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Wikipedia

Natural gas

January 09, 2023

Natural gas (also called fossil gas or simply gas) is a naturally occurring mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons consisting primarily of methane in addition to various smaller amounts of other higher alkanes. Low levels of trace gases like carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, and helium are also usually present.[1] Natural gas is colorless and odorless, so odorizers such as mercaptan (which smells like sulfur or rotten eggs) are commonly added to natural gas supplies for safety so that leaks can be readily detected.[2]

Natural gas burning on a gas stove
Not to be confused with gasoline, biogas, or liquefied petroleum gas.

Burning of natural gas coming out of the ground in Taiwan

Natural gas is a fossil fuel and non-renewable resource that is formed when layers of organic matter (primarily marine microorganisms)[3] decompose under anaerobic conditions and are subjected to intense heat and pressure underground over millions of years.[4] The energy that the decayed organisms originally obtained from the sun via photosynthesis is stored as chemical energy within the molecules of methane and other hydrocarbons.[5]

Natural gas can be burned for heating, cooking,[6] and electricity generation. It is also used as a chemical feedstock in the manufacture of plastics and other commercially important organic chemicals and less commonly used as a fuel for vehicles.

The extraction and consumption of natural gas is a major and growing contributor to climate change.[7][8][9] Both the gas itself (specifically methane) and carbon dioxide, which is released when natural gas is burned, are greenhouse gases.[10][11] When burned for heat or electricity, natural gas emits fewer toxic air pollutants, less carbon dioxide, and almost no particulate matter compared to other fossil and biomass fuels.[12] However, gas venting and unintended fugitive emissions throughout the supply chain can result in natural gas having a similar carbon footprint to other fossil fuels overall.[13]

Natural gas can be found in underground geological formations, often alongside other fossil fuels like coal and oil (petroleum). Most natural gas has been created through either biogenic or thermogenic processes. Biogenic gas is formed when methanogenic organisms in marshes, bogs, landfills, and shallow sediments anaerobically decompose but are not subjected to high temperatures and pressures. Thermogenic gas takes a much longer period of time to form and is created when organic matter is heated and compressed deep underground.[14][4]

During petroleum production, natural gas is sometimes flared rather than being collected and used. Before natural gas can be burned as a fuel or used in manufacturing processes, it almost always has to be processed to remove impurities such as water. The byproducts of this processing include ethane, propane, butanes, pentanes, and higher molecular weight hydrocarbons. Hydrogen sulfide (which may be converted into pure sulfur), carbon dioxide, water vapor, and sometimes helium and nitrogen must also be removed.

Natural gas is sometimes informally referred to simply as "gas", especially when it is being compared to other energy sources, such as oil or coal. However, it is not to be confused with gasoline, which is often shortened in colloquial usage to "gas", especially in North America.[15]

Natural gas is measured in standard cubic meters or standard cubic feet. The density compared to air ranges from 0.58 (16.8 g/mole, 0.71 kg per standard cubic meter) to as high as 0.79 (22.9 g/mole, 0.97 kg per scm), but generally less than 0.64 (18.5 g/mole, 0.78 kg per scm).[16] For comparison, pure methane (16.0425 g/mole) has a density 0.5539 times that of air (0.678 kg per standard cubic meter).

History

Natural gas can come out of the ground and cause a long-burning fire. In ancient Greece, the gas flames at Mount Chimaera contributed to the legend of the fire-breathing creature Chimera. In ancient China, gas resulting from the drilling for brines was first used by about 400 BC.[17] The Chinese transported gas seeping from the ground in crude pipelines of bamboo to where it was used to boil salt water to extract the salt in the Ziliujing District of Sichuan.[18][19]

The discovery and identification of natural gas in the Americas happened in 1626. In 1821, William Hart successfully dug the first natural gas well at Fredonia, New York, United States, which led to the formation of the Fredonia Gas Light Company. The city of Philadelphia created the first municipally owned natural gas distribution venture in 1836.[20] By 2009, 66,000 km3 (16,000 mi3) (or 8%) had been used out of the total 850,000 km3 (200,000 mi3) of estimated remaining recoverable reserves of natural gas.[21]

Sources

See also: List of natural gas fields, List of countries by natural gas proven reserves, and List of countries by natural gas production

Natural gas

 
Natural gas drilling rig in Texas, USA

In the 19th century, natural gas was primarily obtained as a by-product of producing oil. The small, light gas carbon chains came out of solution as the extracted fluids underwent pressure reduction from the reservoir to the surface, similar to uncapping a soft drink bottle where the carbon dioxide effervesces. The gas was often viewed as a by-product, a hazard, and a disposal problem in active oil fields. The large volumes produced could not be used until relatively expensive pipeline and storage facilities were constructed to deliver the gas to consumer markets.

Until the early part of the 20th century, most natural gas associated with oil was either simply released or burned off at oil fields. Gas venting and production flaring are still practised in modern times, but efforts are ongoing around the world to retire them, and to replace them with other commercially viable and useful alternatives.[22][23] Unwanted gas (or stranded gas without a market) is often returned to the reservoir with 'injection' wells while awaiting a possible future market or to re-pressurize the formation, which can enhance oil extraction rates from other wells. In regions with a high natural gas demand (such as the US), pipelines are constructed when it is economically feasible to transport gas from a wellsite to an end consumer.

In addition to transporting gas via pipelines for use in power generation, other end uses for natural gas include export as liquefied natural gas (LNG) or conversion of natural gas into other liquid products via gas to liquids (GTL) technologies. GTL technologies can convert natural gas into liquids products such as gasoline, diesel or jet fuel. A variety of GTL technologies have been developed, including Fischer–Tropsch (F–T), methanol to gasoline (MTG) and syngas to gasoline plus (STG+). F–T produces a synthetic crude that can be further refined into finished products, while MTG can produce synthetic gasoline from natural gas. STG+ can produce drop-in gasoline, diesel, jet fuel and aromatic chemicals directly from natural gas via a single-loop process.[24] In 2011, Royal Dutch Shell's 140,000 barrels (22,000 m3) per day F–T plant went into operation in Qatar.[25]

Natural gas can be "associated" (found in oil fields), or "non-associated" (isolated in natural gas fields), and is also found in coal beds (as coalbed methane).[26] It sometimes contains a significant amount of ethane, propane, butane, and pentane—heavier hydrocarbons removed for commercial use prior to the methane being sold as a consumer fuel or chemical plant feedstock. Non-hydrocarbons such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, helium (rarely), and hydrogen sulfide must also be removed before the natural gas can be transported.[27]

Natural gas extracted from oil wells is called casinghead gas (whether or not truly produced up the annulus and through a casinghead outlet) or associated gas. The natural gas industry is extracting an increasing quantity of gas from challenging, unconventional resource types: sour gas, tight gas, shale gas, and coalbed methane.

There is some disagreement on which country has the largest proven gas reserves. Sources that consider that Russia has by far the largest proven reserves include the US Central Intelligence Agency (47,600 km3)[28] and Energy Information Administration (47,800 km3),[29][30] as well as the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (48,700 km3).[31] Contrarily, BP credits Russia with only 32,900 km3,[32] which would place it in second, slightly behind Iran (33,100 to 33,800 km3, depending on the source).

 
Countries by natural gas proven reserves (2014), based on data from The World Factbook

It is estimated that there are about 900,000 km3 of "unconventional" gas such as shale gas, of which 180,000 km3 may be recoverable.[33] In turn, many studies from MIT, Black & Veatch and the US Department of Energy predict that natural gas will account for a larger portion of electricity generation and heat in the future.[34][better source needed]

The world's largest gas field is the offshore South Pars / North Dome Gas-Condensate field, shared between Iran and Qatar. It is estimated to have 51,000 cubic kilometers (12,000 cu mi) of natural gas and 50 billion barrels (7.9 billion cubic meters) of natural gas condensates.

Because natural gas is not a pure product, as the reservoir pressure drops when non-associated gas is extracted from a field under supercritical (pressure/temperature) conditions, the higher molecular weight components may partially condense upon isothermic depressurizing—an effect called retrograde condensation. The liquid thus formed may get trapped as the pores of the gas reservoir get depleted. One method to deal with this problem is to re-inject dried gas free of condensate to maintain the underground pressure and to allow re-evaporation and extraction of condensates. More frequently, the liquid condenses at the surface, and one of the tasks of the gas plant is to collect this condensate. The resulting liquid is called natural gas liquid (NGL) and has commercial value.

Shale gas

 
The location of shale gas compared to other types of gas deposits
Main article: Shale gas

Shale gas is natural gas produced from shale. Because shale has matrix permeability too low to allow gas to flow in economical quantities, shale gas wells depend on fractures to allow the gas to flow. Early shale gas wells depended on natural fractures through which gas flowed; almost all shale gas wells today require fractures artificially created by hydraulic fracturing. Since 2000, shale gas has become a major source of natural gas in the United States and Canada.[35] Because of increased shale gas production the United States was in 2014 the number one natural gas producer in the world.[36] The production of shale gas in the United States has been described as a "shale gas revolution" and as "one of the landmark events in the 21st century."[37]

Following the increased production in the United States, shale gas exploration is beginning in countries such as Poland, China, and South Africa.[38][39][40] Chinese geologists have identified the Sichuan Basin as a promising target for shale gas drilling, because of the similarity of shales to those that have proven productive in the United States. Production from the Wei-201 well is between 10,000 and 20,000 m3 per day.[41] In late 2020, China National Petroleum Corporation claimed daily production of 20 million cubic meters of gas from its Changning-Weiyuan demonstration zone.[42][unreliable source?]

Town gas

Main article: History of manufactured fuel gases

Town gas is a flammable gaseous fuel made by the destructive distillation of coal. It contains a variety of calorific gases including hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methane, and other volatile hydrocarbons, together with small quantities of non-calorific gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen, and was used in a similar way to natural gas. This is a historical technology and is not usually economically competitive with other sources of fuel gas today.

Most town "gashouses" located in the eastern US in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were simple by-product coke ovens that heated bituminous coal in air-tight chambers. The gas driven off from the coal was collected and distributed through networks of pipes to residences and other buildings where it was used for cooking and lighting. (Gas heating did not come into widespread use until the last half of the 20th century.) The coal tar (or asphalt) that collected in the bottoms of the gashouse ovens was often used for roofing and other waterproofing purposes, and when mixed with sand and gravel was used for paving streets.

