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Sugarcane

Sugarcane or sugar cane is a species of (often hybrid) tall, perennial grass (in the genus Saccharum, tribe Andropogoneae) that is used for sugar production. The plants are 2–6 m (6–20 ft) tall with stout, jointed, fibrous stalks that are rich in sucrose,[1] which accumulates in the stalk internodes. Sugarcanes belong to the grass family, Poaceae, an economically important flowering plant family that includes maize, wheat, rice, and sorghum, and many forage crops. It is native to the warm temperate and tropical regions of India, Southeast Asia, and New Guinea. The plant is also grown for biofuel production, especially in Brazil, as the canes can be used directly to produce ethyl alcohol (ethanol).

Grown in tropical and subtropical regions, sugarcane is the world's largest crop by production quantity, totaling 1.9 billion tonnes in 2020, with Brazil accounting for 40% of the world total. Sugarcane accounts for 79% of sugar produced globally (most of the rest is made from sugar beets). About 70% of the sugar produced comes from Saccharum officinarum and its hybrids.[2] All sugarcane species can interbreed, and the major commercial cultivars are complex hybrids.[3]

Sucrose (table sugar) is extracted from sugarcane in specialized mill factories. It is consumed directly in confectionery, used to sweeten beverages, as a preservative in jams and conserves, as a decorative finish for cakes and pâtisserie, as a raw material in the food industry, or fermented to produce ethanol. Products derived from fermentation of sugar include falernum, rum, and cachaça. In some regions, people use sugarcane reeds to make pens, mats, screens, and thatch. The young, unexpanded flower head of Saccharum edule (duruka) is eaten raw, steamed, or toasted, and prepared in various ways in Southeast Asia, such as certain island communities of Indonesia as well as in Oceanic countries like Fiji.[4]

Sugarcane was an ancient crop of the Austronesian and Papuan people. It was introduced to Polynesia, Island Melanesia, and Madagascar in prehistoric times via Austronesian sailors. It was also introduced to southern China and India by Austronesian traders around 1200 to 1000 BC. The Persians and Greeks encountered the famous "reeds that produce honey without bees" in India between the sixth and fourth centuries BC. They adopted and then spread sugarcane agriculture.[5] Merchants began to trade in sugar, which was considered a luxurious and expensive spice, from India. In the 18th century, sugarcane plantations began in the Caribbean, South American, Indian Ocean, and Pacific island nations. The need for sugar crop laborers became a major driver of large migrations, some people voluntarily accepting indentured servitude[6] and others forcibly imported as slaves.[7]

Etymology

The term "sugarcane" combines the Sanskrit word, शर्करा (śárkarā, later سُكَّر sukkar from Arabic, and sucre from Middle French and Middle English)[8] with "cane", a crop grown on plantations in the Caribbeangana, Hindi for cane. This term was first used by Spanish settlers in the West Indies in the early 16th century.[8]

Description

 
Cut sugarcane

Sugarcane is a tropical, perennial grass that forms lateral shoots at the base to produce multiple stems, typically 3 to 4 m (10 to 13 ft) high and about 5 cm (2 in) in diameter. The stems grow into cane stalk, which when mature, constitutes around 75% of the entire plant. A mature stalk is typically composed of 11–16% fiber, 12–16% soluble sugars, 2–3% nonsugar carbohydrates, and 63–73% water. A sugarcane crop is sensitive to climate, soil type, irrigation, fertilizers, insects, disease control, varieties, and the harvest period. The average yield of cane stalk is 60–70 tonnes per hectare (24–28 long ton/acre; 27–31 short ton/acre) per year, but this figure can vary between 30 and 180 tonnes per hectare depending on knowledge and crop management approach used in sugarcane cultivation. Sugarcane is a cash crop, but it is also used as livestock fodder.[9] Sugarcane genome is one of the most complex plant genomes known, mostly due to interspecific hybridization and polyploidization.[10][11]

History

The two centers of domestication for sugarcane are one for Saccharum officinarum by Papuans in New Guinea and another for Saccharum sinense by Austronesians in Taiwan and southern China. Papuans and Austronesians originally primarily used sugarcane as food for domesticated pigs. The spread of both S. officinarum and S. sinense is closely linked to the migrations of the Austronesian peoples. Saccharum barberi was only cultivated in India after the introduction of S. officinarum.[12][13]

 
Map showing centers of origin of Saccharum officinarum in New Guinea, S. sinensis in southern China and Taiwan, and S. barberi in India; dotted arrows represent Austronesian introductions[14]

S. officinarum was first domesticated in New Guinea and the islands east of the Wallace Line by Papuans, where it is the modern center of diversity. Beginning around 6,000 BP, several strains were selectively bred from the native Saccharum robustum. From New Guinea, it spread westwards to maritime Southeast Asia after contact with Austronesians, where it hybridized with Saccharum spontaneum.[13]

The second domestication center is mainland southern China and Taiwan, where S. sinense was a primary cultigen of the Austronesian peoples. Words for sugarcane are reconstructed as *təbuS or *CebuS in Proto-Austronesian, which became *tebuh in Proto-Malayo-Polynesian. It was one of the original major crops of the Austronesian peoples from at least 5,500 BP. Introduction of the sweeter S. officinarum may have gradually replaced it throughout its cultivated range in maritime Southeast Asia.[15][16][14][17][18]

 
The westward diffusion of sugarcane in pre-Islamic times (shown in red), in the medieval Muslim world (green), and in the 15th century by the Portuguese on the Madeira archipelago, and by the Spanish on the Canary Islands archipelago (islands west of Africa, circled by violet lines)[19]

From Island Southeast Asia, S. officinarum was spread eastward into Polynesia and Micronesia by Austronesian voyagers as a canoe plant by around 3,500 BP. It was also spread westward and northward by around 3,000 BP to China and India by Austronesian traders, where it further hybridized with S. sinense and S. barberi. From there, it spread further into western Eurasia and the Mediterranean.[13][14]

The earliest known production of crystalline sugar began in northern India. The earliest evidence of sugar production comes from ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts.[20][21][22][23] Around the eighth century, Muslim and Arab traders introduced sugar from medieval India to the other parts of the Abbasid Caliphate in the Mediterranean, Mesopotamia, Egypt, North Africa, and Andalusia. By the 10th century, sources state that every village in Mesopotamia grew sugarcane.[19] It was among the early crops brought to the Americas by the Spanish, mainly Andalusians, from their fields in the Canary Islands, and the Portuguese from their fields in the Madeira Islands. An article on sugarcane cultivation in Spain is included in Ibn al-'Awwam's 12th-century Book on Agriculture.[24]

For thousands of years, cane was a heavy and unwieldy crop that had to be cut by hand and immediately ground to release the juice inside, lest it spoil within a day or two. Even before harvest time, rows had to be dug, stalks planted and plentiful wood chopped as fuel for boiling the liquid and reducing it to crystals and molasses. From the earliest traces of cane domestication on the Pacific island of New Guinea 10,000 years ago to its island-hopping advance to ancient India in 350 B.C., sugar was locally consumed and very labor-intensive. It remained little more than an exotic spice, medicinal glaze or sweetener for elite palates.

In colonial times, sugar formed one side of the triangle trade of New World raw materials, along with European manufactured goods, and African slaves. Christopher Columbus first brought sugarcane to the Caribbean during his second voyage to the Americas, initially to the island of Hispaniola (modern day Haiti and the Dominican Republic). The first sugar harvest happened in Hispaniola in 1501; and many sugar mills had been constructed in Cuba and Jamaica by the 1520s.[25] The Portuguese took sugar to Brazil. By 1540, there were 800 cane sugar mills in Santa Catarina Island and there were another 2,000 on the north coast of Brazil, Demarara, and Suriname.

Sugar, often in the form of molasses, was shipped from the Caribbean to Europe or New England, where it was used to make rum. The profits from the sale of sugar were then used to purchase manufactured goods, which were then shipped to West Africa, where they were bartered for slaves. The slaves were then brought back to the Caribbean to be sold to sugar planters. The profits from the sale of the slaves were then used to buy more sugar, which was shipped to Europe. Toil in the sugar plantations became a main basis for a vast network of forced population movement, supplying people to work under brutal coercion.

 
Lithograph of a sugar plantation in the British colony of Antigua, 1823

France found its sugarcane islands so valuable that it effectively traded its portion of Canada, famously dismissed by Voltaire as "a few acres of snow", to Britain for their return of Guadeloupe, Martinique, and St. Lucia at the end of the Seven Years' War. The Dutch similarly kept Suriname, a sugar colony in South America, instead of seeking the return of the New Netherlands (New York).

