Royal Tombs has confirmed its splendour. These tombs, which date to the Early Dynastic IIIa period (approximately in the 25th or 24th century BC), contained an immense treasure of luxury items made of precious metals and semi-precious stones imported from long distances (Ancient Iran, Afghanistan, India, Asia Minor, the Levant and the Persian Gulf).[6] This wealth, unparalleled up to then, is a testimony of Ur's economic importance during the Early Bronze Age.[8]

Archaeological study of the region has contributed greatly to our understanding of the landscape and long-distance interactions during these ancient times. Ur was a major port on the Persian Gulf, which extended much farther inland than today, and the city controlled much of the trade into Mesopotamia. Imports to Ur came from many parts of the world: precious metals such as gold and silver, and semi-precious stones, namely lapis lazuli and carnelian.[7]

It is thought that Ur had a stratified social system including slaves (captured foreigners), farmers, artisans, doctors, scribes, and priests. High-ranking priests apparently enjoyed great luxury and splendid mansions. Tens of thousands of cuneiform texts have been recovered from temples, the palace, and individual houses, recording contracts, inventories, and court documents, evidence of the city's complex economic and legal systems.[7]

Β 
Lizard-headed nude woman nursing a child, from Ur, Ubaid period, c. 4500–4000 BC; Iraq Museum
Β 
Enthroned King Ur-Nammu (c. 2047–2030 BC)

Excavation in the old city of Ur in 1929 revealed the Lyres of Ur, instruments similar to the modern harp but in the shape of a bull and with eleven strings.[9]

Standard of Ur mosaic (c. 2600 BC)
Β 
Β 
The Standard of Ur mosaic, from the royal tombs of Ur, is made of red limestone, bitumen, lapis lazuli, and shell. The "peace" side shows comfort, music, and prosperity.The "war" side of the Standard of Ur shows the king, his armies, and chariots trampling on enemies.

History

Prehistory

When Ur was founded, the Persian Gulf's water level was two-and-a-half metres higher than today. Ur is therefore thought to have had marshy surroundings; irrigation would have been unnecessary, and the city's evident canal system was likely used for transportation. Fish, birds, tubers, and reeds might have supported Ur economically without the need for an agricultural revolution sometimes hypothesized as a prerequisite to urbanization.[10][11]

Archaeologists have discovered the evidence of an early occupation at Ur during the Ubaid period (c. 6500 to 3800 BC). These early levels were sealed off with a sterile deposit of soil that was interpreted by excavators of the 1920s as evidence for the Great Flood of the Book of Genesis and Epic of Gilgamesh. It is now understood that the South Mesopotamian plain was exposed to regular floods from the Euphrates and the Tigris rivers, with heavy erosion from water and wind, which may have given rise to the Mesopotamian and derivative Biblical Great Flood stories.[12][13]

Sumerian occupation of the 4th millennium BC

The further occupation of Ur becomes clear only during its emergence in the third millennium BC (although it must already have been a growing urban center during the fourth millennium). As other Sumerians, the new settlers of Ur were a non-Semitic people who may have come from the east circa 3300 BC, and spoke a language isolate.[14][15] The third millennium BC is generally described as the Early Bronze Age of Mesopotamia, which ends approximately after the demise of the Third Dynasty of Ur in the 21st century BC.

Bronze Age

Main article: First Dynasty of Ur

There are various main sources informing scholars about the importance of Ur during the Early Bronze Age. The First Dynasty of Ur seems to have had great wealth and power, as shown by the lavish remains of the Royal Cemetery at Ur. The Sumerian King List provides a tentative political history of ancient Sumer and mentions, among others, several rulers of Ur. Mesannepada is the first king mentioned in the Sumerian King List, and appears to have lived in the 26th century BC. That Ur was an important urban centre already then seems to be indicated by a type of cylinder seal called the City Seals. These seals contain a set of Proto-Cuneiform signs which appear to be writings or symbols of the name of city-states in ancient Mesopotamia. Many of these seals have been found in Ur, and the name of Ur is prominent on them.[16] Ur came under the control of the Semitic-speaking Akkadian Empire founded by Sargon the Great between the 24th and 22nd centuries BC. This was a period when the Semitic-speaking Akkadians, who had entered Mesopotamia in approximately 3000 BC, gained ascendancy over the Sumerians, and indeed much of the ancient Near East.

  • Β 

    Empire of the Third Dynasty of Ur. West is at top, north at right.

  • Β 

    Gold helmet of King of Ur I Meskalamdug, c. 2600–2500 BC

  • Β 

    Mesopotamian female deity seated on a chair, Old-Babylonian fired clay plaque from Ur

Ur III

Main article: Third Dynasty of Ur
Β 
Map of the world around 2000 BC showing the Third Dynasty of Ur

After a short period of chaos following the fall of the Akkadian Empire the third Ur dynasty was established when the king Ur-Nammu came to power, ruling between c. 2047Β BC and 2030Β BC. During his rule, temples, including the Ziggurat of Ur, were built, and agriculture was improved through irrigation. His code of laws, the Code of Ur-Nammu (a fragment was identified in Istanbul in 1952) is one of the oldest such documents known, preceding the Code of Hammurabi by 300Β years. He and his successor Shulgi were both deified during their reigns, and after his death he continued as a hero-figure: one of the surviving works of Sumerian literature describes the death of Ur-Nammu and his journey to the underworld.[17]

Ur-Nammu was succeeded by Shulgi, the greatest king of the Third Dynasty of Ur, who solidified the hegemony of Ur and reformed the empire into a highly centralized bureaucratic state. Shulgi ruled for a long time (at least 42Β years) and deified himself halfway through his rule.[18]

The Ur empire continued through the reigns of three more kings with Semitic Akkadian names,[12] Amar-Sin, Shu-Sin, and Ibbi-Sin. It fell around 1940Β BC to the Elamites in the 24th regnal year of Ibbi-Sin, an event commemorated by the Lament for Ur.[19][20]

According to one estimate, Ur was the largest city in the world from c. 2030 to 1980Β BC. Its population was approximately 65,000 (or 0.1 per cent share of global population then).[citation needed]

The city of Ur lost its political power after the demise of the Third Dynasty of Ur. Nevertheless, its important position which kept on providing access to the Persian Gulf ensured the ongoing economic importance of the city during the second millennium BC. The city came to be ruled by the first dynasty (Amorite) of Babylon which rose to prominence in southern Mesopotamia in the 19th century BC. After the fall of Hammurabi's short lived Babylonian Empire, it later became a part of the Sealand Dynasty for several centuries. It then came under the control of the Kassites in the 16th century BC.[21]

Iron Age

The city, along with the rest of southern Mesopotamia and much of the Near East, Asia Minor, North Africa and southern Caucasus, fell to the north Mesopotamian Neo-Assyrian Empire from the 10th to late 7th centuries BC. From the end of the 7th century BC Ur was ruled by the so-called Chaldean Dynasty of Babylon. In the 6th century BC there was new construction in Ur under the rule of Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon. The last Babylonian king, Nabonidus (who was Assyrian-born and not a Chaldean), improved the ziggurat. However, the city started to decline from around 530Β BC after Babylonia fell to the Persian Achaemenid Empire, and was no longer inhabited by the early 5th century BC.[12] The demise of Ur was perhaps owing to drought, changing river patterns, and the silting of the outlet to the Persian Gulf.

Identification with the Biblical Ur

Further information: Ur of the Chaldees
Β 
"Abraham's House" in Ur, photographed in 2016

Ur is possibly the city of Ur Kasdim mentioned in the Book of Genesis as the birthplace of the Hebrew and Muslim patriarch Abraham (Ibrahim in Arabic), traditionally believed to have lived some time in the 2nd millennium BC.[22][23][24] There are however conflicting traditions and scholarly opinions identifying Ur Kasdim with the sites of Şanlıurfa, Urkesh, Urartu or Kutha.

