fbpx
Wikipedia

Energy transition

January 01, 1970

An energy transition (or energy system transformation) is a major structural change to energy supply and consumption in an energy system. Currently, a transition to sustainable energy is underway to limit climate change. As much sustainable energy is renewable it is also known as the renewable energy transition. The current transition aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from energy quickly and sustainably, mostly by phasing-down fossil fuels and changing as many processes as possible to operate on low carbon electricity.[2] A previous energy transition perhaps took place during the Industrial Revolution from 1760 onwards, from wood and other biomass to coal, followed by oil and later natural gas.[3][4]

Progress of current energy transition to renewable energy: Fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas still remain the world's primary energy sources, even as renewables are increasing in use.[1]

Over three-quarters of the world's energy needs are met by burning fossil fuels, but this usage emits greenhouse gases.[5] Energy production and consumption are responsible for most human-caused greenhouse gas emissions.[6] To meet the goals of the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change, emissions must be reduced as soon as possible and reach net-zero by mid-century.[7] Since the late 2010s, the renewable energy transition has also been driven by the rapidly falling cost of both solar and wind power.[8] Another aim for the energy transition is to reduce the health and environmental impacts of the energy industry.[9] Those impacts are not only about climate change but also about human toxicity, resource use, deaths from air pollution, and others.[9]: 49 

Heating of buildings is being electrified, with heat pumps being the most efficient technology by far.[10] To improve the flexibility of electrical grids, the installation of energy storage and super grids are vital to enable the use of variable, weather-dependent technologies.[11] However fossil-fuel subsidies are slowing the energy transition.[12][13]

Definition edit

An energy transition is a broad shift in technologies and behaviours that are needed to replace one source of energy with another.[14]: 202–203  A prime example is the change from a pre-industrial system relying on traditional biomass, wind, water and muscle power to an industrial system characterized by pervasive mechanization, steam power and the use of coal.

The IPCC does not define energy transition in the glossary of its Sixth Assessment Report but it does define transition as: "The process of changing from one state or condition to another in a given period of time. Transition can occur in individuals, firms, cities, regions and nations, and can be based on incremental or transformative change."[15]

Development of the term edit

After the 1973 oil crisis, the term energy transition was coined by politicians and media. It was popularised by US President Jimmy Carter in his 1977 Address on the Nation on Energy, calling to "look back into history to understand our energy problem. Twice in the last several hundred years, there has been a transition in the way people use energy ... Because we are now running out of gas and oil, we must prepare quickly for a third change to strict conservation and to the renewed use of coal and to permanent renewable energy sources like solar power."[16] The term was later globalised after the 1979 second oil shock, during the 1981 United Nations Conference on New and Renewable Sources of Energy.[17]

From the 1990s, debates on energy transition have increasingly taken climate change mitigation into account. Parties to the agreement committed "to limit global warming to "well below 2 °C, preferably 1.5 °C compared to pre-industrial levels".[18] This requires a rapid energy transition with a downshift of fossil fuel production to stay within the carbon emissions budget.[19]

 
Example of Distributed generation use of renewable energies: Agricultural business with biogas plant and photovoltaic roof

In this context, the term energy transition encompasses a reorientation of energy policy. This could imply a shift from centralized to distributed generation. It also includes attempts to replace overproduction and avoidable energy consumption with energy-saving measures and increased efficiency.[20]

The historical transitions from locally-supplied wood, water and wind energies to globally supplied fossil and nuclear fuels has induced growth in end-use demand through the rapid expansion of engineering research, education and standardisation. The mechanisms for the whole-systems changes include new discipline in Transition Engineering amongst all engineering professions, entrepreneurs, researchers and educators.[21]

Examples of past energy transitions edit

 
Over centuries, energy consumption has evolved from burning wood to fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas), and in recent decades to using nuclear, hydroelectric and other renewable energy sources.[22]

Historic approaches to past energy transitions are shaped by two main discourses. One argues that humankind experienced several energy transitions in its past, while the other suggests the term "energy additions" as better reflecting the changes in global energy supply in the last three centuries.

The chronologically first discourse was most broadly described by Vaclav Smil.[23] It underlines the change in the energy mix of countries and the global economy. By looking at data in percentages of the primary energy source used in a given context, it paints a picture of the world's energy systems as having changed significantly over time, going from biomass to coal, to oil, and now a mix of mostly coal, oil and natural gas. Until the 1950s, the economic mechanism behind energy systems was local rather than global.[24]

The second discourse was most broadly described by Jean-Baptiste Fressoz.[25] It emphasises that the term "energy transition" was first used by politicians, not historians, to describe a goal to achieve in the future – not as a concept to analyse past trends. When looking at the sheer amount of energy being used by humankind, the picture is one of ever-increasing consumption of all the main energy sources available to humankind.[26] For instance, the increased use of coal in the 19th century did not replace wood consumption, indeed more wood was burned. Another example is the deployment of passenger cars in the 20th century. This evolution triggered an increase in both oil consumption (to drive the car) and coal consumption (to make the steel needed for the car). In other words, according to this approach, humankind never performed a single energy transition in its history but performed several energy additions.

Contemporary energy transitions differ in terms of motivation and objectives, drivers and governance. As development progressed, different national systems became more and more integrated becoming the large, international systems seen today. Historical changes of energy systems have been extensively studied.[27] While historical energy changes were generally protracted affairs, unfolding over many decades, this does not necessarily hold true for the present energy transition, which is unfolding under very different policy and technological conditions.[28]

For current energy systems, many lessons can be learned from history.[29][30][obsolete source] [dubious – discuss]The need for large amounts of firewood in early industrial processes in combination with prohibitive costs for overland transportation led to a scarcity of accessible (e.g. affordable) wood, and eighteenth century glass-works "operated like a forest clearing enterprise".[31] When Britain had to resort to coal after largely having run out of wood, the resulting fuel crisis triggered a chain of events that two centuries later culminated in the Industrial Revolution.[32][33] Similarly, increased use of peat and coal were vital elements paving the way for the Dutch Golden Age, roughly spanning the entire 17th century.[34] Another example where resource depletion triggered technological innovation and a shift to new energy sources is 19th century whaling: whale oil eventually became replaced by kerosene and other petroleum-derived products.[35] To speed up the energy transition it is also conceivable that there will be government buyouts or bailouts of coal mining regions.[36]

Drivers for current energy transition edit

Drivers for transition to renewable energy
 
With increasing adoption of renewable energy sources, costs have declined, most notably for energy generated by solar panels.[37][38] (Levelized cost of energy (LCOE) is a measure of the average net present cost of electricity generation for a generating plant over its lifetime.)
 
Deaths caused as a result of fossil fuel electricity generation (areas of rectangles in chart) greatly exceed those resulting from production of renewable energy (rectangles barely visible in chart).[39]

Health edit

See also: Health and environmental impact of the coal industry and Health and environmental impact of the petroleum industry

A 2023 study estimated that fossil fuels kill over 5 million people each year, as of 2019,[40] by causing diseases such as heart attack, stroke and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.[41] Particulate air pollution kills by far the most, followed by ground-level ozone.[42]

Climate change mitigation and co-benefits edit

A rapid energy transition to very-low or zero-carbon sources is required to mitigate the effects of climate change.[43]: 66 [44]: 11  Coal, oil and gas combustion account for 89% of CO2 emissions[45]: 20  and still provide 78% of primary energy consumption.[46]: 12 

In spite of the knowledge about the risks of climate change since the 1980s and the vanishing carbon budget for a 1.5 °C path, the global deployment of renewable energy could not catch up with the increasing energy demand for many years.[citation needed] Coal, oil and gas were cheaper. Only in countries with special tariffs and subsidies, wind and solar power gained a considerable share, limited to the power sector.[citation needed]

The deployment of renewable energy can also include co-benefits of climate change mitigation: positive socio-economic effects on employment, industrial development, health and energy access. Depending on the country and the deployment scenario, replacing coal power plants can more than double the number of jobs per average MW capacity.[47] The energy transition could create many green jobs,[48] for example in Africa.[49][50] The costs for retraining workers for the renewable energy industry was found to be trivial for both coal[51] in the U.S. and oil sands in Canada.[52] The latter of which would only demand 2–6% of federal, provincial, and territorial oil and gas subsidies for a single year to be reallocated to provide oil and gas workers with a new career of approximately equivalent pay.[52][53] In non-electrified rural areas, the deployment of solar mini-grids can significantly improve electricity access.[54]

Employment opportunities by the green transition are associated with the use of renewable energy sources or building activity for infrastructure improvements and renovations.[55][56]

Cost competitiveness of renewable energies edit

From 2010 to 2019, the competitiveness of wind and solar power substantially increased. Unit costs of solar energy dropped sharply by 85%, wind energy by 55%, and lithium-ion batteries by 85%.[57]: 11  This has made wind and solar power the cheapest form for new installations in many regions. Levelized costs for combined onshore wind or solar with storage for a few hours are already lower than for gas peaking power plants.[58] In 2021, the new electricity generating capacity of renewables exceeded 80% of all installed power.[59]

Energy security edit

Another important driver is energy security and independence, with increasing importance in Europe and Taiwan[60] because of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.[61] Unlike Europes 2010s dependance on Russian gas, even if China stops supplying solar panels those already installed continue generating electricity.[62] Militaries are using and developing electric vehicles, particularly for their stealthiness,[63] but not tanks.[64] As of 2023 renewable energy in Taiwan is far too small to help in a blockade.[65]

Centralised facilities such as oil refineries[66] and thermal power plants can be put out of action by air attack, whereas although solar can be attacked[67] decentralised power such as solar and wind[68] may be less vulnerable.[69][70] Solar and batteries reduces risky fuel convoys.[71][72] However large hydropower plants are vulnerable.[73] Some say that nuclear power plants are unlikely to be military targets,[74] but others conclude that civil NPPs in war zones can be weaponised and exploited by the hostile forces not only for impeding energy supplies (and thus shattering the public morale of the adversary) but also for blackmailing and coercing the decisionmakers of the attacked state and their international allies with a vision of man-made nuclear disaster.[75]

Short-term solutions edit

Pope Francis acknowledges in his 2015 encyclical letter Laudato si', that finding short-term solutions and migrating for now to "less harmful" alternatives is a morally legitimate option, considering that greater global progress is needed to identify workable long-term solutions, and that "the international community has still not reached adequate agreements about the responsibility for paying the costs of ... energy transition".[76]

Key technologies and approaches edit

Further information: Sustainable energy § Energy system transformation

The emissions reductions necessary to keep global warming below 2 °C will require a system-wide transformation of the way energy is produced, distributed, stored, and consumed.[77] For a society to replace one form of energy with another, multiple technologies and behaviours in the energy system must change.[14]: 202–203 

Many climate change mitigation pathways envision three main aspects of a low-carbon energy system:

  • The use of low-emission energy sources to produce electricity
  • Electrification – that is increased use of electricity instead of directly burning fossil fuels
  • Accelerated adoption of energy efficiency measures[78]: 7.11.3 

Renewable energy edit

Main article: Renewable energy
 
 
 
 
Examples of renewable energy options: concentrated solar power with molten salt heat storage in Spain; wind energy in South Africa; the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River in China; biomass energy plant in Scotland.
Investment
 
Companies, governments and households have committed increasing amounts to decarbonization, including solar, wind, electric vehicles, charging infrastructure, storage, heating systems, CCS and hydrogen.[79][80]
 
Bloomberg NEF reported that in 2022, global energy transition investment equaled fossil fuels investment for the first time.[81]
Growth in capacity
 
Renewable energy sources provide an increasing share of overall power capacity.[82]
 
Renewable energy capacity has steadily grown, led by solar photovoltaic power.[83]
 
In 2023, electricity generation from wind and solar sources was projected to exceed 30% by 2030, as fossil fuels' use continues to decline.[84]
 
Rechargeable battery prices for electric vehicles fell, given economies of scale and new cell chemistries improving energy density.[85] However, general inflationary pressures, and rising costs of raw materials and components, inhibited price declines in the early 2020s.[85]

The most important energy sources in the low carbon energy transition are wind power and solar power. They could reduce net emissions by 4 billion tons CO2 equivalent per year each, half of it with lower net lifetime costs than the reference.[57]: 38  Other renewable energy sources include bioenergy, geothermal energy and tidal energy, but they currently have higher net lifetime costs.[57]: 38 

By 2022, hydroelectricity is the largest source of renewable electricity in the world, providing 16% of the world's total electricity in 2019.[86] However, because of its heavy dependence on geography and the generally high environmental and social impact of hydroelectric power plants, the growth potential of this technology is limited. Wind and solar power are considered more scalable, but still require vast quantities of land and materials. They have higher potential for growth.[87] These sources have grown nearly exponentially in recent decades thanks to rapidly decreasing costs. In 2019, wind power supplied 5.3% worldwide electricity while solar power supplied 2.6%.[86]

While production from most types of hydropower plants can be actively controlled, production from wind and solar power depends on the weather. Electrical grids must be extended and adjusted to avoid wastage. Dammed hydropower is a dispatchable source, while solar and wind are variable renewable energy sources. These sources require dispatchable backup generation or energy storage to provide continuous and reliable electricity. For this reason, storage technologies also play a key role in the renewable energy transition. As of 2020, the largest scale storage technology is pumped storage hydroelectricity, accounting for the great majority of energy storage capacity installed worldwide. Other important forms of energy storage are electric batteries and power to gas.

