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Individualism

Individualism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology and social outlook that emphasizes the intrinsic worth of the individual.[1][2] Individualists promote realizing one's goals and desires, valuing independence and self-reliance, and advocating that the interests of the individual should gain precedence over the state or a social group, while opposing external interference upon one's own interests by society or institutions such as the government.[3] Individualism makes the individual its focus,[1] and so starts "with the fundamental premise that the human individual is of primary importance in the struggle for liberation".[4]

Individualism is often defined in contrast to totalitarianism, collectivism and more corporate social forms.[5][6]

Individualism has been used as a term denoting "[t]he quality of being an individual; individuality", related to possessing "[a]n individual characteristic; a quirk".[3] Individualism is also associated with artistic and bohemian interests and lifestyles where there is a tendency towards self-creation and experimentation as opposed to tradition or popular mass opinions and behaviors[3][7] It is also associated with humanist philosophical positions and ethics.[8][9]

Etymology edit

In the English language, the word individualism was first introduced as a pejorative by utopian socialists such as the Owenites in the late 1830s, although it is unclear if they were influenced by Saint-Simonianism or came up with it independently.[10] A more positive use of the term in Britain came to be used with the writings of James Elishama Smith, who was a millenarian and a Christian Israelite. Although an early follower of Robert Owen, he eventually rejected Owen's collective idea of property and found in individualism a "universalism" that allowed for the development of the "original genius". Without individualism, Smith argued that individuals cannot amass property to increase one's happiness.[10] William Maccall, another Unitarian preacher and probably an acquaintance of Smith, came somewhat later, although influenced by John Stuart Mill, Thomas Carlyle and German Romanticism, to the same positive conclusions in his 1847 work Elements of Individualism.[11]

Individual edit

An individual is a person or any specific object in a collection. In the 15th century and earlier, and also today within the fields of statistics and metaphysics, individual means "indivisible", typically describing any numerically singular thing, but sometimes meaning "a person" as in "the problem of proper names". From the 17th century on, individual indicates separateness, as in individualism.[12] Individuality is the state or quality of being an individuated being; a person separated from everything with unique character by possessing their own needs, goals, and desires in comparison to other people.[13]

Individuation principle edit

The principle of individuation, or principium individuationis,[14] describes the manner in which a thing is identified as distinguished from other things.[15] For Carl Jung, individuation is a process of transformation, whereby the personal and collective unconscious is brought into consciousness (by means of dreams, active imagination or free association to take examples) to be assimilated into the whole personality. It is a completely natural process necessary for the integration of the psyche to take place.[16] Jung considered individuation to be the central process of human development.[17] In L'individuation psychique et collective, Gilbert Simondon developed a theory of individual and collective individuation in which the individual subject is considered as an effect of individuation rather than a cause. Thus, the individual atom is replaced by a never-ending ontological process of individuation. Individuation is an always incomplete process, always leaving a "pre-individual" left-over, itself making possible future individuations.[18] The philosophy of Bernard Stiegler draws upon and modifies the work of Gilbert Simondon on individuation and also upon similar ideas in Friedrich Nietzsche and Sigmund Freud. For Stiegler, "the I, as a psychic individual, can only be thought in relationship to we, which is a collective individual. The I is constituted in adopting a collective tradition, which it inherits and in which a plurality of I's acknowledge each other's existence."[19]

Individualism and society edit

Individualism holds that a person taking part in society attempts to learn and discover what his or her own interests are on a personal basis, without a presumed following of the interests of a societal structure (an individualist need not be an egoist). The individualist does not necessarily follow one particular philosophy. He may create an amalgamation of elements of many philosophies, based on personal interests in particular aspects that he finds of use. On a societal level, the individualist participates on a personally structured political and moral ground. Independent thinking and opinion is a necessary trait of an individualist. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, claims that his concept of general will in The Social Contract is not the simple collection of individual wills and that it furthers the interests of the individual (the constraint of law itself would be beneficial for the individual, as the lack of respect for the law necessarily entails, in Rousseau's eyes, a form of ignorance and submission to one's passions instead of the preferred autonomy of reason).

Individualism versus collectivism is a common dichotomy in cross-cultural research. Global comparative studies have found that the world's cultures vary in the degree to which they emphasize individual autonomy, freedom and initiative (individualistic traits), respectively conformity to group norms, maintaining traditions and obedience to in-group authority (collectivistic traits).[20] Cultural differences between individualism and collectivism are differences in degrees, not in kind.[21] Cultural individualism is strongly correlated with GDP per capita[22] and venture capital investments.[23] The cultures of economically developed regions such as Australia, New Zealand, Japan, South Korea,[24][25][26] North America and Western Europe are the most individualistic in the world. Middle income regions such as Eastern Europe, South America and mainland East Asia have cultures which are neither very individualistic nor very collectivistic. The most collectivistic cultures in the world are from economically developing regions such as the Middle East and Northern Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa, South and South-East Asia, Central Asia and Central America.[27][28][29]

An earlier analysis by Ruth Benedict in her book The Chrysanthemum and the Sword states that societies and groups can differ in the extent to which they are based upon predominantly "self-regarding" (individualistic, and/or self-interested) behaviors, rather than "other-regarding" (group-oriented, and group, or society-minded) behaviors. Ruth Benedict made a distinction, relevant in this context, between guilt societies (e.g. medieval Europe) with an "internal reference standard" and shame societies (e.g. Japan, "bringing shame upon one's ancestors") with an "external reference standard", where people look to their peers for feedback on whether an action is acceptable or not.[30]

Individualism is often contrasted either with totalitarianism or with collectivism,[6] but there is a spectrum of behaviors at the societal level ranging from highly individualistic societies through mixed societies to collectivist.[31][32]

Competitive individualism edit

According to an Oxford Dictionary, "competitive individualism" in sociology is "the view that achievement and non-achievement should depend on merit. Effort and ability are regarded as prerequisites of success. Competition is seen as an acceptable means of distributing limited resources and rewards.

Methodological individualism edit

Methodological individualism is the view that phenomena can only be understood by examining how they result from the motivations and actions of individual agents.[33] In economics, people's behavior is explained in terms of rational choices, as constrained by prices and incomes. The economist accepts individuals' preferences as givens. Becker and Stigler provide a forceful statement of this view:

On the traditional view, an explanation of economic phenomena that reaches a difference in tastes between people or times is the terminus of the argument: the problem is abandoned at this point to whoever studies and explains tastes (psychologists? anthropologists? phrenologists? sociobiologists?). On our preferred interpretation, one never reaches this impasse: the economist continues to search for differences in prices or incomes to explain any differences or changes in behavior.[34]

Political individualism edit

"With the abolition of private property, then, we shall have true, beautiful, healthy Individualism. Nobody will waste his life in accumulating things, and the symbols for things. One will live. To live is the rarest thing in the world. Most people exist, that is all."

Oscar Wilde, The Soul of Man under Socialism, 1891

Individualists are chiefly concerned with protecting individual autonomy against obligations imposed by social institutions (such as the state or religious morality). For L. Susan Brown, "Liberalism and anarchism are two political philosophies that are fundamentally concerned with individual freedom yet differ from one another in very distinct ways. Anarchism shares with liberalism a radical commitment to individual freedom while rejecting liberalism's competitive property relations."[4]

Civil libertarianism is a strain of political thought that supports civil liberties, or which emphasizes the supremacy of individual rights and personal freedoms over and against any kind of authority (such as a state, a corporation and social norms imposed through peer pressure, among others).[35] Civil libertarianism is not a complete ideology; rather, it is a collection of views on the specific issues of civil liberties and civil rights. Because of this, a civil libertarian outlook is compatible with many other political philosophies, and civil libertarianism is found on both the right and left in modern politics.[36] For scholar Ellen Meiksins Wood, "there are doctrines of individualism that are opposed to Lockean individualism [...] and non-Lockean individualism may encompass socialism".[37]

British historians such as Emily Robinson, Camilla Schofield, Florence Sutcliffe-Braithwaite and Natalie Thomlinson have argued that Britons were keen about defining and claiming their individual rights, identities and perspectives by the 1970s, demanding greater personal autonomy and self-determination and less outside control, angrily complaining that the establishment was withholding it. Historians argue that this shift in concerns helped cause Thatcherism and was incorporated into Thatcherism's appeal.[38]

Anarchism edit

Within anarchism, individualist anarchism represents several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasize the individual and their will over any kinds of external determinants such as groups, society, traditions and ideological systems.[39][40] Individualist anarchism is not a single philosophy but refers to a group of individualistic philosophies that sometimes are in conflict.

In 1793, William Godwin, who has often[41] been cited as the first anarchist, wrote Political Justice, which some consider to be the first expression of anarchism.[42][43] Godwin, a philosophical anarchist, from a rationalist and utilitarian basis opposed revolutionary action and saw a minimal state as a present "necessary evil" that would become increasingly irrelevant and powerless by the gradual spread of knowledge.[42][44] Godwin advocated individualism, proposing that all cooperation in labour be eliminated on the premise that this would be most conducive with the general good.[45][46]

An influential form of individualist anarchism called egoism,[47] or egoist anarchism, was expounded by one of the earliest and best-known proponents of individualist anarchism, the German Max Stirner.[48] Stirner's The Ego and Its Own, published in 1844, is a founding text of the philosophy.[48] According to Stirner, the only limitation on the rights of the individual is their power to obtain what they desire,[49] without regard for God, state, or morality.[50] To Stirner, rights were spooks in the mind, and he held that society does not exist but "the individuals are its reality".[51] Stirner advocated self-assertion and foresaw unions of egoists, non-systematic associations continually renewed by all parties' support through an act of will,[52] which Stirner proposed as a form of organization in place of the state.[53] Egoist anarchists claim that egoism will foster genuine and spontaneous union between individuals.[54] Egoist anarchism has inspired many interpretations of Stirner's philosophy. It was re-discovered and promoted by German philosophical anarchist and LGBT activist John Henry Mackay.

Josiah Warren is widely regarded as the first American anarchist[55] and The Peaceful Revolutionist, the four-page weekly paper he edited during 1833, was the first anarchist periodical published.[56] For American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster, "[i]t is apparent [...] that Proudhonian Anarchism was to be found in the United States at least as early as 1848 and that it was not conscious of its affinity to the Individualist Anarchism of Josiah Warren and Stephen Pearl Andrews. [...] William B. Greene presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most systematic form".[57] Henry David Thoreau was an important early influence in individualist anarchist thought in the United States and Europe.[58] Thoreau was an American author, poet, naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, historian, philosopher and leading transcendentalist, who is best known for his book Walden, a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings, and his essay Civil Disobedience, an argument for individual resistance to civil government in moral opposition to an unjust state. Later, Benjamin Tucker fused Stirner's egoism with the economics of Warren and Proudhon in his eclectic influential publication Liberty.

From these early influences, anarchism and especially individualist anarchism was related to the issues of love and sex. In different countries, this attracted a small but diverse following of bohemian artists and intellectuals,[59] free love and birth control advocates,[60][61] individualist naturists nudists as in anarcho-naturism,[62][63][64] freethought and anti-clerical activists[65] as well as young anarchist outlaws in what came to be known as illegalism and individual reclamation,[66][67] especially within European individualist anarchism and individualist anarchism in France. These authors and activists included Oscar Wilde, Émile Armand, Han Ryner, Henri Zisly, Renzo Novatore, Miguel Giménez Igualada, Adolf Brand and Lev Chernyi among others. In his important essay The Soul of Man Under Socialism from 1891, Wilde defended socialism as the way to guarantee individualism and so he saw that "[w]ith the abolition of private property, then, we shall have true, beautiful, healthy Individualism. Nobody will waste his life in accumulating things, and the symbols for things. One will live. To live is the rarest thing in the world. Most people exist, that is all".[68] For anarchist historian George Woodcock, "Wilde's aim in The Soul of Man Under Socialism is to seek the society most favorable to the artist. [...] for Wilde art is the supreme end, containing within itself enlightenment and regeneration, to which all else in society must be subordinated. [...] Wilde represents the anarchist as aesthete".[69] Woodcock finds that "[t]he most ambitious contribution to literary anarchism during the 1890s was undoubtedly Oscar Wilde The Soul of Man Under Socialism" and finds that it is influenced mainly by the thought of William Godwin.[69]

Autarchism edit

Autarchism promotes the principles of individualism, the moral ideology of individual liberty and self-reliance whilst rejecting compulsory government and supporting the elimination of government in favor of ruling oneself to the exclusion of rule by others. Robert LeFevre, recognized as an autarchist by anarcho-capitalist Murray Rothbard,[70] distinguished autarchism from anarchy, whose economics he felt entailed interventions contrary to freedom in contrast to his own laissez-faire economics of the Austrian School.[71]

Liberalism edit

Liberalism is thought "that attaches [and advances the] importance...[of]...the civil and political rights of individuals and their freedoms of speech and expression."[72] This belief is widely accepted in the United States, Europe, Australia and other Western nations, and was recognized as an important value by many Western philosophers throughout history, in particular since the Enlightenment. It is often rejected by collectivist ideas such as in Abrahamic or Confucian societies, although Taoists were and are known to be individualists.[73] The Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius wrote praising "the idea of a polity administered with regard to equal rights and equal freedom of speech, and the idea of a kingly government which respects most of all the freedom of the governed".[74]

Liberalism has its roots in the Age of Enlightenment and rejects many foundational assumptions that dominated most earlier theories of government, such as the Divine Right of Kings, hereditary status, and established religion. John Locke and Montesquieu are often credited with the philosophical foundations of classical liberalism, a political ideology inspired by the broader liberal movement. He wrote "no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions."[75]

In the 17th century, liberal ideas began to influence European governments in nations such as the Netherlands, Switzerland, England and Poland, but they were strongly opposed, often by armed might, by those who favored absolute monarchy and established religion. In the 18th century, the first modern liberal state was founded without a monarch or a hereditary aristocracy in the United States of America.[76] The US Declaration of Independence includes the words which echo Locke that "all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; that to insure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed."[77]

Liberalism comes in many forms. According to John N. Gray, the essence of liberalism is toleration of different beliefs and of different ideas as to what constitutes a good life.[78]

Liberalism generally values differing political opinions, even if they clash and cause discord.[72]

Philosophical individualism edit

Egoist anarchism edit

 
Egoist philosopher Max Stirner has been called a proto-existentialist philosopher while at the same time is a central theorist of individualist anarchism.

Egoist anarchism is a school of anarchist thought that originated in the philosophy of Max Stirner, a 19th-century Hegelian philosopher whose "name appears with familiar regularity in historically orientated surveys of anarchist thought as one of the earliest and best-known exponents of individualist anarchism."[48] According to Stirner, the only limitation on the rights of the individual is their power to obtain what they desire,[49] without regard for God, state, or morality.[50] Stirner advocated self-assertion and foresaw unions of egoists, non-systematic associations continually renewed by all parties' support through an act of will[52] which Stirner proposed as a form of organisation in place of the state.[53]

Egoist anarchists argue that egoism will foster genuine and spontaneous union between individuals.[54] Egoism has inspired many interpretations of Stirner's philosophy, but it has also gone beyond Stirner within anarchism. It was re-discovered and promoted by German philosophical anarchist and LGBT activist John Henry Mackay. John Beverley Robinson wrote an essay called "Egoism" in which he states that "Modern egoism, as propounded by Stirner and Nietzsche, and expounded by Ibsen, Shaw and others, is all these; but it is more. It is the realization by the individual that they are an individual; that, as far as they are concerned, they are the only individual."[79] Stirner and Nietzsche, who exerted influence on anarchism despite its opposition, were frequently compared by French "literary anarchists" and anarchist interpretations of Nietzschean ideas appear to have also been influential in the United States.[80]

Ethical egoism edit

Ethical egoism, also called simply egoism,[81] is the normative ethical position that moral agents ought to do what is in their own self-interest. It differs from psychological egoism, which claims that people do only act in their self-interest. Ethical egoism also differs from rational egoism which holds merely that it is rational to act in one's self-interest. However, these doctrines may occasionally be combined with ethical egoism.

Ethical egoism contrasts with ethical altruism, which holds that moral agents have an obligation to help and serve others. Egoism and altruism both contrast with ethical utilitarianism, which holds that a moral agent should treat one's self (also known as the subject) with no higher regard than one has for others (as egoism does, by elevating self-interests and "the self" to a status not granted to others), but that one also should not (as altruism does) sacrifice one's own interests to help others' interests, so long as one's own interests (i.e. one's own desires or well-being) are substantially-equivalent to the others' interests and well-being. Egoism, utilitarianism, and altruism are all forms of consequentialism, but egoism and altruism contrast with utilitarianism, in that egoism and altruism are both agent-focused forms of consequentialism (i.e. subject-focused or subjective), but utilitarianism is called agent-neutral (i.e. objective and impartial) as it does not treat the subject's (i.e. the self's, i.e. the moral "agent's") own interests as being more or less important than if the same interests, desires, or well-being were anyone else's.

Ethical egoism does not require moral agents to harm the interests and well-being of others when making moral deliberation, e.g. what is in an agent's self-interest may be incidentally detrimental, beneficial, or neutral in its effect on others. Individualism allows for others' interest and well-being to be disregarded or not as long as what is chosen is efficacious in satisfying the self-interest of the agent. Nor does ethical egoism necessarily entail that in pursuing self-interest one ought always to do what one wants to do, e.g. in the long term the fulfilment of short-term desires may prove detrimental to the self. Fleeting pleasance then takes a back seat to protracted eudaemonia. In the words of James Rachels, "[e]thical egoism [...] endorses selfishness, but it doesn't endorse foolishness."[82]

Ethical egoism is sometimes the philosophical basis for support of libertarianism or individualist anarchism as in Max Stirner, although these can also be based on altruistic motivations.[83] These are political positions based partly on a belief that individuals should not coercively prevent others from exercising freedom of action.