The biblical Ur is mentioned four times in the Torah or Hebrew Bible, with the distinction "of the Kasdim/Kasdin"β€”traditionally rendered in English as "Ur of the Chaldees". The Chaldeans had settled in the vicinity by around 850Β BC, but were not extant anywhere in Mesopotamia during the 2nd millennium BC period when Abraham is traditionally held to have lived. The Chaldean dynasty did not rule Babylonia (and thus become the rulers of Ur) until the late 7th century BC, and held power only until the mid 6th century BC. The name is found in Genesis 11:28,[25] Genesis 11:31,[26] and Genesis 15:7.[27] In Nehemiah 9:7, a single passage mentioning Ur is a paraphrase of Genesis.[28]

In March 2021, Pope Francis visited Ur during his journey through Iraq.[29]

Archaeology

Β 
Bitumen "mortar" among Ur's mudbricks
Β 
Circular groups of bricks excavated in 1900

In 1625, the site was visited by Pietro Della Valle, who recorded the presence of ancient bricks stamped with strange symbols, cemented together with bitumen, as well as inscribed pieces of black marble that appeared to be seals. European archaeologists did not identify Tell el-Muqayyar as the site of Ur until Henry Rawlinson successfully deciphered some bricks from that location, brought to England by William Loftus in 1849.[30]

The site was first excavated in 1853 and 1854, on behalf of the British Museum and with instructions from the Foreign Office, by John George Taylor, British vice consul at Basra from 1851 to 1859.[31][32][33] Taylor uncovered the Ziggurat of Ur and a structure with an arch later identified as part of the "Gate of Judgment".[34]

In the four corners of the ziggurat's top stage, Taylor found clay cylinders bearing an inscription of Nabonidus (Nabuna`id), the last king of Babylon (539 BC), closing with a prayer for his son Belshar-uzur (Bel-ŝarra-Uzur), the Belshazzar of the Book of Daniel. Evidence was found of prior restorations of the ziggurat by Ishme-Dagan of Isin and Shu-Sin of Ur, and by Kurigalzu, a Kassite king of Babylon in the 14th century BC. Nebuchadnezzar also claims to have rebuilt the temple.[35]

Taylor further excavated an interesting Babylonian building, not far from the temple, part of an ancient Babylonian necropolis. All about the city he found abundant remains of burials of later periods. Apparently, in later times, owing to its sanctity, Ur became a favorite place of sepulchres, so that even after it had ceased to be inhabited, it continued to be used as a necropolis.[35] Typical of the era, his excavations destroyed information and exposed the tell. Natives used the now loosened, 4,000-year-old bricks and tile for construction for the next 75Β years, while the site lay unexplored,[36] the British Museum having decided to prioritize archaeology in Assyria.[34]

After Taylor's time, the site was visited by numerous travellers, almost all of whom have found ancient Babylonian remains, inscribed stones and the like, lying upon the surface.[35] The site was considered rich in remains, and relatively easy to explore. After some soundings were made in 1918 by Reginald Campbell Thompson, H. R. Hall worked the site for one season for the British Museum in 1919, laying the groundwork for more extensive efforts to follow.[37][38]

Β 
Aerial photograph of Ur in 1927

Excavations from 1922 to 1934 were funded by the British Museum and the University of Pennsylvania and led by the archaeologist Sir Charles Leonard Woolley.[39][36][40] A total of about 1,850 burials were uncovered, including 16 that were described as "royal tombs" containing many valuable artifacts, including the Standard of Ur. Most of the royal tombs were dated to about 2600Β BC. The finds included the unlooted tomb of a queen thought to be Queen Puabi[41]β€”the name is known from a cylinder seal found in the tomb, although there were two other different and unnamed seals found in the tomb. Many other people had been buried with her, in a form of human sacrifice.[42] Near the ziggurat were uncovered the temple E-nun-mah and buildings E-dub-lal-mah (built for a king), E-gi-par (residence of the high priestess) and E-hur-sag (a temple building).

Outside the temple area, many houses used in everyday life were found. Excavations were also made below the royal tombs layer: a 3.5-metre-thick (11Β ft) layer of alluvial clay covered the remains of earlier habitation, including pottery from the Ubaid period, the first stage of settlement in southern Mesopotamia. Woolley later wrote many articles and books about the discoveries.[43] One of Woolley's assistants on the site was the British archaeologist Max Mallowan.

The discoveries at the site reached the headlines in mainstream media in the world with the discoveries of the Royal Tombs. As a result, the ruins of the ancient city attracted many visitors. One of these visitors was the already famous Agatha Christie, who as a result of this visit ended up marrying Max Mallowan.[44][45] During this time the site was accessible from the Baghdad–Basra railway, from a stop called "Ur Junction".[46]

In 2009, an agreement was reached for a joint University of Pennsylvania and Iraqi team to resume archaeological work at the site of Ur.[47] Excavations began in 2015 under the direction of Elizabeth C Stone and Paul Zimansky of the State University of New York. The first excavation season was primarily to re-excavate Woolley's work in an Old Babylonian housing area with two new trenches for confirmation. Among other finds a cylinder seal, a cuneiform tablet, and balance pan weights were found. A similar though smaller dig was made in a Neo-Babylonian housing area. [48][49]

The Royal Tomb Excavation

When the Royal Tombs at Ur were discovered, their size was unknown. Excavators started digging two trenches in the middle of the desert to see if they could find anything that would allow them to keep digging. They split into two teams - A and team B. Both teams spent the first few months digging a trench and found evidence of burial grounds by collecting small pieces of golden jewelry and pottery. This was called the "gold trench". After the first season of digging finished, Woolley returned to England. In Autumn, Woolley returned and started the second season. By the end of the second season, he had uncovered a courtyard surrounded by many rooms.[50] In their third season of digging archaeologists had uncovered their biggest find yet, a building that was believed to have been constructed by order of the king, and a second building thought to be where the high priestess lived. As the fourth and fifth season came to a close, they had discovered so many items that most of their time was now spent recording the objects they found instead of actually digging objects.[51] Items included gold jewelry, clay pots and stones. One of the most significant objects was the Standard of Ur. By the end of their sixth season they had excavated 1850 burial sites and deemed 17 of them to be "Royal Tombs".[52] Some clay sealings and cuneiform tablet fragment were found in an underlying layer.[53]

Woolley finished his work excavating the Royal Tombs in 1934, uncovering a series of burials. Many servants were killed and buried with the royals, who he believed went to their deaths willingly. Computerized tomography scans on some of the surviving skulls have showed signs that they were killed by blows to the head that could be from the spiked end of a copper axe, which showed Woolley's initial theory of mass suicide via poison to be incorrect.[54]

Inside Puabi's tomb there was a chest in the middle of the room. Underneath that chest was a hole in the ground that led to what was called the "King's Grave": PG-789. It was believed to be the king's grave because it was buried next to the queen. In this grave, there were 63 attendants who were all equipped with copper helmets and swords. It is thought to be his army buried with him. Another large room was uncovered, PG-1237, called the "Great death pit".[55] This large room had 74 bodies, 68 of which were women. There were only two artifacts in the tomb, both of which were Lyres.[citation needed]

Β 
Reconstructed Sumerian headgear and necklaces found in the tomb of Puabi in the "Royal tombs" of Ur.

Most of the treasures excavated at Ur are in the British Museum, the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology and the Baghdad Museum. At the Penn Museum the exhibition "Iraq's Ancient Past",[56] which includes many of the most famous pieces from the Royal Tombs, opened to visitors in late Spring 2011. Previously, the Penn Museum had sent many of its best pieces from Ur on tour in an exhibition called "Treasures From the Royal Tombs of Ur." It traveled to eight American museums, including those in Cleveland, Washington and Dallas, ending the tour at the Detroit Institute of Art in May 2011.[citation needed]

Samples from two stratigraphic layers in the royal cemetery area, from before the royal burials, have been radiocarbon dated. The ED Ia layer dated to c. 2900 BC and the ED Ic layer to c. 2679 BC.[57][58]

Archaeological remains

Β 
U.S. soldiers ascend the reconstructed Ziggurat of Ur in May 2010

Though some of the areas that were cleared during modern excavations have sanded over again, the Great Ziggurat is fully cleared and stands as the best-preserved and most visible landmark at the site.[59] The famous Royal tombs, also called the Neo-Sumerian Mausolea, located about 250 metres (820Β ft) south-east of the Great Ziggurat in the corner of the wall that surrounds the city, are nearly totally cleared. Parts of the tomb area appear to be in need of structural consolidation or stabilization.[citation needed]

There are cuneiform (Sumerian writing) on many walls, some entirely covered in script stamped into the mud-bricks. The text is sometimes difficult to read, but it covers most surfaces. Modern graffiti has also found its way to the graves, usually in the form of names made with coloured pens (sometimes they are carved). The Great Ziggurat itself has far more graffiti, mostly lightly carved into the bricks. The graves are completely empty. A small number of the tombs are accessible. Most of them have been cordoned off. The whole site is covered with pottery debris, to the extent that it is virtually impossible to set foot anywhere without stepping on some. Some have colours and paintings on them. Some of the "mountains" of broken pottery are debris that has been removed from excavations. Pottery debris and human remains form many of the walls of the royal tombs area. In May 2009, the United States Army returned the Ur site to the Iraqi authorities, who hope to develop it as a tourist destination.[60]

Preservation

Β 
Wall plaque from Ur, 2500 BC; the British Museum

Since 2009, the non-profit organization Global Heritage Fund (GHF) has been working to protect and preserve Ur against the problems of erosion, neglect, inappropriate restoration, war and conflict. GHF's stated goal for the project is to create an informed and scientifically grounded Master Plan to guide the long-term conservation and management of the site, and to serve as a model for the stewardship of other sites.[61]

Since 2013, the institution for Development Cooperation of the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs DGCS[62] and the SBAH, the State Board of Antiquities and Heritage of the Iraqi Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, have started a cooperation project for "The Conservation and Maintenance of Archaeological site of UR". In the framework of this cooperation agreement, the executive plan, with detailed drawings, is in progress for the maintenance of the Dublamah Temple (design concluded, works starting), the Royal Tombsβ€”Mausolea 3rd Dynasty (in progress)β€”and the Ziqqurat (in progress). The first updated survey in 2013 has produced a new aerial map derived by the flight of a UAV (unmanned aerial vehicle) operated in March 2014. This is the first high-resolution map, derived from more than 100 aerial photograms, with an accuracy of 20Β cm or less. A preview of the ORTHO-PHOTOMAP of Archaeological Site of UR is available online.[63]

