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Greenhouse gas emissions

January 24, 2023

This article is about emissions of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. For carbon dioxide emissions once they are in the atmosphere, see Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere. For the effect of greenhouse gases once in the atmosphere, see Greenhouse effect. For characteristics of greenhouse gases themselves, see Greenhouse gas.

Greenhouse gas emissions from human activities strengthen the greenhouse effect, contributing to climate change. Most is carbon dioxide from burning fossil fuels: coal, oil, and natural gas. The largest emitters include coal in China and large oil and gas companies. Human-caused emissions have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide by about 50% over pre-industrial levels. The growing levels of emissions have varied, but have been consistent among all greenhouse gases (GHGs). Emissions in the 2010s averaged 56 billion tons a year, higher than any decade before.[4] Each year, about 6.7 million people die from polluted air quality.[5]

2020 Worldwide CO2 emissions (by region, per capita); variwide diagram
Annual greenhouse gas emissions per person (height of vertical bars) and per country (area inside vertical bars)[1]
In the highest-emitting countries, emission trends in recent decades sometimes diverge from longer-term historical trends.[2][3]

Electricity generation and transport are major emitters; the largest single source, according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, is transportation, accounting for 27% of all USA greenhouse gas emissions.[6] Deforestation and other changes in land use also emit carbon dioxide and methane. The largest source of anthropogenic methane emissions is agriculture, closely followed by gas venting and fugitive emissions from the fossil-fuel industry. The largest agricultural methane source is livestock. Agricultural soils emit nitrous oxide partly due to fertilizers. Similarly, fluorinated gases from refrigerants play an outsized role in total human emissions.

At current emission rates averaging six and a half tonnes per person per year, before 2030 temperatures may have increased by an average of 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) over pre-industrial levels, which is the limit for the G7 countries and aspirational limit of the Paris Agreement.[7]

Measurements and calculations

 
Annual CO2 emissions, total by country, not per capita (2017 data)
 
Data from:[1] [2] [3]
 
Global GHG Emissions by gas

Global greenhouse gas emissions are about 50 Gt per year[8] (6.6t per person[9]) and for 2019 have been estimated at 57 Gt CO2 eq including 5 Gt due to land use change.[10] In 2019, approximately 34% [20 GtCO2-eq] of total net anthropogenic GHG emissions came from the energy supply sector, 24% [14 GtCO2-eq] from industry, 22% [13 GtCO2-eq]from agriculture, forestry and other land use (AFOLU), 15% [8.7 GtCO2-eq] from transport and 6% [3.3 GtCO2-eq] from buildings.[11]

Carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N
2O), methane, three groups of fluorinated gases (sulfur hexafluoride (SF
6), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs)) are the major anthropogenic greenhouse gases, and are regulated under the Paris Agreement.[12]: 147 [13]

Although CFCs are greenhouse gases, they are regulated by the Montreal Protocol, which was motivated by CFCs' contribution to ozone depletion rather than by their contribution to global warming. Note that ozone depletion has only a minor role in greenhouse warming, though the two processes are sometimes confused in the media. In 2016, negotiators from over 170 nations meeting at the summit of the United Nations Environment Programme reached a legally binding accord to phase out hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) in the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol.[14][15][16]

There are several ways of measuring greenhouse gas emissions. Some variables that have been reported include:[17]

  • Definition of measurement boundaries: Emissions can be attributed geographically, to the area where they were emitted (the territory principle) or by the activity principle to the territory that produced the emissions. These two principles result in different totals when measuring, for example, electricity importation from one country to another, or emissions at an international airport.
  • Time horizon of different gases: The contribution of given greenhouse gas is reported as a CO2 equivalent. The calculation to determine this takes into account how long that gas remains in the atmosphere. This is not always known accurately[clarification needed] and calculations must be regularly updated to reflect new information.
  • The measurement protocol itself: This may be via direct measurement or estimation. The four main methods are the emission factor-based method, mass balance method, predictive emissions monitoring systems, and continuous emissions monitoring systems. These methods differ in accuracy, cost, and usability. Public information from space-based measurements of carbon dioxide by Climate Trace is expected to reveal individual large plants before the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference.[18]

These measures are sometimes used by countries to assert various policy/ethical positions on climate change.[19]: 94  The use of different measures leads to a lack of comparability, which is problematic when monitoring progress towards targets. There are arguments for the adoption of a common measurement tool, or at least the development of communication between different tools.[17]

Emissions may be tracked over long time periods, known as historical or cumulative emissions measurements. Cumulative emissions provide some indicators of what is responsible for greenhouse gas atmospheric concentration build-up.[20]: 199 

The national accounts balance tracks emissions based on the difference between a country's exports and imports. For many richer nations, the balance is negative because more goods are imported than they are exported. This result is mostly due to the fact that it is cheaper to produce goods outside of developed countries, leading developed countries to become increasingly dependent on services and not goods. A positive account balance would mean that more production was occurring within a country, so more operational factories would increase carbon emission levels.[21]

Emissions may also be measured across shorter time periods. Emissions changes may, for example, be measured against the base year of 1990. 1990 was used in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) as the base year for emissions, and is also used in the Kyoto Protocol (some gases are also measured from the year 1995).[12]: 146, 149  A country's emissions may also be reported as a proportion of global emissions for a particular year.

Another measurement is of per capita emissions. This divides a country's total annual emissions by its mid-year population.[22]: 370  Per capita emissions may be based on historical or annual emissions.[19]: 106–107 

While cities are sometimes considered to be disproportionate contributors to emissions, per-capita emissions tend to be lower for cities than the averages in their countries.[23]

At current emission rates, before 2030 temperatures may have increased by 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) over pre-industrial levels,[24][25] which is the limit for the G7 countries[26] and aspirational limit of the Paris Agreement.[27]

Overview of main sources

See also: Effects of climate change on ecosystems
 
Modern global CO2 emissions from the burning of fossil fuels.
 
Potential CO2 emissions from large fossil fuel projects 'carbon bombs' per country

Since about 1750, human activity has increased the concentration of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. As of 2021, measured atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide were almost 50% higher than pre-industrial levels.[28] Natural sources of carbon dioxide are more than 20 times greater than sources due to human activity,[29] but over periods longer than a few years natural sources are closely balanced by natural sinks, mainly photosynthesis of carbon compounds by plants and marine plankton. Absorption of terrestrial infrared radiation by longwave absorbing gases makes Earth a less efficient emitter. Therefore, in order for Earth to emit as much energy as is absorbed, global temperatures must increase.

Burning fossil fuels is estimated to have emitted 62% of 2015 human GhG.[30] The largest single source is coal-fired power stations, with 20% of GHG as of 2021.[31]

The main sources of greenhouse gases due to human activity are:

The major sources of Greenhouse gases (GHG) are:

  • Land Use (CO2 emissions)
  • Forestry (CO2-LULUCF)
  • Nitrous Acid (N2O)
  • Fluorinated gases (F-gases)
  • Compromising hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
  • Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
  • sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)
  • nitrogen trifluoride (NF3) [35]

The seven sources of CO2 from fossil fuel combustion are (with percentage contributions for 2000–2004):[36]

This list needs updating, as it uses an out-of-date source. See the 2019 IPCC report for newer data.[needs update]

The largest source of anthropogenic methane emissions is agriculture, closely followed by gas venting and fugitive emissions from the fossil-fuel industry.[37][38] The largest agricultural methane source is livestock. Cattle (raised for both beef and milk, as well as for inedible outputs like manure and draft power) are the animal species responsible for the most emissions, representing about 65% of the livestock sector’s emissions.[39] Agricultural soils emit nitrous oxide partly due to fertilizers.[40]

  • (N2O)
  • (F-gases)
  • (HFCs)
  • (PFCs)
  • (SF6)

A 2017 survey of corporations responsible for global emissions found that 100 companies were responsible for 71% of global direct and indirect emissions, and that state-owned companies were responsible for 59% of their emissions.[41][42]

Inventories and maps

This section is an excerpt from Climate TRACE.[edit]

Climate TRACE (Tracking Real-Time Atmospheric Carbon Emissions)[43] is an independent group which monitors and publishes greenhouse gas emissions within weeks.[44] It launched in 2021 before COP26,[45] and improves monitoring, reporting and verification (MRV) of both carbon dioxide and methane.[46][47]

The group monitors sources such as coal mines and power station smokestacks worldwide,[48] with satellite data (but not their own satellites) and artificial intelligence.[49][50] Time magazine named it as one of the hundred best inventions of 2020.[51] Their emissions map is the largest global inventory and interactive map of greenhouse gas emission sources.[52][53]

Emissions by type of energy source

This section is an excerpt from Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of energy sources § Global warming potential of selected electricity sources.[edit]
 
Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of electricity supply technologies, median values calculated by IPCC[54]
Life cycle CO2 equivalent (including albedo effect) from selected electricity supply technologies according to IPCC 2014.[54][55] Arranged by decreasing median (gCO2eq/kWh) values.
Technology Min. Median Max.
Currently commercially available technologies
Coal – PC 740 820 910
Gas – combined cycle 410 490 650
Biomass – Dedicated 130 230 420
Solar PV – Utility scale 18 48 180
Solar PV – rooftop 26 41 60
Geothermal 6.0 38 79
Concentrated solar power 8.8 27 63
Hydropower 1.0 24 22001
Wind Offshore 8.0 12 35
Nuclear 3.7 12 110
Wind Onshore 7.0 11 56
Pre‐commercial technologies
Ocean (Tidal and wave) 5.6 17 28

1 see also environmental impact of reservoirs#Greenhouse gases.

 
Lifecycle GHG emissions, in g CO2 eq. per kWh, UNECE 2020[56]
Lifecycle CO2 emissions per kWh, EU28 countries, according to UNECE 2020.[56]
Technology gCO2eq/kWh
Hard coal PC, without CCS 1000
IGCC, without CCS 850
SC, without CCS 950
PC, with CCS 370
IGCC, with CCS 280
SC, with CCS 330
Natural gas NGCC, without CCS 430
NGCC, with CCS 130
Hydro 660 MW [57] 150
360 MW 11
Nuclear average 5.1
CSP tower 22
trough 42
PV poly-Si, ground-mounted 37
poly-Si, roof-mounted 37
CdTe, ground-mounted 12
CdTe, roof-mounted 15
CIGS, ground-mounted 11
CIGS, roof-mounted 14
Wind onshore 12
offshore, concrete foundation 14
offshore, steel foundation 13

List of acronyms:

Relative CO2 emission from various fuels

One liter of gasoline, when used as a fuel, produces 2.32 kg (about 1300 liters or 1.3 cubic meters) of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. One US gallon produces 19.4 lb (1,291.5 gallons or 172.65 cubic feet).[58][59][60]

The mass of carbon dioxide that is released when one MJ of energy is released from fuel can be estimated to a good approximation.[61] For the chemical formula of diesel we use as an approximation C
nH
2n. Note that diesel is a mixture of different molecules. As carbon has a molar mass of 12 g/mol and hydrogen (atomic!) has a molar mass of about 1 g/mol, so the fraction by weight of carbon in diesel is roughly 12/14. The reaction of diesel combustion is given by:

2C
nH
2n + 3nO
2 ⇌ 2nCO
2 + 2nH
2O

Carbon dioxide has a molar mass of 44g/mol as it consists of 2 atoms of oxygen (16 g/mol) and 1 atom of carbon (12 g/mol). So 12 g of carbon yield 44 g of Carbon dioxide. Diesel has an energy content of 42.6 MJ per kg or 23.47 gram of Diesel contain 1 MJ of energy. Putting everything together the mass of carbon dioxide that is produced by releasing 1MJ of energy from diesel fuel can be calculated as:

 

For gasoline, with 22 g/MJ and a ratio of carbon to hydrogen atoms of about 6 to 14, the estimated value of carbon emission for 1MJ of energy is:

 

Mass of carbon dioxide emitted per quantity of energy for various fuels[62]
Fuel name CO2
emitted
(lbs/106 Btu) 		CO2
emitted
(g/MJ) 		CO2
emitted
(g/kWh)
Hydrogen gas 0 0.0 0.0
Natural gas 117 50.30 181.08
Liquefied petroleum gas 139 59.76 215.14
Propane 139 59.76 215.14
Aviation gasoline 153 65.78 236.81
Automobile gasoline 156 67.07 241.45
Kerosene 159 68.36 246.10
Fuel oil 161 69.22 249.19
Tires/tire derived fuel 189 81.26 292.54
Wood and wood waste 195 83.83 301.79
Coal (bituminous) 205 88.13 317.27
Coal (sub-bituminous) 213 91.57 329.65
Coal (lignite) 215 92.43 332.75
Petroleum coke 225 96.73 348.23
Tar-sand bitumen [citation needed] [citation needed] [citation needed]
Coal (anthracite) 227 97.59 351.32

Emissions by type of greenhouse gas

See also: List of greenhouse gases

GHG emissions 2019 by gas type
without land-use change
using 100 year GWP
Total: 51.8 GtCO2e[63]: 4 

  CO2 mostly by fossil fuel (72%)
  CH4 methane (19%)
  N
2O nitrous oxide (6%)
  Fluorinated gases (3%)

CO2 emissions by fuel type[64]

  coal (39%)
  oil (34%)
  gas (21%)
  cement (4%)
  others (1.5%)

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the dominant emitted greenhouse gas, while methane (CH4) emissions almost have the same short-term impact.[65] Nitrous oxide (N2O) and fluorinated gases (F-Gases) play a minor role.

GHG emissions are measured in CO2 equivalents determined by their global warming potential (GWP), which depends on their lifetime in the atmosphere. Estimations largely depend on the ability of oceans and land sinks to absorb these gases. Short-lived climate pollutants (SLCPs) including methane, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), tropospheric ozone and black carbon persist in the atmosphere for a period ranging from days to 15 years; whereas carbon dioxide can remain in the atmosphere for millennia.[66] Reducing SLCP emissions can cut the ongoing rate of global warming by almost half and reduce the projected Arctic warming by two-thirds.[67]

GHG emissions in 2019 were estimated at 57.4 GtCO2e, while CO2 emissions alone made up 42.5 Gt including land-use change (LUC).[68]

While mitigation measures for decarbonization are essential on the longer-term, they could result in weak near-term warming because sources of carbon emissions often also co-emit air pollution. Hence, pairing measures that target carbon dioxide with measures targeting non-CO2 pollutants – short-lived climate pollutants, which have faster effects on the climate, is essential for climate goals.[69]

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

  • Fossil fuel: oil, gas and coal (89%) are the major driver of anthropogenic global warming with annual emissions of 35.6 GtCO2 in 2019.[63]: 20 
  • Cement production (4%) is estimated at 1.42 GtCO2
  • Land-use change (LUC) is the imbalance of deforestation and reforestation. Estimations are very uncertain at 4.5 GtCO2. Wildfires alone cause annual emissions of about 7 GtCO2[70][71]
  • Non-energy use of fuels, carbon losses in coke ovens, and flaring in crude oil production.[63]

Methane (CH4)

 
Historical and future temperature projections showing importance of mitigating short-lived climate pollutants like methane

Methane has a high immediate impact with a 5-year global warming potential of up to 100.[65] Given this, the current 389 Mt of methane emissions[63]: 6  has about the same short-term global warming effect as CO2 emissions, with a risk to trigger irreversible changes in climate and ecosystems. For methane, a reduction of about 30% below current emission levels would lead to a stabilization in its atmospheric concentration.