Crystallized natural gas – clathrates

Huge quantities of natural gas (primarily methane) exist in the form of clathrates under sediment on offshore continental shelves and on land in arctic regions that experience permafrost, such as those in Siberia. Hydrates require a combination of high pressure and low temperature to form.

In 2013, Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation (JOGMEC) announced that they had recovered commercially relevant quantities of natural gas from methane hydrate.[43]

Processing

Main article: Natural gas processing
 
Natural gas processing plant in Aderklaa, Lower Austria

The image below is a schematic block flow diagram of a typical natural gas processing plant. It shows the various unit processes used to convert raw natural gas into sales gas pipelined to the end user markets.

The block flow diagram also shows how processing of the raw natural gas yields byproduct sulfur, byproduct ethane, and natural gas liquids (NGL) propane, butanes and natural gasoline (denoted as pentanes +).[44][45][46][47]

 
Schematic flow diagram of a typical natural gas processing plant

Demand

See also: Gas depletion
 
Natural gas extraction by countries in cubic meters per year around 2013

As of mid-2020, natural gas production in the US had peaked three times, with current levels exceeding both previous peaks. It reached 24.1 trillion cubic feet per year in 1973, followed by a decline, and reached 24.5 trillion cubic feet in 2001. After a brief drop, withdrawals increased nearly every year since 2006 (owing to the shale gas boom), with 2017 production at 33.4 trillion cubic feet and 2019 production at 40.7 trillion cubic feet. After the third peak in December 2019, extraction continued to fall from March onward due to decreased demand caused by the COVID-19 pandemic in the US.[48]

The 2021 global energy crisis was driven by a global surge in demand as the world quit the economic recession caused by COVID-19, particularly due to strong energy demand in Asia.[49]

Storage and transport

See also: List of natural gas pipelines
 
Polyethylene plastic main being placed in a trench
 
Construction close to high pressure gas transmission pipelines is discouraged, often with standing warning signs.[50]

Because of its low density, it is not easy to store natural gas or to transport it by vehicle. Natural gas pipelines are impractical across oceans, since the gas needs to be cooled down and compressed, as the friction in the pipeline causes the gas to heat up. Many existing pipelines in the US are close to reaching their capacity, prompting some politicians representing northern states to speak of potential shortages. The large trade cost implies that natural gas markets are globally much less integrated, causing significant price differences across countries. In Western Europe, the gas pipeline network is already dense.[51][better source needed][full citation needed] New pipelines are planned or under construction in Eastern Europe and between gas fields in Russia, Near East and Northern Africa and Western Europe.[citation needed]

Whenever gas is bought or sold at custody transfer points, rules and agreements are made regarding the gas quality. These may include the maximum allowable concentration of CO
2, H
2S and H
2O. Usually sales quality gas that has been treated to remove contamination is traded on a "dry gas" basis and is required to be commercially free from objectionable odours, materials, and dust or other solid or liquid matter, waxes, gums and gum forming constituents, which might damage or adversely affect operation of equipment downstream of the custody transfer point.

LNG carriers transport liquefied natural gas (LNG) across oceans, while tank trucks can carry liquefied or compressed natural gas (CNG) over shorter distances.[52] Sea transport using CNG carrier ships that are now under development may be competitive with LNG transport in specific conditions.[citation needed]

Gas is turned into liquid at a liquefaction plant, and is returned to gas form at regasification plant at the terminal. Shipborne regasification equipment is also used. LNG is the preferred form for long distance, high volume transportation of natural gas, whereas pipeline is preferred for transport for distances up to 4,000 km (2,500 mi) over land and approximately half that distance offshore.

CNG is transported at high pressure, typically above 200 bars (20,000 kPa; 2,900 psi). Compressors and decompression equipment are less capital intensive and may be economical in smaller unit sizes than liquefaction/regasification plants. Natural gas trucks and carriers may transport natural gas directly to end-users, or to distribution points such as pipelines.

 
Peoples Gas Manlove Field natural gas storage area in Newcomb Township, Champaign County, Illinois. In the foreground (left) is one of the numerous wells for the underground storage area, with an LNG plant, and above ground storage tanks are in the background (right).

In the past, the natural gas which was recovered in the course of recovering petroleum could not be profitably sold, and was simply burned at the oil field in a process known as flaring. Flaring is now illegal in many countries.[53] Additionally, higher demand in the last 20–30 years has made production of gas associated with oil economically viable. As a further option, the gas is now sometimes re-injected into the formation for enhanced oil recovery by pressure maintenance as well as miscible or immiscible flooding. Conservation, re-injection, or flaring of natural gas associated with oil is primarily dependent on proximity to markets (pipelines), and regulatory restrictions.

Natural gas can be indirectly exported through the absorption in other physical output. A recent study suggests that the expansion of shale gas production in the US has caused prices to drop relative to other countries. This has caused a boom in energy intensive manufacturing sector exports, whereby the average dollar unit of US manufacturing exports has almost tripled its energy content between 1996 and 2012.[54]

A "master gas system" was invented in Saudi Arabia in the late 1970s, ending any necessity for flaring. Satellite and nearby infra-red camera observations, however, shows that flaring[55][56][57][58] and venting[59] are still happening in some countries.

Natural gas is used to generate electricity and heat for desalination. Similarly, some landfills that also discharge methane gases have been set up to capture the methane and generate electricity.

Natural gas is often stored underground [references about geological storage needed]inside depleted gas reservoirs from previous gas wells, salt domes, or in tanks as liquefied natural gas. The gas is injected in a time of low demand and extracted when demand picks up. Storage nearby end users helps to meet volatile demands, but such storage may not always be practicable.

With 15 countries accounting for 84% of the worldwide extraction, access to natural gas has become an important issue in international politics, and countries vie for control of pipelines.[60] In the first decade of the 21st century, Gazprom, the state-owned energy company in Russia, engaged in disputes with Ukraine and Belarus over the price of natural gas, which have created concerns that gas deliveries to parts of Europe could be cut off for political reasons.[61] The United States is preparing to export natural gas.[62]

Floating liquefied natural gas

Floating liquefied natural gas (FLNG) is an innovative technology designed to enable the development of offshore gas resources that would otherwise remain untapped due to environmental or economic factors which currently make them impractical to develop via a land-based LNG operation. FLNG technology also provides a number of environmental and economic advantages:

  • Environmental – Because all processing is done at the gas field, there is no requirement for long pipelines to shore, compression units to pump the gas to shore, dredging and jetty construction, and onshore construction of an LNG processing plant, which significantly reduces the environmental footprint.[63] Avoiding construction also helps preserve marine and coastal environments. In addition, environmental disturbance will be minimised during decommissioning because the facility can easily be disconnected and removed before being refurbished and re-deployed elsewhere.
  • Economic – Where pumping gas to shore can be prohibitively expensive, FLNG makes development economically viable. As a result, it will open up new business opportunities for countries to develop offshore gas fields that would otherwise remain stranded, such as those offshore East Africa.[64]

Many gas and oil companies are considering the economic and environmental benefits of floating liquefied natural gas (FLNG). There are currently projects underway to construct five FLNG facilities. Petronas is close to completion on their FLNG-1[65] at Daewoo Shipbuilding and Marine Engineering and are underway on their FLNG-2 project[66] at Samsung Heavy Industries. Shell Prelude is due to start production 2017.[67] The Browse LNG project will commence FEED in 2019.[68]

Uses

Natural gas is primarily used in the northern hemisphere. North America and Europe are major consumers.

Often well head gases require removal of various hydrocarbon molecules contained within the gas. Some of these gases include heptane, pentane, propane and other hydrocarbons with molecular weights above methane (CH
4). The natural gas transmission lines extend to the natural gas processing plant or unit which removes the higher-molecular weight hydrocarbons to produce natural gas with energy content between 35–39 megajoules per cubic metre (950–1,050 British thermal units per cubic foot). The processed natural gas may then be used for residential, commercial and industrial uses.

Mid-stream natural gas

Natural gas flowing in the distribution lines is called mid-stream natural gas and is often used to power engines which rotate compressors. These compressors are required in the transmission line to pressurize and repressurize the mid-stream natural gas as the gas travels. Typically, natural gas powered engines require 35–39 MJ/m3 (950–1,050 BTU/cu ft) natural gas to operate at the rotational name plate specifications.[69] Several methods are used to remove these higher molecular weighted gases for use by the natural gas engine. A few technologies are as follows:

Power generation

This section is an excerpt from Gas-fired power plant.[edit]
 
A cogeneration plant in Berlin
 
Share of electricity production from gas
A gas-fired power plant or gas-fired power station or natural gas power plant is a thermal power station which burns natural gas to generate electricity. Natural gas power stations generate almost a quarter of world electricity and a significant part of global greenhouse gas emissions and thus climate change.[70] However they can provide seasonal dispatchable generation to balance variable renewable energy where hydropower or interconnectors are not available.

Domestic use

 
Manhole for domestic gas supply, London, UK

Natural gas dispensed in a residential setting can generate temperatures in excess of 1,100 °C (2,000 °F) making it a powerful domestic cooking and heating fuel.[71] In much of the developed world it is supplied through pipes to homes, where it is used for many purposes including ranges and ovens, heating/cooling, and central heating.[72] Heaters in homes and other buildings may include boilers, furnaces, and water heaters. Both North America and Europe are major consumers of natural gas.

Domestic appliances, furnaces, and boilers use low pressure, usually with a standard preassure around 1.7 kilopascals (0.25 psi) over atmospheric preassure. The pressures in the supply lines vary, either the standard utilization pressure (UP) mentioned above or elevated pressure (EP), which may be anywhere from 7 to 800 kilopascals (1 to 120 psi) over atmospheric preassure. Systems using EP have a regulator at the service entrance to step down the pressure to UP.[citation needed]

Natural Gas Piping Systems inside buildings are often designed with pressures of 14 to 34 kilopascals (2 to 5 psi), and have downstream pressure regulators to reduce pressure as needed. The maximum allowable operating pressure for natural gas piping systems within a building is based on NFPA 54: National[clarification needed] Fuel Gas Code, except when approved by the Public Safety Authority or when insurance companies have more stringent requirements.{{

Generally, natural gas system pressures are not allowed to exceed 5 psig (34.5 kPa) unless all of the following conditions are met:

  • The AHJ will allow a higher pressure.
  • The distribution pipe is welded. (Note: 2. Some jurisdictions may also require that welded joints be radiographed to verify continuity).
  • The pipes are closed for protection and placed in a ventilated area that does not allow gas accumulation.
  • The pipe is installed in the areas used for industrial processes, research, storage or mechanical equipment rooms.