Boiling houses in the 17th through 19th centuries converted sugarcane juice into raw sugar. These houses were attached to sugar plantations in the Western colonies. Slaves often ran the boiling process under very poor conditions. Rectangular boxes of brick or stone served as furnaces, with an opening at the bottom to stoke the fire and remove ashes. At the top of each furnace were up to seven copper kettles or boilers, each one smaller and hotter than the previous one. The cane juice began in the largest kettle. The juice was then heated and lime added to remove impurities. The juice was skimmed and then channeled to successively smaller kettles. The last kettle, the "teache", was where the cane juice became syrup. The next step was a cooling trough, where the sugar crystals hardened around a sticky core of molasses. This raw sugar was then shoveled from the cooling trough into hogsheads (wooden barrels), and from there into the curing house.

 
A sugar plantation on the island of Jamaica in the late 19th century

The passage of the 1833 Slavery Abolition Act led to the abolition of slavery through most of the British Empire, and many of the emancipated slaves no longer worked on sugarcane plantations when they had a choice. West Indian planters, therefore, needed new workers, and they found cheap labour in China and India.[26][27] The people were subject to indenture, a long-established form of contract, which bound them to unfree labour for a fixed term. The conditions where the indentured servants worked were frequently abysmal, owing to a lack of care among the planters.[28] The first ships carrying indentured labourers from India left in 1836.[29] The migrations to serve sugarcane plantations led to a significant number of ethnic Indians, Southeast Asians, and Chinese people settling in various parts of the world.[30] In some islands and countries, the South Asian migrants now constitute between 10 and 50% of the population. Sugarcane plantations and Asian ethnic groups continue to thrive in countries such as Fiji, South Africa, Burma, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, British Guiana, Jamaica, Trinidad, Martinique, French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Grenada, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, St. Kitts, St. Croix, Suriname, Nevis, and Mauritius.[29][31]

 
Old-fashioned Indian sugarcane press, circa 1905

Between 1863 and 1900, merchants and plantation owners in Queensland and New South Wales (now part of the Commonwealth of Australia) brought between 55,000 and 62,500 people from the South Pacific Islands to work on sugarcane plantations. An estimated one-third of these workers were coerced or kidnapped into slavery (known as blackbirding). Many others were paid very low wages. Between 1904 and 1908, most of the 10,000 remaining workers were deported in an effort to keep Australia racially homogeneous and protect white workers from cheap foreign labour.[32]

Cuban sugar derived from sugarcane was exported to the USSR, where it received price supports and was ensured a guaranteed market. The 1991 dissolution of the Soviet state forced the closure of most of Cuba's sugar industry.

Sugarcane remains an important part of the economy of Guyana, Belize, Barbados, and Haiti, along with the Dominican Republic, Guadeloupe, Jamaica, and other islands.

About 70% of the sugar produced globally comes from S. officinarum and hybrids using this species.[2]

 
A 19th-century lithograph by Theodore Bray showing a sugarcane plantation: On the right is the "white officer", the European overseer. Slave workers toil during the harvest. To the left is a flat-bottomed vessel for cane transportation.

Cultivation

 
Sugarcane plantation, Mauritius
 
Sugarcane plantation in Bangladesh
 
Planting Sugar Cane in Puerto Rico
 
Sugarcane fields

Sugarcane cultivation requires a tropical or subtropical climate, with a minimum of 60 cm (24 in) of annual moisture. It is one of the most efficient photosynthesizers in the plant kingdom. It is a C4 plant, able to convert up to 1% of incident solar energy into biomass.[33] In primary growing regions across the tropics and subtropics, sugarcane crops can produce over 15 kg/m2 of cane. Once a major crop of the southeastern region of the United States, sugarcane cultivation declined there during the late 20th century, and is primarily confined to small plantations in Florida, Louisiana, and southeast Texas in the 21st century. Sugarcane cultivation ceased in Hawaii when the last operating sugar plantation in the state shut down in 2016.[34]

Sugarcane is cultivated in the tropics and subtropics in areas with a plentiful supply of water for a continuous period of more than 6–7 months each year, either from natural rainfall or through irrigation. The crop does not tolerate severe frosts. Therefore, most of the world's sugarcane is grown between 22°N and 22°S, and some up to 33°N and 33°S.[35] When sugarcane crops are found outside this range, such as the Natal region of South Africa, it is normally due to anomalous climatic conditions in the region, such as warm ocean currents that sweep down the coast. In terms of altitude, sugarcane crops are found up to 1,600 m or 5,200 ft close to the equator in countries such as Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.[36]

Sugarcane can be grown on many soils ranging from highly fertile, well-drained mollisols, through heavy cracking vertisols, infertile acid oxisols and ultisols, peaty histosols, to rocky andisols. Both plentiful sunshine and water supplies increase cane production. This has made desert countries with good irrigation facilities such as Egypt some of the highest-yielding sugarcane-cultivating regions. Sugarcane consumes 9% of the world's potash fertilizer production.[37]

Although some sugarcanes produce seeds, modern stem cutting has become the most common reproduction method.[38] Each cutting must contain at least one bud, and the cuttings are sometimes hand-planted. In more technologically advanced countries, such as the United States and Australia, billet planting is common. Billets (stalks or stalk sections) harvested by a mechanical harvester are planted by a machine that opens and recloses the ground. Once planted, a stand can be harvested several times; after each harvest, the cane sends up new stalks, called ratoons.[39] Successive harvests give decreasing yields, eventually justifying replanting. Two to 10 harvests are usually made depending on the type of culture. In a country with a mechanical agriculture looking for a high production of large fields, as in North America, sugarcanes are replanted after two or three harvests to avoid a lowering yields. In countries with a more traditional type of agriculture with smaller fields and hand harvesting, as in the French island la Réunion, sugarcane is often harvested up to 10 years before replanting.

Sugarcane is harvested by hand and mechanically. Hand harvesting accounts for more than half of production, and is dominant in the developing world. In hand harvesting, the field is first set on fire. The fire burns up dry leaves, and chases away or kills venomous snakes, without harming the stalks and roots. Harvesters then cut the cane just above ground-level using cane knives or machetes. A skilled harvester can cut 500 kg (1,100 lb) of sugarcane per hour.[failed verification][40]

Mechanical harvesting uses a combine, or sugarcane harvester.[41] The Austoft 7000 series, the original modern harvester design, has now been copied by other companies, including Cameco / John Deere.[citation needed] The machine cuts the cane at the base of the stalk, strips the leaves, chops the cane into consistent lengths and deposits it into a transporter following alongside. The harvester then blows the trash back onto the field. Such machines can harvest 100 long tons (100 t) each hour, but harvested cane must be rapidly processed. Once cut, sugarcane begins to lose its sugar content, and damage to the cane during mechanical harvesting accelerates this decline. This decline is offset because a modern chopper harvester can complete the harvest faster and more efficiently than hand cutting and loading. Austoft also developed a series of hydraulic high-lift infield transporters to work alongside its harvesters to allow even more rapid transfer of cane to, for example, the nearest railway siding. This mechanical harvesting does not require the field to be set on fire; the residue left in the field by the machine consists of cane tops and dead leaves, which serve as mulch for the next planting.

 
Sugarcane plantations in Brazil, the largest producer in the world

Pests

The cane beetle (also known as cane grub) can substantially reduce crop yield by eating roots; it can be controlled with imidacloprid (Confidor) or chlorpyrifos (Lorsban). Other important pests are the larvae of some butterfly/moth species, including the turnip moth, the sugarcane borer (Diatraea saccharalis), the African sugarcane borer (Eldana saccharina), the Mexican rice borer (Eoreuma loftini), the African armyworm (Spodoptera exempta), leaf-cutting ants, termites, spittlebugs (especially Mahanarva fimbriolata and Deois flavopicta), and the beetle Migdolus fryanus. The planthopper insect Eumetopina flavipes acts as a virus vector, which causes the sugarcane disease ramu stunt.[42][43]

Pathogens

Numerous pathogens infect sugarcane, such as sugarcane grassy shoot disease caused by 'Candidatus Phytoplasma sacchari',[44] whiptail disease or sugarcane smut, pokkah boeng caused by Fusarium moniliforme, Xanthomonas axonopodis bacteria causes Gumming Disease, and red rot disease caused by Colletotrichum falcatum. Viral diseases affecting sugarcane include sugarcane mosaic virus, maize streak virus, and sugarcane yellow leaf virus.[45]

Nitrogen fixation

Some sugarcane varieties are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen in association with the bacterium Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus.[46] Unlike legumes and other nitrogen-fixing plants that form root nodules in the soil in association with bacteria, G. diazotrophicus lives within the intercellular spaces of the sugarcane's stem.[47][48] Coating seeds with the bacteria is a newly developed technology that can enable every crop species to fix nitrogen for its own use.[49]