Existentialism edit

Existentialism is a term applied to the work of a number of 19th- and 20th-century philosophers who generally held, despite profound doctrinal differences,[84][85] that the focus of philosophical thought should be to deal with the conditions of existence of the individual person and his or her emotions, actions, responsibilities, and thoughts.[86][87] The early 19th century philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, posthumously regarded as the father of existentialism,[88][89] maintained that the individual solely has the responsibilities of giving one's own life meaning and living that life passionately and sincerely,[90][91] in spite of many existential obstacles and distractions including despair, angst, absurdity, alienation and boredom.[92]

Subsequent existential philosophers retain the emphasis on the individual, but differ in varying degrees on how one achieves and what constitutes a fulfilling life, what obstacles must be overcome, and what external and internal factors are involved, including the potential consequences of the existence[93][94] or non-existence of God.[95][96] Many existentialists have also regarded traditional systematic or academic philosophy in both style and content as too abstract and remote from concrete human experience.[97][98] Existentialism became fashionable after World War II as a way to reassert the importance of human individuality and freedom.[99]

Nietzsche's concept of the superman is closely related to the idea of individualism and the pursuit of one's own unique path and potential.[100] As is seen in the following quote, the concept of superman reflects Nietzsche's emphasis on the need to overcome traditional moral and societal norms in order to achieve personal growth and self-realization:

Freethought edit

Freethought holds that individuals should not accept ideas proposed as truth without recourse to knowledge and reason. Thus, freethinkers strive to build their opinions on the basis of facts, scientific inquiry and logical principles, independent of any logical fallacies or intellectually limiting effects of authority, confirmation bias, cognitive bias, conventional wisdom, popular culture, prejudice, sectarianism, tradition, urban legend and all other dogmas. Regarding religion, freethinkers hold that there is insufficient evidence to scientifically validate the existence of supernatural phenomena.[101]

Humanism edit

Humanism is a perspective common to a wide range of ethical stances that attaches importance to human dignity, concerns, and capabilities, particularly rationality. Although the word has many senses, its meaning comes into focus when contrasted to the supernatural or to appeals to authority.[102][103] Since the 19th century, humanism has been associated with an anti-clericalism inherited from the 18th-century Enlightenment philosophes. 21st century Humanism tends to strongly endorse human rights, including reproductive rights, gender equality,[104] social justice, and the separation of church and state. The term covers organized non-theistic religions, secular humanism, and a humanistic life stance.[105]

Hedonism edit

Philosophical hedonism is a meta-ethical theory of value which argues that pleasure is the only intrinsic good and pain is the only intrinsic bad.[106] The basic idea behind hedonistic thought is that pleasure (an umbrella term for all inherently likable emotions) is the only thing that is good in and of itself or by its very nature. This implies evaluating the moral worth of character or behavior according to the extent that the pleasure it produces exceeds the pain it entails.

Libertinism edit

A libertine is one devoid of most moral restraints, which are seen as unnecessary or undesirable, especially one who ignores or even spurns accepted morals and forms of behaviour sanctified by the larger society.[107][108] Libertines place value on physical pleasures, meaning those experienced through the senses. As a philosophy, libertinism gained new-found adherents in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, particularly in France and Great Britain. Notable among these were John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester and the Marquis de Sade. During the Baroque era in France, there existed a freethinking circle of philosophers and intellectuals who were collectively known as libertinage érudit and which included Gabriel Naudé, Élie Diodati and François de La Mothe Le Vayer.[109][110] The critic Vivian de Sola Pinto linked John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester's libertinism to Hobbesian materialism.[111]

Objectivism edit

Objectivism is a system of philosophy created by philosopher and novelist Ayn Rand which holds that reality exists independent of consciousness; human beings gain knowledge rationally from perception through the process of concept formation and inductive and deductive logic; the moral purpose of one's life is the pursuit of one's own happiness or rational self-interest.[112] Rand thinks the only social system consistent with this morality is full respect for individual rights, embodied in pure laissez-faire capitalism; and the role of art in human life is to transform man's widest metaphysical ideas, by selective reproduction of reality, into a physical form – a work of art – that he can comprehend and to which he can respond emotionally. Objectivism celebrates man as his own hero, "with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute."[113]

Philosophical anarchism edit

 
Benjamin Tucker, American individualist anarchist who focused on economics calling them anarchistic-socialism[114] and adhering to the mutualist economics of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and Josiah Warren

Philosophical anarchism is an anarchist school of thought[115] which contends that the state lacks moral legitimacy. In contrast to revolutionary anarchism, philosophical anarchism does not advocate violent revolution to eliminate it but advocates peaceful evolution to superate it.[116] Although philosophical anarchism does not necessarily imply any action or desire for the elimination of the state, philosophical anarchists do not believe that they have an obligation or duty to obey the state, or conversely that the state has a right to command.

Philosophical anarchism is a component especially of individualist anarchism.[117] Philosophical anarchists of historical note include Mohandas Gandhi, William Godwin, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Max Stirner,[118] Benjamin Tucker[119] and Henry David Thoreau.[120] Contemporary philosophical anarchists include A. John Simmons and Robert Paul Wolff.

Subjectivism edit

Subjectivism is a philosophical tenet that accords primacy to subjective experience as fundamental of all measure and law. In extreme forms such as solipsism, it may hold that the nature and existence of every object depends solely on someone's subjective awareness of it. In the proposition 5.632 of the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, Ludwig Wittgenstein wrote: "The subject doesn't belong to the world, but it is a limit of the world". Metaphysical subjectivism is the theory that reality is what we perceive to be real, and that there is no underlying true reality that exists independently of perception. One can also hold that it is consciousness rather than perception that is reality (subjective idealism). In probability, a subjectivism stands for the belief that probabilities are simply degrees-of-belief by rational agents in a certain proposition and which have no objective reality in and of themselves.

Ethical subjectivism stands in opposition to moral realism, which claims that moral propositions refer to objective facts, independent of human opinion; to error theory, which denies that any moral propositions are true in any sense; and to non-cognitivism, which denies that moral sentences express propositions at all. The most common forms of ethical subjectivism are also forms of moral relativism, with moral standards held to be relative to each culture or society, i.e. cultural relativism, or even to every individual. The latter view, as put forward by Protagoras, holds that there are as many distinct scales of good and evil as there are subjects in the world. Moral subjectivism is that species of moral relativism that relativizes moral value to the individual subject.

Horst Matthai Quelle was a Spanish-language German anarchist philosopher influenced by Max Stirner.[121] Quelle argued that since the individual gives form to the world, he is those objects, the others and the whole universe.[121] One of his main views was a "theory of infinite worlds" which for him was developed by pre-socratic philosophers.[121]

Solipsism edit

Solipsism is the philosophical idea that only one's own mind is sure to exist. The term comes from Latin solus ("alone") and ipse ("self"). Solipsism as an epistemological position holds that knowledge of anything outside one's own mind is unsure. The external world and other minds cannot be known, and might not exist outside the mind. As a metaphysical position, solipsism goes further to the conclusion that the world and other minds do not exist. Solipsism is the only epistemological position that, by its own postulate, is both irrefutable and yet indefensible in the same manner. Although the number of individuals sincerely espousing solipsism has been small, it is not uncommon for one philosopher to accuse another's arguments of entailing solipsism as an unwanted consequence, in a kind of reductio ad absurdum. In the history of philosophy, solipsism has served as a skeptical hypothesis.

Economic individualism edit

The doctrine of economic individualism holds that each individual should be allowed autonomy in making his or her own economic decisions as opposed to those decisions being made by the community, the corporation or the state for him or her.

Classical liberalism edit

Liberalism is a political ideology that developed in the 19th century in the Americas, England, France and Western Europe. It followed earlier forms of liberalism in its commitment to personal freedom and popular government, but differed from earlier forms of liberalism in its commitment to classical economics and free markets.[122]

Notable liberals in the 19th century include Jean-Baptiste Say, Thomas Malthus and David Ricardo. Classical liberalism, sometimes also used as a label to refer to all forms of liberalism before the 20th century, was revived in the 20th century by Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek and further developed by Milton Friedman, Robert Nozick, Loren Lomasky and Jan Narveson.[123]

Libertarianism edit

Libertarianism upholds liberty as a core principle.[124] Libertarians seek to maximize autonomy and political freedom, emphasizing free association, freedom of choice, individualism and voluntary association.[125] Libertarianism shares a skepticism of authority and state power, but libertarians diverge on the scope of their opposition to existing economic and political systems. Various schools of libertarian thought offer a range of views regarding the legitimate functions of state and private power, often calling for the restriction or dissolution of coercive social institutions. Different categorizations have been used to distinguish various forms of libertarianism.[126][127] This is done to distinguish libertarian views on the nature of property and capital, usually along leftright or socialistcapitalist lines.[128]

Left-libertarianism edit

Left-libertarianism represents several related yet distinct approaches to politics, society, culture and political and social theory which stress both individual and political freedom alongside social justice. Unlike right-libertarians, left-libertarians believe that neither claiming nor mixing one's labor with natural resources is enough to generate full private property rights,[129][130] and maintain that natural resources (land, oil, gold, trees) ought to be held in some egalitarian manner, either unowned or owned collectively.[130] Those left-libertarians who support property do so under different property norms[131][132][133][134] and theories,[135][136][137] or under the condition that recompense is offered to the local or global community.[130]

Related terms include egalitarian libertarianism,[138][139] left-wing libertarianism,[140] libertarianism,[141] libertarian socialism,[142][143] social libertarianism[144] and socialist libertarianism.[145] Left-libertarianism can refer generally to these related and overlapping schools of thought:

Right-libertarianism edit

Right-libertarianism represents either non-collectivist forms of libertarianism[151] or a variety of different libertarian views that scholars label to the right of libertarianism[152][153] such as libertarian conservatism.[154] Related terms include conservative libertarianism,[155][156][157] libertarian capitalism[158] and right-wing libertarianism.[145][159][160] In the mid-20th century, right-libertarian ideologies such as anarcho-capitalism and minarchism co-opted[161][162] the term libertarian to advocate laissez-faire capitalism and strong private property rights such as in land, infrastructure and natural resources.[163] The latter is the dominant form of libertarianism in the United States,[145] where it advocates civil liberties,[164] natural law,[165] free-market capitalism[166][167] and a major reversal of the modern welfare state.[168]

Socialism edit

 
Influential French individualist anarchist Émile Armand

With regard to economic questions within individualist socialist schools such as individualist anarchism, there are adherents to mutualism (Pierre Joseph Proudhon, Émile Armand and early Benjamin Tucker); natural rights positions (early Benjamin Tucker, Lysander Spooner and Josiah Warren); and egoistic disrespect for "ghosts" such as private property and markets (Max Stirner, John Henry Mackay, Lev Chernyi, later Benjamin Tucker, Renzo Novatore and illegalism). Contemporary individualist anarchist Kevin Carson characterizes American individualist anarchism saying that "[u]nlike the rest of the socialist movement, the individualist anarchists believed that the natural wage of labor in a free market was its product, and that economic exploitation could only take place when capitalists and landlords harnessed the power of the state in their interests. Thus, individualist anarchism was an alternative both to the increasing statism of the mainstream socialist movement, and to a classical liberal movement that was moving toward a mere apologetic for the power of big business."[169]

Libertarian socialism edit

Libertarian socialism, sometimes dubbed left-libertarianism[170][171] and socialist libertarianism,[172] is an anti-authoritarian, anti-statist and libertarian[173] tradition within the socialist movement that rejects the state socialist conception of socialism as a statist form where the state retains centralized control of the economy.[174][175] Libertarian socialists criticize wage slavery relationships within the workplace,[176] emphasizing workers' self-management of the workplace[175] and decentralized structures of political organization.[177][178][179]

Libertarian socialism asserts that a society based on freedom and justice can be achieved through abolishing authoritarian institutions that control certain means of production and subordinate the majority to an owning class or political and economic elite.[180] Libertarian socialists advocate for decentralized structures based on direct democracy and federal or confederal associations such as libertarian municipalism, citizens' assemblies, trade unions and workers' councils.[181][182]

All of this is generally done within a general call for liberty[183][184] and free association[185] through the identification, criticism and practical dismantling of illegitimate authority in all aspects of human life.[186][187][188][189][190][191][192][193] Within the larger socialist movement, libertarian socialism seeks to distinguish itself from Leninism and social democracy.[194][195]

Past and present currents and movements commonly described as libertarian socialist include anarchism (especially anarchist schools of thought such as anarcho-communism, anarcho-syndicalism,[196] collectivist anarchism, green anarchism, individualist anarchism,[197][198][199][200] mutualism,[201] and social anarchism) as well as communalism, some forms of democratic socialism, guild socialism,[202] libertarian Marxism[203] (autonomism, council communism,[204] left communism, and Luxemburgism, among others),[205][206] participism, revolutionary syndicalism and some versions of utopian socialism.[207]

Mutualism edit

Mutualism is an anarchist school of thought which can be traced to the writings of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, who envisioned a socialist society where each person possess a means of production, either individually or collectively, with trade representing equivalent amounts of labor in the free market.[208] Integral to the scheme was the establishment of a mutual-credit bank which would lend to producers at a minimal interest rate only high enough to cover the costs of administration.[209] Mutualism is based on a labor theory of value which holds that when labor or its product is sold, it ought to receive goods or services in exchange embodying "the amount of labor necessary to produce an article of exactly similar and equal utility" and that receiving anything less would be considered exploitation, theft of labor, or usury.[210]

Criticisms edit

Plato emphasized that individuals must adhere to laws and perform duties while declining to grant individuals rights to limit or reject state interference in their lives.[211]

German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel criticized individualism by claiming that human self-consciousness relies on recognition from others, therefore embracing a holistic view and rejecting the idea of the world as a collection of atomized individuals.[212][213]

Fascists believe that the liberal emphasis on individual freedom produces national divisiveness.[214]

Other views edit

As creative independent lifestyle edit

 
Oscar Wilde, famous Irish socialist writer of the decadent movement and famous dandy

The anarchist[215] writer and bohemian Oscar Wilde wrote in his famous essay The Soul of Man under Socialism that "Art is individualism, and individualism is a disturbing and disintegrating force. There lies its immense value. For what it seeks is to disturb monotony of type, slavery of custom, tyranny of habit, and the reduction of man to the level of a machine."[68] For anarchist historian George Woodcock, "Wilde's aim in The Soul of Man under Socialism is to seek the society most favorable to the artist, [...] for Wilde art is the supreme end, containing within itself enlightenment and regeneration, to which all else in society must be subordinated. [...] Wilde represents the anarchist as aesthete."[69] In this way, individualism has been used to denote a personality with a strong tendency towards self-creation and experimentation as opposed to tradition or popular mass opinions and behaviors.[3][7]

Anarchist writer Murray Bookchin describes a lot of individualist anarchists as people who "expressed their opposition in uniquely personal forms, especially in fiery tracts, outrageous behavior, and aberrant lifestyles in the cultural ghettos of fin de siècle New York, Paris, and London. As a credo, individualist anarchism remained largely a bohemian lifestyle, most conspicuous in its demands for sexual freedom ('free love') and enamored of innovations in art, behavior, and clothing."[59]

In relation to this view of individuality, French individualist anarchist Émile Armand advocated egoistical denial of social conventions and dogmas to live in accord to one's own ways and desires in daily life since he emphasized anarchism as a way of life and practice. In this way, he opined that "the anarchist individualist tends to reproduce himself, to perpetuate his spirit in other individuals who will share his views and who will make it possible for a state of affairs to be established from which authoritarianism has been banished. It is this desire, this will, not only to live, but also to reproduce oneself, which we shall call 'activity.'"[216]

In the book Imperfect Garden: The Legacy of Humanism, humanist philosopher Tzvetan Todorov identifies individualism as an important current of socio-political thought within modernity and as examples of it he mentions Michel de Montaigne, François de La Rochefoucauld, Marquis de Sade, and Charles Baudelaire.[217] In La Rochefoucauld, he identifies a tendency similar to stoicism in which "the honest person works his being in the manner of a sculptor who searches the liberation of the forms which are inside a block of marble, to extract the truth of that matter."[217] In Baudelaire, he finds the dandy trait in which one searches to cultivate "the idea of beauty within oneself, of satisfying one's passions of feeling and thinking."[217]

The Russian-American poet Joseph Brodsky once wrote that "[t]he surest defense against Evil is extreme individualism, originality of thinking, whimsicality, even – if you will – eccentricity. That is, something that can't be feigned, faked, imitated; something even a seasoned imposter couldn't be happy with."[218] Ralph Waldo Emerson famously declared that "[w]hoso would be a man must be a nonconformist" – a point of view developed at length in both the life and work of Henry David Thoreau. Equally memorable and influential on Walt Whitman is Emerson's idea that "a foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of small minds, adored by little statesmen and philosophers and divines." Emerson opposed on principle the reliance on civil and religious social structures precisely because through them the individual approaches the divine second-hand, mediated by the once original experience of a genius from another age. According to Emerson, "[an institution is the lengthened shadow of one man." To achieve this original relation, Emerson stated that one must "[i]nsist on one's self; never imitate", for if the relationship is secondary the connection is lost.[219]

Religion edit

People in Western countries tend to be more individualistic than communitarian. The authors of one study[220] proposed that this difference is due in part to the influence of the Catholic Church in the Middle Ages. They pointed specifically to its bans on incest, cousin marriage, adoption, and remarriage, and its promotion of the nuclear family over the extended family.[221]

The Catholic Church teaches "if we pray the Our Father sincerely, we leave individualism behind, because the love that we receive frees us ... our divisions and oppositions have to be overcome"[222] Many Catholics have believed Martin Luther and the Protestant Reformation were sources of individualism.[223]