Generally, a maximum liquefied petroleum gas pressure of 20 psig (138 kPa) is allowed, provided the building is used specifically for industrial or research purposes and is constructed in accordance with NFPA 58: Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, Chapter 7.[73]

A seismic earthquake valve operating at a pressure of 55 psig (3.7 bar) can stop the flow of natural gas into the site wide natural gas distribution piping network (that runs (outdoors underground, above building roofs, and or within the upper supports of a canopy roof). Seismic earthquake valves are designed for use at a maximum of 60 psig.[74][75]

In Australia, natural gas is transported from gas processing facilities to regulator stations via Transmission pipelines. Gas is then regulated down to distributed pressures and the gas is distributed around a gas network via gas mains. Small branches from the network, called services, connect individual domestic dwellings, or multi-dwelling buildings to the network. The networks typically range in pressures from 7 kPa (low pressure) to 515 kPa (high pressure). Gas is then regulated down to 1.1 kPa or 2.75 kPa, before being metered and passed to the consumer for domestic use.[76] Natural gas mains are made from a variety of materials: historically cast iron, though more modern mains are made from steel or polyethylene.

In the US compressed natural gas (CNG) is available in some rural areas as an alternative to less expensive and more abundant LPG (liquefied petroleum gas), the dominant source of rural gas. It is used in homes lacking direct connections to public utility provided gas, or to fuel portable grills. Natural gas is also supplied by independent natural gas suppliers through Natural Gas Choice programs[clarification needed] throughout the United States.

 
A Washington, D.C. Metrobus, which runs on natural gas

Transportation

CNG is a cleaner and also cheaper alternative to other automobile fuels such as gasoline (petrol).[77] By the end of 2014, there were over 20 million natural gas vehicles worldwide, led by Iran (3.5 million), China (3.3 million), Pakistan (2.8 million), Argentina (2.5 million), India (1.8 million), and Brazil (1.8 million).[78] The energy efficiency is generally equal to that of gasoline engines, but lower compared with modern diesel engines. Gasoline/petrol vehicles converted to run on natural gas suffer because of the low compression ratio of their engines, resulting in a cropping of delivered power while running on natural gas (10–15%). CNG-specific engines, however, use a higher compression ratio due to this fuel's higher octane number of 120–130.[79]

Besides use in road vehicles, CNG can also be used in aircraft.[80] Compressed natural gas has been used in some aircraft like the Aviat Aircraft Husky 200 CNG[81] and the Chromarat VX-1 KittyHawk[82]

LNG is also being used in aircraft. Russian aircraft manufacturer Tupolev for instance is running a development program to produce LNG- and hydrogen-powered aircraft.[83] The program has been running since the mid-1970s, and seeks to develop LNG and hydrogen variants of the Tu-204 and Tu-334 passenger aircraft, and also the Tu-330 cargo aircraft. Depending on the current market price for jet fuel and LNG, fuel for an LNG-powered aircraft could cost 5,000 rubles (US$100) less per tonne, roughly 60%, with considerable reductions to carbon monoxide, hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxide emissions.[citation needed]

The advantages of liquid methane as a jet engine fuel are that it has more specific energy than the standard kerosene mixes do and that its low temperature can help cool the air which the engine compresses for greater volumetric efficiency, in effect replacing an intercooler. Alternatively, it can be used to lower the temperature of the exhaust.[citation needed]

Fertilizers

See also: 2007–2008 world food price crisis

Natural gas is a major feedstock for the production of ammonia, via the Haber process, for use in fertilizer production.[72][84] The development of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer has significantly supported global population growth — it has been estimated that almost half the people on the Earth are currently fed as a result of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer use.[85][86]

Hydrogen

See also: Industrial gas

Natural gas can be used to produce hydrogen, with one common method being the hydrogen reformer. Hydrogen has many applications: it is a primary feedstock for the chemical industry, a hydrogenating agent, an important commodity for oil refineries, and the fuel source in hydrogen vehicles.

Animal and fish feed

Protein rich animal and fish feed is produced by feeding natural gas to Methylococcus capsulatus bacteria on commercial scale.[87][88][89]

Other

Natural gas is also used in the manufacture of fabrics, glass, steel, plastics, paint, synthetic oil, and other products.[90] The first step in the valorization of natural gas components is usually the[clarification needed] of the alkane into olefin. The oxidative dehydrogenation of ethane leads to ethylene, which can be converted forther to ethylene epoxide, ethylene glycol, acetaldehyde or other olefins. Propane can be converted to propylene or can be oxidized to acrylic acid and acrylonitrile.

Environmental effects

See also: Environmental impact of the energy industry

Greenhouse effect and natural gas release

See also: Greenhouse effect, Atmospheric methane, Gas venting, and Fugitive gas emissions
 
The warming influence (called radiative forcing) of long-lived greenhouse gases has nearly doubled in 40 years, with carbon dioxide and methane being the dominant drivers of global warming.[91]

Human activity is responsible for about 60% of all methane emissions and for most of the resulting increase in atmospheric methane.[92][93][94] Natural gas is intentionally released or is otherwise known to leak during the extraction, storage, transportation, and distribution of fossil fuels. Globally, methane accounts for an estimated 33% of anthropogenic greenhouse gas warming.[95] The decomposition of municipal solid waste (a source of landfill gas) and wastewater account for an additional 18% of such emissions. These estimates include substantial uncertainties[96] which should be reduced in the near future with improved satellite measurements, such as those planned for MethaneSAT.[11]

After release to the atmosphere, methane is removed by gradual oxidation to carbon dioxide and water by hydroxyl radicals (OH−
) formed in the troposphere or stratosphere, giving the overall chemical reaction CH
4 + 2O
2 → CO
2 + 2H
2O.[97][98] While the lifetime of atmospheric methane is relatively short when compared to carbon dioxide,[99] with a half-life of about 7 years, it is more efficient at trapping heat in the atmosphere, so that a given quantity of methane has 84 times the global-warming potential of carbon dioxide over a 20-year period and 28 times over a 100-year period. Natural gas is thus a potent greenhouse gas due to the strong radiative forcing of methane in the short term, and the continuing effects of carbon dioxide in the longer term.[94]

Targeted efforts to reduce warming quickly by reducing anthropogenic methane emissions is a climate change mitigation strategy supported by the Global Methane Initiative.[95]

Greenhouse gas emissions

When refined and burned, natural gas can produce 25–30% less carbon dioxide per joule delivered than oil, and 40–45% less than coal.[100] It can also produce potentially fewer toxic pollutants than other hydrocarbon fuels.[100][101] However, compared to other major fossil fuels, natural gas causes more emissions in relative terms during the production and transportation of the fuel, meaning that the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions are about 50% higher than the direct emissions from the site of consumption.[102][103]

In terms of the warming effect over 100 years, natural gas production and use comprises about one fifth of human greenhouse gas emissions, and this contribution is growing rapidly. Globally, natural gas use emitted about 7.8 billion tons of CO
2 in 2020 (including flaring), while coal and oil use emitted 14.4 and 12 billion tons, respectively.[104] The IEA estimates the energy sector (oil, natural gas, coal and bioenergy) to be responsible for about 40% of human methane emissions.[105] According to the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, natural gas consumption grew by 15% between 2015 and 2019, compared to a 5% increase in oil and oil product consumption.[106]

The continued financing and construction of new gas pipelines indicates that huge emissions of fossil greenhouse gases could be locked-in for 40 to 50 years into the future.[107] In the U.S. state of Texas alone, five new long-distance gas pipelines have been under construction, with the first entering service in 2019,[108] and the others scheduled to come online during 2020–2022.[109]: 23 

To reduce its greenhouse emissions, the Netherlands is subsidizing a transition away from natural gas for all homes in the country by 2050. In Amsterdam, no new residential gas accounts have been allowed since 2018, and all homes in the city are expected to be converted by 2040 to use the excess heat from adjacent industrial buildings and operations.[110] Some cities in the United States have started prohibiting gas hookups for new houses, with state laws passed and under consideration to either require electrification or prohibit local requirements.[111] The UK government is also experimenting with alternative home heating technologies to meet its climate goals.[112] To preserve their businesses, natural gas utilities in the United States have been lobbying for laws preventing local electrification ordinances, and are promoting renewable natural gas and hydrogen fuel.[113]

Other pollutants

Although natural gas produces far lower amounts of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides (NOx) than other fossil fuels,[101] NOx from burning natural gas in homes can be a health hazard.[114]

Radionuclides

Natural gas extraction also produces radioactive isotopes of polonium (Po-210), lead (Pb-210) and radon (Rn-220). Radon is a gas with initial activity from 5 to 200,000 becquerels per cubic meter of gas. It decays rapidly to Pb-210 which can build up as a thin film in gas extraction equipment.[115]

Safety concerns

 
A pipeline odorant injection station

The natural gas extraction workforce face unique health and safety challenges.[116][117]

Production

Some gas fields yield sour gas containing hydrogen sulfide (H
2S), a toxic compound when inhaled. Amine gas treating, an industrial scale process which removes acidic gaseous components, is often used to remove hydrogen sulfide from natural gas.[118]

Extraction of natural gas (or oil) leads to decrease in pressure in the reservoir. Such decrease in pressure in turn may result in subsidence, sinking of the ground above. Subsidence may affect ecosystems, waterways, sewer and water supply systems, foundations, and so on.[119]

Fracking

Main article: Environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing

Releasing natural gas from subsurface porous rock formations may be accomplished by a process called hydraulic fracturing or "fracking". Since the first commercial hydraulic fracturing operation in 1949, approximately one million wells have been hydraulically fractured in the United States.[120] The production of natural gas from hydraulically fractured wells has used the technological developments of directional and horizontal drilling, which improved access to natural gas in tight rock formations.[121] Strong growth in the production of unconventional gas from hydraulically fractured wells occurred between 2000 and 2012.[122]