The "Electricity Grids and Secure Energy Transitions" report by the IEA emphasizes the necessity of increasing grid investments to over $600 billion annually by 2030, up from $300 billion, to accommodate the integration of renewable energy. By 2040, the grid must expand by more than 80 million kilometers to manage renewable sources, which are projected to account for over 80% of the global power capacity increase over the next two decades. Failure to enhance grid infrastructure timely could lead to an additional 58 gigatonnes of CO2 emissions by 2050, significantly risking a 2°C global temperature rise.[88][89]

Integration of variable renewable energy sources edit

Main article: Variable renewable energy
See also: Combined cycle hydrogen power plant and Hydrogen fuel cell power plant

With the integration of renewable energy, local electricity production is becoming more variable. It has been recommended that "coupling sectors, energy storage, smart grids, demand side management, sustainable biofuels, hydrogen electrolysis and derivatives will ultimately be needed to accommodate large shares of renewables in energy systems".[57]: 28  Fluctuations can be smoothened by combining wind and sun power and by extending electricity grids over large areas. This reduces the dependence on local weather conditions.

With highly variable prices, electricity storage and grid extension become more competitive. Researchers have found that "costs for accommodating the integration of variable renewable energy sources in electricity systems are expected to be modest until 2030".[57]: 39  Furthermore, "it will be more challenging to supply the entire energy system with renewable energy".[57]: 28 

Fast fluctuations increase with a high integration of wind and solar energy. They can be addressed by operating reserves. Large-scale batteries can react within seconds and are increasingly used to keep the electricity grid stable.

100% renewable energy edit

This section is an excerpt from 100% renewable energy.[edit]

100% renewable energy is the goal of the use renewable resources for all energy. 100% renewable energy for electricity, heating, cooling and transport is motivated by climate change, pollution and other environmental issues, as well as economic and energy security concerns. Shifting the total global primary energy supply to renewable sources requires a transition of the energy system, since most of today's energy is derived from non-renewable fossil fuels.

Research into this topic is fairly new, with very few studies published before 2009, but has gained increasing attention in recent years. The majority of studies show that a global transition to 100% renewable energy across all sectors – power, heat, transport and industry – is feasible and economically viable.[90][91][92][93][need quotation to verify] A cross-sectoral, holistic approach is seen as an important feature of 100% renewable energy systems and is based on the assumption "that the best solutions can be found only if one focuses on the synergies between the sectors" of the energy system such as electricity, heat, transport or industry.[94]

The main barriers to the widespread implementation of large-scale renewable energy and low-carbon energy strategies are seen to be primarily social and political rather than technological or economic.[95] According to the 2013 Post Carbon Pathways report, which reviewed many international studies, the key roadblocks are: climate change denial, the fossil fuels lobby, political inaction, unsustainable energy consumption, outdated energy infrastructure, and financial constraints.[96]

Nuclear power edit

 
Timeline of commissioned and decommissioned nuclear capacity since the 1950s[97]
Main article: Nuclear power

In the 1970s and 1980s, nuclear power gained a large share in some countries. In France and Slovakia more than half of the electrical power is still nuclear. It is a low carbon energy source but comes with risks and increasing costs. Since the late 1990s, deployment has slowed down. Decommissioning increases as many reactors are close to the end of their lifetime. Germany stopped its last three nuclear power plants by mid April 2023. On the other hand, the China General Nuclear Power Group is aiming for 200 GW by 2035, produced by 150 additional reactors.[98]

Artificial Intelligence in Energy Transition edit

Artificial intelligence (AI) is reshaping the energy sector by improving efficiency and sustainability. It's instrumental in reducing record-high CO2 emissions of 37.4 billion tonnes, enhancing cybersecurity, and facilitating predictive maintenance. Notable companies like Shell and SSE are deploying AI for tasks such as monitoring methane emissions and forecasting energy demand, respectively. AI's role extends to optimizing energy infrastructure design, leading to more reliable energy distribution. While AI is creating new job roles, like AI ethics officers and system modelers, there is a risk of traditional job displacement in areas such as manual inspections. The technology's predictive capabilities are improving safety and productivity for energy asset managers, and its data processing prowess is useful in energy trading and cybersecurity. As AI becomes more entrenched in the power sector, there's an increasing need for AI-skilled professionals, despite the potential automation of some tasks.[99]

Economic and geopolitical aspects edit

See also: Economics of climate change mitigation, Energy independence, Energy security and renewable technology, and Russia in the European energy sector
 
Countries that managed to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions (working towards a low-carbon economy) while still growing their economy. This is called eco-economic decoupling.

A shift in energy sources has the potential to redefine relations and dependencies between countries, stakeholders and companies. Countries or land owners with resources – fossil or renewable – face massive losses or gains depending on the development of any energy transition. In 2021, energy costs reached 13% of global gross domestic product.[100] Global rivalries have contributed to the driving forces of the economics behind the low carbon energy transition. Technological innovations developed within a country have the potential to become an economic force.[101]

Influences edit

 
Acceptance of wind and solar facilities in one's community is stronger among Democrats (blue), while acceptance of nuclear power plants is stronger among Republicans (red).[102]

The energy transition discussion is heavily influenced by contributions from the fossil fuel industries.[103] One way that oil companies are able to continue their work despite growing environmental, social and economic concerns is by lobbying local and national governments.

Historically, the fossil fuel lobby has been highly successful in limiting regulations. From 1988 to 2005, Exxon Mobil, one of the largest oil companies in the world, spent nearly $16 million in anti-climate change lobbying and providing misleading information about climate change to the general public.[104] The fossil fuel industry acquires significant support through the existing banking and investment structure.[105] The concept that the industry should no longer be financially supported has led to the social movement known as divestment. Divestment is defined as the removal of investment capital from stocks, bonds or funds in oil, coal and gas companies for both moral and financial reasons.[106]

Banks, investing firms, governments, universities, institutions and businesses are all being challenged with this new moral argument against their existing investments in the fossil fuel industry and many; such as Rockefeller Brothers Fund, the University of California, New York City and more; have begun making the shift to more sustainable, eco-friendly investments.[107]

In 2024 the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) projected that by 2050, over half of the world’s energy will be carried by electricity and over three-quarters of the global energy mix will be from renewables. Although overtaken by both biomass and clean hydrogen, fossil fuels were still projected to supply 12% of energy. The transition is expected to reshape geopolitical power by reducing reliance on long-distance fossil fuel trade and enhancing the importance of regional energy markets.[108]

Social and environmental aspects edit

Impacts edit

See also: Just transition

A renewable energy transition can present negative social impacts for some people who rely on the existing energy economy or who are affected by mining for minerals required for the transition. This has led to calls for a just transition, which the IPCC defines as, "A set of principles, processes and practices that aim to ensure that no people, workers, places, sectors, countries or regions are left behind in the transition from a high-carbon to a low carbon economy."[15]

Use of local energy sources may stabilise and stimulate some local economies,[109] create opportunities for energy trade between communities, states and regions,[110][need quotation to verify] and increase energy security.[111]

Coal mining is economically important in some regions, and a transition to renewables would decrease its viability and could have severe impacts on the communities that rely on this business.[112] Not only do these communities face energy poverty already,[need quotation to verify] but they also face economic collapse when the coal mining businesses move elsewhere or disappear altogether.[113] This broken system perpetuates the poverty and vulnerability that decreases the adaptive capacity of coal mining communities.[113] Potential mitigation could include expanding the program base[clarification needed] for vulnerable communities to assist with new training programs, opportunities for economic development and subsidies to assist with the transition.[114]

Increasing energy prices resulting from an energy transition may negatively impact developing countries including Vietnam and Indonesia.[115]

Increased mining for lithium, cobalt, nickel, copper, and other critical minerals needed for expansion of renewable energy infrastructure has created increased environmental conflict and environmental justice issues for some communities.[116][117]

Labour edit

A large portion of the global workforce works directly or indirectly for the fossil fuel economy.[118][need quotation to verify] Moreover, many other industries are currently dependent on unsustainable energy sources (such as the steel industry or cement and concrete industry). Transitioning these workforces during the rapid period of economic change requires considerable forethought and planning. The international labor movement has advocated for a just transition that addresses these concerns.

Recently,[119] an energy crisis is upon the nations of Europe as a result of dependence on Russia's natural gas, which was cut off during the Russia-Ukraine war. This goes to show that humanity is still heavily dependent on fossil fuel energy sources and care should be taken to have a smooth transition, less energy-shortage shocks cripple the very efforts to effectively energise the transition.

Risks and barriers edit

 
Net income of the global oil and gas industry reached a record US$4 trillion in 2022.[120] After the COVID-19 pandemic, energy company profits increased with higher fuel prices resulting from the Russian invasion of Ukraine, falling debt levels, tax write-downs of projects shut down in Russia, and backing off from earlier plans to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.[121]
 
Trucks' share of US vehicles produced, has tripled since 1975. Though vehicle fuel efficiency has increased within each category, the overall trend toward less efficient types of vehicles has offset some of the benefits of greater fuel economy and reduction in carbon dioxide emissions.[122] Without the shift towards SUVs, energy use per unit distance could have fallen 30% more than it did from 2010 to 2022.[123]

Amongst the key issues to consider in relation to the pace of the global transition to renewables is how well individual electric companies are able to adapt to the changing reality of the power sector. For example, to date, the uptake of renewables by electric utilities has remained slow, hindered by their continued investment in fossil fuel generation capacity.[124]

Incomplete regulations on clean energy uptake and concerns about electricity shortages have been identified as key barriers to the energy transition in coal-dependent, fast developing economies such as Vietnam.[115]

Examples by country edit

 
Global energy consumption by source (raw quantities)
 
Global energy consumption by source (percent share)
Marysville coal-fired power plant being demolished

From 2000–2012 coal was the source of energy with the total largest growth. The use of oil and natural gas also had considerable growth, followed by hydropower and renewable energy. Renewable energy grew at a rate faster than any other time in history during this period. The demand for nuclear energy decreased, in part due to fear mongering and inaccurate media portrayal of some nuclear disasters (Three Mile Island in 1979, Chernobyl in 1986, and Fukushima in 2011).[125][126] More recently, consumption of coal has declined relative to low carbon energy. Coal dropped from about 29% of the global total primary energy consumption in 2015 to 27% in 2017, and non-hydro renewables were up to about 4% from 2%.[127][needs update]

Asia edit

China edit

This section is an excerpt from Energy policy of China.[edit]
 
Most energy comes from coal
 
Development of carbon dioxide emissions
 
The 22,500 MW Three Gorges Dam hydroelectric power plant in China, the largest hydroelectric power station in the world.

China is both the world's largest energy consumer and the largest industrial country, and ensuring adequate energy supply to sustain economic growth has been a core concern of the Chinese Government since the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949.[128] Since the country's industrialization in the 1960s, China is currently the world's largest emitter of greenhouse gases, and coal in China is a major cause of global warming.[129] However, from 2010 to 2015 China reduced energy consumption per unit of GDP by 18%, and CO2 emissions per unit of GDP by 20%.[130] On a per-capita basis, China was only the world's 51st largest emitter of greenhouse gases in 2016.[131] China is also the world's largest renewable energy producer (see this article),[132] and the largest producer of hydroelectricity, solar power and wind power in the world. The energy policy of China is connected to its industrial policy, where the goals of China's industrial production dictate its energy demand managements.[133]   

Being a country that depends heavily on foreign petroleum import for both domestic consumption and as raw materials for light industry manufacturing, electrification is a huge component of the Chinese national energy policy. Details for the power sector are likely to be released winter 2021/22 for the 14th five-year plan,[134] and this is expected to determine whether the country builds more coal-fired power stations, and therefore whether global climate targets are likely to be met.[135]

India edit

India has set renewable energy goals to transition 50% [136] of its total energy consumption into renewable sources in the Paris climate accords. As of 2022 the Central Electricity Authority are well on track of achieving their goals, producing 160 GW electricity from clean sources like solar, wind, hydro power and nuclear power plants, this is 40% of its total capacity. India is ranked third on Ernst and Young's renewable energy country attractive index behind the USA and China.