See also edit

References edit

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  2. ^ Ellen Meiksins Wood. Mind and Politics: An Approach to the Meaning of Liberal and Socialist Individualism. University of California Press. 1972. ISBN 0-520-02029-4. p. 6
  3. ^ a b c d . Archived from the original on 2019-05-17. Retrieved 2009-12-21.
  4. ^ a b L. Susan Brown. The Politics of Individualism: Liberalism, Liberal Feminism, and Anarchism. Black Rose Books Ltd. 1993
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  8. ^ "The leading intellectual trait of the era was the recovery, to a certain degree, of the secular and humane philosophy of Greece and Rome. Another humanist trend which cannot be ignored was the rebirth of individualism, which, developed by Greece and Rome to a remarkable degree, had been suppressed by the rise of a caste system in the later Roman Empire, by the Church and by feudalism in the Middle Ages."The history guide: Lectures on Modern European Intellectual History"
  9. ^ "Anthropocentricity and individualism...Humanism and Italian art were similar in giving paramount attention to human experience, both in its everyday immediacy and in its positive or negative extremes...The human-centredness of Renaissance art, moreover, was not just a generalized endorsement of earthly experience. Like the humanists, Italian artists stressed the autonomy and dignity of the individual.""Humanism" on Encyclopædia Britannica
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  16. ^ Jung, C. G. (1962). Symbols of Transformation: An analysis of the prelude to a case of schizophrenia (Vol. 2, R. F. C. Hull, Trans.). New York: Harper & Brothers.
  17. ^ Jung's Individuation process Retrieved on 2009-2-20
  18. ^ Gilbert Simondon. L'individuation psychique et collective (Paris, Aubier, 1989; reprinted in 2007 with a preface by Bernard Stiegler)
  19. ^ Stiegler, Bernard (13 May 2004). "Bernard Stiegler: Culture and Technology". Tate Modern. 15 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 26 September 2020.
  20. ^ Santos, Henri C.; Varnum, Michael E. W.; Grossmann, Igor (2017). "Global Increases in Individualism". Psychological Science. 28 (9): 1228–1239. doi:10.1177/0956797617700622. PMID 28703638. S2CID 206588771.
  21. ^ Minkov, Michael; Dutt, Pinaki; Schachner, Michael; Morales, Oswaldo; Sanchez, Carlos; Jandosova, Janar; Khassenbekov, Yerlan; Mudd, Ben (2017). "A revision of Hofstede's individualism-collectivism dimension". Cross Cultural & Strategic Management. 24 (3): 3. doi:10.1108/ccsm-11-2016-0197. ISSN 2059-5794.
  22. ^ Inglehart, Ronald F. (2018). "Chapter 3. Global Cultural Patterns". Cultural Evolution. Cambridge University Press. p. 40. doi:10.1017/9781108613880. ISBN 978-1-108-61388-0.
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  58. ^ "Paralelamente, al otro lado del atlántico, en el diferente contexto de una nación a medio hacer, los Estados Unidos, otros filósofos elaboraron un pensamiento individualista similar, aunque con sus propias especificidades. Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862), uno de los escritores próximos al movimiento de la filosofía trascendentalista, es uno de los más conocidos. Su obra más representativa es Walden, aparecida en 1854, aunque redactada entre 1845 y 1847, cuando Thoreau decide instalarse en el aislamiento de una cabaña en el bosque, y vivir en íntimo contacto con la naturaleza, en una vida de soledad y sobriedad. De esta experiencia, su filosofía trata de transmitirnos la idea que resulta necesario un retorno respetuoso a la naturaleza, y que la felicidad es sobre todo fruto de la riqueza interior y de la armonía de los individuos con el entorno natural. Muchos han visto en Thoreau a uno de los precursores del ecologismo y del anarquismo primitivista representado en la actualidad por Jonh Zerzan. Para George Woodcock, esta actitud puede estar también motivada por una cierta idea de resistencia al progreso y de rechazo al materialismo creciente que caracteriza la sociedad norteamericana de mediados de siglo XIX.""Voluntary non-submission. Spanish individualist anarchism during dictatorship and the second republic (1923–1938)" July 23, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
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  114. ^ Tucker said, "the fact that one class of men are dependent for their living upon the sale of their labour, while another class of men are relieved of the necessity of labour by being legally privileged to sell something that is not labour . . . And to such a state of things I am as much opposed as any one. But the minute you remove privilege . . . every man will be a labourer exchanging with fellow-labourers . . . What Anarchistic-Socialism aims to abolish is usury . . . it wants to deprive capital of its reward." Benjamin Tucker. Instead of a Book, p. 404
  115. ^ Wayne Gabardi, review of Anarchism by David Miller, published in American Political Science Review Vol. 80, No. 1. (Mar., 1986), pp. 300–302.
  116. ^ According to scholar Allan Antliff, Benjamin Tucker coined the term "philosophical anarchism," to distinguish peaceful evolutionary anarchism from revolutionary variants. Antliff, Allan. 2001. Anarchist Modernism: Art, Politics, and the First American Avant-Garde. University of Chicago Press. p. 4
  117. ^ Outhwaite, William & Tourain, Alain (Eds.). (2003). Anarchism. The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought (2nd Edition, p. 12). Blackwell Publishing
  118. ^ Michael Freeden identifies four broad types of individualist anarchism. He says the first is the type associated with William Godwin that advocates self-government with a "progressive rationalism that included benevolence to others." The second type is the amoral self-serving rationality of Egoism, as most associated with Max Stirner. The third type is "found in Herbert Spencer's early predictions, and in that of some of his disciples such as Donisthorpe, foreseeing the redundancy of the state in the source of social evolution." The fourth type retains a moderated form of Egoism and accounts for social cooperation through the advocacy of market. Freeden, Michael. Ideologies and Political Theory: A Conceptual Approach. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-829414-X. pp. 313–314.
  119. ^ Tucker, Benjamin R., Instead of a Book, by a Man too Busy to Write One: A Fragmentary Exposition of Philosophical Anarchism (1897, New York)
  120. ^ Broderick, John C. "Thoreau's Proposals for Legislation". American Quarterly, Vol. 7, No. 3 (Autumn, 1955). p. 285
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  124. ^ Boaz, David (30 January 2009). "Libertarianism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 21 February 2017. [L]ibertarianism, political philosophy that takes individual liberty to be the primary political value.
  125. ^ Woodcock, George (2004) [1962]. Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements. Peterborough: Broadview Press. p. 16. ISBN 978-1551116297. [F]or the very nature of the libertarian attitude – its rejection of dogma, its deliberate avoidance of rigidly systematic theory, and, above all, its stress on extreme freedom of choice and on the primacy of the individual judgement [sic].
  126. ^ Long, Joseph. W (1996). "Toward a Libertarian Theory of Class". Social Philosophy and Policy. 15 (2): 310. "When I speak of 'libertarianism' [...] I mean all three of these very different movements. It might be protested that LibCap [libertarian capitalism], LibSoc [libertarian socialism] and LibPop [libertarian populism] are too different from one another to be treated as aspects of a single point of view. But they do share a common – or at least an overlapping – intellectual ancestry."
  127. ^ Carlson, Jennifer D. (2012). "Libertarianism". In Miller, Wilburn R., ed. The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America. London: Sage Publications. p. 1006. ISBN 978-1412988766. "There exist three major camps in libertarian thought: right-libertarianism, socialist libertariaism, and left-lbertarianism; the extent to which these represent distinct ideologies as opposed to variations on a theme is contrasted by scholars. Regardless, these factions differ most pronouncedly with respect to private property."
  128. ^ Francis, Mark (December 1983). "Human Rights and Libertarians". Australian Journal of Politics & History. 29 (3): 462–472. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8497.1983.tb00212.x. ISSN 0004-9522.
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  130. ^ a b c Narveson, Jan; Trenchard, David (2008). "Left Libertarianism". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Cato Institute. pp. 288–289. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n174. ISBN 978-1412965804. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024.
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  136. ^ Long, Roderick T. (2006). "Land-locked: A Critique of Carson on Property Rights" (PDF). Journal of Libertarian Studies. 20 (1): 87–95.
  137. ^ Verhaegh, Marcus (2006). "Rothbard as a Political Philosopher" (PDF). Journal of Libertarian Studies. 20 (4): 3.
  138. ^ Sundstrom, William A. (16 May 2002). "An Egalitarian-Libertarian Manifesto". 29 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
  139. ^ Sullivan, Mark A. (July 2003). "Why the Georgist Movement Has Not Succeeded: A Personal Response to the Question Raised by Warren J. Samuels". American Journal of Economics and Sociology. 62 (3): 612.
  140. ^ Spitz, Jean-Fabien (March 2006). "Left-wing libertarianism: equality based on self-ownership". Cairn-int.info. Retrieved 28 November 2019.
  141. ^ Bookchin, Murray (January 1986). "The Greening of Politics: Toward a New Kind of Political Practice". Green Perspectives: Newsletter of the Green Program Project (1).
  142. ^ a b Bookchin, Murray; Biehl, Janet (1997). The Murray Bookchin Reader. New York: Cassell. p. 170.
  143. ^ a b Long, Roderick T. (2012). "The Rise of Social Anarchism". In Gaus, Gerald F.; D'Agostino, Fred, eds. The Routledge Companion to Social and Political Philosophy. p. 223.
  144. ^ Grunberg, Gérard; Schweisguth, Etienne; Boy, Daniel; Mayer, Nonna, eds. (1993). The French Voter Decides. "Social Libertarianism and Economic Liberalism". University of Michigan Press. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-472-10438-3
  145. ^ a b c Carlson, Jennifer D. (2012). "Libertarianism". In Miller, Wilbur R. The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America: An Encyclopedia. Sage Publications. pp. 1006–1007.
  146. ^ Foldvart, Fred E. . The Progress Report. Progress.org. Archived from the original on 4 November 2012. Retrieved 26 March 2013.
  147. ^ DeCoster, Karen (19 April 2006). "Henry George and the Tariff Question". LewRockwell.com. Retrieved 23 September 2020.
  148. ^ Sheldon Richman (3 February 2011). "Libertarian Left: Free-market anti-capitalism, the unknown ideal". The American Conservative. 10 June 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 5 March 2012.
  149. ^ Chartier, Gary; Johnson, Charles W. (2011). Markets Not Capitalism: Individualist Anarchism Against Bosses, Inequality, Corporate Power, and Structural Poverty. Brooklyn: Minor Compositions/Autonomedia. pp. 1–11. ISBN 978-1570272424.
  150. ^ Will Kymlicka (2005). "libertarianism, left-". In Ted Honderich (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. New York: Oxford University Press.
  151. ^ Olsaretti, Serena (2004). Liberty, Desert and the Market: A Philosophical Study. Cambridge University Press. pp. 14, 88, 100.
  152. ^ Graham, Paul; Hoffman, John (2003). An Introduction to Political Theory. Routledge. p. 93. ISBN 978-1-3178-6342-7. A distinction is made between right libertarianism and left libertarianism. Self-ownership is the starting point for all libertarians, but right and left libertarians divide over the implications for the ownership of external things from the self-ownership premise.
  153. ^ Vallentyne, Peter (2007). "Libertarianism and the State". In Frankel Paul, Ellen; Miller, Fred Jr.; Paul, Jeffrey (eds.). Liberalism: Old and New. Vol. 24. Cambridge University Press. pp. 187–205. ISBN 978-0-521-70305-5. The best known form of libertarianism – right-libertarianism – is a version of classical liberalism, but there is also a form of libertarianism – left-libertarianism – that combines classical liberalism's concern for individual liberty with contemporary liberalism's robust concern for material equality.
  154. ^ Heywood, Andrew (2015). Key Concepts in Politics and International Relations: Palgrave Key Concepts. Macmillan International Higher Education. p. 37. ISBN 978-1-1374-9477-1.
  155. ^ Graber, Mark A. (1991). Transforming Free Speech: The Ambiguous Legacy of Civil Libertarianism. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-0520913134.
  156. ^ Narveson, Jan (2001). The Libertarian Idea (revised ed.). Peterborough, Ontario: Broadview Press. p. 8. ISBN 978-1551114217.
  157. ^ Passavent, Paul (2003). No Escape: Freedom of Speech and the Paradox of Rights. New York: New York University Press. p. 49. ISBN 978-0814766965.
  158. ^ Reiman, Jeffrey H. (2005). "The Fallacy of Libertarian Capitalism". Ethics. 10 (1): 85–95. doi:10.1086/292300. JSTOR 2380706. S2CID 170927490.
  159. ^ Goodway, David (2006). Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow: Left-Libertarian Thought and British Writers from William Morris to Colin Ward. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. p. 4. "'Libertarian' and 'libertarianism' are frequently employed by anarchists as synonyms for 'anarchist' and 'anarchism', largely as an attempt to distance themselves from the negative connotations of 'anarchy' and its derivatives. The situation has been vastly complicated in recent decades with the rise of anarcho-capitalism, 'minimal statism' and an extreme right-wing laissez-faire philosophy advocated by such theorists as Rothbard and Nozick and their adoption of the words 'libertarian' and 'libertarianism'. It has therefore now become necessary to distinguish between their right libertarianism and the left libertarianism of the anarchist tradition".
  160. ^ Marshall, Peter (2008). Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism. London: Harper Perennial. p. 565. "The problem with the term 'libertarian' is that it is now also used by the Right. [...] In its moderate form, right libertarianism embraces laissez-faire liberals like Robert Nozick who call for a minimal State, and in its extreme form, anarcho-capitalists like Murray Rothbard and David Friedman who entirely repudiate the role of the State and look to the market as a means of ensuring social order".
  161. ^ Fernandez, Frank (2001). Cuban Anarchism. The History of a Movement. Sharp Press. . "Thus, in the United States, the once exceedingly useful term 'libertarian' has been hijacked by egotists who are in fact enemies of liberty in the full sense of the word."
  162. ^ Rothbard, Murray (2009) [2007]. The Betrayal of the American Right (PDF). Mises Institute. p. 83. ISBN 978-1610165013. One gratifying aspect of our rise to some prominence is that, for the first time in my memory, we, 'our side,' had captured a crucial word from the enemy. 'Libertarians' had long been simply a polite word for left-wing anarchists, that is for anti-private property anarchists, either of the communist or syndicalist variety. But now we had taken it over.
  163. ^ Hussain, Syed B. (2004). Encyclopedia of Capitalism, Volume 2. New York: Facts on File Inc. p. 492. ISBN 0816052247. In the modern world, political ideologies are largely defined by their attitude towards capitalism. Marxists want to overthrow it, liberals to curtail it extensively, conservatives to curtail it moderately. Those who maintain that capitalism is an excellent economic system, unfairly maligned, with little or no need for corrective government policy, are generally known as libertarians.
  164. ^ Rothbard, Murray (1 March 1971). "The Left and Right Within Libertarianism". WIN: Peace and Freedom Through Nonviolent Action. 7 (4): 6–10. Retrieved 14 January 2020.
  165. ^ Miller, Fred (15 August 2008). "Natural Law". The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Retrieved 31 July 2019.
  166. ^ Boaz, David (12 April 2019). "Key Concepts of Libertarianism". Cato Institute. Retrieved 20 December 2019.
  167. ^ "What Is Libertarian". Institute for Humane Studies. Retrieved 20 December 2019.
  168. ^ Baradat, Leon P. (2015). Political Ideologies. Routledge. p. 31. ISBN 978-1317345558.
  169. ^ Kevin Carson. Organization Theory: A Libertarian Perspective. Booksurge. 2008. p. 1
  170. ^ Bookchin, Murray and Janet Biehl. The Murray Bookchin Reader. Cassell, 1997. p. 170 ISBN 0-304-33873-7
  171. ^ Hicks, Steven V. and Daniel E. Shannon. The American journal of economics and sociology. Blackwell Pub, 2003. p. 612