  • Fossil fuels (32%), again, account for most of the methane emissions including coal mining (12% of methane total), gas distribution and leakages (11%) as well as gas venting in oil production (9%).[63]: 6 [63]: 12 
  • Livestock (28%) with cattle (21%) as the dominant source, followed by buffalo (3%), sheep (2%), and goats (1.5%).[63]: 6, 23 
  • Human waste and wastewater (21%): When biomass waste in landfills and organic substances in domestic and industrial wastewater is decomposed by bacteria in anaerobic conditions, substantial amounts of methane are generated.[63]: 12 
  • Rice cultivation (10%) on flooded rice fields is another agricultural source, where anaerobic decomposition of organic material produces methane.[63]: 12 

Nitrous oxide (N
2O)

N2O has a high GWP and significant Ozone Depleting Potential. It is estimated that the global warming potential of N2O over 100 years is 265 times greater than CO2.[72] For N2O, a reduction of more than 50% would be required for a stabilization.

  • Most emissions (56%) by agriculture, especially meat production: cattle (droppings on pasture), fertilizers, animal manure.[63]: 12 
  • Combustion of fossil fuels (18%) and bio fuels.[73]
  • Industrial production of adipic acid and nitric acid.

F-Gases

Fluorinated gases include hydrofluorocarbons (HFC), perfluorocarbons (PFC), sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), and nitrogen trifluoride (NF3). They are used by switchgear in the power sector, semiconductor manufacture, aluminium production and a large unknown source of SF6.[63]: 38  Continued phase down of manufacture and use of HFCs under the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol will help reduce HFC emissions and concurrently improve the energy efficiency of appliances that use HFCs like air conditioners, freezers and other refrigeration devices.

Black carbon

Black carbon is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biofuel, and biomass. It is not a greenhouse gas but a climate forcing agent. Black carbon can absorb sunlight and reduce albedo when deposited on snow and ice. Indirect heating can be caused by the interaction with clouds.[74] Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks.[75] Emissions may be mitigated by upgrading coke ovens, installing particulate filters on diesel-based engines, reducing routine flaring, and minimizing open burning of biomass.

Emissions by sector

See also: Climate change mitigation § Mitigation by sector
 
Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Economic Sector according to IPCC Fifth Assessment Report[citation needed]
 
2016 global greenhouse gas emissions by sector.[76] Percentages are calculated from estimated global emissions of all Kyoto Greenhouse Gases, converted to CO2 equivalent quantities (GtCO2e).

Global greenhouse gas emissions can be attributed to different sectors of the economy. This provides a picture of the varying contributions of different types of economic activity to climate change, and helps in understanding the changes required to mitigate climate change.

Manmade greenhouse gas emissions can be divided into those that arise from the combustion of fuels to produce energy, and those generated by other processes. Around two thirds of greenhouse gas emissions arise from the combustion of fuels.[77]

Energy may be produced at the point of consumption, or by a generator for consumption by others. Thus emissions arising from energy production may be categorized according to where they are emitted, or where the resulting energy is consumed. If emissions are attributed at the point of production, then electricity generators contribute about 25% of global greenhouse gas emissions.[78] If these emissions are attributed to the final consumer then 24% of total emissions arise from manufacturing and construction, 17% from transportation, 11% from domestic consumers, and 7% from commercial consumers.[79] Around 4% of emissions arise from the energy consumed by the energy and fuel industry itself.

The remaining third of emissions arise from processes other than energy production. 12% of total emissions arise from agriculture, 7% from land use change and forestry, 6% from industrial processes, and 3% from waste.[77]

Electricity generation

See also: Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of energy sources
 
Global greenhouse gas emissions by gas.

Coal-fired power stations are the single largest emitter, with over 20% of global GhG in 2018.[80] Although much less polluting than coal plants, natural gas-fired power plants are also major emitters,[81] taking electricity generation as a whole over 25% in 2018.[82] Notably, just 5% of the world's power plants account for almost three-quarters of carbon emissions from electricity generation, based on an inventory of more than 29,000 fossil-fuel power plants across 221 countries.[83] In the 2022 IPCC report, it is noted that providing modern energy services universally would only increase greenhouse gas emissions by a few percent at most. This slight increase means that the additional energy demand that comes from supporting decent living standards for all would be far lower than current average energy consumption.[84]

Agriculture, forestry and land use

Agriculture

This section is an excerpt from Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture.[edit]

Agriculture contributes towards climate change through greenhouse gas emissions and by the conversion of non-agricultural land such as forests into agricultural land.[85][86] In 2019 the IPCC reported that 13%-21% of anthropogenic greenhouse gasses came specifically from the Agriculture, Forestry, and Other Land Uses Sector (AFOLU).[87] Emissions from agriculture of nitrous oxide, methane and carbon dioxide make up to half of the greenhouse-gases produced by the overall food industry, or 80% of agricultural emissions.[88] Animal husbandry is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions.[89]

The agricultural food system is responsible for a significant amount of greenhouse gas emissions.[90][88] In addition to being a significant user of land and consumer of fossil fuel, agriculture contributes directly to greenhouse gas emissions through practices such as rice production and the raising of livestock.[91] The three main causes of the increase in greenhouse gases observed over the past 250 years have been fossil fuels, land use, and agriculture.[92] Farm animal digestive systems can be put into two categories: monogastric and ruminant. Ruminant cattle for beef and dairy rank high in greenhouse-gas emissions; monogastric, or pigs and poultry-related foods, are low. The consumption of the monogastric types may yield less emissions. Monogastric animals have a higher feed-conversion efficiency, and also do not produce as much methane.[88] Furthermore, CO2 is actually re-emitted into the atmosphere by plant and soil respiration in the later stages of crop growth, causing more greenhouse gas emissions. [93]

There are many strategies that can be used to help soften the effects, and the further production of greenhouse gas emissions - this is also referred to as climate-smart agriculture. Some of these strategies include a higher efficiency in livestock farming, which includes management, as well as technology; a more effective process of managing manure; a lower dependence upon fossil-fuels and nonrenewable resources; a variation in the animals' eating and drinking duration, time and location; and a cutback in both the production and consumption of animal-sourced foods.[88][94][95][96] A range of policies may reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the agriculture sector for a more sustainable food system.[97][98]
Deforestation
 
Mean annual carbon loss from tropical deforestation.[99]
Further information: Deforestation § Atmospheric, and Deforestation and climate change

Deforestation is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions. A study shows annual carbon emissions (or carbon loss) from tropical deforestation have doubled during the last two decades and continue to increase. (0.97 ±0.16 PgC per year in 2001–2005 to 1.99 ±0.13 PgC per year in 2015–2019)[100][99]

Land-use change
Main article: Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture
 
Substantial land-use change contributions to emissions have been made by Latin America, Southeast Asia, Africa, and Pacific Islands. Area of rectangles shows total emissions for that region.[101]

Land-use change, e.g., the clearing of forests for agricultural use, can affect the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere by altering how much carbon flows out of the atmosphere into carbon sinks.[102] Accounting for land-use change can be understood as an attempt to measure "net" emissions, i.e., gross emissions from all sources minus the removal of emissions from the atmosphere by carbon sinks.[19]: 92–93 

There are substantial uncertainties in the measurement of net carbon emissions.[103] Additionally, there is controversy over how carbon sinks should be allocated between different regions and over time.[19]: 93  For instance, concentrating on more recent changes in carbon sinks is likely to favour those regions that have deforested earlier, e.g., Europe.

In 1997, human-caused Indonesian peat fires were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average annual global carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels.[104][105][106]

Transport

Aviation

Further information: Environmental effects of aviation

Approximately 3.5% of the overall human impacts on climate are from the aviation sector. The impact of the sector on climate in the late 20 years had doubled, but the part of the contribution of the sector in comparison to other sectors did not change because other sectors grew as well.[107]

Trucking and haulage

Over a quarter of global transport CO2 emissions are from road freight,[108] so many countries are further restricting truck CO2 emissions to help limit climate change.[109]

Buildings and construction

In 2018, manufacturing construction materials and maintaining buildings accounted for 39% of carbon dioxide emissions from energy and process-related emissions. Manufacture of glass, cement, and steel accounted for 11% of energy and process-related emissions.[110] Because building construction is a significant investment, more than two-thirds of buildings in existence will still exist in 2050. Retrofitting existing buildings to become more efficient will be necessary to meet the targets of the Paris Agreement; it will be insufficient to only apply low-emission standards to new construction.[111] Buildings that produce as much energy as they consume are called zero-energy buildings, while buildings that produce more than they consume are energy-plus. Low-energy buildings are designed to be highly efficient with low total energy consumption and carbon emissions—a popular type is the passive house.[110]

The global design and construction industry is responsible for approximately 39 percent of greenhouse gas emissions.[112] Green building practices that avoid emissions or capture the carbon already present in the environment, allow for reduced footprint of the construction industry, for example, use of hempcrete, cellulose fiber insulation, and landscaping.[113]

In 2019, the building sector was responsible for 12 GtCO2-eq emissions. More than 95% of these emissions were carbon, and the remaining 5% were CH4 N2O and halocarbon.[114]

Industrial processes

As of 2020 Secunda CTL is the world's largest single emitter, at 56.5 million tonnes CO2 a year.[115]

Around 6% of emissions are fugitive emissions, which are waste gases released by the extraction of fossil fuels.

Steel and aluminum

Steel and aluminum are key economic sectors for the carbon capture and storage. According to a 2013 study, "in 2004, the steel industry along emits about 590M tons of CO2, which accounts for 5.2% of the global anthropogenic GHG emissions. CO2 emitted from steel production primarily comes from energy consumption of fossil fuel as well as the use of limestone to purify iron oxides."[116]

Plastics

Plastics are produced mainly from fossil fuels. It was estimated that between 3% and 4% of global GHG emissions are associated with plastics' life cycles.[117] The EPA estimates[118] as many as five mass units of carbon dioxide are emitted for each mass unit of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) produced—the type of plastic most commonly used for beverage bottles,[119] the transportation produce greenhouse gases also.[120] Plastic waste emits carbon dioxide when it degrades. In 2018 research claimed that some of the most common plastics in the environment release the greenhouse gases methane and ethylene when exposed to sunlight in an amount that can affect the earth climate.[121][122]

Due to the lightness of plastic versus glass or metal, plastic may reduce energy consumption. For example, packaging beverages in PET plastic rather than glass or metal is estimated to save 52% in transportation energy, if the glass or metal package is single-use, of course.

In 2019 a new report "Plastic and Climate" was published. According to the report, the production and incineration of plastics will contribute in the equivalent of 850 million tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO2) to the atmosphere in 2019. With the current trend, annual life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of plastics will grow to 1.34 billion tonnes by 2030. By 2050, the life cycle emissions of plastics could reach 56 billion tonnes, as much as 14 percent of the Earth's remaining carbon budget.[123] The report says that only solutions which involve a reduction in consumption can solve the problem, while others like biodegradable plastic, ocean cleanup, using renewable energy in plastic industry can do little, and in some cases may even worsen it.[124]

Pulp and paper

Further information: Environmental effects of paper § Greenhouse gas emissions

The global print and paper industry accounts for about 1% of global carbon dioxide emissions.[125] Greenhouse gas emissions from the pulp and paper industry are generated from the combustion of fossil fuels required for raw material production and transportation, wastewater treatment facilities, purchased power, paper transportation, printed product transportation, disposal and recycling.

Various services

Digital services

See also: Streaming media § Greenhouse gas emissions, Data center § Greenhouse gas emissions, and Cryptocurrency § Environmental impact

In 2020 data centers (excluding cryptocurrency mining) and data transmission each used about 1% of world electricity.[126] The digital sector produces between 2% and 4% of global GHG emissions,[127] a large part of which is from chipmaking.[128] However the sector reduces emissions from other sectors which have a larger global share, such as transport of people,[129] and possibly buildings and industry.[130]

Mining for proof-of-work cryptocurrencies requires enormous amounts of electricity and consequently comes with a large carbon footprint.[131] Proof-of-work blockchains such as Bitcoin, Ethereum, Litecoin, and Monero were estimated to have added between 3 million and 15 million tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO2) to the atmosphere in the period from 1 January 2016 to 30 June 2017.[132] By the end of 2021, Bitcoin was estimated to produce 65.4 million tonnes of CO2, as much as Greece,[133] and consume between 91 and 177 terawatt-hours annually. Bitcoin is the least energy-efficient cryptocurrency, using 707.6 kilowatt-hours of electricity per transaction.[134][135][136]

Health care

The healthcare sector produces 4.4% - 4.6% of global greenhouse gas emissions.[137]

Water supply and sanitation

This section is an excerpt from WASH § Greenhouse gas emissions.[edit]
Water and sanitation services contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. These emissions are grouped into three "scopes" in the international greenhouse gas protocol.[138] [139]: 9 
This section is an excerpt from WASH § Reducing greenhouse gas emissions.[edit]
Solutions exist to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions of water and sanitation services.[140] These solutions can be grouped in three categories: Firstly "reducing water and energy consumption through lean and efficient approaches"; secondly "embracing circular economy to produce energy and valuable products"; and thirdly by "planning to reduce GHG emissions through strategic decisions".[139]: 28  Lean and efficient approaches include steps for maintenance of the networks to reduce water loss from water networks and to reduce infiltration of rainwater or groundwater to sewer networks.[139]: 29  Also, industries and households can be given incentives to reduce their water consumption and their energy requirements for water heating.[139]: 31  When source water quality is better protected, this would reduce the energy requirements for the treatment of this source water to achieve drinking water or similar standards.[139]: 32 

Tourism

According to UNEP, global tourism is a significant contributor to the increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.[141]

Emissions by other characteristics

The responsibility for anthropogenic climate change differs substantially among individuals, e.g. between groups or cohorts.

Generational

Researchers report that, on average, the elderly played "a leading role in driving up GHG emissions in the past decade and are on the way to becoming the largest contributor" due to factors such as demographic transition, low informed concern about climate change and high expenditures on carbon-intensive products like energy which is used i.a. for heating rooms and private transport.[142][143] They are less affected by climate change impacts,[144] but have e.g. the same vote-weights for the available electoral options.