Hydro electric power plants are a major part of India's energy infrastructure since the days of its independence in 1947. Former prime Minister Jawahar Lal Nehru called them the " temples of modern India" and believed them to be key drivers of modernity and industrialism for the nascent republic. Notable examples of hydro power stations include the 2400 MW Tehri hydropower complex, the 1960 MW Koyna hydroelectric project and the 1670 MW Srisailam Dam. Recently, India has given due importance to emerging renewable technologies like solar power plants and wind farms. They house 3 of the world's top 5 solar farms, including world's largest 2255 MW Bhadla Solar Park in and world's second-largest solar park of 2000 MW Pavgada Solar Park and 100 MW Kurnool Ultra mega solar park.

While there has been positive change, air pollution from coal still kills many people[137] and India has to cut down its reliance on traditional coal based power production as it still accounts for around 50% of its energy production. India is also moving towards its goal for electrification of the automotive industry,[138] aiming to have at least 30% EV ownership among private vehicles by 2030.

Vietnam edit

Vietnam has led the Southeast Asia in solar and wind uptake, achieving about 20 GW in 2022 from almost zero in 2017.[139] Thailand has the highest number of EV registrations, with 218,000 in 2022.[140] The energy transition in Southeast Asia can be summarized as: Challenging, achievable, and interdependent. This implies that while there are obstacles, feasibility largely relies on international support.[140]

Public demand for improved local environmental quality and government's aims to promote a green economy are found to be key drivers in Vietnam.[139]

Governments ambition to attract international support for green growth initiatives and public demand for a clean environment have been found to be drivers of the energy transition in developing countries, such as Vietnam.[141][142]

Europe edit

European Union edit

Main article: European Green Deal

The European Green Deal is a set of policy initiatives by the European Commission with the overarching aim of making Europe climate neutral in 2050.[143][144] An impact assessed plan will also be presented to increase the EU's greenhouse gas emission reductions target for 2030 to at least 50% and towards 55% compared with 1990 levels. The plan is to review each existing law on its climate merits, and also introduce new legislation on the circular economy, building renovation, biodiversity, farming and innovation.[144] The president of the European Commission, Ursula von der Leyen, stated that the European Green Deal would be Europe's "man on the Moon moment", as the plan would make Europe the first climate-neutral continent.[144]

A survey found that digitally advanced companies put more money into energy-saving strategies. In the European Union, 59% of companies that have made investments in both basic and advanced technologies have also invested in energy efficiency measures, compared to only 50% of US firms in the same category. Overall, there is a significant disparity between businesses' digital profiles and investments in energy efficiency.[145]

Germany edit

Main article: Energiewende
 
Gross generation of electricity by source in Germany 1990–2020

Germany has played an outsized role in the transition away from fossil fuels and nuclear power to renewables. The energy transition in Germany is known as die Energiewende (literally, "the energy turn") indicating a turn away from old fuels and technologies to new one. The key policy document outlining the Energiewende was published by the German government in September 2010, some six months before the Fukushima nuclear accident; legislative support was passed in September 2010.

The policy has been embraced by the German federal government and has resulted in a huge expansion of renewables, particularly wind power. Germany's share of renewables has increased from around 5% in 1999 to 17% in 2010, reaching close to the OECD average of 18% usage of renewables.[146] In 2022 Germany has a share of 46,2 % and surpassed the OECD average.[147] A large driver for this increase in the shares of renewables energy are decreases in cost of capital. Germany boasts some of the lowest cost of capitals for renewable solar and wind onshore energy worldwide. In 2021 the International Renewable Energy Agency reported capital costs of around 1.1% and 2.4% for solar and wind onshore.[148] This constitutes a significant decrease from previous numbers in the early 2000s, where capital costs hovered around 5.1% and 4.5% respectively.[149] This decrease in capital costs was influenced by a variety of economic and political drivers. Following the global financial crisis of 2008-2009, Germany eased the refinancing regulations on banks by giving out cheap loans with low interest rates in order to stimulate the economy again.[150]

During this period, the industry around renewable energies also started to experience learning effects in manufacturing, project organisation as well as financing thanks to rising investment and order volumes. This coupled with various forms of subsidies contributed to a large reduction of the capital cost and the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) for solar and onshore wind power. As the technologies have matured and become integral parts of the existing sociotechnical systems it is to be expected that in the future, experience effects and general interest rates will be key determinants for the cost-competitiveness of these technologies.[149]

Producers have been guaranteed a fixed feed-in tariff for 20 years, guaranteeing a fixed income. Energy co-operatives have been created, and efforts were made to decentralize control and profits. The large energy companies have a disproportionately small share of the renewables market. Nuclear power stations were closed, and the existing nine stations will close earlier than necessary, in 2022.

The reduction of reliance on nuclear stations has had the consequence of increased reliance on fossil fuels. One factor that has inhibited efficient employment of new renewable energy has been the lack of an accompanying investment in power infrastructure to bring the power to market. It is believed 8300 km of power lines must be built or upgraded.[146]

Different Länder have varying attitudes to the construction of new power lines. Industry has had their rates frozen and so the increased costs of the Energiewende have been passed on to consumers, who have had rising electricity bills. Germans in 2013 had some of the highest electricity costs in Europe.[151] Nonetheless, for the first time in more than ten years, electricity prices for household customers fell at the beginning of 2015.[152]

Switzerland edit

 
Switzerland electricity generation by source - percentage share
Main article: Energy in Switzerland § Energy strategy 2050

Due to the high share of hydroelectricity (59.6%) and nuclear power (31.7%) in electricity production, Switzerland's per capita energy-related CO2 emissions are 28% lower than the European Union average and roughly equal to those of France. On 21 May 2017, Swiss voters accepted the new Energy Act establishing the 'energy strategy 2050'. The aims of the energy strategy 2050 are: to reduce energy consumption; to increase energy efficiency; and to promote renewable energies (such as water, solar, wind and geothermal power as well as biomass fuels).[153] The Energy Act of 2006 forbids the construction of new nuclear power plants in Switzerland.[153]

United Kingdom edit

 
United Kingdom electricity generation by source - percentage share

By law production of greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom will be reduced to net zero by 2050.[154] To help in reaching this statutory goal national energy policy is mainly focusing on the country's off-shore wind power and delivering new and advanced nuclear power. The increase in national renewable power – particularly from biomass – together with the 20% of electricity generated by nuclear power in the United Kingdom meant that by 2019 low carbon British electricity had overtaken that generated by fossil fuels.[155]

In order to meet the net zero target energy networks must be strengthened.[156] Electricity is only a part of energy in the United Kingdom, so natural gas used for industrial and residential heat[157] and petroleum used for transport in the United Kingdom must also be replaced[158] by either electricity or another form of low-carbon energy, such as sustainable bioenergy crops[159] or green hydrogen.[160]

Although the need for the energy transition is not disputed by any major political party, in 2020 there is debate about how much of the funding to try and escape the COVID-19 recession should be spent on the transition, and how many jobs could be created, for example in improving energy efficiency in British housing.[161] Some believe that due to post-covid government debt that funding for the transition will be insufficient.[162] Brexit may significantly affect the energy transition, but this is unclear as of 2020.[163] The government is urging UK business to sponsor the climate change conference in 2021, possibly including energy companies but only if they have a credible short term plan for the energy transition.[164]