Conditions for sugarcane workers

At least 20,000 people are estimated to have died of chronic kidney disease in Central America in the past two decades – most of them sugarcane workers along the Pacific coast. This may be due to working long hours in the heat without adequate fluid intake.[50] Not only are they dying because of exhaustion but some of the workers are being exposed to several hazards such as, high temperatures, harmful pesticides, and poisonous or venomous animals. This all occurs during the process of cutting the sugarcane manually, also causing physical ailments by doing the same movements for hours every work day.[51]

Processing

Non-centrifugal cane sugar (jaggery) production near Inle Lake (Myanmar), crushing and boiling stage

Traditionally, sugarcane processing requires two stages. Mills extract raw sugar from freshly harvested cane and "mill-white" sugar is sometimes produced immediately after the first stage at sugar-extraction mills, intended for local consumption. Sugar crystals appear naturally white in color during the crystallization process. Sulfur dioxide is added to inhibit the formation of color-inducing molecules and to stabilize the sugar juices during evaporation.[52][53] Refineries, often located nearer to consumers in North America, Europe, and Japan, then produce refined white sugar, which is 99% sucrose. These two stages are slowly merging. Increasing affluence in the sugarcane-producing tropics increases demand for refined sugar products, driving a trend toward combined milling and refining.[54]

Milling

 
Manually extracting juice from sugarcane
 
A truck hauls cane to a sugar mill in Florida.

Sugarcane processing produces cane sugar (sucrose) from sugarcane. Other products of the processing include bagasse, molasses, and filtercake.

Bagasse, the residual dry fiber of the cane after cane juice has been extracted, is used for several purposes:[55]

  • fuel for the boilers and kilns
  • production of paper, paperboard products, and reconstituted panelboard
  • agricultural mulch
  • as a raw material for production of chemicals
 
Santa Elisa sugarcane processing plant in Sertãozinho, one of the largest and oldest in Brazil

The primary use of bagasse and bagasse residue is as a fuel source for the boilers in the generation of process steam in sugar plants. Dried filtercake is used as an animal feed supplement, fertilizer, and source of sugarcane wax.

Molasses is produced in two forms: blackstrap, which has a characteristic strong flavor, and a purer molasses syrup. Blackstrap molasses is sold as a food and dietary supplement. It is also a common ingredient in animal feed, and is used to produce ethanol, rum, and citric acid. Purer molasses syrups are sold as molasses, and may also be blended with maple syrup, invert sugars, or corn syrup. Both forms of molasses are used in baking.

Refining

 
 
Brown and white sugar crystals

Sugar refining further purifies the raw sugar. It is first mixed with heavy syrup and then centrifuged in a process called "affination". Its purpose is to wash away the sugar crystals' outer coating, which is less pure than the crystal interior. The remaining sugar is then dissolved to make a syrup, about 60% solids by weight.

The sugar solution is clarified by the addition of phosphoric acid and calcium hydroxide, which combine to precipitate calcium phosphate. The calcium phosphate particles entrap some impurities and absorb others, and then float to the top of the tank, where they can be skimmed off. An alternative to this "phosphatation" technique is "carbonatation", which is similar, but uses carbon dioxide and calcium hydroxide to produce a calcium carbonate precipitate.

After filtering any remaining solids, the clarified syrup is decolorized by filtration through activated carbon. Bone char or coal-based activated carbon is traditionally used in this role.[56] Some remaining color-forming impurities are adsorbed by the carbon. The purified syrup is then concentrated to supersaturation and repeatedly crystallized in a vacuum, to produce white refined sugar. As in a sugar mill, the sugar crystals are separated from the molasses by centrifuging. Additional sugar is recovered by blending the remaining syrup with the washings from affination and again crystallizing to produce brown sugar. When no more sugar can be economically recovered, the final molasses still contains 20–30% sucrose and 15–25% glucose and fructose.

To produce granulated sugar, in which individual grains do not clump, sugar must be dried, first by heating in a rotary dryer, and then by blowing cool air through it for several days.

Ribbon cane syrup

Ribbon cane is a subtropical type that was once widely grown in the Southern United States, as far north as coastal North Carolina. The juice was extracted with horse- or mule-powered crushers; the juice was boiled, like maple syrup, in a flat pan, and then used in the syrup form as a food sweetener.[57] It is not currently a commercial crop, but a few growers find ready sales for their product.[citation needed]

 
Production of sugar cane (2019)[58]

Pollution from sugarcane processing

Particulate matter, combustion products, and volatile organic compounds are the primary pollutants emitted during the sugarcane processing.[55] Combustion products include nitrogen oxides (NOX), carbon monoxide (CO), CO2, and sulfur oxides (SOX). Potential emission sources include the sugar granulators, sugar conveying and packaging equipment, bulk loadout operations, boilers, granular carbon and char regeneration kilns, regenerated adsorbent transport systems, kilns and handling equipment (at some facilities), carbonation tanks, multi-effect evaporator stations, and vacuum boiling pans.[55]

Production

Sugarcane production – 2020
Country (Millions of tonnes)
  Brazil 757.1
  India 370.5
  China 108.1
  Pakistan 81.0
  Thailand 75.0
  Mexico 54.0
  United States 32.7
  Australia 30.3
World 1,869.7
Source: FAOSTAT, United Nations[59]

In 2020, global production of sugarcane was 1.87 billion tonnes, with Brazil producing 40% of the world total, India with 20%, and China producing 6% (table).

Worldwide, 26 million hectares were devoted to sugarcane cultivation in 2020.[59] The average worldwide yield of sugarcane crops in 2020 was 71 tonnes per hectare, led by Peru with 123 tonnes per hectare.[59] The theoretical possible yield for sugarcane is about 280 tonnes per hectare per year, and small experimental plots in Brazil have demonstrated yields of 236–280 tonnes of cane per hectare.[60][61]

From 2008 to 2016, production of standards-compliant sugarcane experienced a compound annual growth rate of about 52%, while conventional sugarcane increased at less than 1%.[62]

Ethanol

 
A fuel pump in Brazil, offering cane ethanol (A) and gasoline (G)

Ethanol is generally available as a byproduct of sugar production. It can be used as a biofuel alternative to gasoline, and is widely used in cars in Brazil. It is an alternative to gasoline, and may become the primary product of sugarcane processing, rather than sugar.

 
Sugar cane of Bangladesh

In Brazil, gasoline is required to contain at least 22% bioethanol.[63] This bioethanol is sourced from Brazil's large sugarcane crop.

The production of ethanol from sugarcane is more energy efficient than from corn or sugar beets or palm/vegetable oils, particularly if cane bagasse is used to produce heat and power for the process. Furthermore, if biofuels are used for crop production and transport, the fossil energy input needed for each ethanol energy unit can be very low. EIA estimates that with an integrated sugar cane to ethanol technology, the well-to-wheels CO2 emissions can be 90% lower than conventional gasoline.[63] A textbook on renewable energy[64] describes the energy transformation:

Presently, 75 tons of raw sugar cane are produced annually per hectare in Brazil. The cane delivered to the processing plant is called burned and cropped (b&c), and represents 77% of the mass of the raw cane. The reason for this reduction is that the stalks are separated from the leaves (which are burned and whose ashes are left in the field as fertilizer), and from the roots that remain in the ground to sprout for the next crop. Average cane production is, therefore, 58 tons of b&c per hectare per year.

Each ton of b&c yields 740 kg of juice (135 kg of sucrose and 605 kg of water) and 260 kg of moist bagasse (130 kg of dry bagasse). Since the lower heating value of sucrose is 16.5 MJ/kg, and that of the bagasse is 19.2 MJ/kg, the total heating value of a ton of b&c is 4.7 GJ of which 2.2 GJ come from the sucrose and 2.5 from the bagasse.

Per hectare per year, the biomass produced corresponds to 0.27 TJ. This is equivalent to 0.86 W per square meter. Assuming an average insolation of 225 W per square meter, the photosynthetic efficiency of sugar cane is 0.38%.

The 135 kg of sucrose found in 1 ton of b&c are transformed into 70 litres of ethanol with a combustion energy of 1.7 GJ. The practical sucrose-ethanol conversion efficiency is, therefore, 76% (compare with the theoretical 97%).

One hectare of sugar cane yields 4,000 litres of ethanol per year (without any additional energy input, because the bagasse produced exceeds the amount needed to distill the final product). This, however, does not include the energy used in tilling, transportation, and so on. Thus, the solar energy-to-ethanol conversion efficiency is 0.13%.