By socio-economic class

 
The emissions of the richest 1% of the global population account for more than twice the combined share of the poorest 50%. Compliance with the 1.5°C goal of the Paris Agreement would require the richest 1% to reduce their current emissions by at least a factor of 30, while per-person emissions of the poorest 50% could increase by a factor of about 3.[145]

Fueled by the consumptive lifestyle of wealthy people, the wealthiest 5% of the global population has been responsible for 37% of the absolute increase in greenhouse gas emissions worldwide. Almost half of the increase in absolute global emissions has been caused by the richest 10% of the population.[146] In the newest report from the IPCC 2022, it states that the lifestyle consumptions of the poor and middle class in emerging economies produce approximately 5–50 times less the amount that the high class in already developed high-income countries.[147][148] Variations in regional, and national per capita emissions partly reflect different development stages, but they also vary widely at similar income levels. The 10% of households with the highest per capita emissions contribute a disproportionately large share of global household GHG emissions.[148]

Studies find that the most affluent citizens of the world are responsible for most environmental impacts, and robust action by them is necessary for prospects of moving towards safer environmental conditions.[149][150]

According to a 2020 report by Oxfam and the Stockholm Environment Institute,[151][152] the richest 1% of the global population have caused twice as much carbon emissions as the poorest 50% over the 25 years from 1990 to 2015.[153][154][155] This was, respectively, during that period, 15% of cumulative emissions compared to 7%.[156] The bottom half of the population is directly-responsible for less than 20% of energy footprints and consume less than the top 5% in terms of trade-corrected energy. The largest disproportionality was identified to be in the domain of transport, where e.g. the top 10% consume 56% of vehicle fuel and conduct 70% of vehicle purchases.[157] However, wealthy individuals are also often shareholders and typically have more influence[158] and, especially in the case of billionaires, may also direct lobbying efforts, direct financial decisions, and/or control companies:

Regional and national attribution of emissions

See also: Greenhouse gas inventory

Greenhouse gas intensity

Greenhouse gas intensity is a ratio between greenhouse gas emissions and another metric, e.g., gross domestic product (GDP) or energy use. The terms "carbon intensity" and "emissions intensity" are also sometimes used.[159] Emission intensities may be calculated using market exchange rates (MER) or purchasing power parity (PPP).[19]: 96  Calculations based on MER show large differences in intensities between developed and developing countries, whereas calculations based on PPP show smaller differences. According to a study discussing the relationship between urbanization and carbon emissions, urbanization is becoming a huge player in the global carbon cycle. Depending on total carbon emissions done by a city that hasn't invested in carbon efficiency or improved resource management, the global carbon cycle is projected to reach 75% of the world population by 2030.[160]

Cumulative and historical emissions

 
Cumulative CO2 emission by world region
 
Cumulative per person emissions by world region in 3 time periods
 
CO2 Emissions by source since 1880

Cumulative anthropogenic (i.e., human-emitted) emissions of CO2 from fossil fuel use are a major cause of global warming,[161] and give some indication of which countries have contributed most to human-induced climate change. In particular, CO2 stays in the atmosphere for at least 150 years, whilst methane and nitrous oxides generally disappear within a decade or so. The graph gives some indication of which regions have contributed most to human-induced climate change.[162][163]: 15  When these numbers are calculated per capita cumulative emissions based on then-current population the situation is shown even more clearly. The ratio in per capita emissions between industrialized countries and developing countries was estimated at more than 10 to 1.

Non-OECD countries accounted for 42% of cumulative energy-related CO2 emissions between 1890 and 2007.[164]: 179–80  Over this time period, the US accounted for 28% of emissions; the EU, 23%; Japan, 4%; other OECD countries 5%; Russia, 11%; China, 9%; India, 3%; and the rest of the world, 18%.[164]: 179–80 

Overall, developed countries accounted for 83.8% of industrial CO2 emissions over this time period, and 67.8% of total CO2 emissions. Developing countries accounted for industrial CO2 emissions of 16.2% over this time period, and 32.2% of total CO2 emissions.

In comparison, humans have emitted more greenhouse gases than the Chicxulub meteorite impact event which caused the extinction of the dinosaurs.[165]

Transport, together with electricity generation, is the major source of greenhouse gas emissions in the EU. Greenhouse gas emissions from the transportation sector continue to rise, in contrast to power generation and nearly all other sectors. Since 1990, transportation emissions have increased by 30%. The transportation sector accounts for around 70% of these emissions. The majority of these emissions are caused by passenger vehicles and vans. Road travel is the first major source of greenhouse gas emissions from transportation, followed by aircraft and maritime.[166][6] Waterborne transportation is still the least carbon-intensive mode of transportation on average, and it is an essential link in sustainable multimodal freight supply chains.[167]

Buildings, like industry, are directly responsible for around one-fifth of greenhouse gas emissions, primarily from space heating and hot water consumption. When combined with power consumption within buildings, this figure climbs to more than one-third.[168][169][170]

Within the EU, the agricultural sector presently accounts for roughly 10% of total greenhouse gas emissions, with methane from livestock accounting for slightly more than half of 10%.[171]

Estimates of total CO2 emissions do include biotic carbon emissions, mainly from deforestation.[19]: 94  Including biotic emissions brings about the same controversy mentioned earlier regarding carbon sinks and land-use change.[19]: 93–94  The actual calculation of net emissions is very complex, and is affected by how carbon sinks are allocated between regions and the dynamics of the climate system.

 
Fossil fuel CO2 emissions on a log (natural and base 10) scale

The graphic shows the logarithm of 1850–2019 fossil fuel CO2 emissions;[64] natural log on left, actual value of Gigatons per year on right. Although emissions increased during the 170-year period by about 3% per year overall, intervals of distinctly different growth rates (broken at 1913, 1945, and 1973) can be detected. The regression lines suggest that emissions can rapidly shift from one growth regime to another and then persist for long periods of time. The most recent drop in emissions growth - by almost 3 percentage points - was at about the time of the 1970s energy crisis. Percent changes per year were estimated by piecewise linear regression on the log data and are shown on the plot; the data are from The Integrated Carbon Observation system.[172]

Changes since a particular base year

See also: Greenhouse gas inventory

The sharp acceleration in CO2 emissions since 2000 to more than a 3% increase per year (more than 2 ppm per year) from 1.1% per year during the 1990s is attributable to the lapse of formerly declining trends in carbon intensity of both developing and developed nations. China was responsible for most of global growth in emissions during this period. Localised plummeting emissions associated with the collapse of the Soviet Union have been followed by slow emissions growth in this region due to more efficient energy use, made necessary by the increasing proportion of it that is exported.[36] In comparison, methane has not increased appreciably, and N
2O by 0.25% y−1.

Using different base years for measuring emissions has an effect on estimates of national contributions to global warming.[163]: 17–18 [173] This can be calculated by dividing a country's highest contribution to global warming starting from a particular base year, by that country's minimum contribution to global warming starting from a particular base year. Choosing between base years of 1750, 1900, 1950, and 1990 has a significant effect for most countries.[163]: 17–18  Within the G8 group of countries, it is most significant for the UK, France and Germany. These countries have a long history of CO2 emissions (see the section on Cumulative and historical emissions).

Embedded emissions

One way of attributing greenhouse gas emissions is to measure the embedded emissions (also referred to as "embodied emissions") of goods that are being consumed. Emissions are usually measured according to production, rather than consumption.[174] For example, in the main international treaty on climate change (the UNFCCC), countries report on emissions produced within their borders, e.g., the emissions produced from burning fossil fuels.[164]: 179 [175]: 1  Under a production-based accounting of emissions, embedded emissions on imported goods are attributed to the exporting, rather than the importing, country. Under a consumption-based accounting of emissions, embedded emissions on imported goods are attributed to the importing country, rather than the exporting, country.

Davis and Caldeira (2010)[175]: 4  found that a substantial proportion of CO2 emissions are traded internationally. The net effect of trade was to export emissions from China and other emerging markets to consumers in the US, Japan, and Western Europe.

Historical trends

The Integrated Carbon Observation System (ICOS) continuously releases data about CO2 emissions, budget and concentration at individual observation stations.

CO2 emissions[176][177]
Year Fossil fuels

and industry Gt C

Land use

change Gt C

Total

Gt C

Total

Gt CO2

2010 9.05 1.38 10.43 38.2
2011 9.35 1.34 10.69 39.2
2012 9.5 1.47 10.97 40.3
2013 9.54 1.52 11.06 40.6
2014 9.61 1.66 11.27 41.4
2015 9.62 1.7 11.32 41.5
2016 9.66 1.54 11.2 41.1
2017 9.77 1.47 11.24 41.3
2018 9.98 1.51 11.49 42.1
2019

(projection)

10.0 1.8 11.8 43.1

By country

Main article: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions

Annual emissions

 
CO2 emissions vs GDP

Annual per capita emissions in the industrialized countries are typically as much as ten times the average in developing countries.[12]: 144  Due to China's fast economic development, its annual per capita emissions are quickly approaching the levels of those in the Annex I group of the Kyoto Protocol (i.e., the developed countries excluding the US).[178] Other countries with fast growing emissions are South Korea, Iran, and Australia (which apart from the oil rich Persian Gulf states, now has the highest per capita emission rate in the world). On the other hand, annual per capita emissions of the EU-15 and the US are gradually decreasing over time.[178] Emissions in Russia and Ukraine have decreased fastest since 1990 due to economic restructuring in these countries.[179]

Energy statistics for fast-growing economies are less accurate than those for industrialized countries.[178]

The greenhouse gas footprint refers to the emissions resulting from the creation of products or services. It is more comprehensive than the commonly used carbon footprint, which measures only carbon dioxide, one of many greenhouse gases.[citation needed]

2015 was the first year to see both total global economic growth and a reduction of carbon emissions.[180]

Top emitter countries

 
The top 40 countries emitting all greenhouse gases, showing both that derived from all sources including land clearance and forestry and also the CO2 component excluding those sources. Per capita figures are included. "World Resources Institute data".. Note that Indonesia and Brazil show very much higher than on graphs simply showing fossil fuel use.
See also: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions, List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita, List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions, and List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per person

In 2019, China, the United States, India, the EU27+UK, Russia, and Japan - the world's largest CO2 emitters - together accounted for 51% of the population, 62.5% of global gross domestic product, 62% of total global fossil fuel consumption and emitted 67% of total global fossil CO2. Emissions from these five countries and the EU28 show different changes in 2019 compared to 2018: the largest relative increase is found for China (+3.4%), followed by India (+1.6%). On the contrary, the EU27+UK (-3.8%), the United States (-2.6%), Japan (-2.1%) and Russia (-0.8%) reduced their fossil CO2 emissions.[181]