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ Andrew, Robbie. "Figures from the Global Carbon Budget 2021". Retrieved 2022-05-22.
  2. ^ Tian, Jinfang; Yu, Longguang; Xue, Rui; Zhuang, Shan; Shan, Yuli (2022-02-01). "Global low-carbon energy transition in the post-COVID-19 era". Applied Energy. 307: 118205. Bibcode:2022ApEn..30718205T. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.118205. ISSN 0306-2619. PMC 8610812. PMID 34840400.
  3. ^ Davidsson, Simon (2015). "Global Energy Transitions" (PDF).
  4. ^ Smil, Vaclav. "Energy Transitions" (PDF). Retrieved 2022-06-07.
  5. ^ "Fossil Energy". Center on Global Energy Policy at Columbia University SIPA | CGEP. Retrieved 2024-04-16.
  6. ^ "Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Energy Data Explorer – Data Tools". IEA. Retrieved 2024-04-16.
  7. ^ "The Paris Agreement". United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. from the original on 2021-03-19. Retrieved 2021-09-18.
  8. ^ "Plunging cost of wind and solar marks turning point in energy transition: IRENA". Reuters. 2020-06-01. from the original on 2020-08-10. Retrieved 2020-06-02.
  9. ^ a b "Life Cycle Assessment of Electricity Generation Options" (PDF). United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. 2021. pp. 49–55. Retrieved 2022-06-01.
  10. ^ "Are renewable heating options cost-competitive with fossil fuels in the residential sector?". IEA. 2021. Retrieved 2022-06-25.
  11. ^ Kök, A. Gürhan; Shang, Kevin; Yücel, Safak (2020-01-23). "Investments in Renewable and Conventional Energy: The Role of Operational Flexibility". Manufacturing & Service Operations Management. 22 (5): 925–941. doi:10.1287/msom.2019.0789. ISSN 1523-4614. S2CID 214122213.
  12. ^ "Abolishing fossil fuel subsidies: a brain teaser rather than a no-brainer". Reforming fossil fuel subsidies is a complex task for politicians. All in all, our study shows that abolishing fossil fuel subsidies is a no-brainer only for a limited number of subsidies. Abolishing inventoried fossil subsidies does not appear to help the energy transition in all cases. It is important to assess policies from the perspective of adequate pricing of climate damage and other externalities.
  13. ^ Tripathi, Bhasker. "How fossil fuel subsidies are hurting the energy transition | Context". www.context.news. Retrieved 2024-04-16.
  14. ^ a b Jaccard, Mark (2020). "Chapter 11 – "Renewables Have Won"". The Citizen's Guide to Climate Success: Overcoming Myths that Hinder Progress. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-47937-0. OCLC 1110157223. from the original on 2021-09-12.
  15. ^ a b IPCC, 2022: Annex I: Glossary [van Diemen, R., J.B.R. Matthews, V. Möller, J.S. Fuglestvedt, V. Masson-Delmotte, C. Méndez, A. Reisinger, S. Semenov (eds)]. In IPCC, 2022: Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, R. Slade, A. Al Khourdajie, R. van Diemen, D. McCollum, M. Pathak, S. Some, P. Vyas, R. Fradera, M. Belkacemi, A. Hasija, G. Lisboa, S. Luz, J. Malley, (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA. doi: 10.1017/9781009157926.020
  16. ^ Carter, Jimmy. "Address to the Nation on Energy". The American Presidency Project. UC Santa Barbara. Retrieved 2022-06-19.
  17. ^ Basosi, Duccio (2020-03-20). "Lost in transition. The world's energy past, present and future at the 1981 United Nations Conference on New and Renewable Sources of Energy". Journal of Energy History. 4. Retrieved 2022-06-19.
  18. ^ "The Paris Agreement". UNFCCC. Retrieved 2021-01-02.
  19. ^ Rogelj, Joeri; Forster, Piers M.; Kriegler, Elmar; Smith, Christopher J.; Séférian, Roland (July 2019). "Estimating and tracking the remaining carbon budget for stringent climate targets". Nature. 571 (7765): 335–342. Bibcode:2019Natur.571..335R. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1368-z. hdl:10044/1/78011. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 31316194.
  20. ^ Louis Boisgibault, Fahad Al Kabbani (2020): Energy Transition in Metropolises, Rural Areas and Deserts. Wiley - ISTE. (Energy series) ISBN 9781786304995.
  21. ^ Krumdieck, Susan (2020). Transition Engineering, Building a Sustainable Future. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-367-34126-8.
  22. ^ "Renewable energy explained". eia.gov. U.S. Energy Information Administration. April 2022. from the original on 2023-03-13. Data source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, Appendix D.1, and Tables 1.3 an 10.1, April 2022, preliminary data for 2021. / Wood includes wood and wood waste; Renewables includes biofuels, geothermal, solar and wind.
  23. ^ Smil, Vaclav (2010). Energy Transitions. History, Requirements, Prospects. Praeger. ISBN 978-0-313-38177-5.
  24. ^ Häfelse, W; Sassin, W (1977). "The global energy system". Annual Review of Energy. 2: 1–30. doi:10.1146/annurev.eg.02.110177.000245.
  25. ^ Fressoz, Jean-Baptiste (2014). "Pour une histoire désorientée de l'énergie". HAL Open Science. Retrieved 2022-03-12.
  26. ^ "Figure 1: World Energy Consumption by Source, based on Vaclav Smil".
  27. ^ Höök, Mikael; Li, Junchen; Johansson, Kersti; Snowden, Simon (2011). "Growth Rates of Global Energy Systems and Future Outlooks". Natural Resources Research. 21 (1): 23–41. doi:10.1007/s11053-011-9162-0. S2CID 154697732.
  28. ^ Sovacool, Benjamin K. (2016-03-01). "How long will it take? Conceptualizing the temporal dynamics of energy transitions". Energy Research & Social Science. 13: 202–215. Bibcode:2016ERSS...13..202S. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2015.12.020. ISSN 2214-6296.
  29. ^ Podobnik, B. (1999). "Toward a sustainable energy regime: a long-wave interpretation of global energy shifts". Technological Forecasting and Social Change. 62 (3): 155–172. doi:10.1016/S0040-1625(99)00042-6.
  30. ^ Rühl, C.; Appleby, P.; Fennema, F.; Naumov, A.; Schaffer, M. (2012). "Economic development and the demand for energy: a historical perspective on the next 20 years". Energy Policy. 50: 109–116. Bibcode:2012EnPol..50..109R. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2012.07.039.
  31. ^ Debeir, J.C.; Deléage, J.P.; Hémery, D. (1991). In the Servitude of Power: Energy and Civilisation Through the Ages. London: Zed Books. ISBN 9780862329426.
  32. ^ Nef, J.U (1977). "Early energy crisis and its consequences". Scientific American. 237 (5): 140–151. Bibcode:1977SciAm.237e.140N. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1177-140.
  33. ^ Fouquet, R.; Pearson, P.J.G. (1998). "A thousand years of energy use in the United Kingdom". The Energy Journal. 19 (4): 1–41. doi:10.5547/ISSN0195-6574-EJ-Vol19-No4-1. JSTOR 41322802.
  34. ^ Unger, R.W. (1984). "Energy sources for the dutch golden age: peat, wind, and coal". Research in Economic History. 9: 221–256.
  35. ^ Bardi, U. (2007). (PDF). Energy Sources, Part B: Economics, Planning, and Policy. 2 (3): 297–304. Bibcode:2007EneSB...2..297B. doi:10.1080/15567240600629435. hdl:2158/776587. S2CID 37970344. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-06-24. Retrieved 2020-03-23.
  36. ^ "The Great Carbon Arbitrage: Going short on coal and long on renewables | Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research (SIEPR)". siepr.stanford.edu. Retrieved 2023-03-29.
  37. ^ Chrobak, Ula; Chodosh, Sara (2021-01-28). "Solar power got cheap. So why aren't we using it more?". Popular Science. from the original on 2021-01-29.
  38. ^ "2023 Levelized Cost Of Energy+". Lazard. 2023-04-12. p. 9. from the original on 2023-08-27. (Download link labeled "Lazard's LCOE+ (April 2023) (1) PDF—1MB")
  39. ^ Ritchie, Hannah; Roser, Max (2021). "What are the safest and cleanest sources of energy?". Our World in Data. from the original on 2024-01-15. Data sources: Markandya & Wilkinson (2007); UNSCEAR (2008; 2018); Sovacool et al. (2016); IPCC AR5 (2014); Pehl et al. (2017); Ember Energy (2021).
  40. ^ Gregory, Andrew (2023-11-29). "Air pollution from fossil fuels 'kills 5 million people a year'". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077.
  41. ^ "Phasing out fossil fuels could save millions of lives". www.mpic.de. Retrieved 2024-04-19.
  42. ^ Roser, Max (2024-03-18). "Data review: how many people die from air pollution?". Our World in Data.
  43. ^ M. Pathak, R. Slade, P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, R. Pichs-Madruga, D. Ürge-Vorsatz,2022: Technical Summary. In: Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, R. Slade, A. Al Khourdajie, R. van Diemen, D. McCollum, M. Pathak, S. Some, P. Vyas, R. Fradera, M. Belkacemi, A. Hasija, G. Lisboa, S. Luz, J. Malley, (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA. doi: 10.1017/9781009157926.002.
  44. ^ UN Energy (2021) Theme Report on Energy Transition towards the Achievement of SDG 7 and Net-Zero Emissions
  45. ^ Olivier, J.G.J.; Peters, J.A.H.W. (2020). "Trends in global CO2 and total greenhouse gas emissions (2020)" (PDF). The Hague: PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency.
  46. ^ "Statistical Review of World Energy 2021" (PDF). BP. Retrieved 2022-05-29.
  47. ^ IASS/Green ID (2019). "Future skills and job creation through renewable energy in Vietnam. Assessing the co-benefits of decarbonising the power sector" (PDF).
  48. ^ "Realizing the Green Jobs Promise". RMI. Retrieved 2024-04-18.
  49. ^ "Renewables set to energize Africa's growth". UNEP. 2018-01-16. Retrieved 2024-04-18.
  50. ^ "Renewable energy offers Africa's best opportunity to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals, experts say".
  51. ^ Louie, Edward P.; Pearce, Joshua M. (2016-06-01). "Retraining investment for U.S. transition from coal to solar photovoltaic employment". Energy Economics. 57: 295–302. Bibcode:2016EneEc..57..295L. doi:10.1016/j.eneco.2016.05.016. ISSN 0140-9883.
  52. ^ a b Meyer, Theresa K.; Hunsberger, Carol; Pearce, Joshua M. (2023-09-30). "Retraining investment for Alberta's oil and gas workers for green jobs in the solar industry". Carbon Neutrality. 2 (1): 28. doi:10.1007/s43979-023-00067-3. ISSN 2731-3948.
  53. ^ "How to ensure Alberta's oil and gas workers have jobs during the energy transition - Alberta News". 2023-11-01. Retrieved 2023-12-20.
  54. ^ IASS/TERI. "Secure and reliable electricity access with renewable energy mini-grids in rural India. Assessing the co-benefits of decarbonising the power sector" (PDF).
  55. ^ "Regional Cohesion in Europe 2021-2022". EIB.org. Retrieved 2022-08-09.
  56. ^ "Press corner". European Commission - European Commission. Retrieved 2022-08-16.
  57. ^ a b c d e f IPCC, 2022: Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, R. Slade, A. Al Khourdajie, R. van Diemen, D. McCollum, M. Pathak, S. Some, P. Vyas, R. Fradera, M. Belkacemi, A. Hasija, G. Lisboa, S. Luz, J. Malley, (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA. doi: 10.1017/9781009157926.001
  58. ^ Lazard 2023
  59. ^ IRENA 2022, p. 3
  60. ^ Taplin, Nathaniel. "For Taiwan, as for Ukraine, Energy Security Is Existential". WSJ. Retrieved 2024-04-18.
  61. ^ "EURACTIV Press Release Site". EURACTIV PR. Retrieved 2022-05-22.
  62. ^ "Europe is importing a solar boom. Good news for (nearly) everyone". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 2024-04-18.
  63. ^ Toll, Micah (2022-05-12). "This quiet electric motorcycle is helping Ukrainian snipers fight back against the Russians". Electrek. Retrieved 2024-04-18.
  64. ^ Farley, Robert (2023-11-11). "Trump's False Claim That U.S. Military Moving to Electric Tanks". FactCheck.org. Retrieved 2024-04-18.
  65. ^ https://www.cfe-dmha.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=sJ7hhDPJFl8%3D&portalid=0
  66. ^ Institute, Global Taiwan (2024-02-07). "Geopolitics and Energy Security in Taiwan: A Refined Analysis". Global Taiwan Institute. Retrieved 2024-04-18.
  67. ^ "Ukrenergo: Russia targeted solar power plant in Ukraine's rear for the first time". Yahoo News. 2024-04-04. Retrieved 2024-04-18.
  68. ^ "Taiwan war game exposes vulnerability of energy grid to a China attack". www.ft.com. Retrieved 2024-04-18.
  69. ^ "Solar: the military's secret weapon" (PDF).
  70. ^ "Ukraine and Kyrgyzstan. How solar power can help communities in crisis - CANEECCA: Восточная Европа, Кавказ и Центральная Азия". caneecca.org (in Russian). 2022-10-23. Retrieved 2024-04-18.
  71. ^ "Solar-Powered Defense: How Renewable Energy is Shaping Modern Military Operation". Foresight Learning. 2023-11-08. Retrieved 2024-04-18.
  72. ^ Roza, David (2023-10-31). "Why the Military May Need Microgrids to Win A Near-Peer Fight". Air & Space Forces Magazine. Retrieved 2024-04-18.
  73. ^ "Ukraine says Russia's attacks are threatening energy security". Voice of America. 2024-03-29. Retrieved 2024-04-18.
  74. ^ "Taiwan's Election Has Big Ramifications for Energy Security". thediplomat.com. Retrieved 2024-04-18.
  75. ^ Przybylak, Joanna (2023-11-27). "Nuclear power plants in war zones: Lessons learned from the war in Ukraine". Security and Defence Quarterly. doi:10.35467/sdq/174810. ISSN 2300-8741.
  76. ^ Pope Francis, Laudato si', paragraph 165, published 24 May 2015, accessed 19 April 2024
  77. ^ United Nations Environment Programme 2019, p. 46.
  78. ^ IPCC (2014). Edenhofer, O.; Pichs-Madruga, R.; Sokona, Y.; Farahani, E.; et al. (eds.). Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change: Working Group III contribution to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-05821-7. OCLC 892580682. from the original on 2017-01-26.
  79. ^ "Energy Transition Investment Hit $500 Billion in 2020 – For First Time". BloombergNEF. (Bloomberg New Energy Finance). 2021-01-19. from the original on 2021-01-19.
  80. ^ Catsaros, Oktavia (2023-01-26). "Global Low-Carbon Energy Technology Investment Surges Past $1 Trillion for the First Time". Figure 1: Bloomberg NEF (New Energy Finance). from the original on 2023-05-22. Defying supply chain disruptions and macroeconomic headwinds, 2022 energy transition investment jumped 31% to draw level with fossil fuels{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  81. ^ "Energy Transition Investment Now On Par with Fossil Fuel". Bloomberg NEF (New Energy Finance). 2023-02-10. from the original on 2023-03-27.
  82. ^ "Share of cumulative power capacity by technology, 2010-2027". IEA.org. International Energy Agency (IEA). 2022-12-05. from the original on 2023-02-04. Source states "Fossil fuel capacity from IEA (2022), World Energy Outlook 2022. IEA. Licence: CC BY 4.0."
  83. ^ Source for data beginning in 2017: "Renewable Energy Market Update Outlook for 2023 and 2024" (PDF). IEA.org. International Energy Agency (IEA). June 2023. p. 19. (PDF) from the original on 2023-07-11. IEA. CC BY 4.0. ● Source for data through 2016: "Renewable Energy Market Update / Outlook for 2021 and 2022" (PDF). IEA.org. International Energy Agency. May 2021. p. 8. (PDF) from the original on 2023-03-25. IEA. Licence: CC BY 4.0
  84. ^ Bond, Kingsmill; Butler-Sloss, Sam; Lovins, Amory; Speelman, Laurens; Topping, Nigel (2023-06-13). "Report / 2023 / X-Change: Electricity / On track for disruption". Rocky Mountain Institute. from the original on 2023-07-13.
  85. ^ a b "Race to Net Zero: The Pressures of the Battery Boom in Five Charts". 2022-07-21. from the original on 2023-09-07.