Bagasse applications

 
Sugarcane bagasse

Sugarcane is a major crop in many countries. It is one of the plants with the highest bioconversion efficiency. Sugarcane crop is able to efficiently fix solar energy, yielding some 55 tonnes of dry matter per hectare of land annually. After harvest, the crop produces sugar juice and bagasse, the fibrous dry matter. This dry matter is biomass with potential as fuel for energy production. Bagasse can also be used as an alternative source of pulp for paper production.[65]

Sugarcane bagasse is a potentially abundant source of energy for large producers of sugarcane, such as Brazil, India, and China. According to one report, with use of latest technologies, bagasse produced annually in Brazil has the potential of meeting 20% of Brazil's energy consumption by 2020.[66]

Electricity production

A number of countries, in particular those lacking fossil fuels, have implemented energy conservation and efficiency measures to minimize the energy used in cane processing, and export any excess electricity to the grid. Bagasse is usually burned to produce steam, which in turn creates electricity. Current technologies, such as those in use in Mauritius, produce over 100 kWh of electricity per tonne of bagasse. With a total world harvest of over one billion tonnes of sugar cane per year, the global energy potential from bagasse is over 100,000 GWh.[67] Using Mauritius as a reference, an annual potential of 10,000 GWh of additional electricity could be produced throughout Africa.[68] Electrical generation from bagasse could become quite important, particularly to the rural populations of sugarcane producing nations.

Recent cogeneration technology plants are being designed to produce from 200 to over 300 kWh of electricity per tonne of bagasse.[69][70] As sugarcane is a seasonal crop, shortly after harvest the supply of bagasse would peak, requiring power generation plants to strategically manage the storage of bagasse.

Biogas production

A greener alternative to burning bagasse for the production of electricity is to convert bagasse into biogas. Technologies are being developed to use enzymes to transform bagasse into advanced biofuel and biogas.[66]

Sugarcane as food

Cane juice[71]
 
Freshly squeezed sugarcane juice
Nutritional value per 100 grams
Energy242 kJ (58 kcal)
13.11 g
Sugars12.85 g
Dietary fiber0.56 g
0.40
0.16 g
VitaminsQuantity
%DV
Vitamin B6
31%
0.40 mg
Folate (B9)
11%
44.53 μg
Vitamin C
8%
6.73 mg
MineralsQuantity
%DV
Calcium
2%
18 mg
Iron
9%
1.12 mg
Magnesium
4%
13.03 mg
Phosphorus
3%
22.08 mg
Potassium
3%
150 mg
Sodium
0%
1.16 mg
Zinc
1%
0.14 mg

Nutrient Information from Indian Food Composition Database
Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA FoodData Central

In most countries where sugarcane is cultivated, several foods and popular dishes are derived directly from it, such as:

  • Raw sugarcane: chewed to extract the juice
  • Sayur nganten: an Indonesian soup made with the stem of trubuk (Saccharum edule), a type of sugarcane
  • Sugarcane juice: a combination of fresh juice, extracted by hand or small mills, with a touch of lemon and ice to make a popular drink, known variously as air tebu, usacha rass, guarab, guarapa, guarapo, papelón, aseer asab, ganna sharbat, mosto, caldo de cana, or nước mía
  • Syrup: a traditional sweetener in soft drinks, now largely supplanted in the US by high fructose corn syrup, which is less expensive because of corn subsidies and sugar tariffs[72]
  • Molasses: used as a sweetener and a syrup accompanying other foods, such as cheese or cookies
  • Jaggery: a solidified molasses, known as gur, gud, or gul in South Asia, is traditionally produced by evaporating juice to make a thick sludge, and then cooling and molding it in buckets. Modern production partially freeze dries the juice to reduce caramelization and lighten its color. It is used as sweetener in cooking traditional entrees, sweets, and desserts.
  • Falernum: a sweet, and slightly alcoholic drink made from sugarcane juice
  • Cachaça: the most popular distilled alcoholic beverage in Brazil; it is a liquor made of the distillation of sugarcane juice.
  • Rum is a liquor made from sugarcane products, typically molasses, but sometimes also cane juice. It is most commonly produced in the Caribbean and environs.
  • Basi is a fermented alcoholic beverage made from sugarcane juice produced in the Philippines and Guyana.
  • Panela, solid pieces of sucrose and fructose obtained from the boiling and evaporation of sugarcane juice, is a food staple in Colombia and other countries in South and Central America.
  • Rapadura is a sweet flour that is one of the simplest refinings of sugarcane juice, common in Latin American countries such as Brazil, Argentina, and Venezuela (where it is known as papelón) and the Caribbean.
  • Rock candy: crystallized cane juice
  • Gâteau de Sirop
  • Viche, a homebrewed Colombian alcoholic beverage

Sugarcane as feed

Many parts of the sugarcane are commonly used as animal feeds where the plants are cultivated. The leaves make a good forage for ruminants.[73]

Gallery

See also

References

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External links

  •   Media related to Sugar cane at Wikimedia Commons
  •   The dictionary definition of sugarcane at Wiktionary
  • Global sugar & sugar cane production stats from oecd.