In hydraulic fracturing, well operators force water mixed with a variety of chemicals through the wellbore casing into the rock. The high pressure water breaks up or "fracks" the rock, which releases gas from the rock formation. Sand and other particles are added to the water as a proppant to keep the fractures in the rock open, thus enabling the gas to flow into the casing and then to the surface. Chemicals are added to the fluid to perform such functions as reducing friction and inhibiting corrosion. After the "frack", oil or gas is extracted and 30–70% of the frack fluid, i.e. the mixture of water, chemicals, sand, etc., flows back to the surface. Many gas-bearing formations also contain water, which will flow up the wellbore to the surface along with the gas, in both hydraulically fractured and non-hydraulically fractured wells. This produced water often has a high content of salt and other dissolved minerals that occur in the formation.[123]

The volume of water used to hydraulically fracture wells varies according to the hydraulic fracturing technique. In the United States, the average volume of water used per hydraulic fracture has been reported as nearly 7,375 gallons for vertical oil and gas wells prior to 1953, nearly 197,000 gallons for vertical oil and gas wells between 2000 and 2010, and nearly 3 million gallons for horizontal gas wells between 2000 and 2010.[124]

Determining which fracking technique is appropriate for well productivity depends largely on the properties of the reservoir rock from which to extract oil or gas. If the rock is characterized by low-permeability – which refers to its ability to let substances, i.e. gas, pass through it, then the rock may be considered a source of tight gas.[125] Fracking for shale gas, which is currently also known as a source of unconventional gas, involves drilling a borehole vertically until it reaches a lateral shale rock formation, at which point the drill turns to follow the rock for hundreds or thousands of feet horizontally.[126] In contrast, conventional oil and gas sources are characterized by higher rock permeability, which naturally enables the flow of oil or gas into the wellbore with less intensive hydraulic fracturing techniques than the production of tight gas has required.[127][128] The decades in development of drilling technology for conventional and unconventional oil and gas production have not only improved access to natural gas in low-permeability reservoir rocks, but also posed significant adverse impacts on environmental and public health.[129][130][131][132]

The US EPA has acknowledged that toxic, carcinogenic chemicals, i.e. benzene and ethylbenzene, have been used as gelling agents in water and chemical mixtures for high volume horizontal fracturing (HVHF).[133] Following the hydraulic fracture in HVHF, the water, chemicals, and frack fluid that return to the well's surface, called flowback or produced water, may contain radioactive materials, heavy metals, natural salts, and hydrocarbons which exist naturally in shale rock formations.[134] Fracking chemicals, radioactive materials, heavy metals, and salts that are removed from the HVHF well by well operators are so difficult to remove from the water they are mixed with, and would so heavily pollute the water cycle, that most of the flowback is either recycled into other fracking operations or injected into deep underground wells, eliminating the water that HVHF required from the hydrologic cycle.[135]

Historically low gas prices have delayed the nuclear renaissance, as well as the development of solar thermal energy.[136]

Added odor

Natural gas in its native state is colorless and almost odorless. In order to assist consumers in detecting leaks, an odorizer with a scent similar to rotten eggs, tert-Butylthiol (t-butyl mercaptan), is added. Sometimes a related compound, thiophane, may be used in the mixture. Situations in which an odorant that is added to natural gas can be detected by analytical instrumentation, but cannot be properly detected by an observer with a normal sense of smell, have occurred in the natural gas industry. This is caused by odor masking, when one odorant overpowers the sensation of another. As of 2011, the industry is conducting research on the causes of odor masking.[137][needs update]

Risk of explosion

 
Gas network emergency vehicle responding to a major fire in Kyiv, Ukraine

Explosions caused by natural gas leaks occur a few times each year. Individual homes, small businesses and other structures are most frequently affected when an internal leak builds up gas inside the structure. Leaks often result from excavation work, such as when contractors dig and strike pipelines, sometimes without knowing any damage resulted. Frequently, the blast is powerful enough to significantly damage a building but leave it standing. In these cases, the people inside tend to have minor to moderate injuries. Occasionally, the gas can collect in high enough quantities to cause a deadly explosion, destroying one or more buildings in the process. Many building codes now forbid the installation of gas pipes inside cavity walls or below floor boards to mitigate against this risk. Gas usually dissipates readily outdoors, but can sometimes collect in dangerous quantities if flow rates are high enough.[138] However, considering the tens of millions of structures that use the fuel, the individual risk of using natural gas is low.

Risk of carbon monoxide inhalation

Natural gas heating systems may cause carbon monoxide poisoning if unvented or poorly vented. Improvements in natural gas furnace designs have greatly reduced CO poisoning concerns. Detectors are also available that warn of carbon monoxide or explosive gases such as methane and propane.[139]

Energy content, statistics, and pricing

Main article: Natural gas prices
See also: Billion cubic metres of natural gas
 
Comparison of natural gas prices in Japan, United Kingdom, and United States, 2007–2011

Quantities of natural gas are measured in standard cubic meters (cubic meter of gas at temperature 15 °C (59 °F) and pressure 101.325 kPa (14.6959 psi)) or standard cubic feet (cubic foot of gas at temperature 60.0 °F and pressure 14.73 psi (101.6 kPa)), 1 standard cubic meter = 35.301 standard cubic feet. The gross heat of combustion of commercial quality natural gas is around 39 MJ/m3 (0.31 kWh/cu ft), but this can vary by several percent. This is about 50 to 54 MJ/kg depending on the density.[140][141] For comparison, the heat of combustion of pure methane is 37.7 MJ per standard cubic metre, or 55.5 MJ/kg.

Except in the European Union, the U.S., and Canada, natural gas is sold in gigajoule retail units. LNG (liquefied natural gas) and LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) are traded in metric tonnes (1,000 kg) or million BTU as spot deliveries. Long term natural gas distribution contracts are signed in cubic meters, and LNG contracts are in metric tonnes. The LNG and LPG is transported by specialized transport ships, as the gas is liquified at cryogenic temperatures. The specification of each LNG/LPG cargo will usually contain the energy content, but this information is in general not available to the public. The European Union aims to cut its gas dependency on Russia by two-thirds in 2022.[142]

In August 2015, possibly the largest natural gas discovery in history was made and notified by an Italian gas company ENI. The energy company indicated that it has unearthed a "supergiant" gas field in the Mediterranean Sea covering about 40 square miles (100 km2). This was named the Zohr gas field and could hold a potential 30 trillion cubic feet (850 billion cubic meters) of natural gas. ENI said that the energy is about 5.5 billion barrels of oil equivalent [BOE] (3.4×1010 GJ). The Zohr field was found in the deep waters off the northern coast of Egypt and ENI claims that it will be the largest ever in the Mediterranean and even the world.[143]

European Union

Gas prices for end users vary greatly across the EU.[144] A single European energy market, one of the key objectives of the EU, should level the prices of gas in all EU member states. Moreover, it would help to resolve supply and global warming issues,[145] as well as strengthen relations with other Mediterranean countries and foster investments in the region.[146] Qatar has been asked by the US to supply emergency gas to the EU in case of supply disruptions in the Russo-Ukrainian crisis.[147]

United States

 
US Natural Gas Marketed Production 1900 to 2012 (US EIA data)
 
Trends in the top five natural gas-producing countries (US EIA data)

In US units, one standard cubic foot (28 L) of natural gas produces around 1,028 British thermal units (1,085 kJ). The actual heating value when the water formed does not condense is the net heat of combustion and can be as much as 10% less.[148]

In the United States, retail sales are often in units of therms (th); 1 therm = 100,000 BTU. Gas sales to domestic consumers are often in units of 100 standard cubic feet (scf). Gas meters measure the volume of gas used, and this is converted to therms by multiplying the volume by the energy content of the gas used during that period, which varies slightly over time. The typical annual consumption of a single family residence is 1,000 therms or one Residential Customer Equivalent (RCE). Wholesale transactions are generally done in decatherms (Dth), thousand decatherms (MDth), or million decatherms (MMDth). A million decatherms is a trillion BTU, roughly a billion cubic feet of natural gas.

The price of natural gas varies greatly depending on location and type of consumer. The typical caloric value of natural gas is roughly 1,000 BTU per cubic foot, depending on gas composition. Natural gas in the United States is traded as a futures contract on the New York Mercantile Exchange. Each contract is for 10,000 million BTU or 10 billion BTU (10,551 GJ). Thus, if the price of gas is $10/million BTU on the NYMEX, the contract is worth $100,000.

Canada

Canada uses metric measure for internal trade of petrochemical products. Consequently, natural gas is sold by the gigajoule (GJ), cubic meter (m3) or thousand cubic meters (E3m3). Distribution infrastructure and meters almost always meter volume (cubic foot or cubic meter). Some jurisdictions, such as Saskatchewan, sell gas by volume only. Other jurisdictions, such as Alberta, gas is sold by the energy content (GJ). In these areas, almost all meters for residential and small commercial customers measure volume (m3 or ft3), and billing statements include a multiplier to convert the volume to energy content of the local gas supply.

A gigajoule (GJ) is a measure approximately equal to 80 litres (0.5 barrels) of oil, or 28 m3 or 1,000 cu ft or 1 million BTUs of gas. The energy content of gas supply in Canada can vary from 37 to 43 MJ/m3 (990 to 1,150 BTU/cu ft) depending on gas supply and processing between the wellhead and the customer.

Adsorbed natural gas (ANG)

Natural gas may be stored by adsorbing it to the porous solids called sorbents. The optimal condition for methane storage is at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. Pressures up to 4 MPa (about 40 times atmospheric pressure) will yield greater storage capacity. The most common sorbent used for ANG is activated carbon (AC), primarily in three forms: Activated Carbon Fiber (ACF), Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC), and activated carbon monolith.[149]

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Further reading

  • Blanchard, Charles (2020). The Extraction State: A History of Natural Gas in America. U of Pittsburgh Press. online review.