  86. ^ a b "Electricity production". IEA. Retrieved 2022-06-20.
  87. ^ "Solar Energy Potential". Energy.gov. from the original on 2020-05-23. Retrieved 2020-04-22.
  88. ^ "Electricity Grids and Secure Energy Transitions – Analysis". IEA. 2023-10-17. Retrieved 2024-04-15.
  89. ^ IEA (2023), Electricity Grids and Secure Energy Transitions, IEA, Paris https://www.iea.org/reports/electricity-grids-and-secure-energy-transitions, Licence: CC BY 4.0
  90. ^ Bogdanov, Dmitrii; Gulagi, Ashish; Fasihi, Mahdi; Breyer, Christian (2021-02-01). "Full energy sector transition towards 100% renewable energy supply: Integrating power, heat, transport and industry sectors including desalination". Applied Energy. 283: 116273. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.116273. ISSN 0306-2619.
  91. ^ Teske, Sven, ed. (2019). Achieving the Paris Climate Agreement Goals. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-05843-2. ISBN 978-3-030-05842-5. S2CID 198078901.
  92. ^ "Cheap, safe 100% renewable energy possible before 2050, says Finnish uni study". Yle Uutiset. 2019-04-12. Retrieved 2021-06-18.
  93. ^ Gulagi, Ashish; Alcanzare, Myron; Bogdanov, Dmitrii; Esparcia, Eugene; Ocon, Joey; Breyer, Christian (2021-07-01). "Transition pathway towards 100% renewable energy across the sectors of power, heat, transport, and desalination for the Philippines". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 144: 110934. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2021.110934. ISSN 1364-0321.
  94. ^ Hansen, Kenneth; et al. (2019). "Status and perspectives on 100% renewable energy systems". Energy. 175: 471–480. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2019.03.092. The great majority of all publications highlights the technical feasibility and economic viability of 100% RE systems.
  95. ^ Koumoundouros, Tessa (2019-12-27). "Stanford Researchers Have an Exciting Plan to Tackle The Climate Emergency Worldwide". ScienceAlert. Retrieved 2020-01-05.
  96. ^ Wiseman, John; et al. (April 2013). "Post Carbon Pathways" (PDF). University of Melbourne.
  97. ^ "Operational & Long-Term Shutdown Reactors". IAEA. 2013-04-13. Retrieved 2013-04-14.
  98. ^ Murtaugh, Dan; Krystal, Chia (2021-11-02). "China's Climate Goals Hinge on a $440 Billion Nuclear Buildout". Bloomberg. Retrieved 2022-07-31.
  99. ^ Fearn, Nicholas (2024-03-26). "AI is accelerating the energy transition, say industry leaders". Financial Times. Retrieved 2024-03-27.
  100. ^ Gillespie, Todd (2022-03-16). "Energy Costs Set to Reach Record 13% of Global GDP This Year". Bloomberg.com. Bloomberg. Retrieved 2022-06-20.
  101. ^ Scholten, D., Criekemans, D., & de Graaf, T. V. (2020). An Energy Transition Amidst Great Power Rivalry. Journal of International Affairs, 73(1), 195–203.
  102. ^ Chiu, Allyson; Guskin, Emily; Clement, Scott (2023-10-03). "Americans don't hate living near solar and wind farms as much as you might think". The Washington Post. from the original on 2023-10-03.
  103. ^ Nzaou-Kongo, Aubin (2020). "Energy Transition Governance Research Materials" (PDF). The Energy Transition Governance Research Materials. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3556410. S2CID 216446248. SSRN 3556410.
  104. ^ Frumhoff, Peter C.; Heede, Richard; Oreskes, Naomi (2015-07-23). "The climate responsibilities of industrial carbon producers". Climatic Change. 132 (2): 157–171. Bibcode:2015ClCh..132..157F. doi:10.1007/s10584-015-1472-5. ISSN 0165-0009.
  105. ^ Mercure, J.-F.; Pollitt, H.; Viñuales, J. E.; Edwards, N. R.; Holden, P. B.; Chewpreecha, U.; Salas, P.; Sognnaes, I.; Lam, A.; Knobloch, F. (2018-06-04). "Macroeconomic impact of stranded fossil fuel assets" (PDF). Nature Climate Change. 8 (7): 588–593. Bibcode:2018NatCC...8..588M. doi:10.1038/s41558-018-0182-1. hdl:10871/37807. ISSN 1758-678X. S2CID 89799744. (PDF) from the original on 2020-07-28. Retrieved 2020-08-19.
  106. ^ Howard, Emma (2015). "A Guide to Fossil Fuel Divestment" (PDF). The Guardian. (PDF) from the original on 2020-10-22. Retrieved 2020-03-29.
  107. ^ "Divestment Commitments". Fossil Free: Divestment. from the original on 2017-11-19. Retrieved 2020-03-29.
  108. ^ "Geopolitics of the energy transition: Energy security". International Renewable Energy Agency. Abu Dhabi. 2024-04-17. pp. 10–12. ISBN 978-92-9260-599-5. Retrieved 2024-04-17.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  109. ^ Hoppe, Thomas; Graf, Antonia; Warbroek, Beau; Lammers, Imke; Lepping, Isabella (2015-02-11). "Local Governments Supporting Local Energy Initiatives: Lessons from the Best Practices of Saerbeck (Germany) and Lochem (The Netherlands)". Sustainability. 7 (2): 1900–1931. doi:10.3390/su7021900. ISSN 2071-1050.
  110. ^ Neves, Ana Rita; Leal, Vítor (December 2010). "Energy sustainability indicators for local energy planning: Review of current practices and derivation of a new framework". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 14 (9): 2723–2735. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2010.07.067. ISSN 1364-0321.
  111. ^ SOVACOOL, Benjamin (2011). "Conceptualizing and measuring energy security: A synthesized approach". ink.library.smu.edu.sg. from the original on 2020-03-21. Retrieved 2020-03-29.
  112. ^ Strangleman, Tim (June 2001). "Networks, Place and Identities in Post-industrial Mining Communities". International Journal of Urban and Regional Research. 25 (2): 253–267. doi:10.1111/1468-2427.00310. ISSN 0309-1317.
  113. ^ a b Bouzarovski, Stefan; Tirado Herrero, Sergio; Petrova, Saska; Frankowski, Jan; Matoušek, Roman; Maltby, Tomas (2017-01-02). "Multiple transformations: theorizing energy vulnerability as a socio-spatial phenomenon". Geografiska Annaler: Series B, Human Geography. 99 (1): 20–41. doi:10.1080/04353684.2016.1276733. ISSN 0435-3684.
  114. ^ "Training Available for Dislocated Coal Miners and Dependents « UMWA Career Centers, Inc". umwacc.com. 2015-11-04. from the original on 2020-03-29. Retrieved 2020-03-29.
  115. ^ a b Do, Thang Nam; Burke, Paul (2023). "Phasing out coal power in a developing country context: Insights from Vietnam". Energy Policy. 176 (May 2023 113512): 113512. Bibcode:2023EnPol.17613512D. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2023.113512. hdl:1885/286612. S2CID 257356936.
  116. ^ Marín, Anabel; Goya, Daniel (2021-12-01). "Mining—The dark side of the energy transition". Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions. Celebrating a decade of EIST: What's next for transition studies?. 41: 86–88. Bibcode:2021EIST...41...86M. doi:10.1016/j.eist.2021.09.011. ISSN 2210-4224. S2CID 239975201. The energy transition will significantly increase demand for minerals....The increasing number of social and environmental conflicts associated with mining in emerging economies is a manifestation of this tension and raises questions about just energy transitions
  117. ^ "Korean firms asked to consult with indigenous peoples prior to searching for renewable energy resources". Korea Times. 2022-08-11. Retrieved 2023-01-03.
  118. ^ Pai, Sandeep; Carr-Wilson, Savannah (2018). Total Transition: The Human Side of the Renewable Energy Revolution. Rocky Mountain Books. ISBN 978-1-77160-248-8. from the original on 2021-05-10. Retrieved 2020-10-03.
  119. ^ Stevis-Gridneff, Matina (2022-10-07). "Europe's Energy Crisis Exposes Old Fault Lines and New Power Dynamics". The New York Times.
  120. ^ "World Energy Investment 2023" (PDF). IEA.org. International Energy Agency. May 2023. p. 61. (PDF) from the original on 2023-08-07.
  121. ^ Bousso, Ron (2023-02-08). "Big Oil doubles profits in blockbuster 2022". Reuters. from the original on 2023-03-31. ● Details for 2020 from the more detailed diagram in King, Ben (2023-02-12). "Why are BP, Shell, and other oil giants making so much money right now?". BBC. from the original on 2023-04-22.
  122. ^ "Highlights of the Automotive Trends Report". EPA.gov. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2022-12-12. from the original on 2023-09-02.
  123. ^ Cazzola, Pierpaolo; Paoli, Leonardo; Teter, Jacob (November 2023). "Trends in the Global Vehicle Fleet 2023 / Managing the SUV Shift and the EV Transition" (PDF). Global Fuel Economy Initiative (GFEI). p. 3. doi:10.7922/G2HM56SV. (PDF) from the original on 2023-11-26.
  124. ^ Alova, G. (2020). "A global analysis of the progress and failure of electric utilities to adapt their portfolios of power-generation assets to the energy transition". Nature Energy. 5 (11): 920–927. Bibcode:2020NatEn...5..920A. doi:10.1038/s41560-020-00686-5. ISSN 2058-7546. S2CID 225179903. from the original on 2021-03-21. Retrieved 2021-04-16.
  125. ^ BP: Statistical Review of World Energy 17 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Workbook (xlsx), London, 2016
  126. ^ World Energy Assessment 12 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine (WEA). UNDP, United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, World Energy Council, New York
  127. ^ "Statistical Review of World Energy (June 2018)" (PDF). Retrieved 2019-09-27.
  128. ^ Andrews-Speed, Philip (November 2014). "China's Energy Policymaking Processes and Their Consequences". The National Bureau of Asian Research Energy Security Report. Retrieved 2014-12-05.
  129. ^ McGrath, Matt (2019-11-20). "China coal surge threatens Paris climate targets". Retrieved 2019-12-09.
  130. ^ Ma Tianjie (2016-08-06). "China's 5 Year Plan for Energy". The Diplomat. Retrieved 2016-10-30.
  131. ^ "DataBank – CO2 emissions (metric tons per capita)". The World Bank. Retrieved 2020-08-10.
  132. ^ Alok Jha (2008-08-01). "China 'leads the world' in renewable energy". The Guardian. Retrieved 2011-02-02.
  133. ^ Rosen, Daniel; Houser, Trevor (May 2007). "China Energy A Guide for the Perplexed" (PDF). piie.com. Retrieved 2020-04-25.
  134. ^ "Analysis: Will China build hundreds of new coal plants in the 2020s?". Carbon Brief. 2020-03-24. Retrieved 2020-09-11.
  135. ^ "Guest post: Why would anyone finance another coal power plant in China?". Carbon Brief. 2020-09-07. Retrieved 2020-09-11.
  136. ^ "Renewable Energy in India - Indian Power Industry Investment". www.investindia.gov.in. Retrieved 2022-12-06.
  137. ^ Fuller, Gary (2024-04-19). "Clean-up of Indian coal-fired power plants 'could have saved 720,000 lives'". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2024-04-19.
  138. ^ "The Electric Vehicle (EV) sector in India to boost both the ec..." www.investindia.gov.in. Retrieved 2022-12-06.
  139. ^ a b Do, Thang Nam; Burke, Paul J.; Nguyen, Hoang Nam; Overland, Indra; Suryadi, Beni; Swandaru, Akbar; Yurnaidi, Zulfikar (2021-12-01). "Vietnam's solar and wind power success: Policy implications for the other ASEAN countries". Energy for Sustainable Development. 65: 1–11. doi:10.1016/j.esd.2021.09.002. hdl:1885/248804. ISSN 0973-0826.
  140. ^ a b Do, Thang Nam (May 2024). "Insider perspectives on Southeast Asiaʼs clean energy transition". Asia & the Pacific Policy Studies. 11 (2). doi:10.1002/app5.390. ISSN 2050-2680.
  141. ^ Do, Thang Nam (2023). "Phasing out coal power in a developing country context: Insights from Vietnam". Energy Policy. 176 (May 2023 113512): 113512. Bibcode:2023EnPol.17613512D. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2023.113512. hdl:1885/286612. S2CID 257356936.
  142. ^ Do, Thang Nam; Burke, Paul, J.; Baldwin, Ken; Nguyen, T.C. (2020). "Underlying drivers and barriers for solar photovoltaics diffusion: The case of Vietnam". Energy Policy. 144 (September 2020): 111561. Bibcode:2020EnPol.14411561D. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2020.111561. hdl:1885/206307. S2CID 225245522.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  143. ^ Tamma, Paola; Schaart, Eline; Gurzu, Anca (2019-12-11). "Europe's Green Deal plan unveiled". POLITICO. from the original on 2020-11-28. Retrieved 2019-12-29.
  144. ^ a b c Simon, Frédéric (2019-12-11). "EU Commission unveils 'European Green Deal': The key points". www.euractiv.com. from the original on 2020-12-15. Retrieved 2019-12-29.
  145. ^ Bank, European Investment (2022-05-05). Digitalisation in Europe 2021-2022: Evidence from the EIB Investment Survey. European Investment Bank. ISBN 978-92-861-5233-7.
  146. ^ a b "Germany's energy transformation Energiewende". The Economist. 2012-07-28. from the original on 2018-01-15. Retrieved 2013-03-06.
  147. ^ "Wo steht Deutschland bei der Energiewende". Die Bundesregierung informiert | Startseite (in German). 2023-07-12. Retrieved 2023-09-14.
  148. ^ "The cost of financing for renewable power". www.irena.org. 2023-05-03. Retrieved 2023-11-03.
  149. ^ a b Egli, Florian; Steffen, Bjarne; Schmidt, Tobias S. (December 2018). "A dynamic analysis of financing conditions for renewable energy technologies". Nature Energy. 3 (12): 1084–1092. Bibcode:2018NatEn...3.1084E. doi:10.1038/s41560-018-0277-y. hdl:20.500.11850/309636. ISSN 2058-7546.
  150. ^ Furman, Jason. "A Reconsideration of Fiscal Policy in the Era of Low Interest Rates" (PDF).
  151. ^ "Germany's energy reform: Troubled turn". The Economist. 2013-02-09. from the original on 2013-03-04. Retrieved 2013-03-06.
  152. ^ (PDF). Berlin, Germany: Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy (BMWi). November 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-09-20. Retrieved 2016-06-09.
  153. ^ a b Energy strategy 2050 19 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Swiss Federal Office of Energy, Federal Department of Environment, Transport, Energy and Communications (page visited on 21 May 2017).
  154. ^ "The Ten Point Plan for a Green Industrial Revolution (HTML version)". GOV.UK. Retrieved 2022-06-01.
  155. ^ Group, Drax. "Drax Electric Insights". Drax Electric Insights. from the original on 2020-10-10. Retrieved 2020-09-10.
  156. ^ "Reducing UK emissions: 2020 Progress Report to Parliament". Committee on Climate Change. from the original on 2020-09-20. Retrieved 2020-09-10.
  157. ^ "Decarbonisation of Heat". Energy Systems Catapult. from the original on 2020-09-18. Retrieved 2020-09-10.
  158. ^ "Office for Low Emission Vehicles". GOV.UK. 2019-06-04. from the original on 2020-09-11. Retrieved 2020-09-10.
  159. ^ "Land use: Policies for a Net Zero UK". Committee on Climate Change. from the original on 2020-09-22. Retrieved 2020-09-10.
  160. ^ Frangoul, Anmar (2020-02-18). "UK government announces millions in funding for 'low carbon' hydrogen production". CNBC. from the original on 2020-10-29. Retrieved 2020-09-10.
  161. ^ Boydell, Ranald (2020-06-22). "Why zero-carbon homes must lead the green recovery from COVID-19". The Conversation. from the original on 2020-09-09. Retrieved 2020-09-10.
  162. ^ Penman, Hamish (2020-09-02). "Gulf between government ambition and ability to deliver green energy transition". The Courier. from the original on 2020-09-17. Retrieved 2020-09-10.
  163. ^ Grubb, Professor Michael (2020-09-08). "Why a deal on energy could break the Brexit logjam". www.euractiv.com. from the original on 2020-09-12. Retrieved 2020-09-10.
  164. ^ "Big oil need not apply: UK raises the bar for UN climate summit sponsorship". Climate Home News. 2020-08-18. from the original on 2020-09-23. Retrieved 2020-09-10.