sugarcane, tiwa, savage, songs, camidoh, song, order, song, sugar, cane, species, often, hybrid, tall, perennial, grass, genus, saccharum, tribe, andropogoneae, that, used, sugar, production, plants, tall, with, stout, jointed, fibrous, stalks, that, rich, suc. For the EP by Tiwa Savage see Sugarcane EP For the songs see Sugarcane Camidoh song and Sugarcane New Order song Sugarcane or sugar cane is a species of often hybrid tall perennial grass in the genus Saccharum tribe Andropogoneae that is used for sugar production The plants are 2 6 m 6 20 ft tall with stout jointed fibrous stalks that are rich in sucrose 1 which accumulates in the stalk internodes Sugarcanes belong to the grass family Poaceae an economically important flowering plant family that includes maize wheat rice and sorghum and many forage crops It is native to the warm temperate and tropical regions of India Southeast Asia and New Guinea The plant is also grown for biofuel production especially in Brazil as the canes can be used directly to produce ethyl alcohol ethanol Saccharum officinarum Grown in tropical and subtropical regions sugarcane is the world s largest crop by production quantity totaling 1 9 billion tonnes in 2020 with Brazil accounting for 40 of the world total Sugarcane accounts for 79 of sugar produced globally most of the rest is made from sugar beets About 70 of the sugar produced comes from Saccharum officinarum and its hybrids 2 All sugarcane species can interbreed and the major commercial cultivars are complex hybrids 3 Sucrose table sugar is extracted from sugarcane in specialized mill factories It is consumed directly in confectionery used to sweeten beverages as a preservative in jams and conserves as a decorative finish for cakes and patisserie as a raw material in the food industry or fermented to produce ethanol Products derived from fermentation of sugar include falernum rum and cachaca In some regions people use sugarcane reeds to make pens mats screens and thatch The young unexpanded flower head of Saccharum edule duruka is eaten raw steamed or toasted and prepared in various ways in Southeast Asia such as certain island communities of Indonesia as well as in Oceanic countries like Fiji 4 Sugarcane was an ancient crop of the Austronesian and Papuan people It was introduced to Polynesia Island Melanesia and Madagascar in prehistoric times via Austronesian sailors It was also introduced to southern China and India by Austronesian traders around 1200 to 1000 BC The Persians and Greeks encountered the famous reeds that produce honey without bees in India between the sixth and fourth centuries BC They adopted and then spread sugarcane agriculture 5 Merchants began to trade in sugar which was considered a luxurious and expensive spice from India In the 18th century sugarcane plantations began in the Caribbean South American Indian Ocean and Pacific island nations The need for sugar crop laborers became a major driver of large migrations some people voluntarily accepting indentured servitude 6 and others forcibly imported as slaves 7 Contents 1 Etymology 2 Description 3 History 4 Cultivation 4 1 Pests 4 2 Pathogens 4 3 Nitrogen fixation 4 4 Conditions for sugarcane workers 5 Processing 5 1 Milling 5 2 Refining 5 3 Ribbon cane syrup 5 4 Pollution from sugarcane processing 6 Production 7 Ethanol 8 Bagasse applications 8 1 Electricity production 8 2 Biogas production 9 Sugarcane as food 10 Sugarcane as feed 11 Gallery 12 See also 13 References 14 External linksEtymology EditThe term sugarcane combines the Sanskrit word शर कर sarkara later س ك ر sukkar from Arabic and sucre from Middle French and Middle English 8 with cane a crop grown on plantations in the Caribbean gana Hindi for cane This term was first used by Spanish settlers in the West Indies in the early 16th century 8 Description Edit Cut sugarcane Sugarcane is a tropical perennial grass that forms lateral shoots at the base to produce multiple stems typically 3 to 4 m 10 to 13 ft high and about 5 cm 2 in in diameter The stems grow into cane stalk which when mature constitutes around 75 of the entire plant A mature stalk is typically composed of 11 16 fiber 12 16 soluble sugars 2 3 nonsugar carbohydrates and 63 73 water A sugarcane crop is sensitive to climate soil type irrigation fertilizers insects disease control varieties and the harvest period The average yield of cane stalk is 60 70 tonnes per hectare 24 28 long ton acre 27 31 short ton acre per year but this figure can vary between 30 and 180 tonnes per hectare depending on knowledge and crop management approach used in sugarcane cultivation Sugarcane is a cash crop but it is also used as livestock fodder 9 Sugarcane genome is one of the most complex plant genomes known mostly due to interspecific hybridization and polyploidization 10 11 History EditSee also Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia and History of sugar The two centers of domestication for sugarcane are one for Saccharum officinarum by Papuans in New Guinea and another for Saccharum sinense by Austronesians in Taiwan and southern China Papuans and Austronesians originally primarily used sugarcane as food for domesticated pigs The spread of both S officinarum and S sinense is closely linked to the migrations of the Austronesian peoples Saccharum barberi was only cultivated in India after the introduction of S officinarum 12 13 Map showing centers of origin of Saccharum officinarum in New Guinea S sinensis in southern China and Taiwan and S barberi in India dotted arrows represent Austronesian introductions 14 S officinarum was first domesticated in New Guinea and the islands east of the Wallace Line by Papuans where it is the modern center of diversity Beginning around 6 000 BP several strains were selectively bred from the native Saccharum robustum From New Guinea it spread westwards to maritime Southeast Asia after contact with Austronesians where it hybridized with Saccharum spontaneum 13 The second domestication center is mainland southern China and Taiwan where S sinense was a primary cultigen of the Austronesian peoples Words for sugarcane are reconstructed as tebuS or CebuS in Proto Austronesian which became tebuh in Proto Malayo Polynesian It was one of the original major crops of the Austronesian peoples from at least 5 500 BP Introduction of the sweeter S officinarum may have gradually replaced it throughout its cultivated range in maritime Southeast Asia 15 16 14 17 18 The westward diffusion of sugarcane in pre Islamic times shown in red in the medieval Muslim world green and in the 15th century by the Portuguese on the Madeira archipelago and by the Spanish on the Canary Islands archipelago islands west of Africa circled by violet lines 19 From Island Southeast Asia S officinarum was spread eastward into Polynesia and Micronesia by Austronesian voyagers as a canoe plant by around 3 500 BP It was also spread westward and northward by around 3 000 BP to China and India by Austronesian traders where it further hybridized with S sinense and S barberi From there it spread further into western Eurasia and the Mediterranean 13 14 The earliest known production of crystalline sugar began in northern India The earliest evidence of sugar production comes from ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts 20 21 22 23 Around the eighth century Muslim and Arab traders introduced sugar from medieval India to the other parts of the Abbasid Caliphate in the Mediterranean Mesopotamia Egypt North Africa and Andalusia By the 10th century sources state that every village in Mesopotamia grew sugarcane 19 It was among the early crops brought to the Americas by the Spanish mainly Andalusians from their fields in the Canary Islands and the Portuguese from their fields in the Madeira Islands An article on sugarcane cultivation in Spain is included in Ibn al Awwam s 12th century Book on Agriculture 24 For thousands of years cane was a heavy and unwieldy crop that had to be cut by hand and immediately ground to release the juice inside lest it spoil within a day or two Even before harvest time rows had to be dug stalks planted and plentiful wood chopped as fuel for boiling the liquid and reducing it to crystals and molasses From the earliest traces of cane domestication on the Pacific island of New Guinea 10 000 years ago to its island hopping advance to ancient India in 350 B C sugar was locally consumed and very labor intensive It remained little more than an exotic spice medicinal glaze or sweetener for elite palates In colonial times sugar formed one side of the triangle trade of New World raw materials along with European manufactured goods and African slaves Christopher Columbus first brought sugarcane to the Caribbean during his second voyage to the Americas initially to the island of Hispaniola modern day Haiti and the Dominican Republic The first sugar harvest happened in Hispaniola in 1501 and many sugar mills had been constructed in Cuba and Jamaica by the 1520s 25 The Portuguese took sugar to Brazil By 1540 there were 800 cane sugar mills in Santa Catarina Island and there were another 2 000 on the north coast of Brazil Demarara and Suriname Sugar often in the form of molasses was shipped from the Caribbean to Europe or New England where it was used to make rum The profits from the sale of sugar were then used to purchase manufactured goods which were then shipped to West Africa where they were bartered for slaves The slaves were then brought back to the Caribbean to be sold to sugar planters The profits from the sale of the slaves were then used to buy more sugar which was shipped to Europe Toil in the sugar plantations became a main basis for a vast network of forced population movement supplying people to work under brutal coercion Lithograph of a sugar plantation in the British colony of Antigua 1823 France found its sugarcane islands so valuable that it effectively traded its portion of Canada famously dismissed by Voltaire as a few acres of snow to Britain for their return of Guadeloupe Martinique and St Lucia at the end of the Seven Years War The Dutch similarly kept Suriname a sugar colony in South America instead of seeking the return of the New Netherlands New York Boiling houses in the 17th through 19th centuries converted sugarcane juice into raw sugar These houses were attached to sugar plantations in the Western colonies Slaves often ran the boiling process under very poor conditions Rectangular boxes of brick or stone served as furnaces with an opening at the bottom to stoke the fire and remove ashes At the top of each furnace were up to seven copper kettles or boilers each one smaller and hotter than the previous one The cane juice began in the largest kettle The