  172. ^ Miller, Wilbur R. (2012). The social history of crime and punishment in America. An encyclopedia. 5 vols. London: Sage Publications. p. 1007. ISBN 1412988764. "There exist three major camps in libertarian thought: right-libertarianism, socialist libertarianism, and ..."
  173. ^ "It implies a classless and anti-authoritarian (i.e. libertarian) society in which people manage their own affairs" I.1 Isn't libertarian socialism an oxymoron? 2017-11-16 at the Wayback Machine at An Anarchist FAQ
  174. ^ "unlike other socialists, they tend to see (to various different degrees, depending on the thinker) to be skeptical of centralized state intervention as the solution to capitalist exploitation..." Roderick T. Long. "Toward a libertarian theory of class." Social Philosophy and Policy. Volume 15. Issue 02. Summer 1998. p. 305
  175. ^ a b "So, libertarian socialism rejects the idea of state ownership and control of the economy, along with the state as such. Through workers' self-management it proposes to bring an end to authority, exploitation, and hierarchy in production." "I1. Isn't libertarian socialism an oxymoron" in 2017-11-16 at the Wayback Machine An Anarchist FAQ
  176. ^ "Therefore, rather than being an oxymoron, "libertarian socialism" indicates that true socialism must be libertarian and that a libertarian who is not a socialist is a phoney. As true socialists oppose wage labour, they must also oppose the state for the same reasons. Similarly, libertarians must oppose wage labour for the same reasons they must oppose the state." "I1. Isn't libertarian socialism an oxymoron" in 2017-11-16 at the Wayback Machine An Anarchist FAQ
  177. ^ "Their analysis treats libertarian socialism as a form of anti-parliamentary, democratic, antibureaucratic grass roots socialist organisation, strongly linked to working class activism." Alex Prichard, Ruth Kinna, Saku Pinta and Dave Berry (eds) Libertarian Socialism: Politics in Black and Red. Palgrave Macmillan, December 2012. p. 13
  178. ^ " ...preferringa system of popular self governance via networks of decentralized, local voluntary, participatory, cooperative associations. Roderick T. Long. "Toward a libertarian theory of class." Social Philosophy and Policy. Volume 15. Issue 02. Summer 1998. p. 305
  179. ^ "What is of particular interest here, however, is the appeal to a form of emancipation grounded in decentralized, cooperative and democratic forms of political and economic governance which most libertarian socialist visions, including Cole's, tend to share." Charles Masquelier. Critical theory and libertarian socialism: Realizing the political potential of critical social theory. Bloomsbury Publishing. New York and London. 2014. p. 189
  180. ^ Mendes, Silva. Socialismo Libertário ou Anarchismo Vol. 1 (1896): "Society should be free through mankind's spontaneous federative affiliation to life, based on the community of land and tools of the trade; meaning: Anarchy will be equality by abolition of private property (while retaining respect for personal property) and liberty by abolition of authority".
  181. ^ "...preferring a system of popular self governance via networks of decentralized, local, voluntary, participatory, cooperative associations-sometimes as a complement to and check on state power..."
  182. ^ Rocker, Rudolf (2004). Anarcho-Syndicalism: Theory and Practice. AK Press. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-902593-92-0.
  183. ^ "LibSoc share with LibCap an aversion to any interference to freedom of thought, expression or choice of lifestyle." Roderick T. Long. "Toward a libertarian theory of class." Social Philosophy and Policy. Volume 15. Issue 02. Summer 1998. pp 305
  184. ^ "...what categorizes libertarian socialism is a focus on forms of social organization to further the freedom of the individual combined with an advocacy of non-state means for achieving this." Matt Dawson. Late modernity, individualization and socialism: An Associational Critique of Neoliberalism. Palgrave MacMillan. 2013. p. 64
  185. ^ "What is implied by the term 'libertarian socialism'?: The idea that socialism is first and foremost about freedom and therefore about overcoming the domination, repression, and alienation that block the free flow of human creativity, thought, and action...An approach to socialism that incorporates cultural revolution, women's and children's liberation, and the critique and transformation of daily life, as well as the more traditional concerns of socialist politics. A politics that is completely revolutionary because it seeks to transform all of reality. We do not think that capturing the economy and the state lead automatically to the transformation of the rest of social being, nor do we equate liberation with changing our life-styles and our heads. Capitalism is a total system that invades all areas of life: socialism must be the overcoming of capitalist reality in its entirety, or it is nothing." "What is Libertarian Socialism?" by Ulli Diemer. Volume 2, Number 1 (Summer 1997 issue) of The Red Menace.
  186. ^ "The IAF–IFA fights for : the abolition of all forms of authority whether economical, political, social, religious, cultural or sexual.""Principles of The International of Anarchist Federations" January 5, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
  187. ^ Ward, Colin (1966). . Archived from the original on 25 March 2010. Retrieved 1 March 2010.
  188. ^ "The Soviet Union Versus Socialism". chomsky.info. Retrieved 2015-11-22. Libertarian socialism, furthermore, does not limit its aims to democratic control by producers over production, but seeks to abolish all forms of domination and hierarchy in every aspect of social and personal life, an unending struggle, since progress in achieving a more just society will lead to new insight and understanding of forms of oppression that may be concealed in traditional practice and consciousness.
  189. ^ "Authority is defined in terms of the right to exercise social control (as explored in the "sociology of power") and the correlative duty to obey (as explred in the "philosophy of practical reason"). Anarchism is distinguished, philosophically, by its scepticism towards such moral relations – by its questioning of the claims made for such normative power – and, practically, by its challenge to those "authoritative" powers which cannot justify their claims and which are therefore deemed illegitimate or without moral foundation."Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism by Paul McLaughlin. AshGate. 2007. p. 1
  190. ^ "Anarchism, then, really stands for the liberation of the human mind from the dominion of religion; the liberation of the human body from the dominion of property; liberation from the shackles and restraint of government. Anarchism stands for a social order based on the free grouping of individuals for the purpose of producing real social wealth; an order that will guarantee to every human being free access to the earth and full enjoyment of the necessities of life, according to individual desires, tastes, and inclinations." Emma Goldman. "What it Really Stands for Anarchy" in Anarchism and Other Essays.
  191. ^ Individualist anarchist Benjamin Tucker defined anarchism as opposition to authority as follows "They found that they must turn either to the right or to the left, – follow either the path of Authority or the path of Liberty. Marx went one way; Warren and Proudhon the other. Thus were born State Socialism and Anarchism...Authority, takes many shapes, but, broadly speaking, her enemies divide themselves into three classes: first, those who abhor her both as a means and as an end of progress, opposing her openly, avowedly, sincerely, consistently, universally; second, those who profess to believe in her as a means of progress, but who accept her only so far as they think she will subserve their own selfish interests, denying her and her blessings to the rest of the world; third, those who distrust her as a means of progress, believing in her only as an end to be obtained by first trampling upon, violating, and outraging her. These three phases of opposition to Liberty are met in almost every sphere of thought and human activity. Good representatives of the first are seen in the Catholic Church and the Russian autocracy; of the second, in the Protestant Church and the Manchester school of politics and political economy; of the third, in the atheism of Gambetta and the socialism of Karl Marx." Benjamin Tucker. Individual Liberty.
  192. ^ Anarchist historian George Woodcock report of Mikhail Bakunin's anti-authoritarianism and shows opposition to both state and non-state forms of authority as follows: "All anarchists deny authority; many of them fight against it." (p. 9)...Bakunin did not convert the League's central committee to his full program, but he did persuade them to accept a remarkably radical recommendation to the Berne Congress of September 1868, demanding economic equality and implicitly attacking authority in both Church and State."
  193. ^ Brown, L. Susan (2002). "Anarchism as a Political Philosophy of Existential Individualism: Implications for Feminism". The Politics of Individualism: Liberalism, Liberal Feminism and Anarchism. Black Rose Books Ltd. Publishing. p. 106.
  194. ^ "It is forgotten that the early defenders of commercial society like (Adam) Smith were as much concerned with criticising the associational blocks to mobile labour represented by guilds as they were to the activities of the state. The history of socialist thought includes a long associational and anti-statist tradition prior to the political victory of the Bolshevism in the east and varieties of Fabianism in the west. John O'Neil." The Market: Ethics, knowledge and politics. Routledge. 1998. p. 3
  195. ^ "In some ways, it is perhaps fair to say that if Left communism is an intellectual- political formation, it is so, first and foremost, negatively – as opposed to other socialist traditions. I have labelled this negative pole 'socialist orthodoxy', composed of both Leninists and social democrats...What I suggested was that these Left communist thinkers differentiated their own understandings of communism from a strand of socialism that came to follow a largely electoral road in the West, pursuing a kind of social capitalism, and a path to socialism that predominated in the peripheral and semi- peripheral countries, which sought revolutionary conquest of power and led to something like state capitalism. Generally, the Left communist thinkers were to find these paths locked within the horizons of capitalism (the law of value, money, private property, class, the state), and they were to characterize these solutions as statist, substitutionist and authoritarian." Chamsy el- Ojeili. Beyond post-socialism. Dialogues with the far-left. Palgrave Macmillan. 2015. p. 8
  196. ^ Sims, Franwa (2006). The Anacostia Diaries As It Is. Lulu Press. p. 160.
  197. ^ An Anarchist FAQ. "(Benjamin) Tucker referred to himself many times as a socialist and considered his philosophy to be "Anarchistic socialism."
  198. ^ Armand, Émile (1907). "Anarchist Individualism as a Life and Activity". French individualist anarchist Émile Armand shows clearly opposition to capitalism and centralized economies when he said that the individualist anarchist "inwardly he remains refractory – fatally refractory – morally, intellectually, economically (The capitalist economy and the directed economy, the speculators and the fabricators of single are equally repugnant to him.)"
  199. ^ Sabatini, Peter (1994–1995). "Libertarianism: Bogus Anarchy". Anarchist Peter Sabatini reports that in the United States "of early to mid-19th century, there appeared an array of communal and "utopian" counterculture groups (including the so-called free love movement). William Godwin's anarchism exerted an ideological influence on some of this, but more so the socialism of Robert Owen and Charles Fourier. After success of his British venture, Owen himself established a cooperative community within the United States at New Harmony, Indiana during 1825. One member of this commune was Josiah Warren (1798–1874), considered to be the first individualist anarchist."
  200. ^ Chartier, Gary; Johnson, Charles W. (2011). Markets Not Capitalism: Individualist Anarchism Against Bosses, Inequality, Corporate Power, and Structural Poverty. Brooklyn: Minor Compositions/Autonomedia. Back cover. "It introduces an eye-opening approach to radical social thought, rooted equally in libertarian socialism and market anarchism."
  201. ^ "A Mutualist FAQ: A.4. Are Mutualists Socialists?" 9 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
  202. ^ Masquelier, Charles (2014). Critical Theory and Libertarian Socialism: Realizing the Political Potential of Critical Social Theory. New York and London: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 190. "It is by meeting such a twofold requirement that the libertarian socialism of G.D.H. Cole could be said to offer timely and sustainable avenues for the institutionalization of the liberal value of autonomy [...]."
  203. ^ Prichard, Alex; Kinna, Ruth; Pinta, Saku; Berry, Dave, eds. (December 2012). Libertarian Socialism: Politics in Black and Red. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 13. "Locating libertarian socialism in a grey area between anarchist and Marxist extremes, they argue that the multiple experiences of historical convergence remain inspirational and that, through these examples, the hope of socialist transformation survives."
  204. ^ Boraman, Toby (December 2012). "Carnival and Class: Anarchism and Councilism in Australasia during the 1970s". In Prichard, Alex; Kinna, Ruth; Pinta, Saku; Berry, Dave, eds. Libertarian Socialism: Politics in Black and Red. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 268. "Councilism and anarchism loosely merged into 'libertarian socialism', offering a non-dogmatic path by which both council communism and anarchism could be updated for the changed conditions of the time, and for the new forms of proletarian resistance to these new conditions."
  205. ^ Bookchin, Murray (1992). "The Ghost of Anarcho-Syndicalism".
  206. ^ Graham, Robert. "The General Idea of Proudhon's Revolution".
  207. ^ Bromley, Kent (1906). "Preface". In Kropotkin, Peter. The Conquest of Bread. London and New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons.
  208. ^ "Mutualist.Org: Free Market Anti-Capitalism". www.mutualist.org.
  209. ^ Miller, David. 1987. "Mutualism." The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Political Thought. Blackwell Publishing. p. 11
  210. ^ Tandy, Francis D., 1896, Voluntary Socialism, chapter 6, paragraph 15.
  211. ^ Sharma, R.N. (1991). Plato: An Inter-disciplinary Perspective. New Delhi, India: Atlantic Publishers and Distributors. pp. 131–132.
  212. ^ “Hegel” by Charles Taylor, Part II: Phenomenology: IV The Dialectic of Consciousness, V Self-Consciousness
  213. ^ “Social and Political Recognition” by Paddy McQueen
  214. ^ Marvin Perry, Myrna Chase, Margaret Jacob, James R. Jacob. Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society – From 1600, Volume 2. 9th ed. Boston, Massaschussetts: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company, 2009 pp. 760
  215. ^ "The most ambitious contribution to literary anarchism during the 1890s was undoubtedly Oscar Wilde The Soul of Man under Socialism. Wilde, as we have seen, declared himself an anarchist on at least one occasion during the 1890s, and he greatly admired Peter Kropotkin, whom he had met. Later, in De Profundis, he described Kropotkin's life as one "of the most perfect lives I have come across in my own experience" and talked of him as "a man with a soul of that beautiful white Christ that seems coming out of Russia." But in The Soul of Man under Socialism, which appeared in 1890, it is Godwin rather than Kropotkin whose influence seems dominant." George Woodcock. Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements. 1962. (p. 447).
  216. ^ _wlo:dek. "Emil Armand "Anarchist Individualism as a Life and Activity"".
  217. ^ a b c Imperfect garden : the legacy of humanism. Princeton University Press. 2002.
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  219. ^ "Emerson, Ralph Waldo | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy".
  220. ^ "How the early Christian church gave birth to today's WEIRD Europeans". www.science.org.
  221. ^ Chatterjee, Rhitu (November 7, 2019). "Western Individualism May Have Roots In The Medieval Church's Obsession With Incest". NPR.
  222. ^ "Catechism of the Catholic Church 2792".
  223. ^ Chalamet, C.; Delikostantis, K.; Getcha, J.; Parmentier, E. (2021). Theological Anthropology, 500 Years after Martin Luther: Orthodox and Protestant Perspectives. Studies in Systematic Theology. Brill. p. 187. ISBN 978-90-04-46125-3. Retrieved 2023-05-06.