Sources edit

  • "Levelized Cost Of Energy, Levelized Cost Of Storage, and Levelized Cost Of Hydrogen". Lazard. 2023.
  • "Renewable Capacity Highlights 2022". IRENA2022. 2022-04-11. Retrieved 2022-05-29.
  • United Nations Environment Programme (2019). Emissions Gap Report 2019 (PDF). United Nations Environment Programme. ISBN 978-92-807-3766-0. (PDF) from the original on 2021-05-07.
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Energy transition.

January 01, 1970
energy, transition, energy, transition, energy, system, transformation, major, structural, change, energy, supply, consumption, energy, system, currently, transition, sustainable, energy, underway, limit, climate, change, much, sustainable, energy, renewable, . An energy transition or energy system transformation is a major structural change to energy supply and consumption in an energy system Currently a transition to sustainable energy is underway to limit climate change As much sustainable energy is renewable it is also known as the renewable energy transition The current transition aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from energy quickly and sustainably mostly by phasing down fossil fuels and changing as many processes as possible to operate on low carbon electricity 2 A previous energy transition perhaps took place during the Industrial Revolution from 1760 onwards from wood and other biomass to coal followed by oil and later natural gas 3 4 Progress of current energy transition to renewable energy Fossil fuels such as coal oil and natural gas still remain the world s primary energy sources even as renewables are increasing in use 1 Over three quarters of the world s energy needs are met by burning fossil fuels but this usage emits greenhouse gases 5 Energy production and consumption are responsible for most human caused greenhouse gas emissions 6 To meet the goals of the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change emissions must be reduced as soon as possible and reach net zero by mid century 7 Since the late 2010s the renewable energy transition has also been driven by the rapidly falling cost of both solar and wind power 8 Another aim for the energy transition is to reduce the health and environmental impacts of the energy industry 9 Those impacts are not only about climate change but also about human toxicity resource use deaths from air pollution and others 9 49 Heating of buildings is being electrified with heat pumps being the most efficient technology by far 10 To improve the flexibility of electrical grids the installation of energy storage and super grids are vital to enable the use of variable weather dependent technologies 11 However fossil fuel subsidies are slowing the energy transition 12 13 Contents 1 Definition 2 Development of the term 3 Examples of past energy transitions 4 Drivers for current energy transition 4 1 Health 4 2 Climate change mitigation and co benefits 4 3 Cost competitiveness of renewable energies 4 4 Energy security 4 5 Short term solutions 5 Key technologies and approaches 5 1 Renewable energy 5 1 1 Integration of variable renewable energy sources 5 1 2 100 renewable energy 5 2 Nuclear power 5 3 Artificial Intelligence in Energy Transition 6 Economic and geopolitical aspects 6 1 Influences 7 Social and environmental aspects 7 1 Impacts 7 2 Labour 8 Risks and barriers 9 Examples by country 9 1 Asia 9 1 1 China 9 1 2 India 9 1 3 Vietnam 9 2 Europe 9 2 1 European Union 9 2 2 Germany 9 2 3 Switzerland 9 2 4 United Kingdom 10 See also 11 References 11 1 SourcesDefinition editAn energy transition is a broad shift in technologies and behaviours that are needed to replace one source of energy with another 14 202 203 A prime example is the change from a pre industrial system relying on traditional biomass wind water and muscle power to an industrial system characterized by pervasive mechanization steam power and the use of coal The IPCC does not define energy transition in the glossary of its Sixth Assessment Report but it does define transition as The process of changing from one state or condition to another in a given period of time Transition can occur in individuals firms cities regions and nations and can be based on incremental or transformative change 15 Development of the term editAfter the 1973 oil crisis the term energy transition was coined by politicians and media It was popularised by US President Jimmy Carter in his 1977 Address on the Nation on Energy calling to look back into history to understand our energy problem Twice in the last several hundred years there has been a transition in the way people use energy Because we are now running out of gas and oil we must prepare quickly for a third change to strict conservation and to the renewed use of coal and to permanent renewable energy sources like solar power 16 The term was later globalised after the 1979 second oil shock during the 1981 United Nations Conference on New and Renewable Sources of Energy 17 From the 1990s debates on energy transition have increasingly taken climate change mitigation into account Parties to the agreement committed to limit global warming to well below 2 C preferably 1 5 C compared to pre industrial levels 18 This requires a rapid energy transition with a downshift of fossil fuel production to stay within the carbon emissions budget 19 nbsp Example of Distributed generation use of renewable energies Agricultural business with biogas plant and photovoltaic roof In this context the term energy transition encompasses a reorientation of energy policy This could imply a shift from centralized to distributed generation It also includes attempts to replace overproduction and avoidable energy consumption with energy saving measures and increased efficiency 20 The historical transitions from locally supplied wood water and wind energies to globally supplied fossil and nuclear fuels has induced growth in end use demand through the rapid expansion of engineering research education and standardisation The mechanisms for the whole systems changes include new discipline in Transition Engineering amongst all engineering professions entrepreneurs researchers and educators 21 Examples of past energy transitions edit nbsp Over centuries energy consumption has evolved from burning wood to fossil fuels coal oil natural gas and in recent decades to using nuclear hydroelectric and other renewable energy sources 22 Historic approaches to past energy transitions are shaped by two main discourses One argues that humankind experienced several energy transitions in its past while the other suggests the term energy additions as better reflecting the changes in global energy supply in the last three centuries The chronologically first discourse was most broadly described by Vaclav Smil 23 It underlines the change in the energy mix of countries and the global economy By looking at data in percentages of the primary energy source used in a given context it paints a picture of the world s energy systems as having changed significantly over time going from biomass to coal to oil and now a mix of mostly coal oil and natural gas Until the 1950s the economic mechanism behind energy systems was local rather than global 24 The second discourse was most broadly described by Jean Baptiste Fressoz 25 It emphasises that the term energy transition was first used by politicians not historians to describe a goal to achieve in the future not as a concept to analyse past trends When looking at the sheer amount of energy being used by humankind the picture is one of ever increasing consumption of all the main energy sources available to humankind 26 For instance the increased use of coal in the 19th century did not replace wood consumption indeed more wood was burned Another example is the deployment of passenger cars in the 20th century This evolution triggered an increase in both oil consumption to drive the car and coal consumption to make the steel needed for the car In other words according to this approach humankind never performed a single energy transition in its history but performed several energy additions Contemporary energy transitions differ in terms of motivation and objectives drivers and governance As development progressed different national systems became more and more integrated becoming the large international systems seen today Historical changes of energy systems have been extensively studied 27 While historical energy changes were generally protracted affairs unfolding over many decades this does not necessarily hold true for the present energy transition which is unfolding under very different policy and technological conditions 28 For current energy systems many lessons can be learned from history 29 30 obsolete source dubious discuss The need for large amounts of firewood in early industrial processes in combination with prohibitive costs for overland transportation led to a scarcity of accessible e g affordable wood and eighteenth century glass works operated like a forest clearing enterprise 31 When Britain had to resort to coal after largely having run out of wood the resulting fuel crisis triggered a chain of events that two centuries later culminated in the Industrial Revolution 32 33 Similarly increased use of peat and coal were vital elements paving the way for the Dutch Golden Age roughly spanning the entire 17th century 34 Another example where resource depletion triggered technological innovation and a shift to new energy sources is 19th century whaling whale oil eventually became replaced by kerosene and other petroleum derived products 35 To speed up the energy transition it is also conceivable that there will be government buyouts or bailouts of coal mining regions 36 Drivers for current energy transition editDrivers for transition to renewable energy nbsp With increasing adoption of renewable energy sources costs have declined most notably for energy generated by solar panels 37 38 Levelized cost of energy LCOE is a measure of the average net present cost of electricity generation for a generating plant over its lifetime nbsp Deaths caused as a result of fossil fuel electricity generation areas of rectangles in chart greatly exceed those resulting from production of renewable energy rectangles barely visible in chart 39 Health edit See also Health and environmental impact of the coal industry and Health and environmental impact of the petroleum industry A 2023 study estimated that fossil fuels kill over 5 million people each year as of 2019 40 by causing diseases such as heart attack stroke and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 41 Particulate air pollution kills by far the most followed by ground level ozone 42 Climate change mitigation and co benefits edit A rapid energy transition to very low or zero carbon sources is required to mitigate the effects of climate change 43 66 44 11 Coal oil and gas combustion account for 89 of CO2 emissions 45 20 and still provide 78 of primary energy consumption 46 12 In spite of the knowledge about the risks of climate change since the 1980s and the vanishing carbon budget for a 1 5 C path the global deployment of renewable energy could not catch up with the increasing energy demand for many years citation needed Coal oil and gas were cheaper Only in countries with special tariffs and subsidies wind and solar power gained a considerable share limited to the power sector citation needed The deployment of renewable energy can also include co benefits of climate change mitigation positive socio economic effects on employment industrial development health and energy access Depending on the country and the deployment scenario replacing coal power plants can more than double the number of jobs per average MW capacity 47 The energy transition could create many green jobs 48 for example in Africa 49 50 The costs for retraining workers for the renewable energy industry was found to be trivial for both coal 51 in the U S and oil sands in Canada 52 The latter of which would only demand 2 6 of federal provincial and territorial oil and gas subsidies for a single year to be reallocated to provide oil and gas workers with a new career of approximately equivalent pay 52 53 In non electrified rural areas the deployment of solar mini grids can significantly improve electricity access 54 Employment opportunities by the green transition are associated with the use of renewable energy sources or building activity for infrastructure improvements and renovations 55 56 Cost competitiveness of renewable energies edit From 2010 to 2019 the competitiveness of wind and solar power substantially increased Unit costs of solar energy dropped sharply by 85 wind energy by 55 and lithium ion batteries by 85 57 11 This has made wind and solar power the cheapest form for new installations in many regions Levelized costs for combined onshore wind or solar with storage for a few hours are already lower than for gas peaking power plants 58 In 2021 the new electricity generating capacity of renewables exceeded 80 of all installed power 59 Energy security edit Another important driver is energy security and independence with increasing importance in Europe and Taiwan 60 because of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine 61 Unlike Europes 2010s dependance on Russian gas even if China stops supplying solar panels those already installed continue generating electricity 62 Militaries are using and developing electric vehicles particularly for their stealthiness 63 but not tanks 64 As of 2023 renewable energy in Taiwan is far too small to help in a blockade 65 Centralised facilities such as oil refineries 66 and thermal power plants can be put out of action by air attack whereas although solar can be attacked 67 decentralised power such as solar and wind 68 may be less vulnerable 69 70 Solar and batteries reduces risky fuel convoys 71 72 However large hydropower plants are vulnerable 73 Some say that nuclear power plants are unlikely to be military targets 74 but others conclude that civil NPPs in war zones can be weaponised and exploited by the hostile forces not only for impeding energy supplies and thus shattering the public morale of the adversary but also for blackmailing and coercing the decisionmakers of the attacked state and their international allies with a vision of man made nuclear disaster 75 Short term solutions edit Pope Francis acknowledges in his 2015 encyclical letter Laudato si that finding short term solutions and migrating for now to less harmful alternatives is a morally legitimate option considering that greater global progress is needed to identify workable long term solutions and that the international community has still not reached adequate agreements about the responsibility for paying the costs of energy transition 76 Key technologies and approaches editFurther information Sustainable energy Energy system transformation The emissions reductions necessary to keep global warming below 2 C will require a system wide transformation of the way energy is produced distributed stored and consumed 77 For a society to replace one form of energy with another multiple technologies and behaviours in the energy system must change 14 202 203 Many climate change mitigation pathways envision three main aspects of a low carbon energy system The use of low emission energy sources to produce electricity Electrification that is increased use of electricity instead of directly burning fossil fuels Accelerated adoption of energy efficiency measures 78 7 11 3 Renewable energy edit Main article Renewable energy nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp Examples of renewable energy options concentrated solar power with molten salt heat storage in Spain wind energy in South Africa the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River in China biomass