Tal Abu Tbeirah

Since 2012, a joint team of Italian and Iraqi archaeologists led by Franco D'Agostino have been excavating at Tal Abu Tbeirah, located 15 kilometers east of Ur and 7 kilometers south of Nasariyah (30Β° 98β€² 43.93β€²β€² E, 46Β° 26β€² 97.35β€²β€² N).[64][65][66][67][68] The site, about 45 hectares in area divided into four sectors by an ancient channel, appears to have been a harbor and trading center associated with Ur in the later half of the 3rd Millennium BC.[69] The site was a medium sized city in the Early Dynastic period but shrank down to a small area in the northeast sector in the Ur III and Old Babylonian periods.[70][71] Among the finds was a large perforated potter's wheel and two bricks inscribed with the name of Ur III king Amar-Sin.[72][73]

See also

References

Notes:

  1. ^ Literal transliteration: Urim2 = Ε EΕ . ABgunu = Ε EΕ .UNUG (𒋀𒀕) and Urim5 = Ε EΕ .AB (π’‹€π’€Š), where Ε EΕ =URI3 (The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature.)
  2. ^ S. N. Kramer (1963). The Sumerians, Their History, Culture, and Character. University of Chicago Press, pages 28 and 298.
  3. ^ The Cambridge Ancient History: Prolegomena & Prehistory. Vol. 1, Part 1. p. 149. Accessed 15 Dec 2010.
  4. ^ Tell el-Muqayyar: in Arabic Tell means 'mound' or 'hill' and Muqayyar means 'built of bitumen'. Muqayyar is variously transcribed as Mugheir, Mughair, Moghair, etc.
  5. ^ a b Erich Ebeling, Bruno Meissner, Dietz Otto Edzard (1997). Meek – Mythologie. Reallexikon der Assyriologie. (in German) p.Β 360 (of 589 pages). ISBNΒ 978-3-11-014809-1.
  6. ^ a b Zettler, R. L.; Horne, L., eds. (1998), Treasures from the Royal Tombs of Ur, University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology
  7. ^ a b c d Joan Goodnick Westenholz (1996), "Ur – Capital of Sumer", Royal Cities of the Biblical World, Jerusalem: Bible Lands Museum, ISBNΒ 965-7027-01-2
  8. ^ Aruz, J., ed. (2003), Art of the First Cities. The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus, New York, the U.S.A.: The Metropolitan Museum of Art
  9. ^ Galpin, F. W. (1929). "The Sumerian Harp of Ur, c. 3500 B. C." Music & Letters. Oxford University Press. 10 (2): 108–123. doi:10.1093/ml/X.2.108. ISSNΒ 0027-4224. JSTORΒ 726035. Retrieved 25 February 2022.
  10. ^ Jennifer R. Pournelle, "KLM to CORONA: A Bird's Eye View of Cultural Ecology and Early Mesopotamian Urbanization"; in Settlement and Society: Essays Dedicated to Robert McCormick Adams ed. Elizabeth C. Stone; Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, UCLA, and Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 2007.
  11. ^ Crawford 2015, p. 5.
  12. ^ a b c Georges Roux – Ancient Iraq
  13. ^ "Secrets of Noah's Ark - Transcript". Nova. PBS. 7 October 2015. Retrieved 27 May 2019.
  14. ^ "The Sumerians, a non-Semitic people who perhaps came from the east" in Curtis, Adrian (2009). Oxford Bible Atlas. Oxford University Press. p.Β 16. ISBNΒ 9780191623325.. Mention of Gen 11:2 "And as people migrated from the east, they found a plain in the land of Shinar and settled there." (English Standard Version)
  15. ^ Bromiley, Geoffrey W. (1979). The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p.Β 392. ISBNΒ 9780802837813.
  16. ^ Matthews, R.J. (1993). Cities, Seals and Writing: Archaic Seal Impressions from Jemdet Nasr and Ur, Berlin.
  17. ^ AmΓ©lie Kuhrt (1995). The Ancient Near East: C.3000-330Β B.C. Routledge. ISBNΒ 0-415-16762-0.
  18. ^ Potts, D. T. (1999). The Archaeology of Elam. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p.Β 132. ISBNΒ 0-521-56496-4. Retrieved 16 May 2015.
  19. ^ Ur III Period (2112–2004Β BC) by Douglas Frayne, University of Toronto Press, 1997, ISBNΒ 0-8020-4198-1
  20. ^ Dahl, Jacob Lebovitch (2003). (PDF). UCLA dissertation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-05-12.
  21. ^ Brinkman, John Anthony. "Ur:" The Kassite Period and the Period of the Assyrian Kings"." (1969): 310-348
  22. ^ Salaheddin, Sinan (April 4, 2013). "Home of Abraham, Ur, unearthed by archaeologists in Iraq". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved July 15, 2017.
  23. ^ McLerran, Dan (June 23, 2011). . Popular Archaeology. 3. Archived from the original on June 18, 2017. Retrieved July 15, 2017.
  24. ^ "Journey of Faith". National Geographic Magazine. May 15, 2012. Retrieved July 15, 2017.
  25. ^ Genesis 11:28
  26. ^ Genesis 11:31
  27. ^ Genesis 15:7
  28. ^ Nehemiah 9:7
  29. ^ "Pope calls on Christians of Qaraqosh, city ravaged by IS fighters, to 'forgive'". France 24. 2021-03-07. from the original on 2021-03-07. Retrieved 2021-03-14.
  30. ^ Crawford 2015, p. 3.
  31. ^ J.E. Taylor, "Notes on the Ruins of Muqeyer", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. 15, pp. 260–276, 1855.
  32. ^ JE Taylor, "Notes on Abu Shahrein and Tel-el-Lahm", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. 15, pp. 404–415, 1855. [In the relevant publications he is erroneously listed as J. E. Taylor].
  33. ^ E. Sollberger, "Mr. Taylor in Chaldaea", Anatolian Studies, vol. 22, pp. 129–139, 1972.
  34. ^ a b Crawford 2015, p. 4.
  35. ^ a b c Peters, John Punnett (1911). "Ur"Β . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). EncyclopΓ¦dia Britannica. Vol.Β 27 (11thΒ ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp.Β 783–784.
  36. ^ a b Leonard Woolley, Excavations at Ur: A Record of Twelve Years' Work, Apollo, 1965, ISBNΒ 0-8152-0110-9.
  37. ^ H. R. Hall, "The Excavations of 1919 at Ur, el-'Obeid, and Eridu, and the History of Early Babylonia", Man, Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. 25, pp. 1–7, 1925.
  38. ^ H. R. Hall, "Ur and Eridu: The British Museum Excavations of 1919", Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, vol. 9, no. 3/4, pp. 177–195, 1923.
  39. ^ Leonard Woolley, Ur: The First Phases, Penguin, 1946.
  40. ^ Leonard Woolley and P. R. S. Moorey, Ur of the Chaldees: A Revised and Updated Edition of Sir Leonard Woolley's Excavations at Ur, Cornell University Press, 1982, ISBNΒ 0-8014-1518-7.
  41. ^ Queen Puabi is also written Pu-Abi and formerly transcribed as Shub-ab.
  42. ^ Zimmerman, Paul C. (2021). Two Tombs or Three? PG 789 and PG 800 Again! (PDF). Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 71. Chicago: The Oriental Institute. pp.Β 283–296. ISBNΒ 978-1-61491-063-3.
  43. ^ Beck, Roger B.; Linda Black; Larry S. Krieger; Phillip C. Naylor; Dahia Ibo Shabaka (1999). World History: Patterns of Interaction. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell. ISBNΒ 0-395-87274-X.
  44. ^ Brunsdale, Mitzi M. (26 July 2010). Icons of Mystery and Crime Detection: From Sleuths to Superheroes [2 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p.Β 143. ISBNΒ 978-0-313-34531-9. Retrieved 25 February 2022.
  45. ^ "The World This Weekend - Sir Max Mallowan". BBC Archive. Retrieved 25 February 2022.
  46. ^ Crawford 2015. p. 5. "It used to be close to the Basra to Baghdad railway, part of the proposed Berlin to Basra line that was never completed. It was possible to get off the train from Baghdad at the grandly named Ur Junction, where a branch line turned off to Nasariyah, and drive a mere two miles across the desert to the site itself, but the station was closed sometime after the Second World War, leaving a long, hot journey in a four-wheeled vehicle as the only option."
  47. ^ Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty – Free Media in Unfree Societies U.S. Archaeologists To Excavate In Iraq
  48. ^ Stone, Elizabeth C; Zimansky, Paul, Archaeology Returns to Ur: A New Dialog with Old Houses, Near Eastern Archaeology; Chicago, vol. 79, iss. 4, pp. 246-259 Dec 2016
  49. ^ Grant Frame, Joshua Jeffers and Holly Pittman ed., "Ur in the Twenty-First Century CE", "Proceedings of the 62nd Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale at Philadelphia, July 11–15, 2016", Penn State University Press, 2021 ISBNΒ 9781646021512
  50. ^ "The Royal Tombs of Ur – Story". Mesopotamia.co.uk. Retrieved 2016-12-04.
  51. ^ Hauptmann, Andreas, Klein, Sabine, Paoletti, Paola, Zettler, Richard L. and Jansen, Moritz. "Types of Gold, Types of Silver: The Composition of Precious Metal Artifacts Found in the Royal Tombs of Ur, Mesopotamia" Zeitschrift fΓΌr Assyriologie und vorderasiatische ArchΓ€ologie, vol. 108, no. 1, 2018, pp. 100-131
  52. ^ Royal Tombs
  53. ^ Benati, Giacomo and Lecompte, Camille. "From Field Cards to Cuneiform Archives: Two Inscribed Artifacts from Archaic Ur and Their Archaeological Context" Zeitschrift fΓΌr Assyriologie und vorderasiatische ArchΓ€ologie, vol. 106, no. 1, 2016, pp. 1-15
  54. ^ McCorriston Joy, Field Julie (2019). World Prehistory and the Anthropocene An Introduction to Human History. New York: Thames & Hudson Inc. pp.Β 286–287. ISBNΒ 978-0-500-843185.
  55. ^ Great death pit
  56. ^ "Iraq's Ancient Past: Rediscovering Ur's Royal Cemetery". Penn.museum. Retrieved 11 August 2017.
  57. ^ Camille Lecompte, and Giacomo Benati, "Nonadministrative Documents from Archaic Ur and from Early Dynastic I–II Mesopotamia: A New Textual and Archaeological Analysis", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 69, pp. 3–31, 2017
  58. ^ Wencel, M. M., "Radiocarbon Dating of Early Dynastic Mesopotamia: Results, Limitations, and Prospects", Radiocarbon 59, pp. 635–45, 2017
  59. ^ "Soldiers visit historical ruins of Ur", Nov 18, 2009, by 13th Sustainment Command Expeditionary Public Affairs, web: Army-595.
  60. ^ "US returns Ur, birthplace of Abraham, to Iraq". AFP. 2009-05-14. Retrieved 2009-09-12.
  61. ^ Ur perservation project at the Global Heritage Fund
  62. ^ Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs DGCS Ur funding
  63. ^ . Archived from the original on 2016-12-20. Retrieved 2016-12-10.
  64. ^ Franco D'Agostino et al, ABU TBEIRAH. PRELIMINARY REPORT OF THE FIRST CAMPAIGN (JANUARY-MARCH 2012), Rivista degli studi orientali, Nuova Serie, vol. 84, Fasc. 1/4, pp. 17–34, 2011
  65. ^ Franco D'Agostino et al, Abu Tbeirah. Preliminary report of the second campaign (October–December 2012), Rivista degli studi orientali, vol. 86(1), pp. 69–91, 2013
  66. ^ Franco D'Agostino et al, Abu Theirah, Nasiriyah (Southern Iraq): Preliminary report on the 2013 excavation campaign, ISIMU 13, pp. 209–221, 2011
  67. ^ Licia Romano and Franco D'Agostino, Abu Tbeirah Excavations I. Area 1: Last Phase and Building A – Phase 1, Sapienza UniversitΓ  Editrice, Jun 7, 2019 ISBNΒ 9788893771085 [1]
  68. ^ D’Agostino, F., Romano, L., "Seven excavation campaigns at Abu Tbeirah.", In: Otto, A., Herles, M., Kaniuth, K., Korn, L., Heidenreich, A. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 11th International Congress on the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East: vol. 2: Field Reports, Islamic Archaeology. Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden, Germany, pp. 69–80, 2020
  69. ^ Archaeologists Glance Into Fox Burrow in Iraq, Find 4,000-year-old Sumerian Port
  70. ^ [2]Forti, Luca, et al. "The paleoenvironment and depositional context of the Sumerian site of Abu Tbeirah (Nasiriyah, southern Mesopotamia, Iraq)." Quaternary Research, pp. 1-19, 2022
  71. ^ Cereda, S., Romano, L., "Peering into the dusty corners: micro-debris analysis and use of space at the site of Abu Tbeirah (Nasiriyah, Iraq).", Iraq 80, pp. 79-111, 2018
  72. ^ Romano, Licia. "A Fragment of a Potter’s Wheel from Abu Tbeirah" Zeitschrift fΓΌr Assyriologie und vorderasiatische ArchΓ€ologie, vol. 105, no. 2, 2015, pp. 220-234.
  73. ^ D’Agostino, F., Romano, L., "Two new inscribed bricks from Abu Tbeirah (southern Iraq).", In: Arkhipov, I., Kogan, L., Koslova, N. (Eds.), The Third Millennium. Studies in Early Mesopotamia and Syria in Honor of Walter Sommerfeld and Manfred Krebernik. Series: Cuneiform Monographs, vol. 50. Brill, Leiden, Boston, pp. 259–269, 2020