External links

  • Global Fossil Infrastructure Tracker
  • Carbon Mapper Data Portal featuring methane point source data

January 09, 2023
natural, also, called, fossil, simply, naturally, occurring, mixture, gaseous, hydrocarbons, consisting, primarily, methane, addition, various, smaller, amounts, other, higher, alkanes, levels, trace, gases, like, carbon, dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen, sulfide, . Natural gas also called fossil gas or simply gas is a naturally occurring mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons consisting primarily of methane in addition to various smaller amounts of other higher alkanes Low levels of trace gases like carbon dioxide nitrogen hydrogen sulfide and helium are also usually present 1 Natural gas is colorless and odorless so odorizers such as mercaptan which smells like sulfur or rotten eggs are commonly added to natural gas supplies for safety so that leaks can be readily detected 2 Natural gas burning on a gas stove Not to be confused with gasoline biogas or liquefied petroleum gas Burning of natural gas coming out of the ground in TaiwanNatural gas is a fossil fuel and non renewable resource that is formed when layers of organic matter primarily marine microorganisms 3 decompose under anaerobic conditions and are subjected to intense heat and pressure underground over millions of years 4 The energy that the decayed organisms originally obtained from the sun via photosynthesis is stored as chemical energy within the molecules of methane and other hydrocarbons 5 Natural gas can be burned for heating cooking 6 and electricity generation It is also used as a chemical feedstock in the manufacture of plastics and other commercially important organic chemicals and less commonly used as a fuel for vehicles The extraction and consumption of natural gas is a major and growing contributor to climate change 7 8 9 Both the gas itself specifically methane and carbon dioxide which is released when natural gas is burned are greenhouse gases 10 11 When burned for heat or electricity natural gas emits fewer toxic air pollutants less carbon dioxide and almost no particulate matter compared to other fossil and biomass fuels 12 However gas venting and unintended fugitive emissions throughout the supply chain can result in natural gas having a similar carbon footprint to other fossil fuels overall 13 Natural gas can be found in underground geological formations often alongside other fossil fuels like coal and oil petroleum Most natural gas has been created through either biogenic or thermogenic processes Biogenic gas is formed when methanogenic organisms in marshes bogs landfills and shallow sediments anaerobically decompose but are not subjected to high temperatures and pressures Thermogenic gas takes a much longer period of time to form and is created when organic matter is heated and compressed deep underground 14 4 During petroleum production natural gas is sometimes flared rather than being collected and used Before natural gas can be burned as a fuel or used in manufacturing processes it almost always has to be processed to remove impurities such as water The byproducts of this processing include ethane propane butanes pentanes and higher molecular weight hydrocarbons Hydrogen sulfide which may be converted into pure sulfur carbon dioxide water vapor and sometimes helium and nitrogen must also be removed Natural gas is sometimes informally referred to simply as gas especially when it is being compared to other energy sources such as oil or coal However it is not to be confused with gasoline which is often shortened in colloquial usage to gas especially in North America 15 Natural gas is measured in standard cubic meters or standard cubic feet The density compared to air ranges from 0 58 16 8 g mole 0 71 kg per standard cubic meter to as high as 0 79 22 9 g mole 0 97 kg per scm but generally less than 0 64 18 5 g mole 0 78 kg per scm 16 For comparison pure methane 16 0425 g mole has a density 0 5539 times that of air 0 678 kg per standard cubic meter Contents 1 History 2 Sources 2 1 Natural gas 2 2 Shale gas 2 3 Town gas 2 4 Crystallized natural gas clathrates 3 Processing 4 Demand 5 Storage and transport 5 1 Floating liquefied natural gas 6 Uses 6 1 Mid stream natural gas 6 2 Power generation 6 3 Domestic use 6 4 Transportation 6 5 Fertilizers 6 6 Hydrogen 6 7 Animal and fish feed 6 8 Other 7 Environmental effects 7 1 Greenhouse effect and natural gas release 7 2 Greenhouse gas emissions 7 3 Other pollutants 7 4 Radionuclides 8 Safety concerns 8 1 Production 8 2 Fracking 8 3 Added odor 8 4 Risk of explosion 8 5 Risk of carbon monoxide inhalation 9 Energy content statistics and pricing 9 1 European Union 9 2 United States 9 3 Canada 10 Adsorbed natural gas ANG 11 See also 12 References 13 Further reading 14 External linksHistory EditNatural gas can come out of the ground and cause a long burning fire In ancient Greece the gas flames at Mount Chimaera contributed to the legend of the fire breathing creature Chimera In ancient China gas resulting from the drilling for brines was first used by about 400 BC 17 The Chinese transported gas seeping from the ground in crude pipelines of bamboo to where it was used to boil salt water to extract the salt in the Ziliujing District of Sichuan 18 19 The discovery and identification of natural gas in the Americas happened in 1626 In 1821 William Hart successfully dug the first natural gas well at Fredonia New York United States which led to the formation of the Fredonia Gas Light Company The city of Philadelphia created the first municipally owned natural gas distribution venture in 1836 20 By 2009 66 000 km3 16 000 mi3 or 8 had been used out of the total 850 000 km3 200 000 mi3 of estimated remaining recoverable reserves of natural gas 21 Sources EditSee also List of natural gas fields List of countries by natural gas proven reserves and List of countries by natural gas production Natural gas Edit Natural gas drilling rig in Texas USA In the 19th century natural gas was primarily obtained as a by product of producing oil The small light gas carbon chains came out of solution as the extracted fluids underwent pressure reduction from the reservoir to the surface similar to uncapping a soft drink bottle where the carbon dioxide effervesces The gas was often viewed as a by product a hazard and a disposal problem in active oil fields The large volumes produced could not be used until relatively expensive pipeline and storage facilities were constructed to deliver the gas to consumer markets Until the early part of the 20th century most natural gas associated with oil was either simply released or burned off at oil fields Gas venting and production flaring are still practised in modern times but efforts are ongoing around the world to retire them and to replace them with other commercially viable and useful alternatives 22 23 Unwanted gas or stranded gas without a market is often returned to the reservoir with injection wells while awaiting a possible future market or to re pressurize the formation which can enhance oil extraction rates from other wells In regions with a high natural gas demand such as the US pipelines are constructed when it is economically feasible to transport gas from a wellsite to an end consumer In addition to transporting gas via pipelines for use in power generation other end uses for natural gas include export as liquefied natural gas LNG or conversion of natural gas into other liquid products via gas to liquids GTL technologies GTL technologies can convert natural gas into liquids products such as gasoline diesel or jet fuel A variety of GTL technologies have been developed including Fischer Tropsch F T methanol to gasoline MTG and syngas to gasoline plus STG F T produces a synthetic crude that can be further refined into finished products while MTG can produce synthetic gasoline from natural gas STG can produce drop in gasoline diesel jet fuel and aromatic chemicals directly from natural gas via a single loop process 24 In 2011 Royal Dutch Shell s 140 000 barrels 22 000 m3 per day F T plant went into operation in Qatar 25 Natural gas can be associated found in oil fields or non associated isolated in natural gas fields and is also found in coal beds as coalbed methane 26 It sometimes contains a significant amount of ethane propane butane and pentane heavier hydrocarbons removed for commercial use prior to the methane being sold as a consumer fuel or chemical plant feedstock Non hydrocarbons such as carbon dioxide nitrogen helium rarely and hydrogen sulfide must also be removed before the natural gas can be transported 27 Natural gas extracted from oil wells is called casinghead gas whether or not truly produced up the annulus and through a casinghead outlet or associated gas The natural gas industry is extracting an increasing quantity of gas from challenging unconventional resource types sour gas tight gas shale gas and coalbed methane There is some disagreement on which country has the largest proven gas reserves Sources that consider that Russia has by far the largest proven reserves include the US Central Intelligence Agency 47 600 km3 28 and Energy Information Administration 47 800 km3 29 30 as well as the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries 48 700 km3 31 Contrarily BP credits Russia with only 32 900 km3 32 which would place it in second slightly behind Iran 33 100 to 33 800 km3 depending on the source Countries by natural gas proven reserves 2014 based on data from The World Factbook It is estimated that there are about 900 000 km3 of unconventional gas such as shale gas of which 180 000 km3 may be recoverable 33 In turn many studies from MIT Black amp Veatch and the US Department of Energy predict that natural gas will account for a larger portion of electricity generation and heat in the future 34 better source needed The world s largest gas field is the offshore South Pars North Dome Gas Condensate field shared between Iran and Qatar It is estimated to have 51 000 cubic kilometers 12 000 cu mi of natural gas and 50 billion barrels 7 9 billion cubic meters of natural gas condensates Because natural gas is not a pure product as the reservoir pressure drops when non associated gas is extracted from a field under supercritical pressure temperature conditions the higher molecular weight components may partially condense upon isothermic depressurizing an effect called retrograde condensation The liquid thus formed may get trapped as the pores of the gas reservoir get depleted One method to deal with this problem is to re inject dried gas free of condensate to maintain the underground pressure and to allow re evaporation and extraction of condensates More frequently the liquid condenses at the surface and one of the tasks of the gas plant is to collect this condensate The resulting liquid is called natural gas liquid NGL and has commercial value Shale gas Edit The location of shale gas compared to other types of gas deposits Main article Shale gas Shale gas is natural gas produced from shale Because shale has matrix permeability too low to allow gas to flow in economical quantities shale gas wells depend on fractures to allow the gas to flow Early shale gas wells depended on natural fractures through which gas flowed almost all shale gas wells today require fractures artificially created by hydraulic fracturing Since 2000 shale gas has become a major source of natural gas in the United States and Canada 35 Because of increased shale gas production the United States was in 2014 the number one natural gas producer in the world 36 The production of shale gas in the United States has been described as a shale gas revolution and as one of the landmark events in the 21st century 37 Following the increased production in the United States shale gas exploration is beginning in countries such as Poland China and South Africa 38 39 40 Chinese geologists have identified the Sichuan Basin as a promising target for shale gas drilling because of the similarity of shales to those that have proven productive in the United States Production from the Wei 201 well is between 10 000 and 20 000 m3 per day 41 In late 2020 China National Petroleum Corporation claimed daily production of 20 million cubic meters of gas from its Changning Weiyuan demonstration zone 42 unreliable source Town gas Edit Main article History of manufactured fuel gases Town gas is a flammable gaseous fuel made by the destructive distillation of coal It contains a variety of calorific gases including hydrogen carbon monoxide methane and other volatile hydrocarbons together with small quantities of non calorific gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen and was used in a similar way to natural gas This is a historical technology and is not usually economically competitive with other sources of fuel gas today Most town gashouses located in the eastern US in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were