2019 Fossil CO2 emissions by country[181]
Country total emissions
(Mton)		 Share
(%)		 per capita
(ton)		 per GDP
(ton/k$)
Global Total 38,016.57 100.00 4.93 0.29
  China 11,535.20 30.34 8.12 0.51
  United States 5,107.26 13.43 15.52 0.25
EU27+UK 3,303.97 8.69 6.47 0.14
  India 2,597.36 6.83 1.90 0.28
  Russia 1,792.02 4.71 12.45 0.45
  Japan 1,153.72 3.03 9.09 0.22
International Shipping 730.26 1.92 - -
  Germany 702.60 1.85 8.52 0.16
  Iran 701.99 1.85 8.48 0.68
  South Korea 651.87 1.71 12.70 0.30
International Aviation 627.48 1.65 - -
  Indonesia 625.66 1.65 2.32 0.20
  Saudi Arabia 614.61 1.62 18.00 0.38
  Canada 584.85 1.54 15.69 0.32
  South Africa 494.86 1.30 8.52 0.68
  Mexico 485.00 1.28 3.67 0.19
  Brazil 478.15 1.26 2.25 0.15
  Australia 433.38 1.14 17.27 0.34
  Turkey 415.78 1.09 5.01 0.18
  United Kingdom 364.91 0.96 5.45 0.12
  Italy,   San Marino and the Holy See 331.56 0.87 5.60 0.13
  Poland 317.65 0.84 8.35 0.25
  France and   Monaco 314.74 0.83 4.81 0.10
  Vietnam 305.25 0.80 3.13 0.39
  Kazakhstan 277.36 0.73 14.92 0.57
  Taiwan 276.78 0.73 11.65 0.23
  Thailand 275.06 0.72 3.97 0.21
  Spain and Andorra 259.31 0.68 5.58 0.13
  Egypt 255.37 0.67 2.52 0.22
  Malaysia 248.83 0.65 7.67 0.27
  Pakistan 223.63 0.59 1.09 0.22
  United Arab Emirates 222.61 0.59 22.99 0.34
  Argentina 199.41 0.52 4.42 0.20
  Iraq 197.61 0.52 4.89 0.46
  Ukraine 196.40 0.52 4.48 0.36
  Algeria 180.57 0.47 4.23 0.37
  Netherlands 156.41 0.41 9.13 0.16
  Philippines 150.64 0.40 1.39 0.16
  Bangladesh 110.16 0.29 0.66 0.14
  Venezuela 110.06 0.29 3.36 0.39
  Qatar 106.53 0.28 38.82 0.41
  Czechia 105.69 0.28 9.94 0.25
  Belgium 104.41 0.27 9.03 0.18
  Nigeria 100.22 0.26 0.50 0.10
  Kuwait 98.95 0.26 23.29 0.47
  Uzbekistan 94.99 0.25 2.90 0.40
  Oman 92.78 0.24 18.55 0.67
  Turkmenistan 90.52 0.24 15.23 0.98
  Chile 89.89 0.24 4.90 0.20
  Colombia 86.55 0.23 1.74 0.12
  Romania 78.63 0.21 4.04 0.14
  Morocco 73.91 0.19 2.02 0.27
  Austria 72.36 0.19 8.25 0.14
  Serbia and Montenegro 70.69 0.19 7.55 0.44
  Israel and   Palestine 68.33 0.18 7.96 0.18
  Belarus 66.34 0.17 7.03 0.37
  Greece 65.57 0.17 5.89 0.20
  Peru 56.29 0.15 1.71 0.13
  Singapore 53.37 0.14 9.09 0.10
  Hungary 53.18 0.14 5.51 0.17
  Libya 52.05 0.14 7.92 0.51
  Portugal 48.47 0.13 4.73 0.14
  Myanmar 48.31 0.13 0.89 0.17
  Norway 47.99 0.13 8.89 0.14
  Sweden 44.75 0.12 4.45 0.08
  Hong Kong 44.02 0.12 5.88 0.10
  Finland 43.41 0.11 7.81 0.16
  Bulgaria 43.31 0.11 6.20 0.27
  North Korea 42.17 0.11 1.64 0.36
  Ecuador 40.70 0.11 2.38 0.21
  Switzerland and   Liechtenstein 39.37 0.10 4.57 0.07
  New Zealand 38.67 0.10 8.07 0.18
  Ireland 36.55 0.10 7.54 0.09
  Slovakia 35.99 0.09 6.60 0.20
  Azerbaijan 35.98 0.09 3.59 0.25
  Mongolia 35.93 0.09 11.35 0.91
  Bahrain 35.44 0.09 21.64 0.48
  Bosnia and Herzegovina 33.50 0.09 9.57 0.68
  Trinidad and Tobago 32.74 0.09 23.81 0.90
  Tunisia 32.07 0.08 2.72 0.25
  Denmark 31.12 0.08 5.39 0.09
  Cuba 31.04 0.08 2.70 0.11
  Syria 29.16 0.08 1.58 1.20
  Jordan 28.34 0.07 2.81 0.28
  Sri Lanka 27.57 0.07 1.31 0.10
  Lebanon 27.44 0.07 4.52 0.27
  Dominican Republic 27.28 0.07 2.48 0.14
  Angola 25.82 0.07 0.81 0.12
  Bolivia 24.51 0.06 2.15 0.24
  Sudan and   South Sudan 22.57 0.06 0.40 0.13
  Guatemala 21.20 0.06 1.21 0.15
  Kenya 19.81 0.05 0.38 0.09
  Croatia 19.12 0.05 4.62 0.16
  Estonia 18.50 0.05 14.19 0.38
  Ethiopia 18.25 0.05 0.17 0.07
  Ghana 16.84 0.04 0.56 0.10
  Cambodia 16.49 0.04 1.00 0.23
  New Caledonia 15.66 0.04 55.25 1.67
  Slovenia 15.37 0.04 7.38 0.19
    Nepal 15.02 0.04 0.50 0.15
  Lithuania 13.77 0.04 4.81 0.13
  Côte d’Ivoire 13.56 0.04 0.53 0.10
  Georgia 13.47 0.04 3.45 0.24
  Tanzania 13.34 0.04 0.22 0.09
  Kyrgyzstan 11.92 0.03 1.92 0.35
  Panama 11.63 0.03 2.75 0.09
  Afghanistan 11.00 0.03 0.30 0.13
  Yemen 10.89 0.03 0.37 0.17
  Zimbabwe 10.86 0.03 0.63 0.26
  Honduras 10.36 0.03 1.08 0.19
  Cameroon 10.10 0.03 0.40 0.11
  Senegal 9.81 0.03 0.59 0.18
  Luxembourg 9.74 0.03 16.31 0.14
  Mozambique 9.26 0.02 0.29 0.24
  Moldova 9.23 0.02 2.29 0.27
  Costa Rica 8.98 0.02 1.80 0.09
  North Macedonia 8.92 0.02 4.28 0.26
  Tajikistan 8.92 0.02 0.96 0.28
  Paraguay 8.47 0.02 1.21 0.09
  Latvia 8.38 0.02 4.38 0.14
  Benin 8.15 0.02 0.69 0.21
  Mauritania 7.66 0.02 1.64 0.33
  Zambia 7.50 0.02 0.41 0.12
  Jamaica 7.44 0.02 2.56 0.26
  Cyprus 7.41 0.02 6.19 0.21
  El Salvador 7.15 0.02 1.11 0.13
  Botswana 7.04 0.02 2.96 0.17
  Brunei 7.02 0.02 15.98 0.26
  Laos 6.78 0.02 0.96 0.12
  Uruguay 6.56 0.02 1.89 0.09
  Armenia 5.92 0.02 2.02 0.15
  Curaçao 5.91 0.02 36.38 1.51
  Nicaragua 5.86 0.02 0.92 0.17
  Congo 5.80 0.02 1.05 0.33
  Albania 5.66 0.01 1.93 0.14
  Uganda 5.34 0.01 0.12 0.06
  Namibia 4.40 0.01 1.67 0.18
  Mauritius 4.33 0.01 3.41 0.15
  Madagascar 4.20 0.01 0.16 0.09
  Papua New Guinea 4.07 0.01 0.47 0.11
  Iceland 3.93 0.01 11.53 0.19
  Puerto Rico 3.91 0.01 1.07 0.04
  Barbados 3.83 0.01 13.34 0.85
  Burkina Faso 3.64 0.01 0.18 0.08
  Haiti 3.58 0.01 0.32 0.18
  Gabon 3.48 0.01 1.65 0.11
  Equatorial Guinea 3.47 0.01 2.55 0.14
  Réunion 3.02 0.01 3.40 -
  Democratic Republic of the Congo 2.98 0.01 0.03 0.03
  Guinea 2.92 0.01 0.22 0.09
  Togo 2.85 0.01 0.35 0.22
  Bahamas 2.45 0.01 6.08 0.18
  Niger 2.36 0.01 0.10 0.08
  Bhutan 2.12 0.01 2.57 0.24
  Suriname 2.06 0.01 3.59 0.22
  Martinique 1.95 0.01 5.07 -
  Guadeloupe 1.87 0.00 4.17 -
  Malawi 1.62 0.00 0.08 0.08
  Guyana 1.52 0.00 1.94 0.20
  Sierra Leone 1.40 0.00 0.18 0.10
  Fiji 1.36 0.00 1.48 0.11
  Palau 1.33 0.00 59.88 4.09
  Macao 1.27 0.00 1.98 0.02
  Liberia 1.21 0.00 0.24 0.17
  Rwanda 1.15 0.00 0.09 0.04
  Eswatini 1.14 0.00 0.81 0.11
  Djibouti 1.05 0.00 1.06 0.20
  Seychelles 1.05 0.00 10.98 0.37
  Malta 1.04 0.00 2.41 0.05
  Mali 1.03 0.00 0.05 0.02
  Cabo Verde 1.02 0.00 1.83 0.26
  Somalia 0.97 0.00 0.06 0.57
  Maldives 0.91 0.00 2.02 0.09
  Chad 0.89 0.00 0.06 0.04
  Aruba 0.78 0.00 7.39 0.19
  Eritrea 0.75 0.00 0.14 0.08
  Lesotho 0.75 0.00 0.33 0.13
  Gibraltar 0.69 0.00 19.88 0.45
  French Guiana 0.61 0.00 2.06 -
  French Polynesia 0.60 0.00 2.08 0.10
  The Gambia 0.59 0.00 0.27 0.11
  Greenland 0.54 0.00 9.47 0.19
  Antigua and Barbuda 0.51 0.00 4.90 0.24
  Central African Republic 0.49 0.00 0.10 0.11
  Guinea-Bissau 0.44 0.00 0.22 0.11
  Cayman Islands 0.40 0.00 6.38 0.09
  Timor-Leste 0.38 0.00 0.28 0.10
  Belize 0.37 0.00 0.95 0.14
  Bermuda 0.35 0.00 5.75 0.14
  Burundi 0.34 0.00 0.03 0.04
  Saint Lucia 0.30 0.00 1.65 0.11
  Western Sahara 0.30 0.00 0.51 -
  Grenada 0.23 0.00 2.10 0.12
  Comoros 0.21 0.00 0.25 0.08
  Saint Kitts and Nevis 0.19 0.00 3.44 0.14
  São Tomé and Príncipe 0.16 0.00 0.75 0.19
  Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 0.15 0.00 1.32 0.11
  Samoa 0.14 0.00 0.70 0.11
  Solomon Islands 0.14 0.00 0.22 0.09
  Tonga 0.13 0.00 1.16 0.20
  Turks and Caicos Islands 0.13 0.00 3.70 0.13
  British Virgin Islands 0.12 0.00 3.77 0.17
  Dominica 0.10 0.00 1.38 0.12
  Vanuatu 0.09 0.00 0.30 0.09
  Saint Pierre and Miquelon 0.06 0.00 9.72 -
  Cook Islands 0.04 0.00 2.51 -
  Falkland Islands 0.03 0.00 10.87 -
  Kiribati 0.03 0.00 0.28 0.13
  Anguilla 0.02 0.00 1.54 0.12
  Saint Helena,   Ascension and   Tristan da Cunha 0.02 0.00 3.87 -
Faroes 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00
The C-Story of Human Civilization by PIK

United States

This section is an excerpt from Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States.[edit]
 
Transportation in the United States is the largest source of greenhouse gas[182]
 
The U.S. has among the highest per person emissions, of the countries that emit the most greenhouse gases.[183]

US greenhouse gas emissions by economic sector[184]

  Transportation (28.6%)
  Electricity generation (25.1%)
  Industry (22.9%)
  Agriculture (10.2%)
  Commercial (6.9%)
  Residential (5.8%)
  U.S. territories (0.4%)
The United States produced 5.2 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in 2020,[185] the second largest in the world after greenhouse gas emissions by China and among the countries with the highest greenhouse gas emissions per person. In 2019 China is estimated to have emitted 27% of world GHG, followed by the United States with 11%, then India with 6.6%.[186] In total the United States has emitted a quarter of world GHG, more than any other country.[187][188][189] Annual emissions are over 15 tons per person and, amongst the top eight emitters, is the highest country by greenhouse gas emissions per person.[190] Because coal-fired power stations are gradually shutting down, in the 2010s emissions from electricity generation fell to second place behind transportation which is now the largest single source.[191] In 2020, 27% of the GHG emissions of the United States were from transportation, 25% from electricity, 24% from industry, 13% from commercial and residential buildings and 11% from agriculture.[192] These greenhouse gas emissions are contributing to climate change in the United States, as well as worldwide.

China

This section is an excerpt from Greenhouse gas emissions by China.[edit]
 
China has the most total annual emissions (area of rectangle) of any nation, and has higher than average per capita emissions.[193]
 
Cumulatively over time, emissions from China have caused more economic damage globally than any other nation except the U.S.[194]

Greenhouse gas emissions by China are the largest of any country in the world both in production and consumption terms, and stem mainly from coal burning in China, including coal-fired power stations, coal mining,[195] and blast furnaces producing iron and steel.[196] When measuring production-based emissions, China emitted over 14 gigatonnes (Gt) CO2eq of greenhouse gases in 2019,[197] 27% of the world total.[198][199] When measuring in consumption-based terms, which adds emissions associated with imported goods and extracts those associated with exported goods, China accounts for 13 gigatonnes (Gt) or 25% of global emissions.[200]

Despite having the largest emissions in the world, China's large population means its per person emissions have remained considerably lower than those in the developed world.[200] This corresponds to over 10.1 tonnes CO2eq emitted per person each year, slightly over the world average and the EU average but significantly lower than the second largest emitter of greenhouse gases, the United States, with its 17.6 tonnes per person.[200] Accounting for historic emissions, OECD countries produced four times more CO2 in cumulative emissions than China, due to developed countries' early start in industrialization.[198][200]

The targets laid out in China's Nationally Determined Contribution in 2016 will likely be met, but are not enough to properly combat global warming.[201] China has committed to peak emissions by 2030 and net zero by 2060.[202] In order to limit warming to 1.5 degrees C coal plants in China without carbon capture must be phased out by 2045.[203] China continues to build coal-fired power stations in 2020 and promised to "phase down" coal use from 2026.[204]

India

This section is an excerpt from Climate change in India § Greenhouse gas emissions.[edit]

Greenhouse gas emissions by India are the third largest in the world and the main source is coal.[205] India emitted 2.8 Gt of CO2eq in 2016 (2.5 including LULUCF).[206][207] 79% were CO2, 14% methane and 5% nitrous oxide.[207] India emits about 3 gigatonnes (Gt) CO2eq of greenhouse gases each year; about two tons per person,[208] which is half the world average.[209] The country emits 7% of global emissions.[210]

As of 2019 these figures are quite uncertain, but a comprehensive greenhouse gas inventory is within reach.[211] Cutting greenhouse gas emissions, and therefore air pollution in India, would have health benefits worth 4 to 5 times the cost, which would be the most cost-effective in the world.[212]

The Paris Agreement commitments included a reduction of this intensity by 33–35% by 2030.[213] India's annual emissions per person are less than the global average,[214] and the UNEP forecasts that by 2030 they will be between 3 and 4 tonnes.[210]

In 2019 China is estimated to have emitted 27% of world GhG, followed by the US with 11%, then India with 6.6%.[215]

Reducing greenhouse gas emissions

This section is an excerpt from Climate change mitigation.[edit]

Climate change mitigation is action to limit climate change by reducing emissions of greenhouse gases or removing those gases from the atmosphere.[216]: 2239  The recent rise in global average temperature is mostly caused by emissions from fossil fuels burning (coal, oil, and natural gas). Mitigation can reduce emissions by transitioning to sustainable energy sources, conserving energy, and increasing efficiency. In addition, CO2 can be removed from the atmosphere by enlarging forests, restoring wetlands and using other natural and technical processes, which are grouped together under the term of carbon sequestration.[217]: 12 [218]

Solar energy and wind power have the highest climate change mitigation potential at lowest cost compared to a range of other options.[219] Variable availability of sunshine and wind is addressed by energy storage and improved electrical grids, including long-distance electricity transmission, demand management and diversification of renewables. As low-carbon power is more widely available, transportation and heating can increasingly rely on these sources.[220]: 1  Energy efficiency is improved using heat pumps and electric vehicles. If industrial processes must create carbon dioxide, carbon capture and storage can reduce net emissions.[221]

Fiscal decentralisation and carbon reductions

As carbon oxides are one important source of greenhouse gas, having means to reduce it is important. One suggestion, is to consider some means in relation to fiscal decentralisation. Previous research found that the linear term of fiscal decentralization promotes carbon emissions, while the non-linear term mitigates it.[clarification needed] It verified the inverted U-shaped curve between fiscal decentralization and carbon emissions.[example needed] Besides, increasing energy prices for non-renewable energy decrease carbon emission due to a substitution effect. Among other explanatory variables, improvement in the quality of institutions decreases carbon emissions, while the gross domestic product increases it. Strengthening fiscal decentralization, lowering non-renewable energy prices,[clarification needed] and improving institutional quality to check the deteriorating environmental quality in the study sample and other worldwide regions can reduce carbon emissions.[222]

Effect of policy

See also: Energy policy

Governments have taken action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to mitigate climate change. Assessments of policy effectiveness have included work by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, International Energy Agency,[223][224] and United Nations Environment Programme.[225] Policies implemented by governments have included[226][227][228] national and regional targets to reduce emissions, promoting energy efficiency, and support for a renewable energy transition, such as Solar energy, as an effective use of renewable energy because solar uses energy from the sun and does not release pollutants into the air.

Countries and regions listed in Annex I of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (i.e., the OECD and former planned economies of the Soviet Union) are required to submit periodic assessments to the UNFCCC of actions they are taking to address climate change.[228]: 3 

Projections

See also: Carbon budget
This section is an excerpt from Climate change scenario.[edit]
 
Global CO2 emissions and probabilistic temperature outcomes of different policies

Climate change scenarios or socioeconomic scenarios are projections of future greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions used by analysts to assess future vulnerability to climate change.[229] Scenarios and pathways are created by scientists[230] to survey any long term routes and explore the effectiveness of mitigation and helps us understand what the future may hold this will allow us to envision the future of human environment system.[230] Producing scenarios requires estimates of future population levels, economic activity, the structure of governance, social values, and patterns of technological change. Economic and energy modelling (such as the World3 or the POLES models) can be used to analyze and quantify the effects of such drivers.

Scientists can develop separate international, regional and national climate change scenarios. These scenarios are designed to help stakeholders understand what kinds of decisions will have meaningful effects on climate change mitigation or adaptation. Most countries developing adaptation plans or Nationally Determined Contributions will commission scenario studies in order to better understand the decisions available to them.