energy plant in Scotland Investment nbsp Companies governments and households have committed increasing amounts to decarbonization including solar wind electric vehicles charging infrastructure storage heating systems CCS and hydrogen 79 80 nbsp Bloomberg NEF reported that in 2022 global energy transition investment equaled fossil fuels investment for the first time 81 Growth in capacity nbsp Renewable energy sources provide an increasing share of overall power capacity 82 nbsp Renewable energy capacity has steadily grown led by solar photovoltaic power 83 nbsp In 2023 electricity generation from wind and solar sources was projected to exceed 30 by 2030 as fossil fuels use continues to decline 84 nbsp Rechargeable battery prices for electric vehicles fell given economies of scale and new cell chemistries improving energy density 85 However general inflationary pressures and rising costs of raw materials and components inhibited price declines in the early 2020s 85 The most important energy sources in the low carbon energy transition are wind power and solar power They could reduce net emissions by 4 billion tons CO2 equivalent per year each half of it with lower net lifetime costs than the reference 57 38 Other renewable energy sources include bioenergy geothermal energy and tidal energy but they currently have higher net lifetime costs 57 38 By 2022 hydroelectricity is the largest source of renewable electricity in the world providing 16 of the world s total electricity in 2019 86 However because of its heavy dependence on geography and the generally high environmental and social impact of hydroelectric power plants the growth potential of this technology is limited Wind and solar power are considered more scalable but still require vast quantities of land and materials They have higher potential for growth 87 These sources have grown nearly exponentially in recent decades thanks to rapidly decreasing costs In 2019 wind power supplied 5 3 worldwide electricity while solar power supplied 2 6 86 While production from most types of hydropower plants can be actively controlled production from wind and solar power depends on the weather Electrical grids must be extended and adjusted to avoid wastage Dammed hydropower is a dispatchable source while solar and wind are variable renewable energy sources These sources require dispatchable backup generation or energy storage to provide continuous and reliable electricity For this reason storage technologies also play a key role in the renewable energy transition As of 2020 the largest scale storage technology is pumped storage hydroelectricity accounting for the great majority of energy storage capacity installed worldwide Other important forms of energy storage are electric batteries and power to gas The Electricity Grids and Secure Energy Transitions report by the IEA emphasizes the necessity of increasing grid investments to over 600 billion annually by 2030 up from 300 billion to accommodate the integration of renewable energy By 2040 the grid must expand by more than 80 million kilometers to manage renewable sources which are projected to account for over 80 of the global power capacity increase over the next two decades Failure to enhance grid infrastructure timely could lead to an additional 58 gigatonnes of CO2 emissions by 2050 significantly risking a 2 C global temperature rise 88 89 Integration of variable renewable energy sources edit Main article Variable renewable energy See also Combined cycle hydrogen power plant and Hydrogen fuel cell power plant With the integration of renewable energy local electricity production is becoming more variable It has been recommended that coupling sectors energy storage smart grids demand side management sustainable biofuels hydrogen electrolysis and derivatives will ultimately be needed to accommodate large shares of renewables in energy systems 57 28 Fluctuations can be smoothened by combining wind and sun power and by extending electricity grids over large areas This reduces the dependence on local weather conditions With highly variable prices electricity storage and grid extension become more competitive Researchers have found that costs for accommodating the integration of variable renewable energy sources in electricity systems are expected to be modest until 2030 57 39 Furthermore it will be more challenging to supply the entire energy system with renewable energy 57 28 Fast fluctuations increase with a high integration of wind and solar energy They can be addressed by operating reserves Large scale batteries can react within seconds and are increasingly used to keep the electricity grid stable 100 renewable energy edit This section is an excerpt from 100 renewable energy edit 100 renewable energy is the goal of the use renewable resources for all energy 100 renewable energy for electricity heating cooling and transport is motivated by climate change pollution and other environmental issues as well as economic and energy security concerns Shifting the total global primary energy supply to renewable sources requires a transition of the energy system since most of today s energy is derived from non renewable fossil fuels Research into this topic is fairly new with very few studies published before 2009 but has gained increasing attention in recent years The majority of studies show that a global transition to 100 renewable energy across all sectors power heat transport and industry is feasible and economically viable 90 91 92 93 need quotation to verify A cross sectoral holistic approach is seen as an important feature of 100 renewable energy systems and is based on the assumption that the best solutions can be found only if one focuses on the synergies between the sectors of the energy system such as electricity heat transport or industry 94 The main barriers to the widespread implementation of large scale renewable energy and low carbon energy strategies are seen to be primarily social and political rather than technological or economic 95 According to the 2013 Post Carbon Pathways report which reviewed many international studies the key roadblocks are climate change denial the fossil fuels lobby political inaction unsustainable energy consumption outdated energy infrastructure and financial constraints 96 Nuclear power edit nbsp Timeline of commissioned and decommissioned nuclear capacity since the 1950s 97 Main article Nuclear power In the 1970s and 1980s nuclear power gained a large share in some countries In France and Slovakia more than half of the electrical power is still nuclear It is a low carbon energy source but comes with risks and increasing costs Since the late 1990s deployment has slowed down Decommissioning increases as many reactors are close to the end of their lifetime Germany stopped its last three nuclear power plants by mid April 2023 On the other hand the China General Nuclear Power Group is aiming for 200 GW by 2035 produced by 150 additional reactors 98 Artificial Intelligence in Energy Transition edit Artificial intelligence AI is reshaping the energy sector by improving efficiency and sustainability It s instrumental in reducing record high CO2 emissions of 37 4 billion tonnes enhancing cybersecurity and facilitating predictive maintenance Notable companies like Shell and SSE are deploying AI for tasks such as monitoring methane emissions and forecasting energy demand respectively AI s role extends to optimizing energy infrastructure design leading to more reliable energy distribution While AI is creating new job roles like AI ethics officers and system modelers there is a risk of traditional job displacement in areas such as manual inspections The technology s predictive capabilities are improving safety and productivity for energy asset managers and its data processing prowess is useful in energy trading and cybersecurity As AI becomes more entrenched in the power sector there s an increasing need for AI skilled professionals despite the potential automation of some tasks 99 Economic and geopolitical aspects editSee also Economics of climate change mitigation Energy independence Energy security and renewable technology and Russia in the European energy sector nbsp Countries that managed to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions working towards a low carbon economy while still growing their economy This is called eco economic decoupling A shift in energy sources has the potential to redefine relations and dependencies between countries stakeholders and companies Countries or land owners with resources fossil or renewable face massive losses or gains depending on the development of any energy transition In 2021 energy costs reached 13 of global gross domestic product 100 Global rivalries have contributed to the driving forces of the economics behind the low carbon energy transition Technological innovations developed within a country have the potential to become an economic force 101 Influences edit nbsp Acceptance of wind and solar facilities in one s community is stronger among Democrats blue while acceptance of nuclear power plants is stronger among Republicans red 102 The energy transition discussion is heavily influenced by contributions from the fossil fuel industries 103 One way that oil companies are able to continue their work despite growing environmental social and economic concerns is by lobbying local and national governments Historically the fossil fuel lobby has been highly successful in limiting regulations From 1988 to 2005 Exxon Mobil one of the largest oil companies in the world spent nearly 16 million in anti climate change lobbying and providing misleading information about climate change to the general public 104 The fossil fuel industry acquires significant support through the existing banking and investment structure 105 The concept that the industry should no longer be financially supported has led to the social movement known as divestment Divestment is defined as the removal of investment capital from stocks bonds or funds in oil coal and gas companies for both moral and financial reasons 106 Banks investing firms governments universities institutions and businesses are all being challenged with this new moral argument against their existing investments in the fossil fuel industry and many such as Rockefeller Brothers Fund the University of California New York City and more have begun making the shift to more sustainable eco friendly investments 107 In 2024 the International Renewable Energy Agency IRENA projected that by 2050 over half of the world s energy will be carried by electricity and over three quarters of the global energy mix will be from renewables Although overtaken by both biomass and clean hydrogen fossil fuels were still projected to supply 12 of energy The transition is expected to reshape geopolitical power by reducing reliance on long distance fossil fuel trade and enhancing the importance of regional energy markets 108 Social and environmental aspects editImpacts edit See also Just transition A renewable energy transition can present negative social impacts for some people who rely on the existing energy economy or who are affected by mining for minerals required for the transition This has led to calls for a just transition which the IPCC defines as A set of principles processes and practices that aim to ensure that no people workers places sectors countries or regions are left behind in the transition from a high carbon to a low carbon economy 15 Use of local energy sources may stabilise and stimulate some local economies 109 create opportunities for energy trade between communities states and regions 110 need quotation to verify and increase energy security 111 Coal mining is economically important in some regions and a transition to renewables would decrease its viability and could have severe impacts on the communities that rely on this business 112 Not only do these communities face energy poverty already need quotation to verify but they also face economic collapse when the coal mining businesses move elsewhere or disappear altogether 113 This broken system perpetuates the poverty and vulnerability that decreases the adaptive capacity of coal mining communities 113 Potential mitigation could include expanding the program base clarification needed for vulnerable communities to assist with new training programs opportunities for economic development and subsidies to assist with the transition 114 Increasing energy prices resulting from an energy transition may negatively impact developing countries including Vietnam and Indonesia 115 Increased mining for lithium cobalt nickel copper and other critical minerals needed for expansion of renewable energy infrastructure has created increased environmental conflict and environmental justice issues for some communities 116 117 Labour edit A large portion of the global workforce works directly or indirectly for the fossil fuel economy 118 need quotation to verify Moreover many other industries are currently dependent on unsustainable energy sources such as the steel industry or cement and concrete industry Transitioning these workforces during the rapid period of economic change requires considerable forethought and planning The international labor movement has advocated for a just transition that addresses these concerns Recently 119 an energy crisis is upon the nations of Europe as a result of dependence on Russia s natural gas which was cut off during the Russia Ukraine war This goes to show that humanity is still heavily dependent on fossil fuel energy sources and care should be taken to have a smooth transition less energy shortage shocks cripple the very efforts to effectively energise the transition Risks and barriers edit nbsp Net income of the global oil and gas industry reached a record US 4 trillion in 2022 120 After the COVID 19 pandemic energy company profits increased with higher fuel prices resulting from the Russian invasion of Ukraine falling debt levels tax write downs of projects shut down in Russia and backing off from earlier plans to reduce greenhouse gas emissions 121 nbsp Trucks share of US vehicles produced has tripled since 1975 Though vehicle fuel efficiency has increased within each category the overall trend toward less efficient types of vehicles has offset some of the benefits of greater fuel economy and reduction in carbon dioxide emissions 122 Without the shift towards SUVs energy use per unit distance could have fallen 30 more than it did from 2010 to 2022 123 Amongst the key issues to consider in relation to the pace of the global transition to renewables is how well individual electric companies are able to adapt to the changing reality of the power sector For example to date the uptake of renewables by electric utilities has remained slow hindered by their continued investment in fossil fuel generation capacity 124 Incomplete regulations on clean energy uptake and concerns about electricity shortages have been identified as key barriers to the energy transition in coal dependent fast developing economies such as Vietnam 115 Examples by country edit nbsp Global energy consumption by source raw quantities nbsp Global energy consumption by source percent share source source source source source source source Marysville coal fired power plant being demolished From 2000 2012 coal was the source of energy with the total largest growth The use of oil and natural gas also had considerable growth followed by hydropower and renewable energy Renewable energy grew at a rate faster than any other time in history during this period The demand for nuclear energy decreased in part due to fear mongering and inaccurate media portrayal of some nuclear disasters Three Mile Island in 1979 Chernobyl in 1986 and Fukushima in 2011 125 126 More recently consumption of coal has