Bibliography:

  • Black, J. and Spada, G., "Texts from Ur: Kept in the Iraq Museum and the British Museum.", Nisaba 19, Messina: Dipartimento di Scienze dell’AntichitΓ‘ 2008
  • Crawford, Harriet. Ur: The City of the Moon God. London: Bloomsbury, 2015. ISBNΒ 978-1-47252-419-5
  • D’Agostino, F., Pomponio, F., and Laurito, R., "Neo-Sumerian Texts from Ur in the British Museum.", Nisaba 5, Messina: Dipartimento di Scienze dell’AntichitΓ‘, 2004
  • C. J. Gadd. History and monuments of Ur, Chatto & Windus, 1929 (Dutton 1980 reprint: ISBNΒ 0-405-08545-1).
  • P. R. S. Morrey. "Where Did They Bury the Kings of the IIIrd Dynasty of Ur?", Iraq, vol. 46, no. 1, pp.Β 1–18, 1984.
  • P.R.S. Morrey. ”What Do We Know About the People Buried in the Royal Cemetery?”, Expedition Magazine, Penn Museum, vol. 20, iss. 1, pp.Β 24–40, 1977
  • J. Oates, "Ur and Eridu: The Prehistory", Iraq, vol. 22, pp.Β 32–50, 1960.
  • Pardo Mata, Pilar, "Ur, ciudad de los sumerios". Cuenca: Alderaban, 2006. ISBNΒ 978-84-95414-38-0.
  • Susan Pollock, β€œChronology of the Royal Cemetery of Ur”, Iraq, vol. 47, pp.Β 129–158, British Institute for the Study of Iraq, 1985
  • Susan Pollock, β€œOf Priestesses, Princes and Poor Relations: The Dead in the Royal Cemetery of Ur”, Cambridge Archaeological Journal, vol. 1, iss. 2, 1991
  • Licia Romano and Franco D'Agostino, "Abu Tbeirah Excavations I. Area 1: Last Phase and Building A – Phase 1", Sapienza UniversitΓ  Editrice, Jun 7, 2019, ISBNΒ 9788893771085
  • [3] Leon Legrain, "Ur Excavations III: Archaic seal-impressions", Publications of the Joint Expedition of the British Museum and of the University Museum, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, to MesopotamiaΒ : Ur excavations, Oxford University Press, 1936
  • Wencel, M. M., "New radiocarbon dates from southern Mesopotamia (Fara and Ur)", Iraq, 80, pp. 251-261, 2018
  • [4]Woolley, Leonard, "Ur Excavations II. The Royal Cemetery", Plates, Publications of the Joint Expedition of the British Museum and of the University Museum, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, to MesopotamiaΒ : Ur excavations, Oxford University Press, 1927
    • , Oxford University Press, 1927.
    • , Oxford University Press, 1927.
    • with M.E.L. Mallowan (ed. T. C. Mitchell): , Oxford University Press, 1927
    • (ed. T. C. Mitchell), , Oxford University Press, 1927
    • with M.E.L. Mallowan (ed. T. C. Mitchell),: , Oxford University Press, 1927
    • Ur of the Chaldees: A record of seven years of excavation. Ernest Benn Limited, 1920.