International goals for mitigating climate change through international processes like the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the Paris Agreement and Sustainable Development Goal 13 ("Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts") are based on reviews of these scenarios. For example, the Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C was released in 2018 order to reflect more up-to-date models of emissions, Nationally Determined Contributions, and impacts of climate change than its predecessor IPCC Fifth Assessment Report published in 2014 before the Paris Agreement.[231]

Impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic

Main article: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the environment § Climate change

In 2020, carbon dioxide emissions fell by 6.4% or 2.3 billion tonnes globally.[232] In April 2020, NOx emissions fell by up to 30%.[233] In China, lockdowns and other measures resulted in a 26% decrease in coal consumption, and a 50% reduction in nitrogen oxide emissions.[234] Greenhouse gas emissions rebounded later in the pandemic as many countries began lifting restrictions, with the direct impact of pandemic policies having a negligible long-term impact on climate change.[232][235] However, decreased human activity during the pandemic diverted attention from ongoing activities such as accelerated deforestation of the Amazon rainforest.[236][237] The hindrance of environmental policy efforts, combined with economic slowdown may have contributed to slowed investment in green energy technologies.[238][239]

See also

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January 24, 2023
greenhouse, emissions, this, article, about, emissions, greenhouse, gases, into, atmosphere, carbon, dioxide, emissions, once, they, atmosphere, carbon, dioxide, earth, atmosphere, effect, greenhouse, gases, once, atmosphere, greenhouse, effect, characteristic. This article is about emissions of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere For carbon dioxide emissions once they are in the atmosphere see Carbon dioxide in Earth s atmosphere For the effect of greenhouse gases once in the atmosphere see Greenhouse effect For characteristics of greenhouse gases themselves see Greenhouse gas Greenhouse gas emissions from human activities strengthen the greenhouse effect contributing to climate change Most is carbon dioxide from burning fossil fuels coal oil and natural gas The largest emitters include coal in China and large oil and gas companies Human caused emissions have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide by about 50 over pre industrial levels The growing levels of emissions have varied but have been consistent among all greenhouse gases GHGs Emissions in the 2010s averaged 56 billion tons a year higher than any decade before 4 Each year about 6 7 million people die from polluted air quality 5 2020 Worldwide CO2 emissions by region per capita variwide diagram Annual greenhouse gas emissions per person height of vertical bars and per country area inside vertical bars 1 In the highest emitting countries emission trends in recent decades sometimes diverge from longer term historical trends 2 3 Electricity generation and transport are major emitters the largest single source according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency is transportation accounting for 27 of all USA greenhouse gas emissions 6 Deforestation and other changes in land use also emit carbon dioxide and methane The largest source of anthropogenic methane emissions is agriculture closely followed by gas venting and fugitive emissions from the fossil fuel industry The largest agricultural methane source is livestock Agricultural soils emit nitrous oxide partly due to fertilizers Similarly fluorinated gases from refrigerants play an outsized role in total human emissions At current emission rates averaging six and a half tonnes per person per year before 2030 temperatures may have increased by an average of 1 5 C 2 7 F over pre industrial levels which is the limit for the G7 countries and aspirational limit of the Paris Agreement 7 Contents 1 Measurements and calculations 2 Overview of main sources 2 1 Inventories and maps 3 Emissions by type of energy source 3 1 Relative CO2 emission from various fuels 4 Emissions by type of greenhouse gas 4 1 Carbon dioxide CO2 4 2 Methane CH4 4 3 Nitrous oxide N2 O 4 4 F Gases 4 5 Black carbon 5 Emissions by sector 5 1 Electricity generation 5 2 Agriculture forestry and land use 5 2 1 Agriculture 5 2 1 1 Deforestation 5 2 1 2 Land use change 5 3 Transport 5 3 1 Aviation 5 3 2 Trucking and haulage 5 4 Buildings and construction 5 5 Industrial processes 5 5 1 Steel and aluminum 5 5 2 Plastics 5 5 3 Pulp and paper 5 6 Various services 5 6 1 Digital services 5 6 2 Health care 5 6 3 Water supply and sanitation 5 6 4 Tourism 6 Emissions by other characteristics 6 1 Generational 6 2 By socio economic class 7 Regional and national attribution of emissions 7 1 Greenhouse gas intensity 7 2 Cumulative and historical emissions 7 3 Changes since a particular base year 7 4 Embedded emissions 8 Historical trends 9 By country 9 1 Annual emissions 9 2 Top emitter countries 9 3 United States 9 4 China 9 5 India 10 Reducing greenhouse gas emissions 10 1 Fiscal decentralisation and carbon reductions 10 2 Effect of policy 10 3 Projections 10 4 Impacts of the COVID 19 pandemic 11 See also 12 References 13 External linksMeasurements and calculations Edit Annual CO2 emissions total by country not per capita 2017 data Data from 1 2 3 Global GHG Emissions by gas Global greenhouse gas emissions are about 50 Gt per year 8 6 6t per person 9 and for 2019 have been estimated at 57 Gt CO2 eq including 5 Gt due to land use change 10 In 2019 approximately 34 20 GtCO2 eq of total net anthropogenic GHG emissions came from the energy supply sector 24 14 GtCO2 eq from industry 22 13 GtCO2 eq from agriculture forestry and other land use AFOLU 15 8 7 GtCO2 eq from transport and 6 3 3 GtCO2 eq from buildings 11 Carbon dioxide CO2 nitrous oxide N2 O methane three groups of fluorinated gases sulfur hexafluoride SF6 hydrofluorocarbons HFCs and perfluorocarbons PFCs are the major anthropogenic greenhouse gases and are regulated under the Paris Agreement 12 147 13 Although CFCs are greenhouse gases they are regulated by the Montreal Protocol which was motivated by CFCs contribution to ozone depletion rather than by their contribution to global warming Note that ozone depletion has only a minor role in greenhouse warming though the two processes are sometimes confused in the media In 2016 negotiators from over 170 nations meeting at the summit of the United Nations Environment Programme reached a legally binding accord to phase out hydrofluorocarbons HFCs in the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol 14 15 16 There are several ways of measuring greenhouse gas emissions Some variables that have been reported include 17 Definition of measurement boundaries Emissions can be attributed geographically to the area where they were emitted the territory principle or by the activity principle to the territory that produced the emissions These two principles result in different totals when measuring for example electricity importation from one country to another or emissions at an international airport Time horizon of different gases The contribution of given greenhouse gas is reported as a CO2 equivalent The calculation to determine this takes into account how long that gas remains in the atmosphere This is not always known accurately clarification needed and calculations must be regularly updated to reflect new information The measurement protocol itself This may be via direct measurement or estimation The four main methods are the emission factor based method mass balance method predictive emissions monitoring systems and continuous emissions monitoring systems These methods differ in accuracy cost and usability Public information from space based measurements of carbon dioxide by Climate Trace is expected to reveal individual large plants before the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference 18 These measures are sometimes used by countries to assert various policy ethical positions on climate change 19 94 The use of different measures leads to a lack of comparability which is problematic when monitoring progress towards targets There are arguments for the adoption of a common measurement tool or at least the development of communication between different tools 17 Emissions may be tracked over long time periods known as historical or cumulative emissions measurements Cumulative emissions provide some indicators of what is responsible for greenhouse gas atmospheric concentration build up 20 199 The national accounts balance tracks emissions based on the difference between a country s exports and imports For many richer nations the balance is negative because more goods are imported than they are exported This result is mostly due to the fact that it is cheaper to produce goods outside of developed countries leading developed countries to become increasingly dependent on services and not goods A positive account balance would mean that more production was occurring within a country so more operational factories would increase carbon emission levels 21 Emissions may also be measured across shorter time periods Emissions changes may for example be measured against the base year of 1990 1990 was used in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UNFCCC as the base year for emissions and is also used in the Kyoto Protocol some gases are also measured from the year 1995 12 146 149 A country s emissions may also be reported as a proportion of global emissions for a particular year Another measurement is of per capita emissions This divides a country s total annual emissions by its mid year population 22 370 Per capita emissions may be based on historical or annual emissions 19 106 107 While cities are sometimes considered to be disproportionate contributors to emissions per capita emissions tend to be lower for cities than the averages in their countries 23 At current emission rates before 2030 temperatures may have increased by 1 5 C 2 7 F over pre industrial levels 24 25 which is the limit for the G7 countries 26 and aspirational limit of the Paris Agreement 27 Overview of main sources EditSee also Effects of climate change on ecosystems Modern global CO2 emissions from the burning of fossil fuels Potential CO2 emissions from large fossil fuel projects carbon bombs per country Since about 1750 human activity has increased the concentration of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases As of 2021 measured atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide were almost 50 higher than pre industrial levels 28 Natural sources of carbon dioxide are more than 20 times greater than sources due to human activity 29 but over periods longer than a few years natural sources are closely balanced by natural sinks mainly photosynthesis of carbon compounds by plants and marine plankton Absorption of terrestrial infrared radiation by longwave absorbing gases makes Earth a less efficient emitter Therefore in order for Earth to emit as much energy as is absorbed global temperatures must increase Burning fossil fuels is estimated to have emitted 62 of 2015 human GhG 30 The largest single source is coal fired power stations with 20 of GHG as of 2021 31 The main sources of greenhouse gases due to human activity are burning of fossil fuels and deforestation leading to higher carbon dioxide concentrations in the air land use change mainly deforestation in the tropics accounts for about a quarter of total anthropogenic GHG emissions 32 livestock enteric fermentation and manure management 33 paddy rice farming land use and wetland changes man made lakes 34 pipeline losses and covered vented landfill emissions leading to higher methane atmospheric concentrations Many of the newer style fully vented septic systems that enhance and target the fermentation process also are sources of atmospheric methane use of chlorofluorocarbons CFCs in refrigeration systems and use of CFCs and halons in fire suppression systems and manufacturing processes agricultural activities including the use of fertilizers that lead to higher nitrous oxide N2 O concentrations The major sources of Greenhouse gases GHG are Land Use CO2 emissions Forestry CO2 LULUCF Nitrous Acid N2O Fluorinated gases F gases Compromising hydrofluorocarbons HFCs Perfluorocarbons PFCs sulphur hexafluoride SF6 nitrogen trifluoride NF3 35 The seven sources of CO2 from fossil fuel combustion are with percentage contributions for 2000 2004 36 This list needs updating as it uses an out of date source See the 2019 IPCC report for newer data needs update Liquid fuels e g gasoline fuel oil 36 Solid fuels e g coal 35 Gaseous fuels e g natural gas 20 Cement production 3 Flaring gas industrially and at wells 1 Non fuel hydrocarbons 1 International bunker fuels of transport not included in national inventories 4 The largest source of anthropogenic methane emissions is agriculture closely followed by gas venting and fugitive emissions from the fossil fuel industry 37 38 The largest agricultural methane source is livestock Cattle raised for both beef and milk as well as for inedible outputs like manure and draft power are the animal species responsible for the most emissions representing about 65 of the livestock sector s emissions 39 Agricultural soils emit nitrous oxide partly due to fertilizers 40 N2O F gases HFCs PFCs SF6 A 2017 survey of corporations responsible for global emissions found that 100 companies were responsible for 71 of global direct and indirect emissions and that state owned companies were responsible for 59 of their emissions 41 42 Inventories and maps Edit This section is an excerpt from Climate TRACE edit Climate TRACE Tracking Real Time Atmospheric Carbon Emissions 43 is an independent group which monitors and publishes greenhouse gas emissions within weeks 44 It launched in 2021 before COP26 45 and improves monitoring reporting and verification MRV of both carbon dioxide and methane 46 47 The group monitors sources such as coal mines and power station smokestacks worldwide 48 with satellite data but not their own satellites and artificial intelligence 49 50 Time magazine named it as one of the hundred best inventions of 2020 51 Their emissions map is the largest global inventory and interactive map of greenhouse gas emission sources 52 53 Emissions by type of energy source EditThis section is an excerpt from Life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of energy sources Global warming potential of selected electricity sources edit Life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of electricity supply technologies median values calculated by IPCC 54 Life cycle CO2 equivalent including albedo effect from selected electricity supply technologies according to IPCC 2014 54 55 Arranged by decreasing median gCO2eq kWh values Technology Min Median Max Currently commercially available technologiesCoal PC 740 820 910Gas combined cycle 410 490 650Biomass Dedicated 130 230 420Solar PV Utility scale 18 48 180Solar PV rooftop 26 41 60Geothermal 6 0 38 79Concentrated solar power 8 8 27 63Hydropower 1 0 24 22001Wind Offshore 8 0 12 35Nuclear 3 7 12 110Wind Onshore 7 0 11 56Pre commercial technologiesOcean Tidal and wave 5 6 17 281 see also environmental impact of reservoirs Greenhouse gases Lifecycle GHG emissions in g CO2 eq per kWh UNECE 2020 56 Lifecycle CO2 emissions per kWh EU28 countries according to UNECE 2020 56 Technology gCO2eq kWhHard coal PC without CCS 1000IGCC without CCS 850SC without CCS 950PC with CCS 370IGCC with CCS 280SC with CCS 330Natural gas NGCC without CCS 430NGCC with CCS 130Hydro 660 MW 57 150360 MW 11Nuclear average 5 1CSP tower 22trough 42PV poly Si ground mounted 37poly Si roof mounted 37CdTe ground mounted 12CdTe roof mounted 15CIGS ground mounted 11CIGS roof mounted 14Wind onshore 12offshore concrete foundation 14offshore steel foundation 13List of acronyms PC pulverized coal CCS carbon capture and storage IGCC integrated gasification combined cycle SC supercritical NGCC natural gas combined cycle CSP concentrated solar power PV photovoltaic power Relative CO2 emission from various fuels Edit One liter of gasoline when used as a fuel produces 2 32 kg about 1300 liters or 1 3 cubic meters of carbon dioxide a greenhouse gas One US gallon produces 19 4 lb 1 291 5 gallons or 172 65 cubic feet 58 59 60 The mass of carbon dioxide that is released when one MJ of energy is released from fuel can be estimated to a good approximation 61 For the chemical formula of diesel we use as an approximation Cn H2n Note that diesel is a mixture of different molecules As carbon has a molar mass of 12 g mol and hydrogen atomic has a molar mass of about 1 g mol so the fraction by weight of carbon in diesel is roughly 12 14 The reaction of diesel combustion is given by 2Cn H2n 3nO2 2nCO2 2nH2 OCarbon dioxide has a molar mass of 44g mol as it consists of 2 atoms of oxygen 16 g mol and 1 atom of carbon 12 g