Further reading edit

individualism, individual, freedom, redirects, here, other, uses, civil, liberties, moral, stance, political, philosophy, ideology, social, outlook, that, emphasizes, intrinsic, worth, individual, individualists, promote, realizing, goals, desires, valuing, in. Individual freedom redirects here For other uses see Civil liberties Individualism is the moral stance political philosophy ideology and social outlook that emphasizes the intrinsic worth of the individual 1 2 Individualists promote realizing one s goals and desires valuing independence and self reliance and advocating that the interests of the individual should gain precedence over the state or a social group while opposing external interference upon one s own interests by society or institutions such as the government 3 Individualism makes the individual its focus 1 and so starts with the fundamental premise that the human individual is of primary importance in the struggle for liberation 4 Individualism is often defined in contrast to totalitarianism collectivism and more corporate social forms 5 6 Individualism has been used as a term denoting t he quality of being an individual individuality related to possessing a n individual characteristic a quirk 3 Individualism is also associated with artistic and bohemian interests and lifestyles where there is a tendency towards self creation and experimentation as opposed to tradition or popular mass opinions and behaviors 3 7 It is also associated with humanist philosophical positions and ethics 8 9 Contents 1 Etymology 2 Individual 2 1 Individuation principle 3 Individualism and society 3 1 Competitive individualism 3 2 Methodological individualism 4 Political individualism 4 1 Anarchism 4 2 Autarchism 4 3 Liberalism 5 Philosophical individualism 5 1 Egoist anarchism 5 2 Ethical egoism 5 3 Existentialism 5 4 Freethought 5 5 Humanism 5 6 Hedonism 5 7 Libertinism 5 8 Objectivism 5 9 Philosophical anarchism 5 10 Subjectivism 5 10 1 Solipsism 6 Economic individualism 6 1 Classical liberalism 6 2 Libertarianism 6 2 1 Left libertarianism 6 2 2 Right libertarianism 6 3 Socialism 6 3 1 Libertarian socialism 6 3 2 Mutualism 7 Criticisms 8 Other views 8 1 As creative independent lifestyle 8 2 Religion 9 See also 10 References 11 Further readingEtymology editIn the English language the word individualism was first introduced as a pejorative by utopian socialists such as the Owenites in the late 1830s although it is unclear if they were influenced by Saint Simonianism or came up with it independently 10 A more positive use of the term in Britain came to be used with the writings of James Elishama Smith who was a millenarian and a Christian Israelite Although an early follower of Robert Owen he eventually rejected Owen s collective idea of property and found in individualism a universalism that allowed for the development of the original genius Without individualism Smith argued that individuals cannot amass property to increase one s happiness 10 William Maccall another Unitarian preacher and probably an acquaintance of Smith came somewhat later although influenced by John Stuart Mill Thomas Carlyle and German Romanticism to the same positive conclusions in his 1847 work Elements of Individualism 11 Individual editMain article Individual An individual is a person or any specific object in a collection In the 15th century and earlier and also today within the fields of statistics and metaphysics individual means indivisible typically describing any numerically singular thing but sometimes meaning a person as in the problem of proper names From the 17th century on individual indicates separateness as in individualism 12 Individuality is the state or quality of being an individuated being a person separated from everything with unique character by possessing their own needs goals and desires in comparison to other people 13 Individuation principle edit Main article Individuation The principle of individuation or principium individuationis 14 describes the manner in which a thing is identified as distinguished from other things 15 For Carl Jung individuation is a process of transformation whereby the personal and collective unconscious is brought into consciousness by means of dreams active imagination or free association to take examples to be assimilated into the whole personality It is a completely natural process necessary for the integration of the psyche to take place 16 Jung considered individuation to be the central process of human development 17 In L individuation psychique et collective Gilbert Simondon developed a theory of individual and collective individuation in which the individual subject is considered as an effect of individuation rather than a cause Thus the individual atom is replaced by a never ending ontological process of individuation Individuation is an always incomplete process always leaving a pre individual left over itself making possible future individuations 18 The philosophy of Bernard Stiegler draws upon and modifies the work of Gilbert Simondon on individuation and also upon similar ideas in Friedrich Nietzsche and Sigmund Freud For Stiegler the I as a psychic individual can only be thought in relationship to we which is a collective individual The I is constituted in adopting a collective tradition which it inherits and in which a plurality of I s acknowledge each other s existence 19 Individualism and society editIndividualism holds that a person taking part in society attempts to learn and discover what his or her own interests are on a personal basis without a presumed following of the interests of a societal structure an individualist need not be an egoist The individualist does not necessarily follow one particular philosophy He may create an amalgamation of elements of many philosophies based on personal interests in particular aspects that he finds of use On a societal level the individualist participates on a personally structured political and moral ground Independent thinking and opinion is a necessary trait of an individualist Jean Jacques Rousseau claims that his concept of general will in The Social Contract is not the simple collection of individual wills and that it furthers the interests of the individual the constraint of law itself would be beneficial for the individual as the lack of respect for the law necessarily entails in Rousseau s eyes a form of ignorance and submission to one s passions instead of the preferred autonomy of reason Individualism versus collectivism is a common dichotomy in cross cultural research Global comparative studies have found that the world s cultures vary in the degree to which they emphasize individual autonomy freedom and initiative individualistic traits respectively conformity to group norms maintaining traditions and obedience to in group authority collectivistic traits 20 Cultural differences between individualism and collectivism are differences in degrees not in kind 21 Cultural individualism is strongly correlated with GDP per capita 22 and venture capital investments 23 The cultures of economically developed regions such as Australia New Zealand Japan South Korea 24 25 26 North America and Western Europe are the most individualistic in the world Middle income regions such as Eastern Europe South America and mainland East Asia have cultures which are neither very individualistic nor very collectivistic The most collectivistic cultures in the world are from economically developing regions such as the Middle East and Northern Africa Sub Saharan Africa South and South East Asia Central Asia and Central America 27 28 29 An earlier analysis by Ruth Benedict in her book The Chrysanthemum and the Sword states that societies and groups can differ in the extent to which they are based upon predominantly self regarding individualistic and or self interested behaviors rather than other regarding group oriented and group or society minded behaviors Ruth Benedict made a distinction relevant in this context between guilt societies e g medieval Europe with an internal reference standard and shame societies e g Japan bringing shame upon one s ancestors with an external reference standard where people look to their peers for feedback on whether an action is acceptable or not 30 Individualism is often contrasted either with totalitarianism or with collectivism 6 but there is a spectrum of behaviors at the societal level ranging from highly individualistic societies through mixed societies to collectivist 31 32 Competitive individualism edit According to an Oxford Dictionary competitive individualism in sociology is the view that achievement and non achievement should depend on merit Effort and ability are regarded as prerequisites of success Competition is seen as an acceptable means of distributing limited resources and rewards Methodological individualism edit Methodological individualism is the view that phenomena can only be understood by examining how they result from the motivations and actions of individual agents 33 In economics people s behavior is explained in terms of rational choices as constrained by prices and incomes The economist accepts individuals preferences as givens Becker and Stigler provide a forceful statement of this view On the traditional view an explanation of economic phenomena that reaches a difference in tastes between people or times is the terminus of the argument the problem is abandoned at this point to whoever studies and explains tastes psychologists anthropologists phrenologists sociobiologists On our preferred interpretation one never reaches this impasse the economist continues to search for differences in prices or incomes to explain any differences or changes in behavior 34 Political individualism edit With the abolition of private property then we shall have true beautiful healthy Individualism Nobody will waste his life in accumulating things and the symbols for things One will live To live is the rarest thing in the world Most people exist that is all Oscar Wilde The Soul of Man under Socialism 1891 Individualists are chiefly concerned with protecting individual autonomy against obligations imposed by social institutions such as the state or religious morality For L Susan Brown Liberalism and anarchism are two political philosophies that are fundamentally concerned with individual freedom yet differ from one another in very distinct ways Anarchism shares with liberalism a radical commitment to individual freedom while rejecting liberalism s competitive property relations 4 Civil libertarianism is a strain of political thought that supports civil liberties or which emphasizes the supremacy of individual rights and personal freedoms over and against any kind of authority such as a state a corporation and social norms imposed through peer pressure among others 35 Civil libertarianism is not a complete ideology rather it is a collection of views on the specific issues of civil liberties and civil rights Because of this a civil libertarian outlook is compatible with many other political philosophies and civil libertarianism is found on both the right and left in modern politics 36 For scholar Ellen Meiksins Wood there are doctrines of individualism that are opposed to Lockean individualism and non Lockean individualism may encompass socialism 37 British historians such as Emily Robinson Camilla Schofield Florence Sutcliffe Braithwaite and Natalie Thomlinson have argued that Britons were keen about defining and claiming their individual rights identities and perspectives by the 1970s demanding greater personal autonomy and self determination and less outside control angrily complaining that the establishment was withholding it Historians argue that this shift in concerns helped cause Thatcherism and was incorporated into Thatcherism s appeal 38 Anarchism edit Main article Anarchism Within anarchism individualist anarchism represents several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasize the individual and their will over any kinds of external determinants such as groups society traditions and ideological systems 39 40 Individualist anarchism is not a single philosophy but refers to a group of individualistic philosophies that sometimes are in conflict In 1793 William Godwin who has often 41 been cited as the first anarchist wrote Political Justice which some consider to be the first expression of anarchism 42 43 Godwin a philosophical anarchist from a rationalist and utilitarian basis opposed revolutionary action and saw a minimal state as a present necessary evil that would become increasingly irrelevant and powerless by the gradual spread of knowledge 42 44 Godwin advocated individualism proposing that all cooperation in labour be eliminated on the premise that this would be most conducive with the general good 45 46 An influential form of individualist anarchism called egoism 47 or egoist anarchism was expounded by one of the earliest and best known proponents of individualist anarchism the German Max Stirner 48 Stirner s The Ego and Its Own published in 1844 is a founding text of the philosophy 48 According to Stirner the only limitation on the rights of the individual is their power to obtain what they desire 49 without regard for God state or morality 50 To Stirner rights were spooks in the mind and he held that society does not exist but the individuals are its reality 51 Stirner advocated self assertion and foresaw unions of egoists non systematic associations continually renewed by all parties support through an act of will 52 which Stirner proposed as a form of organization in place of the state 53 Egoist anarchists claim that egoism will foster genuine and spontaneous union between individuals 54 Egoist anarchism has inspired many interpretations of Stirner s philosophy It was re discovered and promoted by German philosophical anarchist and LGBT activist John Henry Mackay Josiah Warren is widely regarded as the first American anarchist 55 and The Peaceful Revolutionist the four page weekly paper he edited during 1833 was the first anarchist periodical published 56 For American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster i t is apparent that Proudhonian Anarchism was to be found in the United States at least as early as 1848 and that it was not conscious of its affinity to the Individualist Anarchism of Josiah Warren and Stephen Pearl Andrews William B Greene presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most systematic form 57 Henry David Thoreau was an important early influence in individualist anarchist thought in the United States and Europe 58 Thoreau was an American author poet naturalist tax resister development critic surveyor historian philosopher and leading transcendentalist who is best known for his book Walden a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings and his essay Civil Disobedience an argument for individual resistance to civil government in moral opposition to an unjust state Later Benjamin Tucker fused Stirner s egoism with the economics of Warren and Proudhon in his eclectic influential publication Liberty From these early influences anarchism and especially individualist anarchism was related to the issues of love and sex In different countries this attracted a small but diverse following of bohemian artists and intellectuals 59 free love and birth control advocates 60 61 individualist naturists nudists as in anarcho naturism 62 63 64 freethought and anti clerical activists 65 as well as young anarchist outlaws in what came to be known as illegalism and individual reclamation 66 67 especially within European individualist anarchism and individualist anarchism in France These authors and activists included Oscar Wilde Emile Armand Han Ryner Henri Zisly Renzo Novatore Miguel Gimenez Igualada Adolf Brand and Lev Chernyi among others In his important essay The Soul of Man Under Socialism from 1891 Wilde defended socialism as the way to guarantee individualism and so he saw that w ith the abolition of private property then we shall have true beautiful healthy Individualism Nobody will waste his life in accumulating things and the symbols for things One will live To live is the rarest thing in the world Most people exist that is all 68 For anarchist historian George Woodcock Wilde s aim in The Soul of Man Under Socialism is to seek the society most favorable to the artist for Wilde art is the supreme end containing within itself enlightenment and regeneration to which all else in society must be subordinated Wilde represents the anarchist as aesthete 69 Woodcock finds that t he most ambitious contribution to literary anarchism during the 1890s was undoubtedly Oscar Wilde The Soul of Man Under Socialism and finds that it is influenced mainly by the thought of William Godwin 69 Autarchism edit Main article Autarchism Autarchism promotes the principles of individualism the moral ideology of individual liberty and self reliance whilst rejecting compulsory government and supporting the elimination of government in favor of ruling oneself to the exclusion of rule by others Robert LeFevre recognized as an autarchist by anarcho capitalist Murray Rothbard 70 distinguished autarchism from anarchy whose economics he felt entailed interventions contrary to freedom in contrast to his own laissez faire economics of the Austrian School 71 Liberalism edit Main article Liberalism Liberalism is thought that attaches and advances the importance of the civil and political rights of individuals and their freedoms of speech and expression 72 This belief is widely accepted in the United States Europe Australia and other Western nations and was recognized as an important value by many Western philosophers throughout history in particular since the Enlightenment It is often rejected by collectivist ideas such as in Abrahamic or Confucian societies although Taoists were and are known to be individualists 73 The Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius wrote praising the idea of a polity administered with regard to equal rights and equal freedom of speech and the idea of a kingly government which respects most of all the freedom of the governed 74 Liberalism has its roots in the Age of Enlightenment and rejects many foundational assumptions that dominated most earlier theories of government such as the Divine Right of Kings hereditary status and established religion John Locke and Montesquieu are often credited with the philosophical foundations of classical liberalism a political ideology inspired by the broader liberal movement He wrote no one ought to harm another in his life health liberty or possessions 75 In the 17th century liberal ideas began to influence European governments in nations such as the Netherlands Switzerland England and Poland but they were strongly opposed often by armed might by those who favored absolute monarchy and established religion In the 18th century the first modern liberal state was founded without a monarch or a hereditary aristocracy in the United States of America 76 The US Declaration of Independence includes the words which echo Locke that all men are created equal that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights that among these are life liberty and the pursuit of happiness that to insure these rights governments are instituted among men deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed 77 Liberalism comes in many forms According to John N Gray the essence of liberalism is toleration of different beliefs and of different ideas as to what constitutes a good life 78 Liberalism generally values differing political opinions even if they clash and cause discord 72 Philosophical individualism editEgoist anarchism edit Main article Egoist anarchism nbsp Egoist philosopher Max Stirner has been called a proto existentialist philosopher while at the same time is a central theorist of individualist anarchism Egoist anarchism is a school of anarchist thought that originated in the philosophy of Max Stirner a 19th century Hegelian philosopher whose name appears with familiar regularity in historically orientated surveys of anarchist thought as one of the earliest and best known exponents of individualist anarchism 48 According to Stirner the only limitation on the rights of the individual is their power to obtain what they desire 49 without regard for God state or morality 50 Stirner advocated self assertion and foresaw unions of egoists non systematic associations continually renewed by all parties support through an act of will 52 which Stirner proposed as a form of organisation in place of the state 53 Egoist anarchists argue that egoism will foster genuine and spontaneous union between individuals 54 Egoism has inspired many interpretations of Stirner s philosophy but it has also gone beyond Stirner within anarchism It was re discovered and promoted by German philosophical anarchist and LGBT activist John Henry Mackay John Beverley Robinson wrote an essay called Egoism in which he states that Modern egoism as propounded by Stirner and Nietzsche and expounded by Ibsen Shaw and others is all these but it is more It is the realization by the individual that they are an individual that as far as they are concerned they are the only individual 79 Stirner and Nietzsche who exerted influence on anarchism despite its opposition were frequently compared by French literary anarchists and anarchist interpretations of Nietzschean ideas appear to have also been influential in the United States 80 Ethical egoism edit Main article Ethical egoism Ethical egoism also called simply egoism 81 is the normative ethical position that moral agents ought to do what is in their own self interest It differs from psychological egoism which claims that people do only act in their self interest Ethical egoism also differs from rational egoism which holds merely that it is rational to act in one s self interest However these doctrines may occasionally be combined with ethical egoism Ethical egoism contrasts with ethical altruism which holds that moral agents have an obligation to help and serve others Egoism and altruism both contrast with ethical utilitarianism which holds that a moral agent should treat one s self also known as the subject with no higher regard than one has for others as egoism does by elevating self interests and the self to a status not granted to others but that one also should not as altruism does sacrifice one s own interests to help others interests so long as one s own interests i e one s own desires or well being are substantially equivalent to the others interests and well being Egoism utilitarianism and altruism are all forms of consequentialism but egoism and altruism contrast with utilitarianism in that egoism and altruism are both agent focused forms of consequentialism i e subject focused or subjective but utilitarianism is called agent neutral i e objective and impartial as it does not treat the subject s i e the self s i e the moral agent s own interests as being more or less important than if the same interests desires or well being were anyone else s Ethical egoism does not require moral agents to harm the interests and well being of others when making moral deliberation e g what is in an agent s self interest may be incidentally detrimental beneficial or neutral in its effect on others Individualism allows for others interest and well being to be disregarded or not as long as what is chosen is efficacious in satisfying the self interest of the agent Nor does ethical egoism necessarily entail that in pursuing self interest one ought always to do what one wants to do e g in the long term the fulfilment of short term desires may prove detrimental to the self Fleeting pleasance then takes a back seat to protracted eudaemonia In the words of James Rachels e thical egoism endorses selfishness but it doesn t endorse foolishness 82 Ethical egoism is sometimes the philosophical basis for support of libertarianism or individualist anarchism as in Max Stirner although these can also be based on altruistic motivations 83 These are political positions based partly on a belief that individuals should not