simple by product coke ovens that heated bituminous coal in air tight chambers The gas driven off from the coal was collected and distributed through networks of pipes to residences and other buildings where it was used for cooking and lighting Gas heating did not come into widespread use until the last half of the 20th century The coal tar or asphalt that collected in the bottoms of the gashouse ovens was often used for roofing and other waterproofing purposes and when mixed with sand and gravel was used for paving streets Crystallized natural gas clathrates Edit Huge quantities of natural gas primarily methane exist in the form of clathrates under sediment on offshore continental shelves and on land in arctic regions that experience permafrost such as those in Siberia Hydrates require a combination of high pressure and low temperature to form In 2013 Japan Oil Gas and Metals National Corporation JOGMEC announced that they had recovered commercially relevant quantities of natural gas from methane hydrate 43 Processing EditMain article Natural gas processing Natural gas processing plant in Aderklaa Lower Austria The image below is a schematic block flow diagram of a typical natural gas processing plant It shows the various unit processes used to convert raw natural gas into sales gas pipelined to the end user markets The block flow diagram also shows how processing of the raw natural gas yields byproduct sulfur byproduct ethane and natural gas liquids NGL propane butanes and natural gasoline denoted as pentanes 44 45 46 47 Schematic flow diagram of a typical natural gas processing plantDemand EditSee also Gas depletion Natural gas extraction by countries in cubic meters per year around 2013The examples and perspective in this section deal primarily with US and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject You may improve this section discuss the issue on the talk page or create a new section as appropriate October 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message As of mid 2020 natural gas production in the US had peaked three times with current levels exceeding both previous peaks It reached 24 1 trillion cubic feet per year in 1973 followed by a decline and reached 24 5 trillion cubic feet in 2001 After a brief drop withdrawals increased nearly every year since 2006 owing to the shale gas boom with 2017 production at 33 4 trillion cubic feet and 2019 production at 40 7 trillion cubic feet After the third peak in December 2019 extraction continued to fall from March onward due to decreased demand caused by the COVID 19 pandemic in the US 48 The 2021 global energy crisis was driven by a global surge in demand as the world quit the economic recession caused by COVID 19 particularly due to strong energy demand in Asia 49 Storage and transport EditSee also List of natural gas pipelines Polyethylene plastic main being placed in a trench Construction close to high pressure gas transmission pipelines is discouraged often with standing warning signs 50 This section needs to be updated The reason given is change in transport from Russia Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information May 2022 Because of its low density it is not easy to store natural gas or to transport it by vehicle Natural gas pipelines are impractical across oceans since the gas needs to be cooled down and compressed as the friction in the pipeline causes the gas to heat up Many existing pipelines in the US are close to reaching their capacity prompting some politicians representing northern states to speak of potential shortages The large trade cost implies that natural gas markets are globally much less integrated causing significant price differences across countries In Western Europe the gas pipeline network is already dense 51 better source needed full citation needed New pipelines are planned or under construction in Eastern Europe and between gas fields in Russia Near East and Northern Africa and Western Europe citation needed Whenever gas is bought or sold at custody transfer points rules and agreements are made regarding the gas quality These may include the maximum allowable concentration of CO2 H2 S and H2 O Usually sales quality gas that has been treated to remove contamination is traded on a dry gas basis and is required to be commercially free from objectionable odours materials and dust or other solid or liquid matter waxes gums and gum forming constituents which might damage or adversely affect operation of equipment downstream of the custody transfer point LNG carriers transport liquefied natural gas LNG across oceans while tank trucks can carry liquefied or compressed natural gas CNG over shorter distances 52 Sea transport using CNG carrier ships that are now under development may be competitive with LNG transport in specific conditions citation needed Gas is turned into liquid at a liquefaction plant and is returned to gas form at regasification plant at the terminal Shipborne regasification equipment is also used LNG is the preferred form for long distance high volume transportation of natural gas whereas pipeline is preferred for transport for distances up to 4 000 km 2 500 mi over land and approximately half that distance offshore CNG is transported at high pressure typically above 200 bars 20 000 kPa 2 900 psi Compressors and decompression equipment are less capital intensive and may be economical in smaller unit sizes than liquefaction regasification plants Natural gas trucks and carriers may transport natural gas directly to end users or to distribution points such as pipelines Peoples Gas Manlove Field natural gas storage area in Newcomb Township Champaign County Illinois In the foreground left is one of the numerous wells for the underground storage area with an LNG plant and above ground storage tanks are in the background right In the past the natural gas which was recovered in the course of recovering petroleum could not be profitably sold and was simply burned at the oil field in a process known as flaring Flaring is now illegal in many countries 53 Additionally higher demand in the last 20 30 years has made production of gas associated with oil economically viable As a further option the gas is now sometimes re injected into the formation for enhanced oil recovery by pressure maintenance as well as miscible or immiscible flooding Conservation re injection or flaring of natural gas associated with oil is primarily dependent on proximity to markets pipelines and regulatory restrictions Natural gas can be indirectly exported through the absorption in other physical output A recent study suggests that the expansion of shale gas production in the US has caused prices to drop relative to other countries This has caused a boom in energy intensive manufacturing sector exports whereby the average dollar unit of US manufacturing exports has almost tripled its energy content between 1996 and 2012 54 A master gas system was invented in Saudi Arabia in the late 1970s ending any necessity for flaring Satellite and nearby infra red camera observations however shows that flaring 55 56 57 58 and venting 59 are still happening in some countries Natural gas is used to generate electricity and heat for desalination Similarly some landfills that also discharge methane gases have been set up to capture the methane and generate electricity Natural gas is often stored underground references about geological storage needed inside depleted gas reservoirs from previous gas wells salt domes or in tanks as liquefied natural gas The gas is injected in a time of low demand and extracted when demand picks up Storage nearby end users helps to meet volatile demands but such storage may not always be practicable With 15 countries accounting for 84 of the worldwide extraction access to natural gas has become an important issue in international politics and countries vie for control of pipelines 60 In the first decade of the 21st century Gazprom the state owned energy company in Russia engaged in disputes with Ukraine and Belarus over the price of natural gas which have created concerns that gas deliveries to parts of Europe could be cut off for political reasons 61 The United States is preparing to export natural gas 62 Floating liquefied natural gas Edit Floating liquefied natural gas FLNG is an innovative technology designed to enable the development of offshore gas resources that would otherwise remain untapped due to environmental or economic factors which currently make them impractical to develop via a land based LNG operation FLNG technology also provides a number of environmental and economic advantages Environmental Because all processing is done at the gas field there is no requirement for long pipelines to shore compression units to pump the gas to shore dredging and jetty construction and onshore construction of an LNG processing plant which significantly reduces the environmental footprint 63 Avoiding construction also helps preserve marine and coastal environments In addition environmental disturbance will be minimised during decommissioning because the facility can easily be disconnected and removed before being refurbished and re deployed elsewhere Economic Where pumping gas to shore can be prohibitively expensive FLNG makes development economically viable As a result it will open up new business opportunities for countries to develop offshore gas fields that would otherwise remain stranded such as those offshore East Africa 64 Many gas and oil companies are considering the economic and environmental benefits of floating liquefied natural gas FLNG There are currently projects underway to construct five FLNG facilities Petronas is close to completion on their FLNG 1 65 at Daewoo Shipbuilding and Marine Engineering and are underway on their FLNG 2 project 66 at Samsung Heavy Industries Shell Prelude is due to start production 2017 67 The Browse LNG project will commence FEED in 2019 68 Uses EditNatural gas is primarily used in the northern hemisphere North America and Europe are major consumers Often well head gases require removal of various hydrocarbon molecules contained within the gas Some of these gases include heptane pentane propane and other hydrocarbons with molecular weights above methane CH4 The natural gas transmission lines extend to the natural gas processing plant or unit which removes the higher molecular weight hydrocarbons to produce natural gas with energy content between 35 39 megajoules per cubic metre 950 1 050 British thermal units per cubic foot The processed natural gas may then be used for residential commercial and industrial uses Mid stream natural gas Edit Natural gas flowing in the distribution lines is called mid stream natural gas and is often used to power engines which rotate compressors These compressors are required in the transmission line to pressurize and repressurize the mid stream natural gas as the gas travels Typically natural gas powered engines require 35 39 MJ m3 950 1 050 BTU cu ft natural gas to operate at the rotational name plate specifications 69 Several methods are used to remove these higher molecular weighted gases for use by the natural gas engine A few technologies are as follows Joule Thomson skid Cryogenic or chiller system Chemical enzymology system 69 Power generation Edit This section is an excerpt from Gas fired power plant edit A cogeneration plant in Berlin Share of electricity production from gas A gas fired power plant or gas fired power station or natural gas power plant is a thermal power station which burns natural gas to generate electricity Natural gas power stations generate almost a quarter of world electricity and a significant part of global greenhouse gas emissions and thus climate change 70 However they can provide seasonal dispatchable generation to balance variable renewable energy where hydropower or interconnectors are not available Domestic use Edit Manhole for domestic gas supply London UK Natural gas dispensed in a residential setting can generate temperatures in excess of 1 100 C 2 000 F making it a powerful domestic cooking and heating fuel 71 In much of the developed world it is supplied through pipes to homes where it is used for many purposes including ranges and ovens heating cooling and central heating 72 Heaters in homes and other buildings may include boilers furnaces and water heaters Both North America and Europe are major consumers of natural gas Domestic appliances furnaces and boilers use low pressure usually with a standard preassure around 1 7 kilopascals 0 25 psi over atmospheric preassure The pressures in the supply lines vary either the standard utilization pressure UP mentioned above or elevated pressure EP which may be anywhere from 7 to 800 kilopascals 1 to 120 psi over atmospheric preassure Systems using EP have a regulator at the service entrance to step down the pressure to UP citation needed Natural Gas Piping Systems inside buildings are often