External links

  • City of the Moon New Excavations at Ur - Penn Museum - 2017
  • An exploration of the Royal Tombs of Ur, with a comprehensive selection of high-resolution photographs detailing the treasures found in the tombs
  • Explore some of the Royal Tombs, Mesopotamia website from the British Museum
  • Treasures from the Royal Tombs of Ur
  • British Museum and Penn Museum Ur site – has field reports
  • Jewish Encyclopedia: Ur
  • Ur Excavations of the University of Pennsylvania Museum
  • At Ur, Ritual Deaths That Were Anything but Serene on The New York Times
  • Web site for new Iraqi/Italian dig

March 10, 2023
this, article, about, ancient, city, state, mesopotamia, other, uses, disambiguation, this, article, contains, special, characters, without, proper, rendering, support, question, marks, boxes, other, symbols, ΚŠΙ™r, sumerian, π’ŒΆπ’† , 𒋀𒀕𒆠, π’‹€π’€Šπ’† , akkadian, 𒋀𒀕𒆠, arabic,. This article is about the ancient city state in Mesopotamia For other uses see Ur disambiguation This article contains special characters Without proper rendering support you may see question marks boxes or other symbols Ur ʊer Sumerian π’ŒΆπ’†  𒋀𒀕𒆠 or π’‹€π’€Šπ’†  1 Urim 2 Akkadian 𒋀𒀕𒆠 Uru 3 Arabic Ψ£ و Ψ± romanized ΚΎur Hebrew או Χ¨ romanized ΚΎur was an important Sumerian city state in ancient Mesopotamia located at the site of modern Tell el Muqayyar Arabic ΨͺΩ„ Ω±Ω„ Ω… Ω‚ ي Ψ± in south Iraq s Dhi Qar Governorate in the Arabian Peninsula 4 Although Ur was once a coastal city near the mouth of the Euphrates on the Persian Gulf the coastline has shifted and the city is now well inland on the south bank of the Euphrates 16 kilometres 9 9 miles from Nasiriyah in modern day Iraq 5 The city dates from the Ubaid period circa 3800 BC and is recorded in written history as a city state from the 26th century BC its first recorded king being Mesannepada Urπ’ŒΆπ’†  URI5KI 𒋀𒀕𒆠 URIM2KI or π’‹€π’€Šπ’†  URIM5KI Urim Sumerian 𒋀𒀕𒆠 Uru Akkadian Ψ£ و Ψ± ΚΎur Arabic Ziggurat of UrUrShown within IraqShow map of IraqUrUr Near East Show map of Near EastUrUr West and Central Asia Show map of West and Central AsiaLocationTell el Muqayyar Dhi Qar Governorate IraqRegionMesopotamia Middle EastCoordinates30 57 42 N 46 06 18 E 30 9616529 N 46 1051259 E 30 9616529 46 1051259 Coordinates 30 57 42 N 46 06 18 E 30 9616529 N 46 1051259 E 30 9616529 46 1051259TypeSettlementHistoryFoundedc 3800 BCAbandonedafter 500 BCPeriodsUbaid period to Iron AgeCulturesSumerianSite notesExcavation dates1853 1854 1922 1934ArchaeologistsJohn George Taylor Charles Leonard WoolleyUNESCO World Heritage SiteOfficial nameUr Archaeological CityPart ofAhwar of Southern IraqCriteriaMixed iii v ix x Reference1481 006Inscription2016 40th Session Area71 ha 0 27 sq mi Buffer zone317 ha 1 22 sq mi The city s patron deity was Nanna in Akkadian Sin the Sumerian and Akkadian moon god and the name of the city is in origin derived from the god s name UNUGKI literally the abode UNUG of Nanna 5 The site is marked by the partially restored ruins of the Ziggurat of Ur which contained the shrine of Nanna excavated in the 1930s The temple was built in the 21st century BC short chronology during the reign of Ur Nammu and was reconstructed in the 6th century BC by Nabonidus the last king of Babylon The ruins cover an area of 1 200 metres 3 900 ft northwest to southeast by 800 metres 2 600 ft northeast to southwest and rise up to about 20 metres 66 ft above the present plain level 6 Contents 1 Layout 2 Society and culture 3 History 3 1 Prehistory 3 1 1 Sumerian occupation of the 4th millennium BC 3 2 Bronze Age 3 2 1 Ur III 3 3 Iron Age 4 Identification with the Biblical Ur 5 Archaeology 5 1 The Royal Tomb Excavation 5 2 Archaeological remains 5 3 Preservation 6 Tal Abu Tbeirah 7 See also 8 References 9 External linksLayout Edit Sumer and Elam c 2350 BC Ur was located close to the coastline near the mouth of the Euphrates The city said to have been planned by Ur Nammu was apparently divided into neighbourhoods with merchants living in one quarter artisans in another There were streets both wide and narrow and open spaces for gatherings Many structures for water resource management and flood control are in evidence Houses were constructed from mudbricks and mud plaster In major buildings the masonry was strengthened with bitumen and reeds For the most part foundations are all that remain today People were often buried separately and alone sometimes with jewellery pots and weapons in chambers or shafts beneath the house floors 7 The name π’‹€π’€Šπ’†  URIM5KI for Country of Ur on a seal of King Ur Nammu Ur was surrounded by sloping ramparts 8 metres 26 feet high and about 25 metres 82 feet wide bordered in some places by a brick wall Elsewhere buildings were integrated into the ramparts The Euphrates River complemented these fortifications on the city s western side 7 Society and culture EditArchaeological discoveries have shown unequivocally that Ur was a major Sumerian urban center on the Mesopotamian plain Especially the discovery of the Royal Tombs has confirmed its splendour These tombs which date to the Early Dynastic IIIa period approximately in the 25th or 24th century BC contained an immense treasure of luxury items made of precious metals and semi precious stones imported from long distances Ancient Iran Afghanistan India Asia Minor the Levant and the Persian Gulf 6 This wealth unparalleled up to then is a testimony of Ur s economic importance during the Early Bronze Age 8 Archaeological study of the region has contributed greatly to our understanding of the landscape and long distance interactions during these ancient times Ur was a major port on the Persian Gulf which extended much farther inland than today and the city controlled much of the trade into Mesopotamia Imports to Ur came from many parts of the world precious metals such as gold and silver and semi precious stones namely lapis lazuli and carnelian 7 It is thought that Ur had a stratified social system including slaves captured foreigners farmers artisans doctors scribes and priests High ranking priests apparently enjoyed great luxury and splendid mansions Tens of thousands of cuneiform texts have been recovered from temples the palace and individual houses recording contracts inventories and court documents evidence of the city s complex economic and legal systems 7 Lizard headed nude woman nursing a child from Ur Ubaid period c 4500 4000 BC Iraq Museum Enthroned King Ur Nammu c 2047 2030 BC Excavation in the old city of Ur in 1929 revealed the Lyres of Ur instruments similar to the modern harp but in the shape of a bull and with eleven strings 9 Standard of Ur mosaic c 2600 BC The Standard of Ur mosaic from the royal tombs of Ur is made of red limestone bitumen lapis lazuli and shell The peace side shows comfort music and prosperity The war side of the Standard of Ur shows the king his armies and chariots trampling on enemies History EditPrehistory Edit When Ur was founded the Persian Gulf s water level was two and a half metres higher than today Ur is therefore thought to have had marshy surroundings irrigation would have been unnecessary and the city s evident canal system was likely used for transportation Fish birds tubers and reeds might have supported Ur economically without the need for an agricultural revolution sometimes hypothesized as a prerequisite to urbanization 10 11 Archaeologists have discovered the evidence of an early occupation at Ur during the Ubaid period c 6500 to 3800 BC These early levels were sealed off with a sterile deposit of soil that was interpreted by excavators of the 1920s as evidence for the Great Flood of the Book of Genesis and Epic of Gilgamesh It is now understood that the South Mesopotamian plain was exposed to regular floods from the Euphrates and the Tigris rivers with heavy erosion from water and wind which may have given rise to the Mesopotamian and derivative Biblical Great Flood stories 12 13 Sumerian occupation of the 4th millennium BC Edit The further occupation of Ur becomes clear only during its emergence in the third millennium BC although it must already have been a growing urban center during the fourth millennium As other Sumerians the new settlers of Ur were a non Semitic people who may have come from the east circa 3300 BC and spoke a language isolate 14 15 The third millennium BC is generally described as the Early Bronze Age of Mesopotamia which ends approximately after the demise of the Third Dynasty of Ur in the 21st century BC Bronze Age Edit Main article First Dynasty of Ur There are various main sources informing scholars about the importance of Ur during the Early Bronze Age The First Dynasty of Ur seems to have had great wealth and power as shown by the lavish remains of the Royal Cemetery at Ur The Sumerian King List provides a tentative political history of ancient Sumer and mentions among others several rulers of Ur Mesannepada is the first king mentioned in the Sumerian King List and appears to have lived in the 26th century BC That Ur was an important urban centre already then seems to be indicated by a type of cylinder seal called the City Seals These seals contain a set of Proto Cuneiform signs which appear to be writings or symbols of the name of city states in ancient Mesopotamia Many of these seals have been found in Ur and the name of Ur is prominent on them 16 Ur came under the control of the Semitic speaking Akkadian Empire founded by Sargon the Great between the 24th and 22nd centuries BC This was a period when the Semitic speaking Akkadians who had entered Mesopotamia in approximately 3000 BC gained ascendancy over the Sumerians and indeed much of the ancient Near East Empire of the Third Dynasty of Ur West is at top north at right Gold helmet of King of Ur I Meskalamdug c 2600 2500 BC Mesopotamian female