mol So 12 g of carbon yield 44 g of Carbon dioxide Diesel has an energy content of 42 6 MJ per kg or 23 47 gram of Diesel contain 1 MJ of energy Putting everything together the mass of carbon dioxide that is produced by releasing 1MJ of energy from diesel fuel can be calculated as 23 47 g Diesel M J 12 14 44 12 74 g carbon dioxide M J displaystyle 23 47 mathrm g text Diesel mathrm MJ cdot frac 12 14 cdot frac 44 12 74 mathrm g text carbon dioxide mathrm MJ For gasoline with 22 g MJ and a ratio of carbon to hydrogen atoms of about 6 to 14 the estimated value of carbon emission for 1MJ of energy is 22 g gasoline M J 6 12 6 12 14 1 44 12 67 5 g carbon dioxide M J displaystyle 22 mathrm g text gasoline mathrm MJ cdot frac 6 cdot 12 6 cdot 12 14 cdot 1 cdot frac 44 12 67 5 mathrm g text carbon dioxide mathrm MJ Mass of carbon dioxide emitted per quantity of energy for various fuels 62 Fuel name CO2 emitted lbs 106 Btu CO2 emitted g MJ CO2 emitted g kWh Hydrogen gas 0 0 0 0 0Natural gas 117 50 30 181 08Liquefied petroleum gas 139 59 76 215 14Propane 139 59 76 215 14Aviation gasoline 153 65 78 236 81Automobile gasoline 156 67 07 241 45Kerosene 159 68 36 246 10Fuel oil 161 69 22 249 19Tires tire derived fuel 189 81 26 292 54Wood and wood waste 195 83 83 301 79Coal bituminous 205 88 13 317 27Coal sub bituminous 213 91 57 329 65Coal lignite 215 92 43 332 75Petroleum coke 225 96 73 348 23Tar sand bitumen citation needed citation needed citation needed Coal anthracite 227 97 59 351 32Emissions by type of greenhouse gas EditSee also List of greenhouse gasesGHG emissions 2019 by gas typewithout land use changeusing 100 year GWPTotal 51 8 GtCO2e 63 4 CO2 mostly by fossil fuel 72 CH4 methane 19 N2 O nitrous oxide 6 Fluorinated gases 3 CO2 emissions by fuel type 64 coal 39 oil 34 gas 21 cement 4 others 1 5 Carbon dioxide CO2 is the dominant emitted greenhouse gas while methane CH4 emissions almost have the same short term impact 65 Nitrous oxide N2O and fluorinated gases F Gases play a minor role GHG emissions are measured in CO2 equivalents determined by their global warming potential GWP which depends on their lifetime in the atmosphere Estimations largely depend on the ability of oceans and land sinks to absorb these gases Short lived climate pollutants SLCPs including methane hydrofluorocarbons HFCs tropospheric ozone and black carbon persist in the atmosphere for a period ranging from days to 15 years whereas carbon dioxide can remain in the atmosphere for millennia 66 Reducing SLCP emissions can cut the ongoing rate of global warming by almost half and reduce the projected Arctic warming by two thirds 67 GHG emissions in 2019 were estimated at 57 4 GtCO2e while CO2 emissions alone made up 42 5 Gt including land use change LUC 68 While mitigation measures for decarbonization are essential on the longer term they could result in weak near term warming because sources of carbon emissions often also co emit air pollution Hence pairing measures that target carbon dioxide with measures targeting non CO2 pollutants short lived climate pollutants which have faster effects on the climate is essential for climate goals 69 Carbon dioxide CO2 Edit Fossil fuel oil gas and coal 89 are the major driver of anthropogenic global warming with annual emissions of 35 6 GtCO2 in 2019 63 20 Cement production 4 is estimated at 1 42 GtCO2 Land use change LUC is the imbalance of deforestation and reforestation Estimations are very uncertain at 4 5 GtCO2 Wildfires alone cause annual emissions of about 7 GtCO2 70 71 Non energy use of fuels carbon losses in coke ovens and flaring in crude oil production 63 Methane CH4 Edit Historical and future temperature projections showing importance of mitigating short lived climate pollutants like methane Methane has a high immediate impact with a 5 year global warming potential of up to 100 65 Given this the current 389 Mt of methane emissions 63 6 has about the same short term global warming effect as CO2 emissions with a risk to trigger irreversible changes in climate and ecosystems For methane a reduction of about 30 below current emission levels would lead to a stabilization in its atmospheric concentration Fossil fuels 32 again account for most of the methane emissions including coal mining 12 of methane total gas distribution and leakages 11 as well as gas venting in oil production 9 63 6 63 12 Livestock 28 with cattle 21 as the dominant source followed by buffalo 3 sheep 2 and goats 1 5 63 6 23 Human waste and wastewater 21 When biomass waste in landfills and organic substances in domestic and industrial wastewater is decomposed by bacteria in anaerobic conditions substantial amounts of methane are generated 63 12 Rice cultivation 10 on flooded rice fields is another agricultural source where anaerobic decomposition of organic material produces methane 63 12 Nitrous oxide N2 O Edit N2O has a high GWP and significant Ozone Depleting Potential It is estimated that the global warming potential of N2O over 100 years is 265 times greater than CO2 72 For N2O a reduction of more than 50 would be required for a stabilization Most emissions 56 by agriculture especially meat production cattle droppings on pasture fertilizers animal manure 63 12 Combustion of fossil fuels 18 and bio fuels 73 Industrial production of adipic acid and nitric acid F Gases Edit Fluorinated gases include hydrofluorocarbons HFC perfluorocarbons PFC sulfur hexafluoride SF6 and nitrogen trifluoride NF3 They are used by switchgear in the power sector semiconductor manufacture aluminium production and a large unknown source of SF6 63 38 Continued phase down of manufacture and use of HFCs under the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol will help reduce HFC emissions and concurrently improve the energy efficiency of appliances that use HFCs like air conditioners freezers and other refrigeration devices Black carbon Edit Black carbon is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels biofuel and biomass It is not a greenhouse gas but a climate forcing agent Black carbon can absorb sunlight and reduce albedo when deposited on snow and ice Indirect heating can be caused by the interaction with clouds 74 Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks 75 Emissions may be mitigated by upgrading coke ovens installing particulate filters on diesel based engines reducing routine flaring and minimizing open burning of biomass Emissions by sector EditSee also Climate change mitigation Mitigation by sector Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Economic Sector according to IPCC Fifth Assessment Report citation needed 2016 global greenhouse gas emissions by sector 76 Percentages are calculated from estimated global emissions of all Kyoto Greenhouse Gases converted to CO2 equivalent quantities GtCO2e Global greenhouse gas emissions can be attributed to different sectors of the economy This provides a picture of the varying contributions of different types of economic activity to climate change and helps in understanding the changes required to mitigate climate change Manmade greenhouse gas emissions can be divided into those that arise from the combustion of fuels to produce energy and those generated by other processes Around two thirds of greenhouse gas emissions arise from the combustion of fuels 77 Energy may be produced at the point of consumption or by a generator for consumption by others Thus emissions arising from energy production may be categorized according to where they are emitted or where the resulting energy is consumed If emissions are attributed at the point of production then electricity generators contribute about 25 of global greenhouse gas emissions 78 If these emissions are attributed to the final consumer then 24 of total emissions arise from manufacturing and construction 17 from transportation 11 from domestic consumers and 7 from commercial consumers 79 Around 4 of emissions arise from the energy consumed by the energy and fuel industry itself The remaining third of emissions arise from processes other than energy production 12 of total emissions arise from agriculture 7 from land use change and forestry 6 from industrial processes and 3 from waste 77 Electricity generation Edit See also Life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of energy sources Global greenhouse gas emissions by gas Coal fired power stations are the single largest emitter with over 20 of global GhG in 2018 80 Although much less polluting than coal plants natural gas fired power plants are also major emitters 81 taking electricity generation as a whole over 25 in 2018 82 Notably just 5 of the world s power plants account for almost three quarters of carbon emissions from electricity generation based on an inventory of more than 29 000 fossil fuel power plants across 221 countries 83 In the 2022 IPCC report it is noted that providing modern energy services universally would only increase greenhouse gas emissions by a few percent at most This slight increase means that the additional energy demand that comes from supporting decent living standards for all would be far lower than current average energy consumption 84 Agriculture forestry and land use Edit Agriculture Edit This section is an excerpt from Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture edit Agriculture contributes towards climate change through greenhouse gas emissions and by the conversion of non agricultural land such as forests into agricultural land 85 86 In 2019 the IPCC reported that 13 21 of anthropogenic greenhouse gasses came specifically from the Agriculture Forestry and Other Land Uses Sector AFOLU 87 Emissions from agriculture of nitrous oxide methane and carbon dioxide make up to half of the greenhouse gases produced by the overall food industry or 80 of agricultural emissions 88 Animal husbandry is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions 89 The agricultural food system is responsible for a significant amount of greenhouse gas emissions 90 88 In addition to being a significant user of land and consumer of fossil fuel agriculture contributes directly to greenhouse gas emissions through practices such as rice production and the raising of livestock 91 The three main causes of the increase in greenhouse gases observed over the past 250 years have been fossil fuels land use and agriculture 92 Farm animal digestive systems can be put into two categories monogastric and ruminant Ruminant cattle for beef and dairy rank high in greenhouse gas emissions monogastric or pigs and poultry related foods are low The consumption of the monogastric types may yield less emissions Monogastric animals have a higher feed conversion efficiency and also do not produce as much methane 88 Furthermore CO2 is actually re emitted into the atmosphere by plant and soil respiration in the later stages of crop growth causing more greenhouse gas emissions 93 There are many strategies that can be used to help soften the effects and the further production of greenhouse gas emissions this is also referred to as climate smart agriculture Some of these strategies include a higher efficiency in livestock farming which includes management as well as technology a more effective process of managing manure a lower dependence upon fossil fuels and nonrenewable resources a variation in the animals eating and drinking duration time and location and a cutback in both the production and consumption of animal sourced foods 88 94 95 96 A range of policies may reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the agriculture sector for a more sustainable food system 97 98 Deforestation Edit Mean annual carbon loss from tropical deforestation 99 Further information Deforestation Atmospheric and Deforestation and climate change Deforestation is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions A study shows annual carbon emissions or carbon loss from tropical deforestation have doubled during the last two decades and continue to increase 0 97 0 16 PgC per year in 2001 2005 to 1 99 0 13 PgC per year in 2015 2019 100 99 Land use change Edit Main article Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture Substantial land use change contributions to emissions have been made by Latin America Southeast Asia Africa and Pacific Islands Area of rectangles shows total emissions for that region 101 Land use change e g the clearing of forests for agricultural use can affect the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere by altering how much carbon flows out of the atmosphere into carbon sinks 102 Accounting for land use change can be understood as an attempt to measure net emissions i e gross emissions from all sources minus the removal of emissions from the atmosphere by carbon sinks 19 92 93 There are substantial uncertainties in the measurement of net carbon emissions 103 Additionally there is controversy over how carbon sinks should be allocated between different regions and over time 19 93 For instance concentrating on more recent changes in carbon sinks is likely to favour those regions that have deforested earlier e g Europe In 1997 human caused Indonesian peat fires were estimated to have released between 13 and 40 of the average annual global carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels 104 105 106 Transport Edit Aviation Edit Further information Environmental effects of aviation Approximately 3 5 of the overall human impacts on climate are from the aviation sector The impact of the sector on climate in the late 20 years had doubled but the part of the contribution of the sector in comparison to other sectors did not change because other sectors grew as well 107 Trucking and haulage Edit Over a quarter of global transport CO2 emissions are from road freight 108 so many countries are further restricting truck CO2 emissions to help limit climate change 109 Buildings and construction Edit In 2018 manufacturing construction materials and maintaining buildings accounted for 39 of carbon dioxide emissions from energy and process related emissions Manufacture of glass cement and steel accounted for 11 of energy and process related emissions 110 Because building construction is a significant investment more than two thirds of buildings in existence will still exist in 2050 Retrofitting existing buildings to become more efficient will be necessary to meet the targets of the Paris Agreement it will be insufficient to only apply low emission standards to new construction 111 Buildings that produce as much energy as they consume are called zero energy buildings while buildings that produce more than they consume are energy plus Low energy buildings are designed to be highly efficient with low total energy consumption and carbon emissions a popular type is the passive house 110 The global design and construction industry is responsible for approximately 39 percent of greenhouse gas emissions 112 Green building practices that avoid emissions or capture the carbon already present in the environment allow for reduced footprint of the construction industry for example use of hempcrete cellulose fiber insulation and landscaping 113 In 2019 the building sector was responsible for 12 GtCO2 eq emissions More than 95 of these emissions were carbon and the remaining 5 were CH4 N2O and halocarbon 114 Industrial processes Edit As of 2020 update Secunda CTL is the world s largest single emitter at 56 5 million tonnes CO2 a year 115 Around 6 of emissions are fugitive emissions which are waste gases released by the extraction of fossil fuels Steel and aluminum Edit Steel and aluminum are key economic sectors for the carbon capture and storage According to a 2013 study in 2004 the steel industry along emits about 590M tons of CO2 which accounts for 5 2 of the global anthropogenic GHG emissions CO2 emitted from steel production primarily comes from energy consumption of fossil fuel as well as the use of limestone to purify iron oxides 116 Plastics Edit Plastics are produced mainly from fossil fuels It was estimated that between 3 and 4 of global GHG emissions are associated with plastics life cycles 117 The EPA estimates 118 as many as five mass units of carbon dioxide are emitted for each mass unit of polyethylene terephthalate PET produced the type of plastic most commonly used for beverage bottles 119 the transportation produce greenhouse gases also 120 Plastic waste emits carbon dioxide when it degrades In 2018 research claimed that some of the most common plastics in the environment release the greenhouse gases methane and ethylene when exposed to sunlight in an amount that can affect the earth climate 121 122 Due to the lightness of plastic versus glass or metal plastic may reduce energy consumption For example packaging beverages in PET plastic rather than glass or metal is estimated to save 52 in transportation energy if the glass or metal package is single use of course In 2019 a new report Plastic and Climate was published According to the report the production and incineration of plastics will contribute in the equivalent of 850 million tonnes of carbon dioxide CO2 to the atmosphere in 2019 With the current trend annual life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of