designed with pressures of 14 to 34 kilopascals 2 to 5 psi and have downstream pressure regulators to reduce pressure as needed The maximum allowable operating pressure for natural gas piping systems within a building is based on NFPA 54 National clarification needed Fuel Gas Code except when approved by the Public Safety Authority or when insurance companies have more stringent requirements Generally natural gas system pressures are not allowed to exceed 5 psig 34 5 kPa unless all of the following conditions are met The AHJ will allow a higher pressure The distribution pipe is welded Note 2 Some jurisdictions may also require that welded joints be radiographed to verify continuity The pipes are closed for protection and placed in a ventilated area that does not allow gas accumulation The pipe is installed in the areas used for industrial processes research storage or mechanical equipment rooms Generally a maximum liquefied petroleum gas pressure of 20 psig 138 kPa is allowed provided the building is used specifically for industrial or research purposes and is constructed in accordance with NFPA 58 Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code Chapter 7 73 A seismic earthquake valve operating at a pressure of 55 psig 3 7 bar can stop the flow of natural gas into the site wide natural gas distribution piping network that runs outdoors underground above building roofs and or within the upper supports of a canopy roof Seismic earthquake valves are designed for use at a maximum of 60 psig 74 75 In Australia natural gas is transported from gas processing facilities to regulator stations via Transmission pipelines Gas is then regulated down to distributed pressures and the gas is distributed around a gas network via gas mains Small branches from the network called services connect individual domestic dwellings or multi dwelling buildings to the network The networks typically range in pressures from 7 kPa low pressure to 515 kPa high pressure Gas is then regulated down to 1 1 kPa or 2 75 kPa before being metered and passed to the consumer for domestic use 76 Natural gas mains are made from a variety of materials historically cast iron though more modern mains are made from steel or polyethylene In the US compressed natural gas CNG is available in some rural areas as an alternative to less expensive and more abundant LPG liquefied petroleum gas the dominant source of rural gas It is used in homes lacking direct connections to public utility provided gas or to fuel portable grills Natural gas is also supplied by independent natural gas suppliers through Natural Gas Choice programs clarification needed throughout the United States A Washington D C Metrobus which runs on natural gas Transportation Edit CNG is a cleaner and also cheaper alternative to other automobile fuels such as gasoline petrol 77 By the end of 2014 there were over 20 million natural gas vehicles worldwide led by Iran 3 5 million China 3 3 million Pakistan 2 8 million Argentina 2 5 million India 1 8 million and Brazil 1 8 million 78 The energy efficiency is generally equal to that of gasoline engines but lower compared with modern diesel engines Gasoline petrol vehicles converted to run on natural gas suffer because of the low compression ratio of their engines resulting in a cropping of delivered power while running on natural gas 10 15 CNG specific engines however use a higher compression ratio due to this fuel s higher octane number of 120 130 79 Besides use in road vehicles CNG can also be used in aircraft 80 Compressed natural gas has been used in some aircraft like the Aviat Aircraft Husky 200 CNG 81 and the Chromarat VX 1 KittyHawk 82 LNG is also being used in aircraft Russian aircraft manufacturer Tupolev for instance is running a development program to produce LNG and hydrogen powered aircraft 83 The program has been running since the mid 1970s and seeks to develop LNG and hydrogen variants of the Tu 204 and Tu 334 passenger aircraft and also the Tu 330 cargo aircraft Depending on the current market price for jet fuel and LNG fuel for an LNG powered aircraft could cost 5 000 rubles US 100 less per tonne roughly 60 with considerable reductions to carbon monoxide hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxide emissions citation needed The advantages of liquid methane as a jet engine fuel are that it has more specific energy than the standard kerosene mixes do and that its low temperature can help cool the air which the engine compresses for greater volumetric efficiency in effect replacing an intercooler Alternatively it can be used to lower the temperature of the exhaust citation needed Fertilizers Edit See also 2007 2008 world food price crisis Natural gas is a major feedstock for the production of ammonia via the Haber process for use in fertilizer production 72 84 The development of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer has significantly supported global population growth it has been estimated that almost half the people on the Earth are currently fed as a result of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer use 85 86 Hydrogen Edit See also Industrial gas Natural gas can be used to produce hydrogen with one common method being the hydrogen reformer Hydrogen has many applications it is a primary feedstock for the chemical industry a hydrogenating agent an important commodity for oil refineries and the fuel source in hydrogen vehicles Animal and fish feed Edit Protein rich animal and fish feed is produced by feeding natural gas to Methylococcus capsulatus bacteria on commercial scale 87 88 89 Other Edit Natural gas is also used in the manufacture of fabrics glass steel plastics paint synthetic oil and other products 90 The first step in the valorization of natural gas components is usually the clarification needed of the alkane into olefin The oxidative dehydrogenation of ethane leads to ethylene which can be converted forther to ethylene epoxide ethylene glycol acetaldehyde or other olefins Propane can be converted to propylene or can be oxidized to acrylic acid and acrylonitrile Environmental effects EditSee also Environmental impact of the energy industry Greenhouse effect and natural gas release Edit See also Greenhouse effect Atmospheric methane Gas venting and Fugitive gas emissions The warming influence called radiative forcing of long lived greenhouse gases has nearly doubled in 40 years with carbon dioxide and methane being the dominant drivers of global warming 91 Human activity is responsible for about 60 of all methane emissions and for most of the resulting increase in atmospheric methane 92 93 94 Natural gas is intentionally released or is otherwise known to leak during the extraction storage transportation and distribution of fossil fuels Globally methane accounts for an estimated 33 of anthropogenic greenhouse gas warming 95 The decomposition of municipal solid waste a source of landfill gas and wastewater account for an additional 18 of such emissions These estimates include substantial uncertainties 96 which should be reduced in the near future with improved satellite measurements such as those planned for MethaneSAT 11 After release to the atmosphere methane is removed by gradual oxidation to carbon dioxide and water by hydroxyl radicals OH formed in the troposphere or stratosphere giving the overall chemical reaction CH4 2O2 CO2 2H2 O 97 98 While the lifetime of atmospheric methane is relatively short when compared to carbon dioxide 99 with a half life of about 7 years it is more efficient at trapping heat in the atmosphere so that a given quantity of methane has 84 times the global warming potential of carbon dioxide over a 20 year period and 28 times over a 100 year period Natural gas is thus a potent greenhouse gas due to the strong radiative forcing of methane in the short term and the continuing effects of carbon dioxide in the longer term 94 Targeted efforts to reduce warming quickly by reducing anthropogenic methane emissions is a climate change mitigation strategy supported by the Global Methane Initiative 95 Greenhouse gas emissions Edit When refined and burned natural gas can produce 25 30 less carbon dioxide per joule delivered than oil and 40 45 less than coal 100 It can also produce potentially fewer toxic pollutants than other hydrocarbon fuels 100 101 However compared to other major fossil fuels natural gas causes more emissions in relative terms during the production and transportation of the fuel meaning that the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions are about 50 higher than the direct emissions from the site of consumption 102 103 In terms of the warming effect over 100 years natural gas production and use comprises about one fifth of human greenhouse gas emissions and this contribution is growing rapidly Globally natural gas use emitted about 7 8 billion tons of CO2 in 2020 including flaring while coal and oil use emitted 14 4 and 12 billion tons respectively 104 The IEA estimates the energy sector oil natural gas coal and bioenergy to be responsible for about 40 of human methane emissions 105 According to the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report natural gas consumption grew by 15 between 2015 and 2019 compared to a 5 increase in oil and oil product consumption 106 The continued financing and construction of new gas pipelines indicates that huge emissions of fossil greenhouse gases could be locked in for 40 to 50 years into the future 107 In the U S state of Texas alone five new long distance gas pipelines have been under construction with the first entering service in 2019 108 and the others scheduled to come online during 2020 2022 109 23 To reduce its greenhouse emissions the Netherlands is subsidizing a transition away from natural gas for all homes in the country by 2050 In Amsterdam no new residential gas accounts have been allowed since 2018 and all homes in the city are expected to be converted by 2040 to use the excess heat from adjacent industrial buildings and operations 110 Some cities in the United States have started prohibiting gas hookups for new houses with state laws passed and under consideration to either require electrification or prohibit local requirements 111 The UK government is also experimenting with alternative home heating technologies to meet its climate goals 112 To preserve their businesses natural gas utilities in the United States have been lobbying for laws preventing local electrification ordinances and are promoting renewable natural gas and hydrogen fuel 113 Other pollutants Edit Although natural gas produces far lower amounts of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides NOx than other fossil fuels 101 NOx from burning natural gas in homes can be a health hazard 114 Radionuclides Edit Natural gas extraction also produces radioactive isotopes of polonium Po 210 lead Pb 210 and radon Rn 220 Radon is a gas with initial activity from 5 to 200 000 becquerels per cubic meter of gas It decays rapidly to Pb 210 which can build up as a thin film in gas extraction equipment 115 Safety concerns Edit A pipeline odorant injection stationThe natural gas extraction workforce face unique health and safety challenges 116 117 Production Edit Some gas fields yield sour gas containing hydrogen sulfide H2 S a toxic compound when inhaled Amine gas treating an industrial scale process which removes acidic gaseous components is often used to remove hydrogen sulfide from natural gas 118 Extraction of natural gas or oil leads to decrease in pressure in the reservoir Such decrease in pressure in turn may result in subsidence sinking of the ground above Subsidence may affect ecosystems waterways sewer and water supply systems foundations and so on 119 Fracking Edit Main article Environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing Releasing natural gas from subsurface porous rock formations may be accomplished by a process called hydraulic fracturing or fracking Since the first commercial hydraulic fracturing operation in 1949 approximately one million wells have been hydraulically fractured in the United States 120 The production of natural gas from hydraulically fractured wells has used the technological developments of directional and horizontal drilling which improved access to natural gas in tight rock formations 121 Strong growth in the production of unconventional gas from hydraulically fractured wells occurred between 2000 and 2012 122 In hydraulic fracturing well operators force water mixed with a variety of chemicals through the wellbore casing into the rock The high pressure water breaks up or fracks the rock which releases gas from the rock formation Sand and other particles are added to the water as a proppant to keep the fractures in the rock open thus enabling the gas to flow into the casing and then to the surface Chemicals are added to the fluid to perform such functions as reducing friction and inhibiting corrosion After the frack oil or gas is