deity seated on a chair Old Babylonian fired clay plaque from UrUr III Edit Main article Third Dynasty of Ur Map of the world around 2000 BC showing the Third Dynasty of Ur After a short period of chaos following the fall of the Akkadian Empire the third Ur dynasty was established when the king Ur Nammu came to power ruling between c 2047 BC and 2030 BC During his rule temples including the Ziggurat of Ur were built and agriculture was improved through irrigation His code of laws the Code of Ur Nammu a fragment was identified in Istanbul in 1952 is one of the oldest such documents known preceding the Code of Hammurabi by 300 years He and his successor Shulgi were both deified during their reigns and after his death he continued as a hero figure one of the surviving works of Sumerian literature describes the death of Ur Nammu and his journey to the underworld 17 Ur Nammu was succeeded by Shulgi the greatest king of the Third Dynasty of Ur who solidified the hegemony of Ur and reformed the empire into a highly centralized bureaucratic state Shulgi ruled for a long time at least 42 years and deified himself halfway through his rule 18 The Ur empire continued through the reigns of three more kings with Semitic Akkadian names 12 Amar Sin Shu Sin and Ibbi Sin It fell around 1940 BC to the Elamites in the 24th regnal year of Ibbi Sin an event commemorated by the Lament for Ur 19 20 According to one estimate Ur was the largest city in the world from c 2030 to 1980 BC Its population was approximately 65 000 or 0 1 per cent share of global population then citation needed The city of Ur lost its political power after the demise of the Third Dynasty of Ur Nevertheless its important position which kept on providing access to the Persian Gulf ensured the ongoing economic importance of the city during the second millennium BC The city came to be ruled by the first dynasty Amorite of Babylon which rose to prominence in southern Mesopotamia in the 19th century BC After the fall of Hammurabi s short lived Babylonian Empire it later became a part of the Sealand Dynasty for several centuries It then came under the control of the Kassites in the 16th century BC 21 Iron Age EditThe city along with the rest of southern Mesopotamia and much of the Near East Asia Minor North Africa and southern Caucasus fell to the north Mesopotamian Neo Assyrian Empire from the 10th to late 7th centuries BC From the end of the 7th century BC Ur was ruled by the so called Chaldean Dynasty of Babylon In the 6th century BC there was new construction in Ur under the rule of Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon The last Babylonian king Nabonidus who was Assyrian born and not a Chaldean improved the ziggurat However the city started to decline from around 530 BC after Babylonia fell to the Persian Achaemenid Empire and was no longer inhabited by the early 5th century BC 12 The demise of Ur was perhaps owing to drought changing river patterns and the silting of the outlet to the Persian Gulf Identification with the Biblical Ur EditFurther information Ur of the Chaldees Abraham s House in Ur photographed in 2016 Ur is possibly the city of Ur Kasdim mentioned in the Book of Genesis as the birthplace of the Hebrew and Muslim patriarch Abraham Ibrahim in Arabic traditionally believed to have lived some time in the 2nd millennium BC 22 23 24 There are however conflicting traditions and scholarly opinions identifying Ur Kasdim with the sites of Sanliurfa Urkesh Urartu or Kutha The biblical Ur is mentioned four times in the Torah or Hebrew Bible with the distinction of the Kasdim Kasdin traditionally rendered in English as Ur of the Chaldees The Chaldeans had settled in the vicinity by around 850 BC but were not extant anywhere in Mesopotamia during the 2nd millennium BC period when Abraham is traditionally held to have lived The Chaldean dynasty did not rule Babylonia and thus become the rulers of Ur until the late 7th century BC and held power only until the mid 6th century BC The name is found in Genesis 11 28 25 Genesis 11 31 26 and Genesis 15 7 27 In Nehemiah 9 7 a single passage mentioning Ur is a paraphrase of Genesis 28 In March 2021 Pope Francis visited Ur during his journey through Iraq 29 Archaeology Edit Bitumen mortar among Ur s mudbricks Circular groups of bricks excavated in 1900 In 1625 the site was visited by Pietro Della Valle who recorded the presence of ancient bricks stamped with strange symbols cemented together with bitumen as well as inscribed pieces of black marble that appeared to be seals European archaeologists did not identify Tell el Muqayyar as the site of Ur until Henry Rawlinson successfully deciphered some bricks from that location brought to England by William Loftus in 1849 30 The site was first excavated in 1853 and 1854 on behalf of the British Museum and with instructions from the Foreign Office by John George Taylor British vice consul at Basra from 1851 to 1859 31 32 33 Taylor uncovered the Ziggurat of Ur and a structure with an arch later identified as part of the Gate of Judgment 34 In the four corners of the ziggurat s top stage Taylor found clay cylinders bearing an inscription of Nabonidus Nabuna id the last king of Babylon 539 BC closing with a prayer for his son Belshar uzur Bel ŝarra Uzur the Belshazzar of the Book of Daniel Evidence was found of prior restorations of the ziggurat by Ishme Dagan of Isin and Shu Sin of Ur and by Kurigalzu a Kassite king of Babylon in the 14th century BC Nebuchadnezzar also claims to have rebuilt the temple 35 Taylor further excavated an interesting Babylonian building not far from the temple part of an ancient Babylonian necropolis All about the city he found abundant remains of burials of later periods Apparently in later times owing to its sanctity Ur became a favorite place of sepulchres so that even after it had ceased to be inhabited it continued to be used as a necropolis 35 Typical of the era his excavations destroyed information and exposed the tell Natives used the now loosened 4 000 year old bricks and tile for construction for the next 75 years while the site lay unexplored 36 the British Museum having decided to prioritize archaeology in Assyria 34 After Taylor s time the site was visited by numerous travellers almost all of whom have found ancient Babylonian remains inscribed stones and the like lying upon the surface 35 The site was considered rich in remains and relatively easy to explore After some soundings were made in 1918 by Reginald Campbell Thompson H R Hall worked the site for one season for the British Museum in 1919 laying the groundwork for more extensive efforts to follow 37 38 Aerial photograph of Ur in 1927 Excavations from 1922 to 1934 were funded by the British Museum and the University of Pennsylvania and led by the archaeologist Sir Charles Leonard Woolley 39 36 40 A total of about 1 850 burials were uncovered including 16 that were described as royal tombs containing many valuable artifacts including the Standard of Ur Most of the royal tombs were dated to about 2600 BC The finds included the unlooted tomb of a queen thought to be Queen Puabi 41 the name is known from a cylinder seal found in the tomb although there were two other different and unnamed seals found in the tomb Many other people had been buried with her in a form of human sacrifice 42 Near the ziggurat were uncovered the temple E nun mah and buildings E dub lal mah built for a king E gi par residence of the high priestess and E hur sag a temple building Outside the temple area many houses used in everyday life were found Excavations were also made below the royal tombs layer a 3 5 metre thick 11 ft layer of alluvial clay covered the remains of earlier habitation including pottery from the Ubaid period the first stage of settlement in southern Mesopotamia Woolley later wrote many articles and books about the discoveries 43 One of Woolley s assistants on the site was the British archaeologist Max Mallowan The discoveries at the site reached the headlines in mainstream media in the world with the discoveries of the Royal Tombs As a result the ruins of the ancient city attracted many visitors One of these visitors was the already famous Agatha Christie who as a result of this visit ended up marrying Max Mallowan 44 45 During this time the site was accessible from the Baghdad Basra railway from a stop called Ur Junction 46 In 2009 an agreement was reached for a joint University of Pennsylvania and Iraqi team to resume archaeological work at the site of Ur 47 Excavations began in 2015 under the direction of Elizabeth C Stone and Paul Zimansky of the State University of New York The first excavation season was primarily to re excavate Woolley s work in an Old Babylonian housing area with two new trenches for confirmation Among other finds a cylinder seal a cuneiform tablet and balance pan weights were found A similar though smaller dig was made in a Neo Babylonian housing area 48 49 The Royal Tomb Excavation Edit When the Royal Tombs at Ur were discovered their size was unknown Excavators started digging two trenches in the middle of the desert to see if they could find anything that would allow them to keep digging They split into two teams A and team B Both teams spent the first few months digging a trench and found evidence of burial grounds by collecting small pieces of golden jewelry and pottery This was called the gold trench After the first season of digging finished Woolley returned to England In Autumn Woolley returned and started the second season By the end of the second season he had uncovered a courtyard surrounded by many rooms 50 In their third season of digging archaeologists had uncovered their biggest find yet a building that was believed to have been constructed by order of the king and a second building thought to