juice was then heated and lime added to remove impurities The juice was skimmed and then channeled to successively smaller kettles The last kettle the teache was where the cane juice became syrup The next step was a cooling trough where the sugar crystals hardened around a sticky core of molasses This raw sugar was then shoveled from the cooling trough into hogsheads wooden barrels and from there into the curing house A sugar plantation on the island of Jamaica in the late 19th century The passage of the 1833 Slavery Abolition Act led to the abolition of slavery through most of the British Empire and many of the emancipated slaves no longer worked on sugarcane plantations when they had a choice West Indian planters therefore needed new workers and they found cheap labour in China and India 26 27 The people were subject to indenture a long established form of contract which bound them to unfree labour for a fixed term The conditions where the indentured servants worked were frequently abysmal owing to a lack of care among the planters 28 The first ships carrying indentured labourers from India left in 1836 29 The migrations to serve sugarcane plantations led to a significant number of ethnic Indians Southeast Asians and Chinese people settling in various parts of the world 30 In some islands and countries the South Asian migrants now constitute between 10 and 50 of the population Sugarcane plantations and Asian ethnic groups continue to thrive in countries such as Fiji South Africa Burma Sri Lanka Malaysia Indonesia Philippines British Guiana Jamaica Trinidad Martinique French Guiana Guadeloupe Grenada St Lucia St Vincent St Kitts St Croix Suriname Nevis and Mauritius 29 31 Old fashioned Indian sugarcane press circa 1905 Between 1863 and 1900 merchants and plantation owners in Queensland and New South Wales now part of the Commonwealth of Australia brought between 55 000 and 62 500 people from the South Pacific Islands to work on sugarcane plantations An estimated one third of these workers were coerced or kidnapped into slavery known as blackbirding Many others were paid very low wages Between 1904 and 1908 most of the 10 000 remaining workers were deported in an effort to keep Australia racially homogeneous and protect white workers from cheap foreign labour 32 Cuban sugar derived from sugarcane was exported to the USSR where it received price supports and was ensured a guaranteed market The 1991 dissolution of the Soviet state forced the closure of most of Cuba s sugar industry Sugarcane remains an important part of the economy of Guyana Belize Barbados and Haiti along with the Dominican Republic Guadeloupe Jamaica and other islands About 70 of the sugar produced globally comes from S officinarum and hybrids using this species 2 A 19th century lithograph by Theodore Bray showing a sugarcane plantation On the right is the white officer the European overseer Slave workers toil during the harvest To the left is a flat bottomed vessel for cane transportation Cultivation Edit Sugarcane plantation Mauritius Sugarcane plantation in Bangladesh Planting Sugar Cane in Puerto Rico Sugarcane fields Sugarcane cultivation requires a tropical or subtropical climate with a minimum of 60 cm 24 in of annual moisture It is one of the most efficient photosynthesizers in the plant kingdom It is a C4 plant able to convert up to 1 of incident solar energy into biomass 33 In primary growing regions across the tropics and subtropics sugarcane crops can produce over 15 kg m2 of cane Once a major crop of the southeastern region of the United States sugarcane cultivation declined there during the late 20th century and is primarily confined to small plantations in Florida Louisiana and southeast Texas in the 21st century Sugarcane cultivation ceased in Hawaii when the last operating sugar plantation in the state shut down in 2016 34 Sugarcane is cultivated in the tropics and subtropics in areas with a plentiful supply of water for a continuous period of more than 6 7 months each year either from natural rainfall or through irrigation The crop does not tolerate severe frosts Therefore most of the world s sugarcane is grown between 22 N and 22 S and some up to 33 N and 33 S 35 When sugarcane crops are found outside this range such as the Natal region of South Africa it is normally due to anomalous climatic conditions in the region such as warm ocean currents that sweep down the coast In terms of altitude sugarcane crops are found up to 1 600 m or 5 200 ft close to the equator in countries such as Colombia Ecuador and Peru 36 Sugarcane can be grown on many soils ranging from highly fertile well drained mollisols through heavy cracking vertisols infertile acid oxisols and ultisols peaty histosols to rocky andisols Both plentiful sunshine and water supplies increase cane production This has made desert countries with good irrigation facilities such as Egypt some of the highest yielding sugarcane cultivating regions Sugarcane consumes 9 of the world s potash fertilizer production 37 Although some sugarcanes produce seeds modern stem cutting has become the most common reproduction method 38 Each cutting must contain at least one bud and the cuttings are sometimes hand planted In more technologically advanced countries such as the United States and Australia billet planting is common Billets stalks or stalk sections harvested by a mechanical harvester are planted by a machine that opens and recloses the ground Once planted a stand can be harvested several times after each harvest the cane sends up new stalks called ratoons 39 Successive harvests give decreasing yields eventually justifying replanting Two to 10 harvests are usually made depending on the type of culture In a country with a mechanical agriculture looking for a high production of large fields as in North America sugarcanes are replanted after two or three harvests to avoid a lowering yields In countries with a more traditional type of agriculture with smaller fields and hand harvesting as in the French island la Reunion sugarcane is often harvested up to 10 years before replanting Sugarcane is harvested by hand and mechanically Hand harvesting accounts for more than half of production and is dominant in the developing world In hand harvesting the field is first set on fire The fire burns up dry leaves and chases away or kills venomous snakes without harming the stalks and roots Harvesters then cut the cane just above ground level using cane knives or machetes A skilled harvester can cut 500 kg 1 100 lb of sugarcane per hour failed verification 40 Mechanical harvesting uses a combine or sugarcane harvester 41 The Austoft 7000 series the original modern harvester design has now been copied by other companies including Cameco John Deere citation needed The machine cuts the cane at the base of the stalk strips the leaves chops the cane into consistent lengths and deposits it into a transporter following alongside The harvester then blows the trash back onto the field Such machines can harvest 100 long tons 100 t each hour but harvested cane must be rapidly processed Once cut sugarcane begins to lose its sugar content and damage to the cane during mechanical harvesting accelerates this decline This decline is offset because a modern chopper harvester can complete the harvest faster and more efficiently than hand cutting and loading Austoft also developed a series of hydraulic high lift infield transporters to work alongside its harvesters to allow even more rapid transfer of cane to for example the nearest railway siding This mechanical harvesting does not require the field to be set on fire the residue left in the field by the machine consists of cane tops and dead leaves which serve as mulch for the next planting Sugarcane plantations in Brazil the largest producer in the world Pests Edit The cane beetle also known as cane grub can substantially reduce crop yield by eating roots it can be controlled with imidacloprid Confidor or chlorpyrifos Lorsban Other important pests are the larvae of some butterfly moth species including the turnip moth the sugarcane borer Diatraea saccharalis the African sugarcane borer Eldana saccharina the Mexican rice borer Eoreuma loftini the African armyworm Spodoptera exempta leaf cutting ants termites spittlebugs especially Mahanarva fimbriolata and Deois flavopicta and the beetle Migdolus fryanus The planthopper insect Eumetopina flavipes acts as a virus vector which causes the sugarcane disease ramu stunt 42 43 Pathogens Edit Main article List of sugarcane diseases Numerous pathogens infect sugarcane such as sugarcane grassy shoot disease caused by Candidatus Phytoplasma sacchari 44 whiptail disease or sugarcane smut pokkah boeng caused by Fusarium moniliforme Xanthomonas axonopodis bacteria causes Gumming Disease and red rot disease caused by Colletotrichum falcatum Viral diseases affecting sugarcane include sugarcane mosaic virus maize streak virus and sugarcane yellow leaf virus 45 Nitrogen fixation Edit Some sugarcane varieties are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen in association with the bacterium Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus 46 Unlike legumes and other nitrogen fixing plants that form root nodules in the soil in association with bacteria G diazotrophicus lives within the intercellular spaces of the sugarcane s stem 47 48 Coating seeds with the bacteria is a newly developed technology that can enable every crop species to fix nitrogen for its own use 49 Conditions for sugarcane workers Edit At least 20 000 people are estimated to have died of chronic kidney disease in Central America in the past two decades most of them sugarcane workers along the Pacific coast This may be due to working long hours in the heat without adequate fluid intake 50 Not only are they dying because of exhaustion but some of the workers are being exposed to several hazards such as high temperatures harmful pesticides and poisonous or venomous animals This all occurs during the process of cutting the sugarcane manually also causing physical ailments by doing the same movements for hours every work day 51 Processing Edit source source source source source source source source source source source source source source Non centrifugal cane sugar jaggery production near Inle Lake Myanmar crushing and boiling stage Traditionally sugarcane processing requires two stages Mills extract raw sugar from freshly harvested cane and mill white sugar is sometimes produced immediately after the first stage at sugar extraction mills intended for local consumption Sugar crystals appear naturally white in color during the crystallization process Sulfur dioxide is added to inhibit the formation of color