coercively prevent others from exercising freedom of action Existentialism edit Main article Existentialism Existentialism is a term applied to the work of a number of 19th and 20th century philosophers who generally held despite profound doctrinal differences 84 85 that the focus of philosophical thought should be to deal with the conditions of existence of the individual person and his or her emotions actions responsibilities and thoughts 86 87 The early 19th century philosopher Soren Kierkegaard posthumously regarded as the father of existentialism 88 89 maintained that the individual solely has the responsibilities of giving one s own life meaning and living that life passionately and sincerely 90 91 in spite of many existential obstacles and distractions including despair angst absurdity alienation and boredom 92 Subsequent existential philosophers retain the emphasis on the individual but differ in varying degrees on how one achieves and what constitutes a fulfilling life what obstacles must be overcome and what external and internal factors are involved including the potential consequences of the existence 93 94 or non existence of God 95 96 Many existentialists have also regarded traditional systematic or academic philosophy in both style and content as too abstract and remote from concrete human experience 97 98 Existentialism became fashionable after World War II as a way to reassert the importance of human individuality and freedom 99 Nietzsche s concept of the superman is closely related to the idea of individualism and the pursuit of one s own unique path and potential 100 As is seen in the following quote the concept of superman reflects Nietzsche s emphasis on the need to overcome traditional moral and societal norms in order to achieve personal growth and self realization Freethought edit Main article Freethought Freethought holds that individuals should not accept ideas proposed as truth without recourse to knowledge and reason Thus freethinkers strive to build their opinions on the basis of facts scientific inquiry and logical principles independent of any logical fallacies or intellectually limiting effects of authority confirmation bias cognitive bias conventional wisdom popular culture prejudice sectarianism tradition urban legend and all other dogmas Regarding religion freethinkers hold that there is insufficient evidence to scientifically validate the existence of supernatural phenomena 101 Humanism edit Main article Humanism Humanism is a perspective common to a wide range of ethical stances that attaches importance to human dignity concerns and capabilities particularly rationality Although the word has many senses its meaning comes into focus when contrasted to the supernatural or to appeals to authority 102 103 Since the 19th century humanism has been associated with an anti clericalism inherited from the 18th century Enlightenment philosophes 21st century Humanism tends to strongly endorse human rights including reproductive rights gender equality 104 social justice and the separation of church and state The term covers organized non theistic religions secular humanism and a humanistic life stance 105 Hedonism edit Main article Hedonism Philosophical hedonism is a meta ethical theory of value which argues that pleasure is the only intrinsic good and pain is the only intrinsic bad 106 The basic idea behind hedonistic thought is that pleasure an umbrella term for all inherently likable emotions is the only thing that is good in and of itself or by its very nature This implies evaluating the moral worth of character or behavior according to the extent that the pleasure it produces exceeds the pain it entails Libertinism edit Main article Libertine A libertine is one devoid of most moral restraints which are seen as unnecessary or undesirable especially one who ignores or even spurns accepted morals and forms of behaviour sanctified by the larger society 107 108 Libertines place value on physical pleasures meaning those experienced through the senses As a philosophy libertinism gained new found adherents in the 17th 18th and 19th centuries particularly in France and Great Britain Notable among these were John Wilmot 2nd Earl of Rochester and the Marquis de Sade During the Baroque era in France there existed a freethinking circle of philosophers and intellectuals who were collectively known as libertinage erudit and which included Gabriel Naude Elie Diodati and Francois de La Mothe Le Vayer 109 110 The critic Vivian de Sola Pinto linked John Wilmot 2nd Earl of Rochester s libertinism to Hobbesian materialism 111 Objectivism edit Main article Objectivism Objectivism is a system of philosophy created by philosopher and novelist Ayn Rand which holds that reality exists independent of consciousness human beings gain knowledge rationally from perception through the process of concept formation and inductive and deductive logic the moral purpose of one s life is the pursuit of one s own happiness or rational self interest 112 Rand thinks the only social system consistent with this morality is full respect for individual rights embodied in pure laissez faire capitalism and the role of art in human life is to transform man s widest metaphysical ideas by selective reproduction of reality into a physical form a work of art that he can comprehend and to which he can respond emotionally Objectivism celebrates man as his own hero with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life with productive achievement as his noblest activity and reason as his only absolute 113 Philosophical anarchism edit Main article Philosophical anarchism nbsp Benjamin Tucker American individualist anarchist who focused on economics calling them anarchistic socialism 114 and adhering to the mutualist economics of Pierre Joseph Proudhon and Josiah WarrenPhilosophical anarchism is an anarchist school of thought 115 which contends that the state lacks moral legitimacy In contrast to revolutionary anarchism philosophical anarchism does not advocate violent revolution to eliminate it but advocates peaceful evolution to superate it 116 Although philosophical anarchism does not necessarily imply any action or desire for the elimination of the state philosophical anarchists do not believe that they have an obligation or duty to obey the state or conversely that the state has a right to command Philosophical anarchism is a component especially of individualist anarchism 117 Philosophical anarchists of historical note include Mohandas Gandhi William Godwin Pierre Joseph Proudhon Max Stirner 118 Benjamin Tucker 119 and Henry David Thoreau 120 Contemporary philosophical anarchists include A John Simmons and Robert Paul Wolff Subjectivism edit Main article Subjectivism Subjectivism is a philosophical tenet that accords primacy to subjective experience as fundamental of all measure and law In extreme forms such as solipsism it may hold that the nature and existence of every object depends solely on someone s subjective awareness of it In the proposition 5 632 of the Tractatus Logico Philosophicus Ludwig Wittgenstein wrote The subject doesn t belong to the world but it is a limit of the world Metaphysical subjectivism is the theory that reality is what we perceive to be real and that there is no underlying true reality that exists independently of perception One can also hold that it is consciousness rather than perception that is reality subjective idealism In probability a subjectivism stands for the belief that probabilities are simply degrees of belief by rational agents in a certain proposition and which have no objective reality in and of themselves Ethical subjectivism stands in opposition to moral realism which claims that moral propositions refer to objective facts independent of human opinion to error theory which denies that any moral propositions are true in any sense and to non cognitivism which denies that moral sentences express propositions at all The most common forms of ethical subjectivism are also forms of moral relativism with moral standards held to be relative to each culture or society i e cultural relativism or even to every individual The latter view as put forward by Protagoras holds that there are as many distinct scales of good and evil as there are subjects in the world Moral subjectivism is that species of moral relativism that relativizes moral value to the individual subject Horst Matthai Quelle was a Spanish language German anarchist philosopher influenced by Max Stirner 121 Quelle argued that since the individual gives form to the world he is those objects the others and the whole universe 121 One of his main views was a theory of infinite worlds which for him was developed by pre socratic philosophers 121 Solipsism edit Main article Solipsism Solipsism is the philosophical idea that only one s own mind is sure to exist The term comes from Latin solus alone and ipse self Solipsism as an epistemological position holds that knowledge of anything outside one s own mind is unsure The external world and other minds cannot be known and might not exist outside the mind As a metaphysical position solipsism goes further to the conclusion that the world and other minds do not exist Solipsism is the only epistemological position that by its own postulate is both irrefutable and yet indefensible in the same manner Although the number of individuals sincerely espousing solipsism has been small it is not uncommon for one philosopher to accuse another s arguments of entailing solipsism as an unwanted consequence in a kind of reductio ad absurdum In the history of philosophy solipsism has served as a skeptical hypothesis Economic individualism editThe doctrine of economic individualism holds that each individual should be allowed autonomy in making his or her own economic decisions as opposed to those decisions being made by the community the corporation or the state for him or her Classical liberalism edit Main article Classical liberalism Liberalism is a political ideology that developed in the 19th century in the Americas England France and Western Europe It followed earlier forms of liberalism in its commitment to personal freedom and popular government but differed from earlier forms of liberalism in its commitment to classical economics and free markets 122 Notable liberals in the 19th century include Jean Baptiste Say Thomas Malthus and David Ricardo Classical liberalism sometimes also used as a label to refer to all forms of liberalism before the 20th century was revived in the 20th century by Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek and further developed by Milton Friedman Robert Nozick Loren Lomasky and Jan Narveson 123 Libertarianism edit Main article Libertarianism Libertarianism upholds liberty as a core principle 124 Libertarians seek to maximize autonomy and political freedom emphasizing free association freedom of choice individualism and voluntary association 125 Libertarianism shares a skepticism of authority and state power but libertarians diverge on the scope of their opposition to existing economic and political systems Various schools of libertarian thought offer a range of views regarding the legitimate functions of state and private power often calling for the restriction or dissolution of coercive social institutions Different categorizations have been used to distinguish various forms of libertarianism 126 127 This is done to distinguish libertarian views on the nature of property and capital usually along left right or socialist capitalist lines 128 Left libertarianism edit Main article Left libertarianism Left libertarianism represents several related yet distinct approaches to politics society culture and political and social theory which stress both individual and political freedom alongside social justice Unlike right libertarians left libertarians believe that neither claiming nor mixing one s labor with natural resources is enough to generate full private property rights 129 130 and maintain that natural resources land oil gold trees ought to be held in some egalitarian manner either unowned or owned collectively 130 Those left libertarians who support property do so under different property norms 131 132 133 134 and theories 135 136 137 or under the condition that recompense is offered to the local or global community 130 Related terms include egalitarian libertarianism 138 139 left wing libertarianism 140 libertarianism 141 libertarian socialism 142 143 social libertarianism 144 and socialist libertarianism 145 Left libertarianism can refer generally to these related and overlapping schools of thought Anti authoritarian varieties of left wing politics in particular within the socialist movement usually known as libertarian socialism 142 143 Geolibertarianism an American synthesis of libertarianism and Georgism 146 147 Left wing market anarchism stressing the socially transformative potential of non aggression and anti capitalist freed markets 148 149 Steiner Vallentyne school named after Hillel Steiner and Peter Vallentyne whose proponents draw conclusions from classical liberal or market liberal premises 150 Right libertarianism edit Main article Right libertarianism Right libertarianism represents either non collectivist forms of libertarianism 151 or a variety of different libertarian views that scholars label to the right of libertarianism 152 153 such as libertarian conservatism 154 Related terms include conservative libertarianism 155 156 157 libertarian capitalism 158 and right wing libertarianism 145 159 160 In the mid 20th century right libertarian ideologies such as anarcho capitalism and minarchism co opted 161 162 the term libertarian to advocate laissez faire capitalism and strong private property rights such as in land infrastructure and natural resources 163 The latter is the dominant form of libertarianism in the United States 145 where it advocates civil liberties 164 natural law 165 free market capitalism 166 167 and a major reversal of the modern welfare state 168 Socialism edit nbsp Influential French individualist anarchist Emile ArmandWith regard to economic questions within individualist socialist schools such as individualist anarchism there are adherents to mutualism Pierre Joseph Proudhon Emile Armand and early Benjamin Tucker natural rights positions early Benjamin Tucker Lysander Spooner and Josiah Warren and egoistic disrespect for ghosts such as private property and markets Max Stirner John Henry Mackay Lev Chernyi later Benjamin Tucker Renzo Novatore and illegalism Contemporary individualist anarchist Kevin Carson characterizes American individualist anarchism saying that u nlike the rest of the socialist movement the individualist anarchists believed that the natural wage of labor in a free market was its product and that economic exploitation could only take place when capitalists and landlords harnessed the power of the state in their interests Thus individualist anarchism was an alternative both to the increasing statism of the mainstream socialist movement and to a classical liberal movement that was moving toward a mere apologetic for the power of big business 169 Libertarian socialism edit Main article Libertarian socialism Libertarian socialism sometimes dubbed left libertarianism 170 171 and socialist libertarianism 172 is an anti authoritarian anti statist and libertarian 173 tradition within the socialist movement that rejects the state socialist conception of socialism as a statist form where the state retains centralized control of the economy 174 175 Libertarian socialists criticize wage slavery relationships within the workplace 176 emphasizing workers self management of the workplace 175 and decentralized structures of political organization 177 178 179 Libertarian socialism asserts that a society based on freedom and justice can be achieved through abolishing authoritarian institutions that control certain means of production and subordinate the majority to an owning class or political and economic elite 180 Libertarian socialists advocate for decentralized structures based on direct democracy and federal or confederal associations such as libertarian municipalism citizens assemblies trade unions and workers councils 181 182 All of this is generally done within a general call for liberty 183 184 and free association 185 through the identification criticism and practical dismantling of illegitimate authority in all aspects of human life 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 Within the larger socialist movement libertarian socialism seeks to distinguish itself from Leninism and social democracy 194 195 Past and present currents and movements commonly described as libertarian socialist include anarchism especially anarchist schools of thought such as anarcho communism anarcho syndicalism 196 collectivist anarchism green anarchism individualist anarchism 197 198 199 200 mutualism 201 and social anarchism as well as communalism some forms of democratic socialism guild socialism 202 libertarian Marxism 203 autonomism council communism 204 left communism and Luxemburgism among others 205 206 participism revolutionary syndicalism and some versions of utopian socialism 207 Mutualism edit Main article Mutualism economic theory Mutualism is an anarchist school of thought which can be traced to the writings of Pierre Joseph Proudhon who envisioned a socialist society where each person possess a means of production either individually or collectively with trade representing equivalent amounts of labor in the free market 208 Integral to the scheme was the establishment of a mutual credit bank which would lend to producers at a minimal interest rate only high enough to cover the costs of administration 209 Mutualism is based on a labor theory of value which holds that when labor or its product is sold it ought to receive goods or services in exchange embodying the amount of labor necessary to produce an article of exactly similar and equal utility and that receiving anything less would be considered exploitation theft of labor or usury 210 Criticisms editPlato emphasized that individuals must adhere to laws and perform duties while declining to grant individuals rights to limit or reject state interference in their lives 211 German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel criticized individualism by claiming that human self consciousness relies on recognition from others therefore embracing a holistic view and rejecting the idea of the world as a collection of atomized individuals 212 213 Fascists believe that the liberal emphasis on individual freedom produces national divisiveness 214 Other views editAs creative independent lifestyle edit nbsp Oscar Wilde famous Irish socialist writer of the decadent movement and famous dandyThe anarchist 215 writer and bohemian Oscar Wilde wrote in his famous essay The Soul of Man under Socialism that Art is individualism and individualism is a disturbing and disintegrating force There lies its immense value For what it seeks is to disturb monotony of type slavery of custom tyranny of habit and the reduction of man to the level of a machine 68 For anarchist historian George Woodcock Wilde s aim in The Soul of Man under Socialism is to seek the society most favorable to the artist for Wilde art is the supreme end containing within itself enlightenment and regeneration to which all else in society must be subordinated Wilde represents the anarchist as aesthete 69 In this way individualism has been used to denote a personality with a strong tendency towards self creation and experimentation as opposed to tradition or popular mass opinions and behaviors 3 7 Anarchist writer Murray Bookchin describes a lot of individualist anarchists as people who expressed their opposition in uniquely personal forms especially in fiery tracts outrageous behavior and aberrant lifestyles in the cultural ghettos of fin de siecle New York Paris and London As a credo individualist anarchism remained largely a bohemian lifestyle most conspicuous in its demands for sexual freedom free love and enamored of innovations in art behavior and clothing 59 In relation to this view of individuality French individualist anarchist Emile Armand advocated egoistical denial of social conventions and dogmas to live in accord to one s own ways and desires in daily life since he emphasized anarchism as a way of life and practice In this way he opined that the anarchist individualist tends to reproduce himself to perpetuate his spirit in other individuals who will share his views and who will make it possible for a state of affairs to be established from which authoritarianism has been banished It is this desire this will not only to live but also to reproduce oneself which we shall call activity 216 In the book Imperfect Garden The Legacy of Humanism humanist philosopher Tzvetan Todorov identifies individualism as an important current of socio political thought within modernity and as examples of it he mentions Michel de Montaigne Francois de La Rochefoucauld Marquis de Sade and Charles Baudelaire 217 In La Rochefoucauld he identifies a tendency similar to stoicism in which the honest person works his being in the manner of a sculptor who searches the liberation of the forms which are inside a block of marble to extract the truth of that matter 217 In Baudelaire he finds the dandy trait in which one searches to cultivate the idea of beauty within oneself of satisfying one s passions of feeling and thinking 217 The Russian American poet Joseph Brodsky once wrote that t he surest defense against Evil is extreme individualism originality of thinking whimsicality even if you will eccentricity That is something that can t be feigned faked imitated something even a seasoned imposter couldn t be happy with 218 Ralph Waldo Emerson famously declared that w hoso would be a man must be a nonconformist a point of view developed at length in both the life and work of Henry David Thoreau Equally memorable and influential on Walt Whitman is Emerson s idea that a foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of small minds adored by little statesmen and philosophers and divines Emerson opposed on principle the reliance on civil and religious social structures precisely because through them the individual approaches the divine second hand mediated by the once original experience of a genius from another age According to Emerson an institution is the lengthened shadow of one man To achieve this original relation Emerson stated that one must i nsist on one s self never imitate for if the relationship is secondary the connection is lost 219 Religion edit People in Western countries tend to be more individualistic than communitarian The authors of one study 220 proposed that this difference is due in part to the influence of the Catholic Church in the Middle Ages They pointed specifically to its bans on incest cousin marriage adoption and remarriage and its promotion of the nuclear family over the extended family 221 The Catholic Church teaches if we pray the Our Father sincerely we leave individualism behind because the love that we receive frees us our divisions and oppositions have to be overcome 222 Many Catholics have believed Martin Luther and the Protestant Reformation were sources of individualism 223 See also edit nbsp Philosophy portalAnti individualism Human nature Individualist feminism Individualistic culture Market fundamentalism Muhammad Iqbal s concept of Khudi Natural and legal rights Negative and positive rights Non aggression principle Personalism Self help Self sustainability Social issue VoluntaryismReferences edit a b individualism Definition History Philosophy Examples amp Facts Britannica www britannica com Retrieved 2021 12 25 Ellen Meiksins Wood Mind and Politics An Approach to the Meaning of Liberal and Socialist Individualism University of California Press 1972 ISBN 0 520 02029 4 p 6 a b c d individualism on The Free Dictionary Archived from the original on 2019 05 17 Retrieved 2009 12 21 a b L Susan Brown The Politics of Individualism Liberalism Liberal Feminism and Anarchism Black Rose Books Ltd 1993 Biddle Craig 20 February 