be where the high priestess lived As the fourth and fifth season came to a close they had discovered so many items that most of their time was now spent recording the objects they found instead of actually digging objects 51 Items included gold jewelry clay pots and stones One of the most significant objects was the Standard of Ur By the end of their sixth season they had excavated 1850 burial sites and deemed 17 of them to be Royal Tombs 52 Some clay sealings and cuneiform tablet fragment were found in an underlying layer 53 Woolley finished his work excavating the Royal Tombs in 1934 uncovering a series of burials Many servants were killed and buried with the royals who he believed went to their deaths willingly Computerized tomography scans on some of the surviving skulls have showed signs that they were killed by blows to the head that could be from the spiked end of a copper axe which showed Woolley s initial theory of mass suicide via poison to be incorrect 54 Inside Puabi s tomb there was a chest in the middle of the room Underneath that chest was a hole in the ground that led to what was called the King s Grave PG 789 It was believed to be the king s grave because it was buried next to the queen In this grave there were 63 attendants who were all equipped with copper helmets and swords It is thought to be his army buried with him Another large room was uncovered PG 1237 called the Great death pit 55 This large room had 74 bodies 68 of which were women There were only two artifacts in the tomb both of which were Lyres citation needed Reconstructed Sumerian headgear and necklaces found in the tomb of Puabi in the Royal tombs of Ur Most of the treasures excavated at Ur are in the British Museum the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology and the Baghdad Museum At the Penn Museum the exhibition Iraq s Ancient Past 56 which includes many of the most famous pieces from the Royal Tombs opened to visitors in late Spring 2011 Previously the Penn Museum had sent many of its best pieces from Ur on tour in an exhibition called Treasures From the Royal Tombs of Ur It traveled to eight American museums including those in Cleveland Washington and Dallas ending the tour at the Detroit Institute of Art in May 2011 citation needed Samples from two stratigraphic layers in the royal cemetery area from before the royal burials have been radiocarbon dated The ED Ia layer dated to c 2900 BC and the ED Ic layer to c 2679 BC 57 58 Archaeological remains Edit U S soldiers ascend the reconstructed Ziggurat of Ur in May 2010 Though some of the areas that were cleared during modern excavations have sanded over again the Great Ziggurat is fully cleared and stands as the best preserved and most visible landmark at the site 59 The famous Royal tombs also called the Neo Sumerian Mausolea located about 250 metres 820 ft south east of the Great Ziggurat in the corner of the wall that surrounds the city are nearly totally cleared Parts of the tomb area appear to be in need of structural consolidation or stabilization citation needed There are cuneiform Sumerian writing on many walls some entirely covered in script stamped into the mud bricks The text is sometimes difficult to read but it covers most surfaces Modern graffiti has also found its way to the graves usually in the form of names made with coloured pens sometimes they are carved The Great Ziggurat itself has far more graffiti mostly lightly carved into the bricks The graves are completely empty A small number of the tombs are accessible Most of them have been cordoned off The whole site is covered with pottery debris to the extent that it is virtually impossible to set foot anywhere without stepping on some Some have colours and paintings on them Some of the mountains of broken pottery are debris that has been removed from excavations Pottery debris and human remains form many of the walls of the royal tombs area In May 2009 the United States Army returned the Ur site to the Iraqi authorities who hope to develop it as a tourist destination 60 Preservation Edit Wall plaque from Ur 2500 BC the British Museum Since 2009 the non profit organization Global Heritage Fund GHF has been working to protect and preserve Ur against the problems of erosion neglect inappropriate restoration war and conflict GHF s stated goal for the project is to create an informed and scientifically grounded Master Plan to guide the long term conservation and management of the site and to serve as a model for the stewardship of other sites 61 Since 2013 the institution for Development Cooperation of the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs DGCS 62 and the SBAH the State Board of Antiquities and Heritage of the Iraqi Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities have started a cooperation project for The Conservation and Maintenance of Archaeological site of UR In the framework of this cooperation agreement the executive plan with detailed drawings is in progress for the maintenance of the Dublamah Temple design concluded works starting the Royal Tombs Mausolea 3rd Dynasty in progress and the Ziqqurat in progress The first updated survey in 2013 has produced a new aerial map derived by the flight of a UAV unmanned aerial vehicle operated in March 2014 This is the first high resolution map derived from more than 100 aerial photograms with an accuracy of 20 cm or less A preview of the ORTHO PHOTOMAP of Archaeological Site of UR is available online 63 Tal Abu Tbeirah EditSince 2012 a joint team of Italian and Iraqi archaeologists led by Franco D Agostino have been excavating at Tal Abu Tbeirah located 15 kilometers east of Ur and 7 kilometers south of Nasariyah 30 98 43 93 E 46 26 97 35 N 64 65 66 67 68 The site about 45 hectares in area divided into four sectors by an ancient channel appears to have been a harbor and trading center associated with Ur in the later half of the 3rd Millennium BC 69 The site was a medium sized city in the Early Dynastic period but shrank down to a small area in the northeast sector in the Ur III and Old Babylonian periods 70 71 Among the finds was a large perforated potter s wheel and two bricks inscribed with the name of Ur III king Amar Sin 72 73 See also EditCorrespondence of the Kings of Ur History of Iraq History of Sumer The lake and city of Urmia in Iran List of cities of the ancient Near East Lyres of Ur Ram in a Thicket Royal Game of Ur Short chronologyPortals Asia Iraq History GeographyReferences EditNotes Literal transliteration Urim2 SES ABgunu SES UNUG 𒋀𒀕 and Urim5 SES AB π’‹€π’€Š where SES URI3 The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature S N Kramer 1963 The Sumerians Their History Culture and Character University of Chicago Press pages 28 and 298 The Cambridge Ancient History Prolegomena amp Prehistory Vol 1 Part 1 p 149 Accessed 15 Dec 2010 Tell el Muqayyar in Arabic Tell means mound or hill and Muqayyar means built of bitumen Muqayyar is variously transcribed as Mugheir Mughair Moghair etc a b Erich Ebeling Bruno Meissner Dietz Otto Edzard 1997 Meek Mythologie Reallexikon der Assyriologie in German p 360 of 589 pages ISBN 978 3 11 014809 1 a b Zettler R L Horne L eds 1998 Treasures from the Royal Tombs of Ur University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology a b c d Joan Goodnick Westenholz 1996 Ur Capital of Sumer Royal Cities of the Biblical World Jerusalem Bible Lands Museum ISBN 965 7027 01 2 Aruz J ed 2003 Art of the First Cities The Third Millennium B C from the Mediterranean to the Indus New York the U S A The Metropolitan Museum of Art Galpin F W 1929 The Sumerian Harp of Ur c 3500 B C Music amp Letters Oxford University Press 10 2 108 123 doi 10 1093 ml X 2 108 ISSN 0027 4224 JSTOR 726035 Retrieved 25 February 2022 Jennifer R Pournelle KLM to CORONA A Bird s Eye View of Cultural Ecology and Early Mesopotamian Urbanization in Settlement and Society Essays Dedicated to Robert McCormick Adams ed Elizabeth C Stone Cotsen Institute of Archaeology UCLA and Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago 2007 Crawford 2015 p 5 a b c Georges Roux Ancient Iraq Secrets of Noah s Ark Transcript Nova PBS 7 October 2015 Retrieved 27 May 2019 The Sumerians a non Semitic people who perhaps came from the east in Curtis Adrian 2009 Oxford Bible Atlas Oxford University Press p 16 ISBN 9780191623325 Mention of Gen 11 2 And as people migrated from the east they found a plain in the land of Shinar and settled there English Standard Version Bromiley Geoffrey W 1979 The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia Wm B Eerdmans Publishing p 392 ISBN 9780802837813 Matthews R J 1993 Cities Seals and Writing Archaic Seal Impressions from Jemdet Nasr and Ur Berlin Amelie Kuhrt 1995 The Ancient Near East C 3000 330 B C Routledge ISBN 0 415 16762 0 Potts D T 1999 The Archaeology of Elam Cambridge United Kingdom Cambridge University Press p 132 ISBN 0 521 56496 4 Retrieved 16 May 2015 Ur III Period 2112 2004 BC by Douglas Frayne University of Toronto Press 1997 ISBN 0 8020 4198 1 Dahl Jacob Lebovitch 2003 The ruling family of Ur III Umma A Prosopographical Analysis of an Elite Family in Southern Iraq 4000 Years ago PDF UCLA dissertation Archived from the original PDF on 2006 05 12 Brinkman John Anthony Ur The Kassite Period and the Period of the Assyrian Kings 1969 310 348 Salaheddin Sinan April 4 2013 Home of Abraham Ur unearthed by archaeologists in Iraq The Christian Science Monitor Retrieved July 15 2017 McLerran Dan June 23 2011 Birthplace of Abraham Gets a New Lease on Life Popular Archaeology 3 Archived from the original on June 18 2017 Retrieved July 15 2017 Journey of Faith National Geographic Magazine May 15 2012 Retrieved July 15 2017 Genesis 11 28 Genesis 11 31 Genesis 15 7 Nehemiah 9 7 Pope calls on Christians of Qaraqosh city ravaged by