inducing molecules and to stabilize the sugar juices during evaporation 52 53 Refineries often located nearer to consumers in North America Europe and Japan then produce refined white sugar which is 99 sucrose These two stages are slowly merging Increasing affluence in the sugarcane producing tropics increases demand for refined sugar products driving a trend toward combined milling and refining 54 Milling Edit Main article Sugar cane mill Manually extracting juice from sugarcane A truck hauls cane to a sugar mill in Florida Sugarcane processing produces cane sugar sucrose from sugarcane Other products of the processing include bagasse molasses and filtercake Bagasse the residual dry fiber of the cane after cane juice has been extracted is used for several purposes 55 fuel for the boilers and kilns production of paper paperboard products and reconstituted panelboard agricultural mulch as a raw material for production of chemicals Santa Elisa sugarcane processing plant in Sertaozinho one of the largest and oldest in Brazil The primary use of bagasse and bagasse residue is as a fuel source for the boilers in the generation of process steam in sugar plants Dried filtercake is used as an animal feed supplement fertilizer and source of sugarcane wax Molasses is produced in two forms blackstrap which has a characteristic strong flavor and a purer molasses syrup Blackstrap molasses is sold as a food and dietary supplement It is also a common ingredient in animal feed and is used to produce ethanol rum and citric acid Purer molasses syrups are sold as molasses and may also be blended with maple syrup invert sugars or corn syrup Both forms of molasses are used in baking Refining Edit This article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Sugarcane news newspapers books scholar JSTOR October 2020 Learn how and when to remove this template message Brown and white sugar crystals Sugar refining further purifies the raw sugar It is first mixed with heavy syrup and then centrifuged in a process called affination Its purpose is to wash away the sugar crystals outer coating which is less pure than the crystal interior The remaining sugar is then dissolved to make a syrup about 60 solids by weight The sugar solution is clarified by the addition of phosphoric acid and calcium hydroxide which combine to precipitate calcium phosphate The calcium phosphate particles entrap some impurities and absorb others and then float to the top of the tank where they can be skimmed off An alternative to this phosphatation technique is carbonatation which is similar but uses carbon dioxide and calcium hydroxide to produce a calcium carbonate precipitate After filtering any remaining solids the clarified syrup is decolorized by filtration through activated carbon Bone char or coal based activated carbon is traditionally used in this role 56 Some remaining color forming impurities are adsorbed by the carbon The purified syrup is then concentrated to supersaturation and repeatedly crystallized in a vacuum to produce white refined sugar As in a sugar mill the sugar crystals are separated from the molasses by centrifuging Additional sugar is recovered by blending the remaining syrup with the washings from affination and again crystallizing to produce brown sugar When no more sugar can be economically recovered the final molasses still contains 20 30 sucrose and 15 25 glucose and fructose To produce granulated sugar in which individual grains do not clump sugar must be dried first by heating in a rotary dryer and then by blowing cool air through it for several days Ribbon cane syrup Edit Ribbon cane is a subtropical type that was once widely grown in the Southern United States as far north as coastal North Carolina The juice was extracted with horse or mule powered crushers the juice was boiled like maple syrup in a flat pan and then used in the syrup form as a food sweetener 57 It is not currently a commercial crop but a few growers find ready sales for their product citation needed Production of sugar cane 2019 58 Pollution from sugarcane processing Edit Particulate matter combustion products and volatile organic compounds are the primary pollutants emitted during the sugarcane processing 55 Combustion products include nitrogen oxides NOX carbon monoxide CO CO2 and sulfur oxides SOX Potential emission sources include the sugar granulators sugar conveying and packaging equipment bulk loadout operations boilers granular carbon and char regeneration kilns regenerated adsorbent transport systems kilns and handling equipment at some facilities carbonation tanks multi effect evaporator stations and vacuum boiling pans 55 Production EditSugarcane production 2020Country Millions of tonnes Brazil 757 1 India 370 5 China 108 1 Pakistan 81 0 Thailand 75 0 Mexico 54 0 United States 32 7 Australia 30 3World 1 869 7Source FAOSTAT United Nations 59 In 2020 global production of sugarcane was 1 87 billion tonnes with Brazil producing 40 of the world total India with 20 and China producing 6 table Worldwide 26 million hectares were devoted to sugarcane cultivation in 2020 59 The average worldwide yield of sugarcane crops in 2020 was 71 tonnes per hectare led by Peru with 123 tonnes per hectare 59 The theoretical possible yield for sugarcane is about 280 tonnes per hectare per year and small experimental plots in Brazil have demonstrated yields of 236 280 tonnes of cane per hectare 60 61 From 2008 to 2016 production of standards compliant sugarcane experienced a compound annual growth rate of about 52 while conventional sugarcane increased at less than 1 62 Ethanol EditFurther information Ethanol fuel See also Biofuel A fuel pump in Brazil offering cane ethanol A and gasoline G Ethanol is generally available as a byproduct of sugar production It can be used as a biofuel alternative to gasoline and is widely used in cars in Brazil It is an alternative to gasoline and may become the primary product of sugarcane processing rather than sugar Sugar cane of Bangladesh In Brazil gasoline is required to contain at least 22 bioethanol 63 This bioethanol is sourced from Brazil s large sugarcane crop The production of ethanol from sugarcane is more energy efficient than from corn or sugar beets or palm vegetable oils particularly if cane bagasse is used to produce heat and power for the process Furthermore if biofuels are used for crop production and transport the fossil energy input needed for each ethanol energy unit can be very low EIA estimates that with an integrated sugar cane to ethanol technology the well to wheels CO2 emissions can be 90 lower than conventional gasoline 63 A textbook on renewable energy 64 describes the energy transformation Presently 75 tons of raw sugar cane are produced annually per hectare in Brazil The cane delivered to the processing plant is called burned and cropped b amp c and represents 77 of the mass of the raw cane The reason for this reduction is that the stalks are separated from the leaves which are burned and whose ashes are left in the field as fertilizer and from the roots that remain in the ground to sprout for the next crop Average cane production is therefore 58 tons of b amp c per hectare per year Each ton of b amp c yields 740 kg of juice 135 kg of sucrose and 605 kg of water and 260 kg of moist bagasse 130 kg of dry bagasse Since the lower heating value of sucrose is 16 5 MJ kg and that of the bagasse is 19 2 MJ kg the total heating value of a ton of b amp c is 4 7 GJ of which 2 2 GJ come from the sucrose and 2 5 from the bagasse Per hectare per year the biomass produced corresponds to 0 27 TJ This is equivalent to 0 86 W per square meter Assuming an average insolation of 225 W per square meter the photosynthetic efficiency of sugar cane is 0 38 The 135 kg of sucrose found in 1 ton of b amp c are transformed into 70 litres of ethanol with a combustion energy of 1 7 GJ The practical sucrose ethanol conversion efficiency is therefore 76 compare with the theoretical 97 One hectare of sugar cane yields 4 000 litres of ethanol per year without any additional energy input because the bagasse produced exceeds the amount needed to distill the final product This however does not include the energy used in tilling transportation and so on Thus the solar energy to ethanol conversion efficiency is 0 13 Bagasse applications Edit Sugarcane bagasse Sugarcane is a major crop in many countries It is one of the plants with the highest bioconversion efficiency Sugarcane crop is able to efficiently fix solar energy yielding some 55 tonnes of dry matter per hectare of land annually After harvest the crop produces sugar juice and bagasse the fibrous dry matter This dry matter is biomass with potential as fuel for energy production Bagasse can also be used as an alternative source of pulp for paper production 65 Sugarcane bagasse is a potentially abundant source of energy for large producers of sugarcane such as Brazil India and China According to one report with use of latest technologies bagasse produced annually in Brazil has the potential of meeting 20 of Brazil s energy consumption by 2020 66 Electricity production Edit A number of countries in particular those lacking fossil fuels have implemented energy conservation and efficiency measures to minimize the energy used in cane processing and export any excess electricity to the grid Bagasse is usually burned to produce steam which in turn creates electricity Current technologies such as those in use in Mauritius produce over 100 kWh of electricity per tonne of bagasse With a total world harvest of over one billion tonnes of sugar cane per year the global energy potential from bagasse is over 100 000 GWh 67 Using Mauritius as a reference an annual potential of 10 000 GWh of additional electricity could be produced throughout Africa 68 Electrical generation from bagasse could become quite important particularly to the rural populations of sugarcane producing nations Recent cogeneration technology plants are being designed to produce from 200 to over 300 kWh of electricity per tonne of bagasse 69 70 As sugarcane is a seasonal crop shortly after harvest the supply of bagasse would peak requiring power generation plants to strategically manage the storage of bagasse Biogas production Edit A greener alternative to burning bagasse for the production of electricity is to convert bagasse into biogas Technologies are being developed to use enzymes to transform bagasse into advanced biofuel and biogas 66 Sugarcane as food EditMain article Sugar Cane juice 71 Freshly squeezed sugarcane juiceNutritional value per 100 gramsEnergy242 kJ 58 kcal Carbohydrates13 11 gSugars12 85 gDietary fiber0 56 gFat0 40Protein0 16 gVitaminsQuantity DV Vitamin B631 0 40 