2012 Individualism vs Collectivism Our Future Our Choice The Objective Standard 7 1 a b Hayek F A 1994 The Road to Serfdom Chicago The University of Chicago Press pp 17 37 48 ISBN 0 226 32061 8 a b Snyderman George S Josephs William 1939 Bohemia The Underworld of Art Social Forces 18 2 187 199 doi 10 2307 2570771 ISSN 0037 7732 JSTOR 2570771 The leading intellectual trait of the era was the recovery to a certain degree of the secular and humane philosophy of Greece and Rome Another humanist trend which cannot be ignored was the rebirth of individualism which developed by Greece and Rome to a remarkable degree had been suppressed by the rise of a caste system in the later Roman Empire by the Church and by feudalism in the Middle Ages The history guide Lectures on Modern European Intellectual History Anthropocentricity and individualism Humanism and Italian art were similar in giving paramount attention to human experience both in its everyday immediacy and in its positive or negative extremes The human centredness of Renaissance art moreover was not just a generalized endorsement of earthly experience Like the humanists Italian artists stressed the autonomy and dignity of the individual Humanism on Encyclopaedia Britannica a b Claeys Gregory 1986 Individualism Socialism and Social Science Further Notes on a Process of Conceptual Formation 1800 1850 Journal of the History of Ideas University of Pennsylvania Press 47 1 81 93 doi 10 2307 2709596 JSTOR 2709596 Swart Koenraad W 1962 Individualism in the Mid Nineteenth Century 1826 1860 Journal of the History of Ideas University of Pennsylvania Press 23 1 77 90 doi 10 2307 2708058 JSTOR 2708058 Abbs 1986 cited in Klein 2005 pp 26 27 Gerald N Izenberg 1992 Impossible Individuality Romanticism Revolution and the Origins of Modern Selfhood 1787 1802 Princeton University Press pp 18 ISBN 1 4008 2066 9 Reese William L 1980 Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion 1st ed Atlantic Highlands NJ Humanities Press p 251 ISBN 0 391 00688 6 Audi Robert ed 1999 The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy 2nd ed Cambridge Cambridge University Press p 424 ISBN 0 521 63136 X Jung C G 1962 Symbols of Transformation An analysis of the prelude to a case of schizophrenia Vol 2 R F C Hull Trans New York Harper amp Brothers Jung s Individuation process Retrieved on 2009 2 20 Gilbert Simondon L individuation psychique et collective Paris Aubier 1989 reprinted in 2007 with a preface by Bernard Stiegler Stiegler Bernard 13 May 2004 Bernard Stiegler Culture and Technology Tate Modern Archived 15 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 26 September 2020 Santos Henri C Varnum Michael E W Grossmann Igor 2017 Global Increases in Individualism Psychological Science 28 9 1228 1239 doi 10 1177 0956797617700622 PMID 28703638 S2CID 206588771 Minkov Michael Dutt Pinaki Schachner Michael Morales Oswaldo Sanchez Carlos Jandosova Janar Khassenbekov Yerlan Mudd Ben 2017 A revision of Hofstede s individualism collectivism dimension Cross Cultural amp Strategic Management 24 3 3 doi 10 1108 ccsm 11 2016 0197 ISSN 2059 5794 Inglehart Ronald F 2018 Chapter 3 Global Cultural Patterns Cultural Evolution Cambridge University Press p 40 doi 10 1017 9781108613880 ISBN 978 1 108 61388 0 Gantenbein Pascal Kind Axel Volonte Christophe 2019 Individualism and Venture Capital A Cross Country Study Management International Review 59 5 741 777 doi 10 1007 s11575 019 00394 7 Takano Yohtaro Osaka Eiko 1999 An unsupported common view Comparing Japan and the U S on individualism collectivism Asian Journal of Social Psychology 2 3 311 341 doi 10 1111 1467 839x 00043 ISSN 1367 2223 Takano Yohtaro Sogon Shunya 2008 Are Japanese More Collectivistic Than Americans Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology 39 3 237 250 doi 10 1177 0022022107313902 ISSN 0022 0221 S2CID 145125365 Takano Yohtaro Osaka Eiko 2018 Comparing Japan and the United States on individualism collectivism A follow up review Asian Journal of Social Psychology 21 4 301 316 doi 10 1111 ajsp 12322 ISSN 1367 2223 S2CID 149676839 Minkov Michael Dutt Pinaki Schachner Michael Morales Oswaldo Sanchez Carlos Jandosova Janar Khassenbekov Yerlan Mudd Ben 2017 A revision of Hofstede s individualism collectivism dimension Cross Cultural amp Strategic Management 24 3 29 doi 10 1108 ccsm 11 2016 0197 ISSN 2059 5794 Welzel Christian 2013 Chapter 2 Mapping Differences Freedom Rising New York Cambridge University Press p 87 doi 10 1017 cbo9781139540919 ISBN 978 1 139 54091 9 Beugelsdijk Sjoerd Welzel Chris 2018 Dimensions and Dynamics of National Culture Synthesizing Hofstede With Inglehart Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology 49 10 1485 doi 10 1177 0022022118798505 ISSN 0022 0221 PMC 6191680 PMID 30369633 Benedict Ruth The Chrysanthemum and the Sword Patterns of Japanese Culture Rutland VT and Tokyo Japan Charles E Tuttle Co 1954 orig 1946 AFS USA 2019 10 30 Individualism amp Collectivism AFS USA Archived from the original on 2021 07 09 Retrieved 2021 07 08 Individualism vs Collectivism Our Future Our Choice The Objective Standard The Objective Standard 2012 02 20 Retrieved 2021 07 08 Heath Joseph 1 January 2015 Methodological Individualism In Zalta Edward N ed The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University via Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Stigler George Gary Becker Mar 1977 De gustibus non est disputandum American Economic Review 67 2 76 JSTOR 1807222 Civil libertarian Definition amp Meaning Dictionary com Compass The Political The Political Compass Ellen Meiksins Wood Mind and Politics An Approach to the Meaning of Liberal and Socialist Individualism University of California Press 1972 ISBN 0 520 02029 4 p 7 Emily Robinson et al Telling stories about post war Britain popular individualism and the crisis of the 1970s Twentieth Century British History 28 2 2017 268 304 What do I mean by individualism I mean by individualism the moral doctrine which relying on no dogma no tradition no external determination appeals only to the individual conscience Mini Manual of Individualism by Han Ryner I do not admit anything except the existence of the individual as a condition of his sovereignty To say that the sovereignty of the individual is conditioned by Liberty is simply another way of saying that it is conditioned by itself Anarchism and the State in Individual Liberty Everhart Robert B The Public School Monopoly A Critical Analysis of Education and the State in American Society Pacific Institute for Public Policy Research 1982 p 115 a b Philip Mark 2006 05 20 William Godwin In Zalta Edward N ed Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Adams Ian Political Ideology Today Manchester University Press 2001 p 116 Godwin William 1796 1793 Enquiry Concerning Political Justice and its Influence on Modern Morals and Manners G G and J Robinson OCLC 2340417 Britannica Concise Encyclopedia Retrieved 7 December 2006 from Encyclopaedia Britannica Online Paul McLaughlin Anarchism and Authority A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism Ashgate Publishing Ltd 2007 p 119 Goodway David Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow Liverpool University Press 2006 p 99 a b c Leopold David 2006 08 04 Max Stirner In Zalta Edward N ed Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy a b The Encyclopedia Americana A Library of Universal Knowledge Encyclopedia Corporation p 176 a b Miller David Anarchism 1987 The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought Blackwell Publishing p 11 What my might reaches is my property and let me claim as property everything I feel myself strong enough to attain and let me extend my actual property as fas as I entitle that is empower myself to take In Ossar Michael 1980 Anarchism in the Dramas of Ernst Toller SUNY Press p 27 a b Nyberg Svein Olav The union of egoists PDF Non Serviam Oslo Norway Svein Olav Nyberg 1 13 14 OCLC 47758413 Archived from the original PDF on 7 December 2010 Retrieved 1 September 2012 a b Thomas Paul 1985 Karl Marx and the Anarchists London Routledge Kegan Paul p 142 ISBN 0 7102 0685 2 a b Carlson Andrew 1972 Philosophical Egoism German Antecedents Anarchism in Germany Metuchen Scarecrow Press ISBN 0 8108 0484 0 Archived from the original on 2008 12 10 Retrieved 2008 12 04 Palmer Brian 2010 12 29 What do anarchists want from us Slate com William Bailie Josiah Warren The First American Anarchist PDF Archived from the original PDF on February 4 2012 Retrieved June 17 2013 Josiah Warren The First American Anarchist A Sociological Study Boston Small Maynard amp Co 1906 p 20 Native American Anarchism A Study of Left Wing American Individualism by Eunice Minette Schuster Archived from the original on February 13 2016 Paralelamente al otro lado del atlantico en el diferente contexto de una nacion a medio hacer los Estados Unidos otros filosofos elaboraron un pensamiento individualista similar aunque con sus propias especificidades Henry David Thoreau 1817 1862 uno de los escritores proximos al movimiento de la filosofia trascendentalista es uno de los mas conocidos Su obra mas representativa es Walden aparecida en 1854 aunque redactada entre 1845 y 1847 cuando Thoreau decide instalarse en el aislamiento de una cabana en el bosque y vivir en intimo contacto con la naturaleza en una vida de soledad y sobriedad De esta experiencia su filosofia trata de transmitirnos la idea que resulta necesario un retorno respetuoso a la naturaleza y que la felicidad es sobre todo fruto de la riqueza interior y de la armonia de los individuos con el entorno natural Muchos han visto en Thoreau a uno de los precursores del ecologismo y del anarquismo primitivista representado en la actualidad por Jonh Zerzan Para George Woodcock esta actitud puede estar tambien motivada por una cierta idea de resistencia al progreso y de rechazo al materialismo creciente que caracteriza la sociedad norteamericana de mediados de siglo XIX Voluntary non submission Spanish individualist anarchism during dictatorship and the second republic 1923 1938 Archived July 23 2011 at the Wayback Machine a b 2 Individualist Anarchism and Reaction libcom org The Free Love Movement and Radical Individualism By Wendy McElroy ncc 1776 org La insumision voluntaria El anarquismo individualista espanol durante la Dictadura y la Segunda Republica 1923 1938 by Xavier Diez PDF Archived from the original PDF on July 23 2011 Los anarco individualistas G I A Una escision de la FAI producida en el IX Congreso Carrara 1965 se pr odujo cuando un sector de anarquistas de tendencia humanista rechazan la interpretacion que ellos juzgan disciplinaria del pacto asociativo clasico y crean los GIA Gruppi di Iniziativa Anarchica Esta pequena federacion de grupos hoy nutrida sobre todo de veteranos anarco individualistas de orientacion pacifista naturista etcetera defiende la autonomia personal y rechaza a rajatabla toda forma de intervencion en los procesos del sistema como seria por ejemplo el sindicalismo Su portavoz es L Internazionale con sede en Ancona La escision de los GIA prefiguraba en sentido contrario el gran debate que pronto habia de comenzar en el seno del movimiento El movimiento libertario en Italia byBicicleta REVISTA DE COMUNICACIONES LIBERTARIASYear 1 No Noviembre 1 1977Archived October 12 2013 at the Wayback Machine Proliferaran asi diversos grupos que practicaran el excursionismo el naturismo el nudismo la emancipacion sexual o el esperantismo alrededor de asociaciones informales vinculadas de una manera o de otra al anarquismo Precisamente las limitaciones a las asociaciones obreras impuestas desde la legislacion especial de la Dictadura potenciaran indirectamente esta especie de asociacionismo informal en que confluira el movimiento anarquista con esta heterogeneidad de practicas y tendencias Uno de los grupos mas destacados que sera el impulsor de la revista individualista Etica sera el Ateneo Naturista Eclectico con sede en Barcelona con sus diferentes secciones la mas destacada de las cuales sera el grupo excursionista Sol y Vida La insumision voluntaria El anarquismo individualista espanol durante la Dictadura y la Segunda Republica 1923 1938 by Xavier Diez Archived July 23 2011 at the Wayback Machine Les anarchistes individualistes du debut du siecle l avaient bien compris et integraient le naturisme dans leurs preoccupations Il est vraiment dommage que ce discours se soit peu a peu efface d antan plus que nous assistons en ce moment a un retour en force du puritanisme conservateur par essence Anarchisme et naturisme aujourd hui by Cathy Ytak Archived February 25 2009 at the Wayback Machine anne 30 July 2014 Culture of Individualist Anarchism in Late 19th Century America PDF The Illegalists Archived September 8 2015 at the Wayback Machine by Doug Imrie published by Anarchy A Journal of Desire Armed Parry Richard The Bonnot Gang Rebel Press 1987 p 15 a b Oscar Wilde essay The soul of man under Socialism Archived from the original on 2013 09 14 a b c George Woodcock Anarchism A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements 1962 p 447 Rothbard Murray N 2007 The Betrayal of the American Right Ludwig von Mises Institute p 187 ISBN 978 1 933550 13 8 Autarchy vs Anarchy by Robert LeFevre Rampart Journal of Individualist Thought Vol 1 No 4 Winter 1965 30 49 a b Black Jeremy Brewer Paul Shaw Anthony Chandler Malcolm Cheshire Gerard Cranfield Ingrid Ralph Lewis Brenda Sutherland Joe Vint Robert 2003 World History Bath Somerset Parragon Books p 342 ISBN 0 75258 227 5 The Ancient Chinese Super State of Primary Societies Taoist Philosophy for the 21st Century You Sheng Li June 2010 p 300 Marcus Aurelius Meditations Oxford University Press 2008 ISBN 978 0 19 954059 4 Locke John 1690 Two Treatises of Government 10th ed Project Gutenberg Retrieved January 21 2009 Paul E Sigmund editor The Selected Political Writings of John Locke Norton 2003 ISBN 0 393 96451 5 p iv Locke s thoughts underlie many of the fundamental political ideas of US liberal constitutional democracy At the time Locke wrote his principles were accepted in theory by a few and in practice by none Thomas Jefferson Declaration of Independence July 4 1776 John Gray Two Faces of Liberalism The New Press 2008 ISBN 978 1 56584 678 4 Egoism The Anarchist Library O Ewald German Philosophy in 1907 in The Philosophical Review Vol 17 No 4 Jul 1908 pp 400 426 T A Riley Anti Statism in German Literature as Exemplified by the Work of John Henry Mackay in PMLA Vol 62 No 3 Sep 1947 pp 828 843 C E Forth Nietzsche Decadence and Regeneration in France 1891 95 in Journal of the History of Ideas Vol 54 No 1 Jan 1993 pp 97 117 see also Robert C Holub s Nietzsche Socialist Anarchist Feminist an essay available online at the University of California Berkeley website Sanders Steven M Is egoism morally defensible Philosophia Springer Netherlands Volume 18 Numbers 2 3 July 1988 Rachels 2008 p 534 Ridgely D A August 24 2008 Selfishness Egoism and Altruistic Libertarianism Archived from the original on December 2 2008 Retrieved August 24 2008 Macquarrie John Existentialism New York 1972 pp 18 21 Oxford Companion to Philosophy ed Ted Honderich New York 1995 p 259 Macquarrie Existentialism pp 14 15 Cooper D E Existentialism A Reconstruction Basil Blackwell 1999 p 8 Marino Gordon Basic Writings of Existentialism Modern Library 2004 pp ix 3 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy http plato stanford edu entries kierkegaard Watts Michael Kierkegaard Oneworld 2003 pp 4 6 Lowrie Walter Kierkegaard s attack upon Christendom Princeton 1968 pp 37 40 Corrigan John The Oxford handbook of religion and emotion Oxford 2008 pp 387 388 Livingston James et al Modern Christian Thought The Twentieth Century Fortress Press 2006 Chapter 5 Christian Existentialism Martin Clancy Religious Existentialism in Companion to Phenomenology and Existentialism Blackwell 2006 pp 188 205 Robert C Solomon Existentialism McGraw Hill 1974 pp 1 2 D E Cooper Existentialism A Reconstruction Basil Blackwell 1999 p 8 Ernst Breisach Introduction to Modern Existentialism New York 1962 p 5 Walter Kaufmann Existentialism From Dostoevesky to Sartre New York 1956 p 12 Guignon Charles B and Derk Pereboom Existentialism basic writings Hackett Publishing 2001 p xiii Nietzsche Friedrich 1999 Thus Spake Zarathustra A Book for All and None The Gutenberg Project p 8 Hastings James Encyclopedia of Religion Compact Oxford English Dictionary Oxford University Press 2007 humanism n 1 a rationalistic system of thought attaching prime importance to human rather than divine or supernatural matters 2 a Renaissance cultural movement that turned away from medieval scholasticism and revived interest in ancient Greek and Roman thought Typically abridgments of this definition omit all senses except 1 such as in the Cambridge Advanced Learner s Dictionary Archived 2003 12 30 at the Wayback Machine Collins Essential English Dictionary and Webster s Concise Dictionary New York RHR Press 2001 p 177 ISBN 978 0375425745 Definitions of humanism subsection Institute for Humanist Studies Archived from the original on 2007 01 18 Retrieved 16 Jan 2007 Davis Lewis S Williamson Claudia R 2019 Does individualism promote gender equality World Development 123 104627 doi 10 1016 j worlddev 2019 104627 Edwords Fred 1989 What Is Humanism American Humanist Association Archived from the original on 30 January 2010 Retrieved 19 August 2009 Secular and Religious Humanists both share the same worldview and the same basic principles From the standpoint of philosophy alone there is no difference between the two It is only in the definition of religion and in the practice of the philosophy that Religious and Secular Humanists effectively disagree Moore Andrew 1 January 2013 Hedonism In Zalta Edward N ed The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University via Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy libertine via The Free Dictionary WordNet Search 3 1 wordnetweb princeton edu Rene Pintard 2000 Le Libertinage erudit dans la premiere moitie du XVIIe siecle Slatkine p 11 ISBN 978 2 05 101818 0 Retrieved 24 July 2012 Amesbury Richard 1 January 2016 Fideism In Zalta Edward N ed The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University via Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy A Martyr to Sin archive nytimes com What Is Objectivism The Objective Standard theobjectivestandard com Retrieved 2021 07 08 About the Author in Rand Ayn 1992 1957 Atlas Shrugged 35th anniversary ed New York Dutton pp 1170 1171 ISBN 978 0 525 94892 6 Tucker said the fact that one class of men are dependent for their living upon the sale of their labour while another class of men are relieved of the necessity of labour by being legally privileged to sell something that is not labour And to such a state of things I am as much opposed as any one But the minute you remove privilege every man will be a labourer exchanging with fellow labourers What Anarchistic Socialism aims to abolish is usury it wants to deprive capital of its reward Benjamin Tucker Instead of a Book p 404 Wayne Gabardi review of Anarchism by David Miller published in American Political Science Review Vol 80 No 1 Mar 1986 pp 300 302 According to scholar Allan Antliff Benjamin Tucker coined the term philosophical anarchism to distinguish peaceful evolutionary anarchism from revolutionary variants Antliff Allan 2001 Anarchist Modernism Art Politics and the First American Avant Garde University of Chicago Press p 4 Outhwaite William amp Tourain Alain Eds 2003 Anarchism The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought 2nd Edition p 12 Blackwell Publishing Michael Freeden identifies four broad types of individualist anarchism He says the first is the type associated with William Godwin that advocates self government with a progressive rationalism that included benevolence to others The second type is the amoral self serving rationality of Egoism as most associated with Max Stirner The third type is found in Herbert Spencer s early predictions and in that of some of his disciples such as Donisthorpe foreseeing the redundancy of the state in the source of social evolution The fourth type retains a moderated form of Egoism and accounts for social cooperation through the advocacy of market Freeden Michael Ideologies and Political Theory A Conceptual Approach Oxford University Press ISBN 0 19 829414 X pp 313 314 Tucker Benjamin R Instead of a Book by a Man too Busy to Write One A Fragmentary Exposition of Philosophical Anarchism 1897 New York Broderick John C Thoreau s Proposals for Legislation American Quarterly Vol 7 No 3 Autumn 1955 p 285 a b c Quelle Horst Matthai 2002 Textos filosoficos 1989 1999 UABC ISBN 978 9709051322 via Google Books Hudelson Richard 1999 Modern Political Philosophy M E Sharpe ISBN 978 0765600219 via Google Books David Conway Classical Liberalism The Unvanquished Ideal Palgrave Macmillan 1998 ISBN 978 0 312 21932 1 p 8 Boaz David 30 January 2009 Libertarianism Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved 21 February 2017 L ibertarianism political philosophy that takes individual liberty to be the primary political value Woodcock George 2004 1962 Anarchism A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements Peterborough Broadview Press p 16 ISBN 978 1551116297 F or the very nature of the libertarian attitude its rejection of dogma its deliberate avoidance of rigidly systematic theory and above all its stress on extreme freedom of choice and on the primacy of the individual judgement sic Long Joseph W 1996 Toward a Libertarian Theory of Class Social Philosophy and Policy 15 2 310 When I speak of libertarianism I mean all three of these very different movements It might be protested that LibCap libertarian capitalism LibSoc libertarian socialism and LibPop libertarian populism are too different from one another to be treated as aspects of a single point of view But they do share a common or at least an overlapping intellectual ancestry Carlson Jennifer D 2012 Libertarianism In Miller Wilburn R ed The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America London Sage Publications p 1006 ISBN 978 1412988766 There exist three major camps in libertarian thought right libertarianism socialist libertariaism and left lbertarianism the extent to which these represent distinct ideologies as opposed to variations on a theme is contrasted by scholars Regardless these factions differ most pronouncedly with respect to private property Francis Mark December 1983 Human Rights and Libertarians Australian Journal of Politics amp History 29 3 462 472 doi 10 1111 j 1467 8497 1983 tb00212 x ISSN 0004 9522 Vallentyne Peter Steiner Hillel Otsuka Michael 2005 Why Left Libertarianism Is Not Incoherent Indeterminate or Irrelevant A Reply to Fried PDF Philosophy and Public Affairs Blackwell Publishing Inc 33 2 201 215 doi 10 1111 j 1088 4963 2005 00030 x Archived from the original PDF on 2012 11 03 Retrieved 2013 07 23 a b c Narveson Jan Trenchard David 2008 Left Libertarianism In Hamowy Ronald ed The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism Thousand Oaks CA Sage Cato Institute pp 288 289 doi 10 4135 9781412965811 n174 ISBN 978 1412965804 LCCN 2008009151 OCLC 750831024 Schnack William 13 November 2015 Panarchy Flourishes Under Geo Mutualism Center for a Stateless Society Archived 10 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 10 August 2018 Byas Jason Lee 25 November 2015 The Moral Irrelevance of Rent Center for a Stateless Society Retrieved 21 March 2020 Carson Kevin 8 November 2015 Are We All Mutualists Center for a Stateless Society Retrieved 21 March 2020 Gillis William 29 November 2015 The Organic Emergence of Property from Reputation Center for a Stateless Society Retrieved 8 April 2020 Bylund Per 2005 Man and Matter A Philosophical Inquiry into the Justification of Ownership in Land from the Basis of Self Ownership PDF LUP Student Papers master s thesis Lund University Retrieved 12 July 2020 Long Roderick T 2006 Land locked A Critique of Carson on Property Rights PDF Journal of Libertarian Studies 20 1 87 95 Verhaegh Marcus 2006 Rothbard as a Political Philosopher PDF Journal