IS fighters to forgive France 24 2021 03 07 Archived from the original on 2021 03 07 Retrieved 2021 03 14 Crawford 2015 p 3 J E Taylor Notes on the Ruins of Muqeyer Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland vol 15 pp 260 276 1855 JE Taylor Notes on Abu Shahrein and Tel el Lahm Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland vol 15 pp 404 415 1855 In the relevant publications he is erroneously listed as J E Taylor E Sollberger Mr Taylor in Chaldaea Anatolian Studies vol 22 pp 129 139 1972 a b Crawford 2015 p 4 a b c Peters John Punnett 1911 Ur In Chisholm Hugh ed Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol 27 11th ed Cambridge University Press pp 783 784 a b Leonard Woolley Excavations at Ur A Record of Twelve Years Work Apollo 1965 ISBN 0 8152 0110 9 H R Hall The Excavations of 1919 at Ur el Obeid and Eridu and the History of Early Babylonia Man Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland Vol 25 pp 1 7 1925 H R Hall Ur and Eridu The British Museum Excavations of 1919 Journal of Egyptian Archaeology vol 9 no 3 4 pp 177 195 1923 Leonard Woolley Ur The First Phases Penguin 1946 Leonard Woolley and P R S Moorey Ur of the Chaldees A Revised and Updated Edition of Sir Leonard Woolley s Excavations at Ur Cornell University Press 1982 ISBN 0 8014 1518 7 Queen Puabi is also written Pu Abi and formerly transcribed as Shub ab Zimmerman Paul C 2021 Two Tombs or Three PG 789 and PG 800 Again PDF Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 71 Chicago The Oriental Institute pp 283 296 ISBN 978 1 61491 063 3 Beck Roger B Linda Black Larry S Krieger Phillip C Naylor Dahia Ibo Shabaka 1999 World History Patterns of Interaction Evanston IL McDougal Littell ISBN 0 395 87274 X Brunsdale Mitzi M 26 July 2010 Icons of Mystery and Crime Detection From Sleuths to Superheroes 2 volumes ABC CLIO p 143 ISBN 978 0 313 34531 9 Retrieved 25 February 2022 The World This Weekend Sir Max Mallowan BBC Archive Retrieved 25 February 2022 Crawford 2015 p 5 It used to be close to the Basra to Baghdad railway part of the proposed Berlin to Basra line that was never completed It was possible to get off the train from Baghdad at the grandly named Ur Junction where a branch line turned off to Nasariyah and drive a mere two miles across the desert to the site itself but the station was closed sometime after the Second World War leaving a long hot journey in a four wheeled vehicle as the only option Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty Free Media in Unfree Societies U S Archaeologists To Excavate In Iraq Stone Elizabeth C Zimansky Paul Archaeology Returns to Ur A New Dialog with Old Houses Near Eastern Archaeology Chicago vol 79 iss 4 pp 246 259 Dec 2016 Grant Frame Joshua Jeffers and Holly Pittman ed Ur in the Twenty First Century CE Proceedings of the 62nd Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale at Philadelphia July 11 15 2016 Penn State University Press 2021 ISBN 9781646021512 The Royal Tombs of Ur Story Mesopotamia co uk Retrieved 2016 12 04 Hauptmann Andreas Klein Sabine Paoletti Paola Zettler Richard L and Jansen Moritz Types of Gold Types of Silver The Composition of Precious Metal Artifacts Found in the Royal Tombs of Ur Mesopotamia Zeitschrift fur Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archaologie vol 108 no 1 2018 pp 100 131 Royal Tombs Benati Giacomo and Lecompte Camille From Field Cards to Cuneiform Archives Two Inscribed Artifacts from Archaic Ur and Their Archaeological Context Zeitschrift fur Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archaologie vol 106 no 1 2016 pp 1 15 McCorriston Joy Field Julie 2019 World Prehistory and the Anthropocene An Introduction to Human History New York Thames amp Hudson Inc pp 286 287 ISBN 978 0 500 843185 Great death pit Iraq s Ancient Past Rediscovering Ur s Royal Cemetery Penn museum Retrieved 11 August 2017 Camille Lecompte and Giacomo Benati Nonadministrative Documents from Archaic Ur and from Early Dynastic I II Mesopotamia A New Textual and Archaeological Analysis Journal of Cuneiform Studies vol 69 pp 3 31 2017 Wencel M M Radiocarbon Dating of Early Dynastic Mesopotamia Results Limitations and Prospects Radiocarbon 59 pp 635 45 2017 Soldiers visit historical ruins of Ur Nov 18 2009 by 13th Sustainment Command Expeditionary Public Affairs web Army 595 US returns Ur birthplace of Abraham to Iraq AFP 2009 05 14 Retrieved 2009 09 12 Ur perservation project at the Global Heritage Fund Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs DGCS Ur funding UAV aerial Ur Photograph Archived from the original on 2016 12 20 Retrieved 2016 12 10 Franco D Agostino et al ABU TBEIRAH PRELIMINARY REPORT OF THE FIRST CAMPAIGN JANUARY MARCH 2012 Rivista degli studi orientali Nuova Serie vol 84 Fasc 1 4 pp 17 34 2011 Franco D Agostino et al Abu Tbeirah Preliminary report of the second campaign October December 2012 Rivista degli studi orientali vol 86 1 pp 69 91 2013 Franco D Agostino et al Abu Theirah Nasiriyah Southern Iraq Preliminary report on the 2013 excavation campaign ISIMU 13 pp 209 221 2011 Licia Romano and Franco D Agostino Abu Tbeirah Excavations I Area 1 Last Phase and Building A Phase 1 Sapienza Universita Editrice Jun 7 2019 ISBN 9788893771085 1 D Agostino F Romano L Seven excavation campaigns at Abu Tbeirah In Otto A Herles M Kaniuth K Korn L Heidenreich A Eds Proceedings of the 11th International Congress on the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East vol 2 Field Reports Islamic Archaeology Harrassowitz Verlag Wiesbaden Germany pp 69 80 2020 Archaeologists Glance Into Fox Burrow in Iraq Find 4 000 year old Sumerian Port 2 Forti Luca et al The paleoenvironment and depositional context of the Sumerian site of Abu Tbeirah Nasiriyah southern Mesopotamia Iraq Quaternary Research pp 1 19 2022 Cereda S Romano L Peering into the dusty corners micro debris analysis and use of space at the site of Abu Tbeirah Nasiriyah Iraq Iraq 80 pp 79 111 2018 Romano Licia A Fragment of a Potter s Wheel from Abu Tbeirah Zeitschrift fur Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archaologie vol 105 no 2 2015 pp 220 234 D Agostino F Romano L Two new inscribed bricks from Abu Tbeirah southern Iraq In Arkhipov I Kogan L Koslova N Eds The Third Millennium Studies in Early Mesopotamia and Syria in Honor of Walter Sommerfeld and Manfred Krebernik Series Cuneiform Monographs vol 50 Brill Leiden Boston pp 259 269 2020 Bibliography Black J and Spada G Texts from Ur Kept in the Iraq Museum and the British Museum Nisaba 19 Messina Dipartimento di Scienze dell Antichita 2008 Crawford Harriet Ur The City of the Moon God London Bloomsbury 2015 ISBN 978 1 47252 419 5 D Agostino F Pomponio F and Laurito R Neo Sumerian Texts from Ur in the British Museum Nisaba 5 Messina Dipartimento di Scienze dell Antichita 2004 C J Gadd History and monuments of Ur Chatto amp Windus 1929 Dutton 1980 reprint ISBN 0 405 08545 1 P R S Morrey Where Did They Bury the Kings of the IIIrd Dynasty of Ur Iraq vol 46 no 1 pp 1 18 1984 P R S Morrey What Do We Know About the People Buried in the Royal Cemetery Expedition Magazine Penn Museum vol 20 iss 1 pp 24 40 1977 J Oates Ur and Eridu The Prehistory Iraq vol 22 pp 32 50 1960 Pardo Mata Pilar Ur ciudad de los sumerios Cuenca Alderaban 2006 ISBN 978 84 95414 38 0 Susan Pollock Chronology of the Royal Cemetery of Ur Iraq vol 47 pp 129 158 British Institute for the Study of Iraq 1985 Susan Pollock Of Priestesses Princes and Poor Relations The Dead in the Royal Cemetery of Ur Cambridge Archaeological Journal vol 1 iss 2 1991 Licia Romano and Franco D Agostino Abu Tbeirah Excavations I Area 1 Last Phase and Building A Phase 1 Sapienza Universita Editrice Jun 7 2019 ISBN 9788893771085 3 Leon Legrain Ur Excavations III Archaic seal impressions Publications of the Joint Expedition of the British Museum and of the University Museum University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia to Mesopotamia Ur excavations Oxford University Press 1936 Wencel M M New radiocarbon dates from southern Mesopotamia Fara and Ur Iraq 80 pp 251 261 2018 4 Woolley Leonard Ur Excavations II The Royal Cemetery Plates Publications of the Joint Expedition of the British Museum and of the University Museum University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia to Mesopotamia Ur excavations Oxford University Press 1927 Ur excavations IV The Early Periods Oxford University Press 1927 Ur Excavations V The Ziggurat and Its Surroundings Oxford University Press 1927 with M E L Mallowan ed T C Mitchell Ur Excavations VII The Old Babylonian Period Oxford University Press 1927 ed T C Mitchell Ur Excavations VIII The Kassite Period Oxford University Press 1927 with M E L Mallowan ed T C Mitchell Ur Excavations IX The Neo Babylonian and Persian Periods Oxford University Press 1927 Ur of the Chaldees A record of seven years of excavation Ernest Benn Limited 1920 External links EditUr at Wikipedia s sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Data from Wikidata City of the Moon New Excavations at Ur Penn Museum 2017 An exploration of the Royal Tombs of Ur with a comprehensive selection of high resolution photographs detailing the treasures found in the tombs Explore some of the Royal Tombs Mesopotamia website from the British Museum Treasures from the Royal Tombs of Ur British Museum and Penn Museum Ur site has field reports Jewish Encyclopedia Ur Woolley s Ur Revisited Richard L Zettler BAR 10 05 September October 1984 Ur Excavations of the University of Pennsylvania Museum At Ur Ritual Deaths That Were Anything but Serene on The New York Times Web site for new Iraqi Italian dig Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Ur amp oldid 1143384997, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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