extracted and 30 70 of the frack fluid i e the mixture of water chemicals sand etc flows back to the surface Many gas bearing formations also contain water which will flow up the wellbore to the surface along with the gas in both hydraulically fractured and non hydraulically fractured wells This produced water often has a high content of salt and other dissolved minerals that occur in the formation 123 The volume of water used to hydraulically fracture wells varies according to the hydraulic fracturing technique In the United States the average volume of water used per hydraulic fracture has been reported as nearly 7 375 gallons for vertical oil and gas wells prior to 1953 nearly 197 000 gallons for vertical oil and gas wells between 2000 and 2010 and nearly 3 million gallons for horizontal gas wells between 2000 and 2010 124 Determining which fracking technique is appropriate for well productivity depends largely on the properties of the reservoir rock from which to extract oil or gas If the rock is characterized by low permeability which refers to its ability to let substances i e gas pass through it then the rock may be considered a source of tight gas 125 Fracking for shale gas which is currently also known as a source of unconventional gas involves drilling a borehole vertically until it reaches a lateral shale rock formation at which point the drill turns to follow the rock for hundreds or thousands of feet horizontally 126 In contrast conventional oil and gas sources are characterized by higher rock permeability which naturally enables the flow of oil or gas into the wellbore with less intensive hydraulic fracturing techniques than the production of tight gas has required 127 128 The decades in development of drilling technology for conventional and unconventional oil and gas production have not only improved access to natural gas in low permeability reservoir rocks but also posed significant adverse impacts on environmental and public health 129 130 131 132 The US EPA has acknowledged that toxic carcinogenic chemicals i e benzene and ethylbenzene have been used as gelling agents in water and chemical mixtures for high volume horizontal fracturing HVHF 133 Following the hydraulic fracture in HVHF the water chemicals and frack fluid that return to the well s surface called flowback or produced water may contain radioactive materials heavy metals natural salts and hydrocarbons which exist naturally in shale rock formations 134 Fracking chemicals radioactive materials heavy metals and salts that are removed from the HVHF well by well operators are so difficult to remove from the water they are mixed with and would so heavily pollute the water cycle that most of the flowback is either recycled into other fracking operations or injected into deep underground wells eliminating the water that HVHF required from the hydrologic cycle 135 Historically low gas prices have delayed the nuclear renaissance as well as the development of solar thermal energy 136 Added odor Edit Natural gas in its native state is colorless and almost odorless In order to assist consumers in detecting leaks an odorizer with a scent similar to rotten eggs tert Butylthiol t butyl mercaptan is added Sometimes a related compound thiophane may be used in the mixture Situations in which an odorant that is added to natural gas can be detected by analytical instrumentation but cannot be properly detected by an observer with a normal sense of smell have occurred in the natural gas industry This is caused by odor masking when one odorant overpowers the sensation of another As of 2011 the industry is conducting research on the causes of odor masking 137 needs update Risk of explosion Edit Gas network emergency vehicle responding to a major fire in Kyiv Ukraine Explosions caused by natural gas leaks occur a few times each year Individual homes small businesses and other structures are most frequently affected when an internal leak builds up gas inside the structure Leaks often result from excavation work such as when contractors dig and strike pipelines sometimes without knowing any damage resulted Frequently the blast is powerful enough to significantly damage a building but leave it standing In these cases the people inside tend to have minor to moderate injuries Occasionally the gas can collect in high enough quantities to cause a deadly explosion destroying one or more buildings in the process Many building codes now forbid the installation of gas pipes inside cavity walls or below floor boards to mitigate against this risk Gas usually dissipates readily outdoors but can sometimes collect in dangerous quantities if flow rates are high enough 138 However considering the tens of millions of structures that use the fuel the individual risk of using natural gas is low Risk of carbon monoxide inhalation Edit Natural gas heating systems may cause carbon monoxide poisoning if unvented or poorly vented Improvements in natural gas furnace designs have greatly reduced CO poisoning concerns Detectors are also available that warn of carbon monoxide or explosive gases such as methane and propane 139 Energy content statistics and pricing EditMain article Natural gas prices See also Billion cubic metres of natural gas Comparison of natural gas prices in Japan United Kingdom and United States 2007 2011This section needs to be updated Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information October 2022 Quantities of natural gas are measured in standard cubic meters cubic meter of gas at temperature 15 C 59 F and pressure 101 325 kPa 14 6959 psi or standard cubic feet cubic foot of gas at temperature 60 0 F and pressure 14 73 psi 101 6 kPa 1 standard cubic meter 35 301 standard cubic feet The gross heat of combustion of commercial quality natural gas is around 39 MJ m3 0 31 kWh cu ft but this can vary by several percent This is about 50 to 54 MJ kg depending on the density 140 141 For comparison the heat of combustion of pure methane is 37 7 MJ per standard cubic metre or 55 5 MJ kg Except in the European Union the U S and Canada natural gas is sold in gigajoule retail units LNG liquefied natural gas and LPG liquefied petroleum gas are traded in metric tonnes 1 000 kg or million BTU as spot deliveries Long term natural gas distribution contracts are signed in cubic meters and LNG contracts are in metric tonnes The LNG and LPG is transported by specialized transport ships as the gas is liquified at cryogenic temperatures The specification of each LNG LPG cargo will usually contain the energy content but this information is in general not available to the public The European Union aims to cut its gas dependency on Russia by two thirds in 2022 142 In August 2015 possibly the largest natural gas discovery in history was made and notified by an Italian gas company ENI The energy company indicated that it has unearthed a supergiant gas field in the Mediterranean Sea covering about 40 square miles 100 km2 This was named the Zohr gas field and could hold a potential 30 trillion cubic feet 850 billion cubic meters of natural gas ENI said that the energy is about 5 5 billion barrels of oil equivalent BOE 3 4 1010 GJ The Zohr field was found in the deep waters off the northern coast of Egypt and ENI claims that it will be the largest ever in the Mediterranean and even the world 143 European Union Edit Gas prices for end users vary greatly across the EU 144 A single European energy market one of the key objectives of the EU should level the prices of gas in all EU member states Moreover it would help to resolve supply and global warming issues 145 as well as strengthen relations with other Mediterranean countries and foster investments in the region 146 Qatar has been asked by the US to supply emergency gas to the EU in case of supply disruptions in the Russo Ukrainian crisis 147 United States Edit US Natural Gas Marketed Production 1900 to 2012 US EIA data Trends in the top five natural gas producing countries US EIA data In US units one standard cubic foot 28 L of natural gas produces around 1 028 British thermal units 1 085 kJ The actual heating value when the water formed does not condense is the net heat of combustion and can be as much as 10 less 148 In the United States retail sales are often in units of therms th 1 therm 100 000 BTU Gas sales to domestic consumers are often in units of 100 standard cubic feet scf Gas meters measure the volume of gas used and this is converted to therms by multiplying the volume by the energy content of the gas used during that period which varies slightly over time The typical annual consumption of a single family residence is 1 000 therms or one Residential Customer Equivalent RCE Wholesale transactions are generally done in decatherms Dth thousand decatherms MDth or million decatherms MMDth A million decatherms is a trillion BTU roughly a billion cubic feet of natural gas The price of natural gas varies greatly depending on location and type of consumer The typical caloric value of natural gas is roughly 1 000 BTU per cubic foot depending on gas composition Natural gas in the United States is traded as a futures contract on the New York Mercantile Exchange Each contract is for 10 000 million BTU or 10 billion BTU 10 551 GJ Thus if the price of gas is 10 million BTU on the NYMEX the contract is worth 100 000 Canada Edit This section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed October 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message Canada uses metric measure for internal trade of petrochemical products Consequently natural gas is sold by the gigajoule GJ cubic meter m3 or thousand cubic meters E3m3 Distribution infrastructure and meters almost always meter volume cubic foot or cubic meter Some jurisdictions such as Saskatchewan sell gas by volume only Other jurisdictions such as Alberta gas is sold by the energy content GJ In these areas almost all meters for residential and small commercial customers measure volume m3 or ft3 and billing statements include a multiplier to convert the volume to energy content of the local gas supply A gigajoule GJ is a measure approximately equal to 80 litres 0 5 barrels of oil or 28 m3 or 1 000 cu ft or 1 million BTUs of gas The energy content of gas supply in Canada can vary from 37 to 43 MJ m3 990 to 1 150 BTU cu ft depending on gas supply and processing between the wellhead and the customer Adsorbed natural gas ANG EditNatural gas may be stored by adsorbing it to the porous solids called sorbents The optimal condition for methane storage is at room temperature and atmospheric pressure Pressures up to 4 MPa about 40 times atmospheric pressure will yield greater storage capacity The most common sorbent used for ANG is activated carbon AC primarily in three forms Activated Carbon Fiber ACF Powdered Activated Carbon PAC and activated carbon monolith 149 See also Edit Energy portal Renewable energy portalAssociated petroleum gas Energy transition Gas oil ratio Natural gas by country Peak gas Power to gas Renewable natural gas World energy resources and consumptionReferences Edit Background Naturalgas org Archived from the original on 9 July 2014 Retrieved 14 July 2012 Why Does Natural Gas Smell Like Rotten Eggs Metropolitan Utilities District How Natural Gas Is Formed 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Overview United States Department of Transport Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration Retrieved 22 July 2021 US Consumer Product Safety Commission Non Fire Carbon Monoxide Deaths 2011 Annual Estimate September 2014 Gas Density Molecular Weight and Density PDF teknopoli Range calculated from Robert Perry and Cecil Chilton ed 1973 Chemical Engineers Handbook p 9 12 EU unveils plan to reduce Russia energy dependency DW COM 8 February 2022 Retrieved 8 March 2022 Goldman David 30 August 2015 Natural gas discovery could be largest ever CNN Money Energy Prices Report Europe s Energy Portal Retrieved 11 June 2015 Market analysis European Commission Retrieved 11 June 2015 Farah Paolo Davide 2015 Offshore Natural Gas Resources in the Eastern Mediterranean in the Relations to the European Union A Legal Perspective through the Lenses of MedReg Journal of World Energy Law and Business 8 8 SSRN 2695964 Reuters 1 February 2022 Qatar seeks EU guarantee not to resell emergency gas Jerusalem Post website Retrieved 1 February 2022 Heat value definitions WSU website Retrieved 2008 05 19 Adsorbed Natural Gas scopeWe a Virtual Engineer Archived from the original on 9 November 2013 Retrieved 11 June 2015 Further reading EditBlanchard Charles 2020 The Extraction State A History of Natural Gas in America U of Pittsburgh Press online review External links EditGlobal Fossil Infrastructure Tracker Carbon Mapper Data Portal featuring methane point source data Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Natural gas amp oldid 1132451338, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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