of Libertarian Studies 20 4 3 Sundstrom William A 16 May 2002 An Egalitarian Libertarian Manifesto Archived 29 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine Sullivan Mark A July 2003 Why the Georgist Movement Has Not Succeeded A Personal Response to the Question Raised by Warren J Samuels American Journal of Economics and Sociology 62 3 612 Spitz Jean Fabien March 2006 Left wing libertarianism equality based on self ownership Cairn int info Retrieved 28 November 2019 Bookchin Murray January 1986 The Greening of Politics Toward a New Kind of Political Practice Green Perspectives Newsletter of the Green Program Project 1 a b Bookchin Murray Biehl Janet 1997 The Murray Bookchin Reader New York Cassell p 170 a b Long Roderick T 2012 The Rise of Social Anarchism In Gaus Gerald F D Agostino Fred eds The Routledge Companion to Social and Political Philosophy p 223 Grunberg Gerard Schweisguth Etienne Boy Daniel Mayer Nonna eds 1993 The French Voter Decides Social Libertarianism and Economic Liberalism University of Michigan Press p 45 ISBN 978 0 472 10438 3 a b c Carlson Jennifer D 2012 Libertarianism In Miller Wilbur R The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America An Encyclopedia Sage Publications pp 1006 1007 Foldvart Fred E Geoism and Libertarianism The Progress Report Progress org Archived from the original on 4 November 2012 Retrieved 26 March 2013 DeCoster Karen 19 April 2006 Henry George and the Tariff Question LewRockwell com Retrieved 23 September 2020 Sheldon Richman 3 February 2011 Libertarian Left Free market anti capitalism the unknown ideal The American Conservative Archived 10 June 2019 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 5 March 2012 Chartier Gary Johnson Charles W 2011 Markets Not Capitalism Individualist Anarchism Against Bosses Inequality Corporate Power and Structural Poverty Brooklyn Minor Compositions Autonomedia pp 1 11 ISBN 978 1570272424 Will Kymlicka 2005 libertarianism left In Ted Honderich ed The Oxford Companion to Philosophy New York Oxford University Press Olsaretti Serena 2004 Liberty Desert and the Market A Philosophical Study Cambridge University Press pp 14 88 100 Graham Paul Hoffman John 2003 An Introduction to Political Theory Routledge p 93 ISBN 978 1 3178 6342 7 A distinction is made between right libertarianism and left libertarianism Self ownership is the starting point for all libertarians but right and left libertarians divide over the implications for the ownership of external things from the self ownership premise Vallentyne Peter 2007 Libertarianism and the State In Frankel Paul Ellen Miller Fred Jr Paul Jeffrey eds Liberalism Old and New Vol 24 Cambridge University Press pp 187 205 ISBN 978 0 521 70305 5 The best known form of libertarianism right libertarianism is a version of classical liberalism but there is also a form of libertarianism left libertarianism that combines classical liberalism s concern for individual liberty with contemporary liberalism s robust concern for material equality Heywood Andrew 2015 Key Concepts in Politics and International Relations Palgrave Key Concepts Macmillan International Higher Education p 37 ISBN 978 1 1374 9477 1 Graber Mark A 1991 Transforming Free Speech The Ambiguous Legacy of Civil Libertarianism Berkeley California University of California Press p 18 ISBN 978 0520913134 Narveson Jan 2001 The Libertarian Idea revised ed Peterborough Ontario Broadview Press p 8 ISBN 978 1551114217 Passavent Paul 2003 No Escape Freedom of Speech and the Paradox of Rights New York New York University Press p 49 ISBN 978 0814766965 Reiman Jeffrey H 2005 The Fallacy of Libertarian Capitalism Ethics 10 1 85 95 doi 10 1086 292300 JSTOR 2380706 S2CID 170927490 Goodway David 2006 Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow Left Libertarian Thought and British Writers from William Morris to Colin Ward Liverpool Liverpool University Press p 4 Libertarian and libertarianism are frequently employed by anarchists as synonyms for anarchist and anarchism largely as an attempt to distance themselves from the negative connotations of anarchy and its derivatives The situation has been vastly complicated in recent decades with the rise of anarcho capitalism minimal statism and an extreme right wing laissez faire philosophy advocated by such theorists as Rothbard and Nozick and their adoption of the words libertarian and libertarianism It has therefore now become necessary to distinguish between their right libertarianism and the left libertarianism of the anarchist tradition Marshall Peter 2008 Demanding the Impossible A History of Anarchism London Harper Perennial p 565 The problem with the term libertarian is that it is now also used by the Right In its moderate form right libertarianism embraces laissez faire liberals like Robert Nozick who call for a minimal State and in its extreme form anarcho capitalists like Murray Rothbard and David Friedman who entirely repudiate the role of the State and look to the market as a means of ensuring social order Fernandez Frank 2001 Cuban Anarchism The History of a Movement Sharp Press p 9 Thus in the United States the once exceedingly useful term libertarian has been hijacked by egotists who are in fact enemies of liberty in the full sense of the word Rothbard Murray 2009 2007 The Betrayal of the American Right PDF Mises Institute p 83 ISBN 978 1610165013 One gratifying aspect of our rise to some prominence is that for the first time in my memory we our side had captured a crucial word from the enemy Libertarians had long been simply a polite word for left wing anarchists that is for anti private property anarchists either of the communist or syndicalist variety But now we had taken it over Hussain Syed B 2004 Encyclopedia of Capitalism Volume 2 New York Facts on File Inc p 492 ISBN 0816052247 In the modern world political ideologies are largely defined by their attitude towards capitalism Marxists want to overthrow it liberals to curtail it extensively conservatives to curtail it moderately Those who maintain that capitalism is an excellent economic system unfairly maligned with little or no need for corrective government policy are generally known as libertarians Rothbard Murray 1 March 1971 The Left and Right Within Libertarianism WIN Peace and Freedom Through Nonviolent Action 7 4 6 10 Retrieved 14 January 2020 Miller Fred 15 August 2008 Natural Law The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism Retrieved 31 July 2019 Boaz David 12 April 2019 Key Concepts of Libertarianism Cato Institute Retrieved 20 December 2019 What Is Libertarian Institute for Humane Studies Retrieved 20 December 2019 Baradat Leon P 2015 Political Ideologies Routledge p 31 ISBN 978 1317345558 Kevin Carson Organization Theory A Libertarian Perspective Booksurge 2008 p 1 Bookchin Murray and Janet Biehl The Murray Bookchin Reader Cassell 1997 p 170 ISBN 0 304 33873 7 Hicks Steven V and Daniel E Shannon The American journal of economics and sociology Blackwell Pub 2003 p 612 Miller Wilbur R 2012 The social history of crime and punishment in America An encyclopedia 5 vols London Sage Publications p 1007 ISBN 1412988764 There exist three major camps in libertarian thought right libertarianism socialist libertarianism and It implies a classless and anti authoritarian i e libertarian society in which people manage their own affairs I 1 Isn t libertarian socialism an oxymoron Archived 2017 11 16 at the Wayback Machine at An Anarchist FAQ unlike other socialists they tend to see to various different degrees depending on the thinker to be skeptical of centralized state intervention as the solution to capitalist exploitation Roderick T Long Toward a libertarian theory of class Social Philosophy and Policy Volume 15 Issue 02 Summer 1998 p 305 a b So libertarian socialism rejects the idea of state ownership and control of the economy along with the state as such Through workers self management it proposes to bring an end to authority exploitation and hierarchy in production I1 Isn t libertarian socialism an oxymoron in Archived 2017 11 16 at the Wayback Machine An Anarchist FAQ Therefore rather than being an oxymoron libertarian socialism indicates that true socialism must be libertarian and that a libertarian who is not a socialist is a phoney As true socialists oppose wage labour they must also oppose the state for the same reasons Similarly libertarians must oppose wage labour for the same reasons they must oppose the state I1 Isn t libertarian socialism an oxymoron in Archived 2017 11 16 at the Wayback Machine An Anarchist FAQ Their analysis treats libertarian socialism as a form of anti parliamentary democratic antibureaucratic grass roots socialist organisation strongly linked to working class activism Alex Prichard Ruth Kinna Saku Pinta and Dave Berry eds Libertarian Socialism Politics in Black and Red Palgrave Macmillan December 2012 p 13 preferringa system of popular self governance via networks of decentralized local voluntary participatory cooperative associations Roderick T Long Toward a libertarian theory of class Social Philosophy and Policy Volume 15 Issue 02 Summer 1998 p 305 What is of particular interest here however is the appeal to a form of emancipation grounded in decentralized cooperative and democratic forms of political and economic governance which most libertarian socialist visions including Cole s tend to share Charles Masquelier Critical theory and libertarian socialism Realizing the political potential of critical social theory Bloomsbury Publishing New York and London 2014 p 189 Mendes Silva Socialismo Libertario ou Anarchismo Vol 1 1896 Society should be free through mankind s spontaneous federative affiliation to life based on the community of land and tools of the trade meaning Anarchy will be equality by abolition of private property while retaining respect for personal property and liberty by abolition of authority preferring a system of popular self governance via networks of decentralized local voluntary participatory cooperative associations sometimes as a complement to and check on state power Rocker Rudolf 2004 Anarcho Syndicalism Theory and Practice AK Press p 65 ISBN 978 1 902593 92 0 LibSoc share with LibCap an aversion to any interference to freedom of thought expression or choice of lifestyle Roderick T Long Toward a libertarian theory of class Social Philosophy and Policy Volume 15 Issue 02 Summer 1998 pp 305 what categorizes libertarian socialism is a focus on forms of social organization to further the freedom of the individual combined with an advocacy of non state means for achieving this Matt Dawson Late modernity individualization and socialism An Associational Critique of Neoliberalism Palgrave MacMillan 2013 p 64 What is implied by the term libertarian socialism The idea that socialism is first and foremost about freedom and therefore about overcoming the domination repression and alienation that block the free flow of human creativity thought and action An approach to socialism that incorporates cultural revolution women s and children s liberation and the critique and transformation of daily life as well as the more traditional concerns of socialist politics A politics that is completely revolutionary because it seeks to transform all of reality We do not think that capturing the economy and the state lead automatically to the transformation of the rest of social being nor do we equate liberation with changing our life styles and our heads Capitalism is a total system that invades all areas of life socialism must be the overcoming of capitalist reality in its entirety or it is nothing What is Libertarian Socialism by Ulli Diemer Volume 2 Number 1 Summer 1997 issue of The Red Menace The IAF IFA fights for the abolition of all forms of authority whether economical political social religious cultural or sexual Principles of The International of Anarchist Federations Archived January 5 2012 at the Wayback Machine Ward Colin 1966 Anarchism as a Theory of Organization Archived from the original on 25 March 2010 Retrieved 1 March 2010 The Soviet Union Versus Socialism chomsky info Retrieved 2015 11 22 Libertarian socialism furthermore does not limit its aims to democratic control by producers over production but seeks to abolish all forms of domination and hierarchy in every aspect of social and personal life an unending struggle since progress in achieving a more just society will lead to new insight and understanding of forms of oppression that may be concealed in traditional practice and consciousness Authority is defined in terms of the right to exercise social control as explored in the sociology of power and the correlative duty to obey as explred in the philosophy of practical reason Anarchism is distinguished philosophically by its scepticism towards such moral relations by its questioning of the claims made for such normative power and practically by its challenge to those authoritative powers which cannot justify their claims and which are therefore deemed illegitimate or without moral foundation Anarchism and Authority A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism by Paul McLaughlin AshGate 2007 p 1 Anarchism then really stands for the liberation of the human mind from the dominion of religion the liberation of the human body from the dominion of property liberation from the shackles and restraint of government Anarchism stands for a social order based on the free grouping of individuals for the purpose of producing real social wealth an order that will guarantee to every human being free access to the earth and full enjoyment of the necessities of life according to individual desires tastes and inclinations Emma Goldman What it Really Stands for Anarchy in Anarchism and Other Essays Individualist anarchist Benjamin Tucker defined anarchism as opposition to authority as follows They found that they must turn either to the right or to the left follow either the path of Authority or the path of Liberty Marx went one way Warren and Proudhon the other Thus were born State Socialism and Anarchism Authority takes many shapes but broadly speaking her enemies divide themselves into three classes first those who abhor her both as a means and as an end of progress opposing her openly avowedly sincerely consistently universally second those who profess to believe in her as a means of progress but who accept her only so far as they think she will subserve their own selfish interests denying her and her blessings to the rest of the world third those who distrust her as a means of progress believing in her only as an end to be obtained by first trampling upon violating and outraging her These three phases of opposition to Liberty are met in almost every sphere of thought and human activity Good representatives of the first are seen in the Catholic Church and the Russian autocracy of the second in the Protestant Church and the Manchester school of politics and political economy of the third in the atheism of Gambetta and the socialism of Karl Marx Benjamin Tucker Individual Liberty Anarchist historian George Woodcock report of Mikhail Bakunin s anti authoritarianism and shows opposition to both state and non state forms of authority as follows All anarchists deny authority many of them fight against it p 9 Bakunin did not convert the League s central committee to his full program but he did persuade them to accept a remarkably radical recommendation to the Berne Congress of September 1868 demanding economic equality and implicitly attacking authority in both Church and State Brown L Susan 2002 Anarchism as a Political Philosophy of Existential Individualism Implications for Feminism The Politics of Individualism Liberalism Liberal Feminism and Anarchism Black Rose Books Ltd Publishing p 106 It is forgotten that the early defenders of commercial society like Adam Smith were as much concerned with criticising the associational blocks to mobile labour represented by guilds as they were to the activities of the state The history of socialist thought includes a long associational and anti statist tradition prior to the political victory of the Bolshevism in the east and varieties of Fabianism in the west John O Neil The Market Ethics knowledge and politics Routledge 1998 p 3 In some ways it is perhaps fair to say that if Left communism is an intellectual political formation it is so first and foremost negatively as opposed to other socialist traditions I have labelled this negative pole socialist orthodoxy composed of both Leninists and social democrats What I suggested was that these Left communist thinkers differentiated their own understandings of communism from a strand of socialism that came to follow a largely electoral road in the West pursuing a kind of social capitalism and a path to socialism that predominated in the peripheral and semi peripheral countries which sought revolutionary conquest of power and led to something like state capitalism Generally the Left communist thinkers were to find these paths locked within the horizons of capitalism the law of value money private property class the state and they were to characterize these solutions as statist substitutionist and authoritarian Chamsy el Ojeili Beyond post socialism Dialogues with the far left Palgrave Macmillan 2015 p 8 Sims Franwa 2006 The Anacostia Diaries As It Is Lulu Press p 160 An Anarchist FAQ Benjamin Tucker referred to himself many times as a socialist and considered his philosophy to be Anarchistic socialism Armand Emile 1907 Anarchist Individualism as a Life and Activity French individualist anarchist Emile Armand shows clearly opposition to capitalism and centralized economies when he said that the individualist anarchist inwardly he remains refractory fatally refractory morally intellectually economically The capitalist economy and the directed economy the speculators and the fabricators of single are equally repugnant to him Sabatini Peter 1994 1995 Libertarianism Bogus Anarchy Anarchist Peter Sabatini reports that in the United States of early to mid 19th century there appeared an array of communal and utopian counterculture groups including the so called free love movement William Godwin s anarchism exerted an ideological influence on some of this but more so the socialism of Robert Owen and Charles Fourier After success of his British venture Owen himself established a cooperative community within the United States at New Harmony Indiana during 1825 One member of this commune was Josiah Warren 1798 1874 considered to be the first individualist anarchist Chartier Gary Johnson Charles W 2011 Markets Not Capitalism Individualist Anarchism Against Bosses Inequality Corporate Power and Structural Poverty Brooklyn Minor Compositions Autonomedia Back cover It introduces an eye opening approach to radical social thought rooted equally in libertarian socialism and market anarchism A Mutualist FAQ A 4 Are Mutualists Socialists Archived 9 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine Masquelier Charles 2014 Critical Theory and Libertarian Socialism Realizing the Political Potential of Critical Social Theory New York and London Bloomsbury Publishing p 190 It is by meeting such a twofold requirement that the libertarian socialism of G D H Cole could be said to offer timely and sustainable avenues for the institutionalization of the liberal value of autonomy Prichard Alex Kinna Ruth Pinta Saku Berry Dave eds December 2012 Libertarian Socialism Politics in Black and Red Palgrave Macmillan p 13 Locating libertarian socialism in a grey area between anarchist and Marxist extremes they argue that the multiple experiences of historical convergence remain inspirational and that through these examples the hope of socialist transformation survives Boraman Toby December 2012 Carnival and Class Anarchism and Councilism in Australasia during the 1970s In Prichard Alex Kinna Ruth Pinta Saku Berry Dave eds Libertarian Socialism Politics in Black and Red Palgrave Macmillan p 268 Councilism and anarchism loosely merged into libertarian socialism offering a non dogmatic path by which both council communism and anarchism could be updated for the changed conditions of the time and for the new forms of proletarian resistance to these new conditions Bookchin Murray 1992 The Ghost of Anarcho Syndicalism Graham Robert The General Idea of Proudhon s Revolution Bromley Kent 1906 Preface In Kropotkin Peter The Conquest of Bread London and New York G P Putnam s Sons Mutualist Org Free Market Anti Capitalism www mutualist org Miller David 1987 Mutualism The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Political Thought Blackwell Publishing p 11 Tandy Francis D 1896 Voluntary Socialism chapter 6 paragraph 15 Sharma R N 1991 Plato An Inter disciplinary Perspective New Delhi India Atlantic Publishers and Distributors pp 131 132 Hegel by Charles Taylor Part II Phenomenology IV The Dialectic of Consciousness V Self Consciousness Social and Political Recognition by Paddy McQueen Marvin Perry Myrna Chase Margaret Jacob James R Jacob Western Civilization Ideas Politics and Society From 1600 Volume 2 9th ed Boston Massaschussetts Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company 2009 pp 760 The most ambitious contribution to literary anarchism during the 1890s was undoubtedly Oscar Wilde The Soul of Man under Socialism Wilde as we have seen declared himself an anarchist on at least one occasion during the 1890s and he greatly admired Peter Kropotkin whom he had met Later in De Profundis he described Kropotkin s life as one of the most perfect lives I have come across in my own experience and talked of him as a man with a soul of that beautiful white Christ that seems coming out of Russia But in The Soul of Man under Socialism which appeared in 1890 it is Godwin rather than Kropotkin whose influence seems dominant George Woodcock Anarchism A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements 1962 p 447 wlo dek Emil Armand Anarchist Individualism as a Life and Activity a b c Imperfect garden the legacy of humanism Princeton University Press 2002 Dictionary com Archived from the original on 2010 11 19 Emerson Ralph Waldo Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy How the early Christian church gave birth to today s WEIRD Europeans www science org Chatterjee Rhitu November 7 2019 Western Individualism May Have Roots In The Medieval Church s Obsession With Incest NPR Catechism of the Catholic Church 2792 Chalamet C Delikostantis K Getcha J Parmentier E 2021 Theological Anthropology 500 Years after Martin Luther Orthodox and Protestant Perspectives Studies in Systematic Theology Brill p 187 ISBN 978 90 04 46125 3 Retrieved 2023 05 06 Further reading editAlbrecht James M 2012 Reconstructing Individualism A Pragmatic Tradition from Emerson to Ellison Fordham University Press Brown L Susan 1993 The Politics of Individualism Liberalism Liberal Feminism and Anarchism Black Rose Books Dewey John 1930 Individualism Old and New Emerson Ralph Waldo 1847 Self Reliance London J M Dent amp Sons Ltd Gagnier Regenia 2010 Individualism Decadence and Globalization On the Relationship of Part to Whole 1859 1920 Palgrave Macmillan Dumont Louis 1986 Essays on Individualism Modern Ideology in Anthropological Perspective Chicago University of Chicago Press ISBN 0 226 16958 8 Lukes Steven 1973 Individualism New York Harper amp Row ISBN 0 631 14750 0 Meiksins Wood Ellen 1972 Mind and Politics An Approach to the Meaning of Liberal and Socialist Individualism University of California Press ISBN 0 520 02029 4 Renaut Alain 1999 The Era of the Individual Princeton NJ Princeton University Press ISBN 0 691 02938 5 Shanahan Daniel 1991 Toward a Genealogy of Individualism Amherst MA University of Massachusetts Press ISBN 0 87023 811 6 Watt Ian 1996 Myths of Modern Individualism Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 48011 6 Barzilai Gad 2003 Communities and Law Ann Arbor University of Michigan Press ISBN 0 472 11315 1 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Individualism amp oldid 1199648465, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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