plastics will grow to 1 34 billion tonnes by 2030 By 2050 the life cycle emissions of plastics could reach 56 billion tonnes as much as 14 percent of the Earth s remaining carbon budget 123 The report says that only solutions which involve a reduction in consumption can solve the problem while others like biodegradable plastic ocean cleanup using renewable energy in plastic industry can do little and in some cases may even worsen it 124 Pulp and paper Edit Further information Environmental effects of paper Greenhouse gas emissions The global print and paper industry accounts for about 1 of global carbon dioxide emissions 125 Greenhouse gas emissions from the pulp and paper industry are generated from the combustion of fossil fuels required for raw material production and transportation wastewater treatment facilities purchased power paper transportation printed product transportation disposal and recycling Various services Edit Digital services Edit See also Streaming media Greenhouse gas emissions Data center Greenhouse gas emissions and Cryptocurrency Environmental impact In 2020 data centers excluding cryptocurrency mining and data transmission each used about 1 of world electricity 126 The digital sector produces between 2 and 4 of global GHG emissions 127 a large part of which is from chipmaking 128 However the sector reduces emissions from other sectors which have a larger global share such as transport of people 129 and possibly buildings and industry 130 Mining for proof of work cryptocurrencies requires enormous amounts of electricity and consequently comes with a large carbon footprint 131 Proof of work blockchains such as Bitcoin Ethereum Litecoin and Monero were estimated to have added between 3 million and 15 million tonnes of carbon dioxide CO2 to the atmosphere in the period from 1 January 2016 to 30 June 2017 132 By the end of 2021 Bitcoin was estimated to produce 65 4 million tonnes of CO2 as much as Greece 133 and consume between 91 and 177 terawatt hours annually Bitcoin is the least energy efficient cryptocurrency using 707 6 kilowatt hours of electricity per transaction 134 135 136 Health care Edit The healthcare sector produces 4 4 4 6 of global greenhouse gas emissions 137 Water supply and sanitation Edit This section is an excerpt from WASH Greenhouse gas emissions edit Water and sanitation services contribute to greenhouse gas emissions These emissions are grouped into three scopes in the international greenhouse gas protocol 138 139 9 This section is an excerpt from WASH Reducing greenhouse gas emissions edit Solutions exist to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions of water and sanitation services 140 These solutions can be grouped in three categories Firstly reducing water and energy consumption through lean and efficient approaches secondly embracing circular economy to produce energy and valuable products and thirdly by planning to reduce GHG emissions through strategic decisions 139 28 Lean and efficient approaches include steps for maintenance of the networks to reduce water loss from water networks and to reduce infiltration of rainwater or groundwater to sewer networks 139 29 Also industries and households can be given incentives to reduce their water consumption and their energy requirements for water heating 139 31 When source water quality is better protected this would reduce the energy requirements for the treatment of this source water to achieve drinking water or similar standards 139 32 Tourism Edit According to UNEP global tourism is a significant contributor to the increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere 141 Emissions by other characteristics EditThe responsibility for anthropogenic climate change differs substantially among individuals e g between groups or cohorts Generational Edit Researchers report that on average the elderly played a leading role in driving up GHG emissions in the past decade and are on the way to becoming the largest contributor due to factors such as demographic transition low informed concern about climate change and high expenditures on carbon intensive products like energy which is used i a for heating rooms and private transport 142 143 They are less affected by climate change impacts 144 but have e g the same vote weights for the available electoral options By socio economic class Edit The emissions of the richest 1 of the global population account for more than twice the combined share of the poorest 50 Compliance with the 1 5 C goal of the Paris Agreement would require the richest 1 to reduce their current emissions by at least a factor of 30 while per person emissions of the poorest 50 could increase by a factor of about 3 145 Fueled by the consumptive lifestyle of wealthy people the wealthiest 5 of the global population has been responsible for 37 of the absolute increase in greenhouse gas emissions worldwide Almost half of the increase in absolute global emissions has been caused by the richest 10 of the population 146 In the newest report from the IPCC 2022 it states that the lifestyle consumptions of the poor and middle class in emerging economies produce approximately 5 50 times less the amount that the high class in already developed high income countries 147 148 Variations in regional and national per capita emissions partly reflect different development stages but they also vary widely at similar income levels The 10 of households with the highest per capita emissions contribute a disproportionately large share of global household GHG emissions 148 Studies find that the most affluent citizens of the world are responsible for most environmental impacts and robust action by them is necessary for prospects of moving towards safer environmental conditions 149 150 According to a 2020 report by Oxfam and the Stockholm Environment Institute 151 152 the richest 1 of the global population have caused twice as much carbon emissions as the poorest 50 over the 25 years from 1990 to 2015 153 154 155 This was respectively during that period 15 of cumulative emissions compared to 7 156 The bottom half of the population is directly responsible for less than 20 of energy footprints and consume less than the top 5 in terms of trade corrected energy The largest disproportionality was identified to be in the domain of transport where e g the top 10 consume 56 of vehicle fuel and conduct 70 of vehicle purchases 157 However wealthy individuals are also often shareholders and typically have more influence 158 and especially in the case of billionaires may also direct lobbying efforts direct financial decisions and or control companies Regional and national attribution of emissions EditSee also Greenhouse gas inventory Greenhouse gas intensity Edit Greenhouse gas intensity is a ratio between greenhouse gas emissions and another metric e g gross domestic product GDP or energy use The terms carbon intensity and emissions intensity are also sometimes used 159 Emission intensities may be calculated using market exchange rates MER or purchasing power parity PPP 19 96 Calculations based on MER show large differences in intensities between developed and developing countries whereas calculations based on PPP show smaller differences According to a study discussing the relationship between urbanization and carbon emissions urbanization is becoming a huge player in the global carbon cycle Depending on total carbon emissions done by a city that hasn t invested in carbon efficiency or improved resource management the global carbon cycle is projected to reach 75 of the world population by 2030 160 Cumulative and historical emissions Edit Cumulative CO2 emission by world region Cumulative per person emissions by world region in 3 time periods CO2 Emissions by source since 1880 Cumulative anthropogenic i e human emitted emissions of CO2 from fossil fuel use are a major cause of global warming 161 and give some indication of which countries have contributed most to human induced climate change In particular CO2 stays in the atmosphere for at least 150 years whilst methane and nitrous oxides generally disappear within a decade or so The graph gives some indication of which regions have contributed most to human induced climate change 162 163 15 When these numbers are calculated per capita cumulative emissions based on then current population the situation is shown even more clearly The ratio in per capita emissions between industrialized countries and developing countries was estimated at more than 10 to 1 Non OECD countries accounted for 42 of cumulative energy related CO2 emissions between 1890 and 2007 164 179 80 Over this time period the US accounted for 28 of emissions the EU 23 Japan 4 other OECD countries 5 Russia 11 China 9 India 3 and the rest of the world 18 164 179 80 Overall developed countries accounted for 83 8 of industrial CO2 emissions over this time period and 67 8 of total CO2 emissions Developing countries accounted for industrial CO2 emissions of 16 2 over this time period and 32 2 of total CO2 emissions In comparison humans have emitted more greenhouse gases than the Chicxulub meteorite impact event which caused the extinction of the dinosaurs 165 Transport together with electricity generation is the major source of greenhouse gas emissions in the EU Greenhouse gas emissions from the transportation sector continue to rise in contrast to power generation and nearly all other sectors Since 1990 transportation emissions have increased by 30 The transportation sector accounts for around 70 of these emissions The majority of these emissions are caused by passenger vehicles and vans Road travel is the first major source of greenhouse gas emissions from transportation followed by aircraft and maritime 166 6 Waterborne transportation is still the least carbon intensive mode of transportation on average and it is an essential link in sustainable multimodal freight supply chains 167 Buildings like industry are directly responsible for around one fifth of greenhouse gas emissions primarily from space heating and hot water consumption When combined with power consumption within buildings this figure climbs to more than one third 168 169 170 Within the EU the agricultural sector presently accounts for roughly 10 of total greenhouse gas emissions with methane from livestock accounting for slightly more than half of 10 171 Estimates of total CO2 emissions do include biotic carbon emissions mainly from deforestation 19 94 Including biotic emissions brings about the same controversy mentioned earlier regarding carbon sinks and land use change 19 93 94 The actual calculation of net emissions is very complex and is affected by how carbon sinks are allocated between regions and the dynamics of the climate system Fossil fuel CO2 emissions on a log natural and base 10 scale The graphic shows the logarithm of 1850 2019 fossil fuel CO2 emissions 64 natural log on left actual value of Gigatons per year on right Although emissions increased during the 170 year period by about 3 per year overall intervals of distinctly different growth rates broken at 1913 1945 and 1973 can be detected The regression lines suggest that emissions can rapidly shift from one growth regime to another and then persist for long periods of time The most recent drop in emissions growth by almost 3 percentage points was at about the time of the 1970s energy crisis Percent changes per year were estimated by piecewise linear regression on the log data and are shown on the plot the data are from The Integrated Carbon Observation system 172 Changes since a particular base year Edit See also Greenhouse gas inventory The sharp acceleration in CO2 emissions since 2000 to more than a 3 increase per year more than 2 ppm per year from 1 1 per year during the 1990s is attributable to the lapse of formerly declining trends in carbon intensity of both developing and developed nations China was responsible for most of global growth in emissions during this period Localised plummeting emissions associated with the collapse of the Soviet Union have been followed by slow emissions growth in this region due to more efficient energy use made necessary by the increasing proportion of it that is exported 36 In comparison methane has not increased appreciably and N2 O by 0 25 y 1 Using different base years for measuring emissions has an effect on estimates of national contributions to global warming 163 17 18 173 This can be calculated by dividing a country s highest contribution to global warming starting from a particular base year by that country s minimum contribution to global warming starting from a particular base year Choosing between base years of 1750 1900 1950 and 1990 has a significant effect for most countries 163 17 18 Within the G8 group of countries it is most significant for the UK France and Germany These countries have a long history of CO2 emissions see the section on Cumulative and historical emissions Embedded emissions Edit One way of attributing greenhouse gas emissions is to measure the embedded emissions also referred to as embodied emissions of goods that are being consumed Emissions are usually measured according to production rather than consumption 174 For example in the main international treaty on climate change the UNFCCC countries report on emissions produced within their borders e g the emissions produced from burning fossil fuels 164 179 175 1 Under a production based accounting of emissions embedded emissions on imported goods are attributed to the exporting rather than the importing country Under a consumption based accounting of emissions embedded emissions on imported goods are attributed to the importing country rather than the exporting country Davis and Caldeira 2010 175 4 found that a substantial proportion of CO2 emissions are traded internationally The net effect of trade was to export emissions from China and other emerging markets to consumers in the US Japan and Western Europe Historical trends EditThe Integrated Carbon Observation System ICOS continuously releases data about CO2 emissions budget and concentration at individual observation stations CO2 emissions 176 177 Year Fossil fuels and industry Gt C Land use change Gt C Total Gt C Total Gt CO22010 9 05 1 38 10 43 38 22011 9 35 1 34 10 69 39 22012 9 5 1 47 10 97 40 32013 9 54 1 52 11 06 40 62014 9 61 1 66 11 27 41 42015 9 62 1 7 11 32 41 52016 9 66 1 54 11 2 41 12017 9 77 1 47 11 24 41 32018 9 98 1 51 11 49 42 12019 projection 10 0 1 8 11 8 43 1By country EditMain article List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions Annual emissions Edit CO2 emissions vs GDP Annual per capita emissions in the industrialized countries are typically as much as ten times the average in developing countries 12 144 Due to China s fast economic development its annual per capita emissions are quickly approaching the levels of those in the Annex I group of the Kyoto Protocol i e the developed countries excluding the US 178 Other countries with fast growing emissions are South Korea Iran and Australia which apart from the oil rich Persian Gulf states now has the highest per capita emission rate in the world On the other hand annual per capita emissions of the EU 15 and the US are gradually decreasing over time 178 Emissions in Russia and Ukraine have decreased fastest since 1990 due to economic restructuring in these countries 179 Energy statistics for fast growing economies are less accurate than those for industrialized countries 178 The greenhouse gas footprint refers to the emissions resulting from the creation of products or services It is more comprehensive than the commonly used carbon footprint which measures only carbon dioxide one of many greenhouse gases citation needed 2015 was the first year to see both total global economic growth and a reduction of carbon emissions 180 Top emitter countries Edit The top 40 countries emitting all greenhouse gases showing both that derived from all sources including land clearance and forestry and also the CO2 component excluding those sources Per capita figures are included World Resources Institute data Note that Indonesia and Brazil show very much higher than on graphs simply showing fossil fuel use See also List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions and List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per personIn 2019 China the United States India the EU27 UK Russia and Japan the world s largest CO2 emitters together accounted for 51 of the population 62 5 of global gross domestic product 62 of total global fossil fuel consumption and emitted 67 of total global fossil CO2 Emissions from these five countries and the EU28 show different changes in 2019 compared to 2018 the largest relative increase is found for China 3 4 followed by India 1 6 On the contrary the EU27 UK 3 8 the United States 2 6 Japan 2 1 and Russia 0 8 reduced their fossil CO2 emissions 181 2019 Fossil CO2 emissions by country 181 Country total emissions Mton Share per capita ton per GDP ton k Global Total 38 016 57 100 00 4 93 0 29 China 11 535 20 30 34 8 12 0 51 United States 5 107 26 13 43 15 52 0 25EU27 UK 3 303 97 8 69 6 47 0 14 India 2 597 36 6 83 1 