mgFolate B9 11 44 53 mgVitamin C8 6 73 mgMineralsQuantity DV Calcium2 18 mgIron9 1 12 mgMagnesium4 13 03 mgPhosphorus3 22 08 mgPotassium3 150 mgSodium0 1 16 mgZinc1 0 14 mgNutrient Information from Indian Food Composition DatabaseUnits mg micrograms mg milligrams IU International units Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults Source USDA FoodData CentralIn most countries where sugarcane is cultivated several foods and popular dishes are derived directly from it such as Raw sugarcane chewed to extract the juice Sayur nganten an Indonesian soup made with the stem of trubuk Saccharum edule a type of sugarcane Sugarcane juice a combination of fresh juice extracted by hand or small mills with a touch of lemon and ice to make a popular drink known variously as air tebu usacha rass guarab guarapa guarapo papelon aseer asab ganna sharbat mosto caldo de cana or nước mia Syrup a traditional sweetener in soft drinks now largely supplanted in the US by high fructose corn syrup which is less expensive because of corn subsidies and sugar tariffs 72 Molasses used as a sweetener and a syrup accompanying other foods such as cheese or cookies Jaggery a solidified molasses known as gur gud or gul in South Asia is traditionally produced by evaporating juice to make a thick sludge and then cooling and molding it in buckets Modern production partially freeze dries the juice to reduce caramelization and lighten its color It is used as sweetener in cooking traditional entrees sweets and desserts Falernum a sweet and slightly alcoholic drink made from sugarcane juice Cachaca the most popular distilled alcoholic beverage in Brazil it is a liquor made of the distillation of sugarcane juice Rum is a liquor made from sugarcane products typically molasses but sometimes also cane juice It is most commonly produced in the Caribbean and environs Basi is a fermented alcoholic beverage made from sugarcane juice produced in the Philippines and Guyana Panela solid pieces of sucrose and fructose obtained from the boiling and evaporation of sugarcane juice is a food staple in Colombia and other countries in South and Central America Rapadura is a sweet flour that is one of the simplest refinings of sugarcane juice common in Latin American countries such as Brazil Argentina and Venezuela where it is known as papelon and the Caribbean Rock candy crystallized cane juice Gateau de Sirop Viche a homebrewed Colombian alcoholic beverageSugarcane as feed EditMany parts of the sugarcane are commonly used as animal feeds where the plants are cultivated The leaves make a good forage for ruminants 73 Gallery Edit Sugarcane fields in Bangladesh Sugarcane Research Institute BSRI Sugarcane fields in BSRI Sugarcane fields in BSRI Sugarcane fields in BSRI Sugarcane vendor in Dhaka Sugarcane stalks Sugarcane flowering Sugarcane plantation Leaves of sugarcane Sugarcane plantation Sugarcane of China Sugarcane Flowers of sugarcane Sugarcane harvested by women Hoa Binh Province Vietnam Evaporator with baffled pan and foam dipper for making ribbon cane syrup source source source source source source A video of sugarcane juice extraction Sugarcane and bowl of refined sugar Caipirinha a cocktail made from sugarcane derived cachaca Sugarcane processing Hausa man selling sugarcane at Kaduna in NigeriaSee also EditSugar plantations in the Caribbean Sugar plantations in Hawaii Sugar industry of the Philippines TrapicheReferences Edit Papini Terzi Flavia S Rocha Flavia R Vencio Ricardo ZN Felix Juliana M Branco Diana S Waclawovsky Alessandro J Del Bem Luiz EV Lembke Carolina G Costa Maximiller DL Nishiyama Milton Y Vicentini Renato 21 March 2009 Sugarcane genes associated with sucrose content BMC Genomics 10 1 120 doi 10 1186 1471 2164 10 120 ISSN 1471 2164 PMC 2666766 PMID 19302712 a b Plants amp Fungi Saccharum officinarum sugar cane Royal Botanical Gardens Kew Archived from the original on 4 June 2012 Vilela Mariane de Mendonca Del Bem Luiz Eduardo Van Sluys Marie Anne De Setta Nathalia Kitajima Joao Paulo et al 2017 Analysis of Three Sugarcane Homo Homeologous Regions Suggests Independent Polyploidization Events of Saccharum officinarum and Saccharum spontaneum Genome Biology and Evolution 9 2 266 278 doi 10 1093 gbe evw293 PMC 5381655 PMID 28082603 Consumer Preference for Indigenous Vegetables PDF World Agroforestry Centre 2009 Agribusiness Handbook Sugar beet white sugar PDF Food and Agriculture Organization United Nations 2009 Indian indentured labourers The National Archives Government of the United Kingdom 2010 Mintz Sidney 1986 Sweetness and Power The Place of Sugar in Modern History Penguin ISBN 978 0 14 009233 2 a b Sugar Online Etymology Dictionary 2021 Retrieved 19 June 2021 Perez Rena 1997 Chapter 3 Sugar cane Feeding pigs in the tropics Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Archived from the original on 21 February 2018 Retrieved 2 September 2018 Vicentini R Del Bem L E V Van Sluys M A Nogueira F T S Vincentz M 1 June 2012 Gene Content Analysis of Sugarcane Public ESTs Reveals Thousands of Missing Coding Genes and an Unexpected Pool of Grasses Conserved ncRNAs Tropical Plant Biology 5 2 199 205 doi 10 1007 s12042 012 9103 z ISSN 1935 9764 S2CID 2986185 Vilela Mariane de Mendonca Del Bem Luiz Eduardo Van Sluys Marie Anne de Setta Nathalia Kitajima Joao Paulo Cruz Guilherme Marcelo Queiroga Sforca Danilo Augusto de Souza Anete Pereira Ferreira Paulo Cavalcanti Gomes Grativol Clicia Cardoso Silva Claudio Benicio 1 February 2017 Analysis of Three Sugarcane Homo Homeologous Regions Suggests Independent Polyploidization Events of Saccharum officinarum and Saccharum spontaneum Genome Biology and Evolution 9 2 266 278 doi 10 1093 gbe evw293 ISSN 1759 6653 PMC 5381655 PMID 28082603 Daniels John Daniels Christian April 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Virus Diseases of Sugarcane A Constant Challenge to Sugarcane Breeding in Brazil Functional Plant Science amp Biotechnology 6 108 116 Yamada Y Hoshino K Ishikawa T 1998 Gluconacetobacter corrig Gluconoacetobacter sic In Validation of Publication of New Names and New Combinations Previously Effectively Published Outside the IJSB List no 64 PDF Int J Syst Bacteriol 48 1 327 328 doi 10 1099 00207713 48 1 327 Retrieved 13 March 2020 Dong Z et al 1994 A Nitrogen Fixing Endophyte of Sugarcane Stems A New Role for the Apoplast Plant Physiology 105 4 1139 1147 doi 10 1104 pp 105 4 1139 PMC 159442 PMID 12232271 Boddey R M Urquiaga S Reis V Dobereiner J November 1991 Biological nitrogen fixation associated with sugar cane Plant and Soil 137 1 111 117 doi 10 1007 BF02187441 S2CID 27437118 Cocking E C Stone P J Davey M R 2006 Intracellular colonization of roots of Arabidopsis and crop plants by Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus In Vitro Cellular amp Developmental Biology Plant 42 74 82 doi 10 1079 IVP2005716 S2CID 24642832 Lakhani Nina 16 February 2015 Nicaraguans demand action over illness killing thousands of sugar cane workers The Guardian Retrieved 9 April 2015 Leite Rocha Marceli Sugarcane cutting work risks and health effects a literature review Universidade de Sao Paulo Faculdade de Saude Publica a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a Missing or empty url help Steindl Roderick 2005 Syrup Clarification for Plantation White Sugar to meet New Quality Standards PDF In Hogarth DM ed Proceedings of the XXV Congress of International Society of Sugar Cane Technologists Guatemala Guatemala City pp 106 116 Home CODEXALIMENTARIUS FAO WHO www fao org Florez Martinez Diego Hernando Contreras Pedraza Carlos Alberto Rodriguez Jader 1 January 2021 A systematic analysis of non centrifugal sugar cane processing Research and new trends Trends in Food Science amp Technology 107 415 428 doi 10 1016 j tifs 2020 11 011 ISSN 0924 2244 S2CID 228847326 a b c Sugarcane processing PDF Environmental Protection Agency United States 2005 Yacoubou Jeanne 2007 Is Your Sugar Vegan An Update on Sugar Processing Practices PDF Vegetarian Journal Vol 26 no 4 pp 15 19 Retrieved 4 April 2007 Cowser R L January March 1978 Cooking Ribbon Cane Syrup The Kentucky Folklore Record World Food and Agriculture Statistical Yearbook 2021 Food and Agriculture Organization 2021 p 60 doi 10 4060 cb4477en ISBN 978 92 5 134332 6 S2CID 240163091 Retrieved 29 March 2022 a b c Sugarcane production in 2020 Crops Regions World list Production Quantity pick lists UN Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database FAOSTAT 2022 Retrieved 28 March 2022 Bogden AV 1977 Tropical Pasture and Fodder Plants Tropical Agriculture Longman Group Far East Limited ISBN 978 0582466760 Duke James 1983 Saccharum officinarum L Purdue University Voora V Bermudez S and Larrea C 2019 Sugar Coverage International Institute for Sustainable Development Retrieved 29 March 2022 a b IEA Energy Technology Essentials Biofuel Production PDF International Energy Agency 2007 Archived from the original PDF on 15 June 2010 Retrieved 1 February 2012 da Rosa A 2005 Fundamentals of Renewable Energy Processes Elsevier pp 501 502 ISBN 978 0 12 088510 7 Rainey Thomas Covey Geoff Shore Dennis December 2006 An analysis of Australian sugarcane regions for bagasse paper manufacture International Sugar Journal 108 1295 640 644 a b Cetrel and Novozymes to Make Biogas and Electricity from Bagasse Business Wire 14 December 2009 Wade Report on Global Bagasse Cogeneration High Efficiency Bagasse Cogeneration Can Meet Up To 25 of National Dower Demand in Cane Producing Countries PDF Press release World Alliance for Decentralized Energy 15 June 2004 Retrieved 13 March 2020 Bagasse Cogen Global Review and Potential Report World Alliance for Decentralized Energy 2004 Sugar Cane Bagasse Energy Cogeneration Lessons from Mauritius PDF The United Nations 2005 Steam economy and cogeneration in cane sugar factories PDF International Sugar Journal 92 1099 131 140 1990 Archived from the original PDF on 24 December 2010 Hollanda Erber 2010 Trade and Environment Review United Nations pp 68 80 ISBN 978 92 1 112782 9 Indian Food Composition Tables National Institute of Nutrition Indian Council of Medical Research 2017 Pollan M 12 October 2003 The Agri Cultural Contradictions Of Obesity The New York Times Heuze V Thiollet H Tran G Lebas F 5 July 2018 Sugarcane forage whole plant Feedipedia a programme by INRA CIRAD AFZ and FAO Retrieved 11 April 2019 External links Edit Media related to Sugar cane at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of sugarcane at Wiktionary Global sugar amp sugar cane production stats from oecd Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Sugarcane amp oldid 1132575660, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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