90 0 28 Russia 1 792 02 4 71 12 45 0 45 Japan 1 153 72 3 03 9 09 0 22International Shipping 730 26 1 92 Germany 702 60 1 85 8 52 0 16 Iran 701 99 1 85 8 48 0 68 South Korea 651 87 1 71 12 70 0 30International Aviation 627 48 1 65 Indonesia 625 66 1 65 2 32 0 20 Saudi Arabia 614 61 1 62 18 00 0 38 Canada 584 85 1 54 15 69 0 32 South Africa 494 86 1 30 8 52 0 68 Mexico 485 00 1 28 3 67 0 19 Brazil 478 15 1 26 2 25 0 15 Australia 433 38 1 14 17 27 0 34 Turkey 415 78 1 09 5 01 0 18 United Kingdom 364 91 0 96 5 45 0 12 Italy San Marino and the Holy See 331 56 0 87 5 60 0 13 Poland 317 65 0 84 8 35 0 25 France and Monaco 314 74 0 83 4 81 0 10 Vietnam 305 25 0 80 3 13 0 39 Kazakhstan 277 36 0 73 14 92 0 57 Taiwan 276 78 0 73 11 65 0 23 Thailand 275 06 0 72 3 97 0 21 Spain and Andorra 259 31 0 68 5 58 0 13 Egypt 255 37 0 67 2 52 0 22 Malaysia 248 83 0 65 7 67 0 27 Pakistan 223 63 0 59 1 09 0 22 United Arab Emirates 222 61 0 59 22 99 0 34 Argentina 199 41 0 52 4 42 0 20 Iraq 197 61 0 52 4 89 0 46 Ukraine 196 40 0 52 4 48 0 36 Algeria 180 57 0 47 4 23 0 37 Netherlands 156 41 0 41 9 13 0 16 Philippines 150 64 0 40 1 39 0 16 Bangladesh 110 16 0 29 0 66 0 14 Venezuela 110 06 0 29 3 36 0 39 Qatar 106 53 0 28 38 82 0 41 Czechia 105 69 0 28 9 94 0 25 Belgium 104 41 0 27 9 03 0 18 Nigeria 100 22 0 26 0 50 0 10 Kuwait 98 95 0 26 23 29 0 47 Uzbekistan 94 99 0 25 2 90 0 40 Oman 92 78 0 24 18 55 0 67 Turkmenistan 90 52 0 24 15 23 0 98 Chile 89 89 0 24 4 90 0 20 Colombia 86 55 0 23 1 74 0 12 Romania 78 63 0 21 4 04 0 14 Morocco 73 91 0 19 2 02 0 27 Austria 72 36 0 19 8 25 0 14 Serbia and Montenegro 70 69 0 19 7 55 0 44 Israel and Palestine 68 33 0 18 7 96 0 18 Belarus 66 34 0 17 7 03 0 37 Greece 65 57 0 17 5 89 0 20 Peru 56 29 0 15 1 71 0 13 Singapore 53 37 0 14 9 09 0 10 Hungary 53 18 0 14 5 51 0 17 Libya 52 05 0 14 7 92 0 51 Portugal 48 47 0 13 4 73 0 14 Myanmar 48 31 0 13 0 89 0 17 Norway 47 99 0 13 8 89 0 14 Sweden 44 75 0 12 4 45 0 08 Hong Kong 44 02 0 12 5 88 0 10 Finland 43 41 0 11 7 81 0 16 Bulgaria 43 31 0 11 6 20 0 27 North Korea 42 17 0 11 1 64 0 36 Ecuador 40 70 0 11 2 38 0 21 Switzerland and Liechtenstein 39 37 0 10 4 57 0 07 New Zealand 38 67 0 10 8 07 0 18 Ireland 36 55 0 10 7 54 0 09 Slovakia 35 99 0 09 6 60 0 20 Azerbaijan 35 98 0 09 3 59 0 25 Mongolia 35 93 0 09 11 35 0 91 Bahrain 35 44 0 09 21 64 0 48 Bosnia and Herzegovina 33 50 0 09 9 57 0 68 Trinidad and Tobago 32 74 0 09 23 81 0 90 Tunisia 32 07 0 08 2 72 0 25 Denmark 31 12 0 08 5 39 0 09 Cuba 31 04 0 08 2 70 0 11 Syria 29 16 0 08 1 58 1 20 Jordan 28 34 0 07 2 81 0 28 Sri Lanka 27 57 0 07 1 31 0 10 Lebanon 27 44 0 07 4 52 0 27 Dominican Republic 27 28 0 07 2 48 0 14 Angola 25 82 0 07 0 81 0 12 Bolivia 24 51 0 06 2 15 0 24 Sudan and South Sudan 22 57 0 06 0 40 0 13 Guatemala 21 20 0 06 1 21 0 15 Kenya 19 81 0 05 0 38 0 09 Croatia 19 12 0 05 4 62 0 16 Estonia 18 50 0 05 14 19 0 38 Ethiopia 18 25 0 05 0 17 0 07 Ghana 16 84 0 04 0 56 0 10 Cambodia 16 49 0 04 1 00 0 23 New Caledonia 15 66 0 04 55 25 1 67 Slovenia 15 37 0 04 7 38 0 19 Nepal 15 02 0 04 0 50 0 15 Lithuania 13 77 0 04 4 81 0 13 Cote d Ivoire 13 56 0 04 0 53 0 10 Georgia 13 47 0 04 3 45 0 24 Tanzania 13 34 0 04 0 22 0 09 Kyrgyzstan 11 92 0 03 1 92 0 35 Panama 11 63 0 03 2 75 0 09 Afghanistan 11 00 0 03 0 30 0 13 Yemen 10 89 0 03 0 37 0 17 Zimbabwe 10 86 0 03 0 63 0 26 Honduras 10 36 0 03 1 08 0 19 Cameroon 10 10 0 03 0 40 0 11 Senegal 9 81 0 03 0 59 0 18 Luxembourg 9 74 0 03 16 31 0 14 Mozambique 9 26 0 02 0 29 0 24 Moldova 9 23 0 02 2 29 0 27 Costa Rica 8 98 0 02 1 80 0 09 North Macedonia 8 92 0 02 4 28 0 26 Tajikistan 8 92 0 02 0 96 0 28 Paraguay 8 47 0 02 1 21 0 09 Latvia 8 38 0 02 4 38 0 14 Benin 8 15 0 02 0 69 0 21 Mauritania 7 66 0 02 1 64 0 33 Zambia 7 50 0 02 0 41 0 12 Jamaica 7 44 0 02 2 56 0 26 Cyprus 7 41 0 02 6 19 0 21 El Salvador 7 15 0 02 1 11 0 13 Botswana 7 04 0 02 2 96 0 17 Brunei 7 02 0 02 15 98 0 26 Laos 6 78 0 02 0 96 0 12 Uruguay 6 56 0 02 1 89 0 09 Armenia 5 92 0 02 2 02 0 15 Curacao 5 91 0 02 36 38 1 51 Nicaragua 5 86 0 02 0 92 0 17 Congo 5 80 0 02 1 05 0 33 Albania 5 66 0 01 1 93 0 14 Uganda 5 34 0 01 0 12 0 06 Namibia 4 40 0 01 1 67 0 18 Mauritius 4 33 0 01 3 41 0 15 Madagascar 4 20 0 01 0 16 0 09 Papua New Guinea 4 07 0 01 0 47 0 11 Iceland 3 93 0 01 11 53 0 19 Puerto Rico 3 91 0 01 1 07 0 04 Barbados 3 83 0 01 13 34 0 85 Burkina Faso 3 64 0 01 0 18 0 08 Haiti 3 58 0 01 0 32 0 18 Gabon 3 48 0 01 1 65 0 11 Equatorial Guinea 3 47 0 01 2 55 0 14 Reunion 3 02 0 01 3 40 Democratic Republic of the Congo 2 98 0 01 0 03 0 03 Guinea 2 92 0 01 0 22 0 09 Togo 2 85 0 01 0 35 0 22 Bahamas 2 45 0 01 6 08 0 18 Niger 2 36 0 01 0 10 0 08 Bhutan 2 12 0 01 2 57 0 24 Suriname 2 06 0 01 3 59 0 22 Martinique 1 95 0 01 5 07 Guadeloupe 1 87 0 00 4 17 Malawi 1 62 0 00 0 08 0 08 Guyana 1 52 0 00 1 94 0 20 Sierra Leone 1 40 0 00 0 18 0 10 Fiji 1 36 0 00 1 48 0 11 Palau 1 33 0 00 59 88 4 09 Macao 1 27 0 00 1 98 0 02 Liberia 1 21 0 00 0 24 0 17 Rwanda 1 15 0 00 0 09 0 04 Eswatini 1 14 0 00 0 81 0 11 Djibouti 1 05 0 00 1 06 0 20 Seychelles 1 05 0 00 10 98 0 37 Malta 1 04 0 00 2 41 0 05 Mali 1 03 0 00 0 05 0 02 Cabo Verde 1 02 0 00 1 83 0 26 Somalia 0 97 0 00 0 06 0 57 Maldives 0 91 0 00 2 02 0 09 Chad 0 89 0 00 0 06 0 04 Aruba 0 78 0 00 7 39 0 19 Eritrea 0 75 0 00 0 14 0 08 Lesotho 0 75 0 00 0 33 0 13 Gibraltar 0 69 0 00 19 88 0 45 French Guiana 0 61 0 00 2 06 French Polynesia 0 60 0 00 2 08 0 10 The Gambia 0 59 0 00 0 27 0 11 Greenland 0 54 0 00 9 47 0 19 Antigua and Barbuda 0 51 0 00 4 90 0 24 Central African Republic 0 49 0 00 0 10 0 11 Guinea Bissau 0 44 0 00 0 22 0 11 Cayman Islands 0 40 0 00 6 38 0 09 Timor Leste 0 38 0 00 0 28 0 10 Belize 0 37 0 00 0 95 0 14 Bermuda 0 35 0 00 5 75 0 14 Burundi 0 34 0 00 0 03 0 04 Saint Lucia 0 30 0 00 1 65 0 11 Western Sahara 0 30 0 00 0 51 Grenada 0 23 0 00 2 10 0 12 Comoros 0 21 0 00 0 25 0 08 Saint Kitts and Nevis 0 19 0 00 3 44 0 14 Sao Tome and Principe 0 16 0 00 0 75 0 19 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 0 15 0 00 1 32 0 11 Samoa 0 14 0 00 0 70 0 11 Solomon Islands 0 14 0 00 0 22 0 09 Tonga 0 13 0 00 1 16 0 20 Turks and Caicos Islands 0 13 0 00 3 70 0 13 British Virgin Islands 0 12 0 00 3 77 0 17 Dominica 0 10 0 00 1 38 0 12 Vanuatu 0 09 0 00 0 30 0 09 Saint Pierre and Miquelon 0 06 0 00 9 72 Cook Islands 0 04 0 00 2 51 Falkland Islands 0 03 0 00 10 87 Kiribati 0 03 0 00 0 28 0 13 Anguilla 0 02 0 00 1 54 0 12 Saint Helena Ascension and Tristan da Cunha 0 02 0 00 3 87 Faroes 0 00 0 00 0 04 0 00 source source source source source source source source source source source source The C Story of Human Civilization by PIK United States Edit This section is an excerpt from Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States edit Transportation in the United States is the largest source of greenhouse gas 182 The U S has among the highest per person emissions of the countries that emit the most greenhouse gases 183 US greenhouse gas emissions by economic sector 184 Transportation 28 6 Electricity generation 25 1 Industry 22 9 Agriculture 10 2 Commercial 6 9 Residential 5 8 U S territories 0 4 The United States produced 5 2 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas GHG emissions in 2020 185 the second largest in the world after greenhouse gas emissions by China and among the countries with the highest greenhouse gas emissions per person In 2019 China is estimated to have emitted 27 of world GHG followed by the United States with 11 then India with 6 6 186 In total the United States has emitted a quarter of world GHG more than any other country 187 188 189 Annual emissions are over 15 tons per person and amongst the top eight emitters is the highest country by greenhouse gas emissions per person 190 Because coal fired power stations are gradually shutting down in the 2010s emissions from electricity generation fell to second place behind transportation which is now the largest single source 191 In 2020 27 of the GHG emissions of the United States were from transportation 25 from electricity 24 from industry 13 from commercial and residential buildings and 11 from agriculture 192 These greenhouse gas emissions are contributing to climate change in the United States as well as worldwide China Edit This section is an excerpt from Greenhouse gas emissions by China edit China has the most total annual emissions area of rectangle of any nation and has higher than average per capita emissions 193 Cumulatively over time emissions from China have caused more economic damage globally than any other nation except the U S 194 Greenhouse gas emissions by China are the largest of any country in the world both in production and consumption terms and stem mainly from coal burning in China including coal fired power stations coal mining 195 and blast furnaces producing iron and steel 196 When measuring production based emissions China emitted over 14 gigatonnes Gt CO2eq of greenhouse gases in 2019 197 27 of the world total 198 199 When measuring in consumption based terms which adds emissions associated with imported goods and extracts those associated with exported goods China accounts for 13 gigatonnes Gt or 25 of global emissions 200 Despite having the largest emissions in the world China s large population means its per person emissions have remained considerably lower than those in the developed world 200 This corresponds to over 10 1 tonnes CO2eq emitted per person each year slightly over the world average and the EU average but significantly lower than the second largest emitter of greenhouse gases the United States with its 17 6 tonnes per person 200 Accounting for historic emissions OECD countries produced four times more CO2 in cumulative emissions than China due to developed countries early start in industrialization 198 200 The targets laid out in China s Nationally Determined Contribution in 2016 will likely be met but are not enough to properly combat global warming 201 China has committed to peak emissions by 2030 and net zero by 2060 202 In order to limit warming to 1 5 degrees C coal plants in China without carbon capture must be phased out by 2045 203 China continues to build coal fired power stations in 2020 and promised to phase down coal use from 2026 204 India Edit This section is an excerpt from Climate change in India Greenhouse gas emissions edit Greenhouse gas emissions by India are the third largest in the world and the main source is coal 205 India emitted 2 8 Gt of CO2eq in 2016 2 5 including LULUCF 206 207 79 were CO2 14 methane and 5 nitrous oxide 207 India emits about 3 gigatonnes Gt CO2eq of greenhouse gases each year about two tons per person 208 which is half the world average 209 The country emits 7 of global emissions 210 As of 2019 update these figures are quite uncertain but a comprehensive greenhouse gas inventory is within reach 211 Cutting greenhouse gas emissions and therefore air pollution in India would have health benefits worth 4 to 5 times the cost which would be the most cost effective in the world 212 The Paris Agreement commitments included a reduction of this intensity by 33 35 by 2030 213 India s annual emissions per person are less than the global average 214 and the UNEP forecasts that by 2030 they will be between 3 and 4 tonnes 210 In 2019 China is estimated to have emitted 27 of world GhG followed by the US with 11 then India with 6 6 215 Reducing greenhouse gas emissions EditThis section is an excerpt from Climate change mitigation edit Climate change mitigation is action to limit climate change by reducing emissions of greenhouse gases or removing those gases from the atmosphere 216 2239 The recent rise in global average temperature is mostly caused by emissions from fossil fuels burning coal oil and natural gas Mitigation can reduce emissions by transitioning to sustainable energy sources conserving energy and increasing efficiency In addition CO2 can be removed from the atmosphere by enlarging forests restoring wetlands and using other natural and technical processes which are grouped together under the term of carbon sequestration 217 12 218 Solar energy and wind power have the highest climate change mitigation potential at lowest cost compared to a range of other options 219 Variable availability of sunshine and wind is addressed by energy storage and improved electrical grids including long distance electricity transmission demand management and diversification of renewables As low carbon power is more widely available transportation and heating can increasingly rely on these sources 220 1 Energy efficiency is improved using heat pumps and electric vehicles If industrial processes must create carbon dioxide carbon capture and storage can reduce net emissions 221 Fiscal decentralisation and carbon reductions Edit As carbon oxides are one important source of greenhouse gas having means to reduce it is important One suggestion is to consider some means in relation to fiscal decentralisation Previous research found that the linear term of fiscal decentralization promotes carbon emissions while the non linear term mitigates it clarification needed It verified the inverted U shaped curve between fiscal decentralization and carbon emissions example needed Besides increasing energy prices for non renewable energy decrease carbon emission due to a substitution effect Among other explanatory variables improvement in the quality of institutions decreases carbon emissions while the gross domestic product increases it Strengthening fiscal decentralization lowering non renewable energy prices clarification needed and improving institutional quality to check the deteriorating environmental quality in the study sample and other worldwide regions can reduce carbon emissions 222 Effect of policy Edit This section needs to be updated Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information December 2019 See also Energy policy Governments have taken action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to mitigate climate change Assessments of policy effectiveness have included work by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change International Energy Agency 223 224 and United Nations Environment Programme 225 Policies implemented by governments have included 226 227 228 national and regional targets to reduce emissions promoting energy efficiency and support for a renewable energy transition such as Solar energy as an effective use of renewable energy because solar uses energy from the sun and does not release pollutants into the air Countries and regions listed in Annex I of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UNFCCC i e the OECD and former planned economies of the Soviet Union are required to submit periodic assessments to the UNFCCC of actions they are taking to address climate change 228 3 Projections Edit See also Carbon budget This section is an excerpt from Climate change scenario edit Global CO2 emissions and probabilistic temperature outcomes of different policies Climate change scenarios or socioeconomic scenarios are projections of future greenhouse gas GHG emissions used by analysts to assess future vulnerability to climate change 229 Scenarios and pathways are created by scientists 230 to survey any long term routes and explore the effectiveness of mitigation and helps us understand what the future may hold this will allow us to envision the future of human environment system 230 Producing scenarios requires estimates of future population levels economic activity the structure of governance social values and patterns of technological change Economic and energy modelling such as the World3 or the POLES models can be used to analyze and quantify the effects of such drivers Scientists can develop separate international regional and national climate change scenarios These scenarios are designed to help stakeholders understand what kinds of decisions will have meaningful effects on climate change mitigation or adaptation Most countries developing adaptation plans or Nationally Determined Contributions will commission scenario studies in order to better understand the decisions available to them International goals for mitigating climate change through international processes like the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPCC the Paris Agreement and Sustainable Development Goal 13 Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts are based on reviews of these scenarios For example the Special Report on Global Warming of 1 5 C was released in 2018 order to reflect more up to date models of emissions Nationally Determined Contributions and impacts of climate change than its predecessor IPCC Fifth Assessment Report published in 2014 before the Paris Agreement 231 Impacts of the COVID 19 pandemic Edit Main article Impact of the COVID 19 pandemic on the environment Climate change In 2020 carbon dioxide emissions fell by 6 4 or 2 3 billion tonnes globally 232 In April 2020 NOx emissions fell by up to 30 233 In China lockdowns and other measures resulted in a 26 decrease in coal consumption and a 50 reduction in nitrogen oxide emissions 234 Greenhouse gas emissions rebounded later in the pandemic as many countries began 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