declined relative to low carbon energy Coal dropped from about 29 of the global total primary energy consumption in 2015 to 27 in 2017 and non hydro renewables were up to about 4 from 2 127 needs update Asia edit China edit This section is an excerpt from Energy policy of China edit This article needs to be updated Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information April 2024 nbsp Most energy comes from coal nbsp Development of carbon dioxide emissions nbsp The 22 500 MW Three Gorges Dam hydroelectric power plant in China the largest hydroelectric power station in the world China is both the world s largest energy consumer and the largest industrial country and ensuring adequate energy supply to sustain economic growth has been a core concern of the Chinese Government since the founding of the People s Republic of China in 1949 128 Since the country s industrialization in the 1960s China is currently the world s largest emitter of greenhouse gases and coal in China is a major cause of global warming 129 However from 2010 to 2015 China reduced energy consumption per unit of GDP by 18 and CO2 emissions per unit of GDP by 20 130 On a per capita basis China was only the world s 51st largest emitter of greenhouse gases in 2016 131 China is also the world s largest renewable energy producer see this article 132 and the largest producer of hydroelectricity solar power and wind power in the world The energy policy of China is connected to its industrial policy where the goals of China s industrial production dictate its energy demand managements 133 Being a country that depends heavily on foreign petroleum import for both domestic consumption and as raw materials for light industry manufacturing electrification is a huge component of the Chinese national energy policy Details for the power sector are likely to be released winter 2021 22 for the 14th five year plan 134 and this is expected to determine whether the country builds more coal fired power stations and therefore whether global climate targets are likely to be met 135 India edit India has set renewable energy goals to transition 50 136 of its total energy consumption into renewable sources in the Paris climate accords As of 2022 the Central Electricity Authority are well on track of achieving their goals producing 160 GW electricity from clean sources like solar wind hydro power and nuclear power plants this is 40 of its total capacity India is ranked third on Ernst and Young s renewable energy country attractive index behind the USA and China Hydro electric power plants are a major part of India s energy infrastructure since the days of its independence in 1947 Former prime Minister Jawahar Lal Nehru called them the temples of modern India and believed them to be key drivers of modernity and industrialism for the nascent republic Notable examples of hydro power stations include the 2400 MW Tehri hydropower complex the 1960 MW Koyna hydroelectric project and the 1670 MW Srisailam Dam Recently India has given due importance to emerging renewable technologies like solar power plants and wind farms They house 3 of the world s top 5 solar farms including world s largest 2255 MW Bhadla Solar Park in and world s second largest solar park of 2000 MW Pavgada Solar Park and 100 MW Kurnool Ultra mega solar park While there has been positive change air pollution from coal still kills many people 137 and India has to cut down its reliance on traditional coal based power production as it still accounts for around 50 of its energy production India is also moving towards its goal for electrification of the automotive industry 138 aiming to have at least 30 EV ownership among private vehicles by 2030 Vietnam edit Vietnam has led the Southeast Asia in solar and wind uptake achieving about 20 GW in 2022 from almost zero in 2017 139 Thailand has the highest number of EV registrations with 218 000 in 2022 140 The energy transition in Southeast Asia can be summarized as Challenging achievable and interdependent This implies that while there are obstacles feasibility largely relies on international support 140 Public demand for improved local environmental quality and government s aims to promote a green economy are found to be key drivers in Vietnam 139 Governments ambition to attract international support for green growth initiatives and public demand for a clean environment have been found to be drivers of the energy transition in developing countries such as Vietnam 141 142 Europe edit European Union edit Main article European Green Deal The European Green Deal is a set of policy initiatives by the European Commission with the overarching aim of making Europe climate neutral in 2050 143 144 An impact assessed plan will also be presented to increase the EU s greenhouse gas emission reductions target for 2030 to at least 50 and towards 55 compared with 1990 levels The plan is to review each existing law on its climate merits and also introduce new legislation on the circular economy building renovation biodiversity farming and innovation 144 The president of the European Commission Ursula von der Leyen stated that the European Green Deal would be Europe s man on the Moon moment as the plan would make Europe the first climate neutral continent 144 A survey found that digitally advanced companies put more money into energy saving strategies In the European Union 59 of companies that have made investments in both basic and advanced technologies have also invested in energy efficiency measures compared to only 50 of US firms in the same category Overall there is a significant disparity between businesses digital profiles and investments in energy efficiency 145 Germany edit Main article Energiewende nbsp Gross generation of electricity by source in Germany 1990 2020 Germany has played an outsized role in the transition away from fossil fuels and nuclear power to renewables The energy transition in Germany is known as die Energiewende literally the energy turn indicating a turn away from old fuels and technologies to new one The key policy document outlining the Energiewende was published by the German government in September 2010 some six months before the Fukushima nuclear accident legislative support was passed in September 2010 The policy has been embraced by the German federal government and has resulted in a huge expansion of renewables particularly wind power Germany s share of renewables has increased from around 5 in 1999 to 17 in 2010 reaching close to the OECD average of 18 usage of renewables 146 In 2022 Germany has a share of 46 2 and surpassed the OECD average 147 A large driver for this increase in the shares of renewables energy are decreases in cost of capital Germany boasts some of the lowest cost of capitals for renewable solar and wind onshore energy worldwide In 2021 the International Renewable Energy Agency reported capital costs of around 1 1 and 2 4 for solar and wind onshore 148 This constitutes a significant decrease from previous numbers in the early 2000s where capital costs hovered around 5 1 and 4 5 respectively 149 This decrease in capital costs was influenced by a variety of economic and political drivers Following the global financial crisis of 2008 2009 Germany eased the refinancing regulations on banks by giving out cheap loans with low interest rates in order to stimulate the economy again 150 During this period the industry around renewable energies also started to experience learning effects in manufacturing project organisation as well as financing thanks to rising investment and order volumes This coupled with various forms of subsidies contributed to a large reduction of the capital cost and the levelized cost of electricity LCOE for solar and onshore wind power As the technologies have matured and become integral parts of the existing sociotechnical systems it is to be expected that in the future experience effects and general interest rates will be key determinants for the cost competitiveness of these technologies 149 Producers have been guaranteed a fixed feed in tariff for 20 years guaranteeing a fixed income Energy co operatives have been created and efforts were made to decentralize control and profits The large energy companies have a disproportionately small share of the renewables market Nuclear power stations were closed and the existing nine stations will close earlier than necessary in 2022 The reduction of reliance on nuclear stations has had the consequence of increased reliance on fossil fuels One factor that has inhibited efficient employment of new renewable energy has been the lack of an accompanying investment in power infrastructure to bring the power to market It is believed 8300 km of power lines must be built or upgraded 146 Different Lander have varying attitudes to the construction of new power lines Industry has had their rates frozen and so the increased costs of the Energiewende have been passed on to consumers who have had rising electricity bills Germans in 2013 had some of the highest electricity costs in Europe 151 Nonetheless for the first time in more than ten years electricity prices for household customers fell at the beginning of 2015 152 Switzerland edit nbsp Switzerland electricity generation by source percentage share Main article Energy in Switzerland Energy strategy 2050 Due to the high share of hydroelectricity 59 6 and nuclear power 31 7 in electricity production Switzerland s per capita energy related CO2 emissions are 28 lower than the European Union average and roughly equal to those of France On 21 May 2017 Swiss voters accepted the new Energy Act establishing the energy strategy 2050 The aims of the energy strategy 2050 are to reduce energy consumption to increase energy efficiency and to promote renewable energies such as water solar wind and geothermal power as well as biomass fuels 153 The Energy Act of 2006 forbids the construction of new nuclear power plants in Switzerland 153 United Kingdom edit nbsp United Kingdom electricity generation by source percentage share By law production of greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom will be reduced to net zero by 2050 154 To help in reaching this statutory goal national energy policy is mainly focusing on the country s off shore wind power and delivering new and advanced nuclear power The increase in national renewable power particularly from biomass together with the 20 of electricity generated by nuclear power in the United Kingdom meant that by 2019 low carbon British electricity had overtaken that generated by fossil fuels 155 In order to meet the net zero target energy networks must be strengthened 156 Electricity is only a part of energy in the United Kingdom so natural gas used for industrial and residential heat 157 and petroleum used for transport in the United Kingdom must also be replaced 158 by either electricity or another form of low carbon energy such as sustainable bioenergy crops 159 or green hydrogen 160 Although the need for the energy transition is not disputed by any major political party in 2020 there is debate about how much of the funding to try and escape the COVID 19 recession should be spent on the transition and how many jobs could be created for example in improving energy efficiency in British housing 161 Some believe that due to post covid government debt that funding for the transition will be insufficient 162 Brexit may significantly affect the energy transition but this is unclear as of 2020 update 163 The government is urging UK business to sponsor the climate change conference in 2021 possibly including energy companies but only if they have a credible short term plan for the energy transition 164 See also edit nbsp Renewable energy portal nbsp Environment portal nbsp Energy portal Mobility transition change in transport planning and transport policyPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback Hydrogen economy Using hydrogen to decarbonize sectors which are hard to electrify List of countries by renewable electricity production List of energy storage power plants List of renewable energy topics by country and territory Low carbon economy Economy based on energy sources with low levels of greenhouse gas emissionsReferences edit Andrew Robbie Figures from the Global Carbon Budget 2021 Retrieved 2022 05 22 Tian Jinfang Yu Longguang Xue Rui Zhuang Shan Shan Yuli 2022 02 01 Global low carbon energy transition in the post COVID 19 era Applied Energy 307 118205 Bibcode 2022ApEn 30718205T doi 10 1016 j apenergy 2021 118205 ISSN 0306 2619 PMC 8610812 PMID 34840400 Davidsson Simon 2015 Global Energy Transitions PDF Smil Vaclav Energy Transitions PDF Retrieved 2022 06 07 Fossil Energy Center on Global Energy Policy at Columbia University SIPA CGEP Retrieved 2024 04 16 Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Energy Data Explorer Data Tools IEA Retrieved 2024 04 16 The Paris Agreement United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Archived from the original on 2021 03 19 Retrieved 2021 09 18 Plunging cost of wind and solar marks turning point in energy transition IRENA Reuters 2020 06 01 Archived from the original on 2020 08 10 Retrieved 2020 06 02 a b Life Cycle Assessment of Electricity Generation Options PDF United Nations Economic Commission for Europe 2021 pp 49 55 Retrieved 2022 06 01 Are renewable heating options cost competitive with fossil fuels in the residential sector IEA 2021 Retrieved 2022 06 25 Kok A Gurhan Shang Kevin Yucel Safak 2020 01 23 Investments in Renewable and Conventional Energy The Role of Operational Flexibility Manufacturing amp Service Operations Management 22 5 925 941 doi 10 1287 msom 2019 0789 ISSN 1523 4614 S2CID 214122213 Abolishing fossil fuel subsidies a brain teaser rather than a no brainer Reforming fossil fuel subsidies is a complex task for politicians All in all our study shows that abolishing fossil fuel subsidies is a no brainer only for a limited number of subsidies Abolishing inventoried fossil subsidies does not appear to help the energy transition in all cases It is important to assess policies from the perspective of adequate pricing of climate damage and other externalities Tripathi Bhasker How fossil fuel subsidies are hurting the energy transition Context www context news Retrieved 2024 04 16 a b Jaccard Mark 2020 Chapter 11 Renewables Have Won The Citizen s Guide to Climate Success Overcoming Myths that Hinder Progress Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 108 47937 0 OCLC 1110157223 Archived from the original on 2021 09 12 a b IPCC 2022 Annex I Glossary van Diemen R J B R Matthews V Moller J S Fuglestvedt V Masson Delmotte C Mendez A Reisinger S Semenov eds In IPCC 2022 Climate Change 2022 Mitigation of Climate Change Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change P R Shukla J Skea R Slade A Al Khourdajie R van Diemen D McCollum M Pathak S Some P Vyas R Fradera M Belkacemi A Hasija G Lisboa S Luz J Malley eds Cambridge University Press Cambridge UK and New York NY USA doi 10 1017 9781009157926 020 Carter Jimmy Address to the Nation on Energy The American Presidency Project UC Santa Barbara Retrieved 2022 06 19 Basosi Duccio 2020 03 20 Lost in transition The world s energy past present and future at the 1981 United Nations Conference on New and Renewable Sources of Energy Journal of Energy History 4 Retrieved 2022 06 19 The Paris Agreement UNFCCC Retrieved 2021 01 02 Rogelj Joeri Forster Piers M Kriegler Elmar Smith Christopher J Seferian Roland July 2019 Estimating and tracking the remaining carbon budget for stringent climate targets Nature 571 7765 335 342 Bibcode 2019Natur 571 335R doi 10 1038 s41586 019 1368 z hdl 10044 1 78011 ISSN 1476 4687 PMID 31316194 Louis Boisgibault Fahad Al Kabbani 2020 Energy Transition in Metropolises Rural Areas and Deserts Wiley ISTE Energy series ISBN 9781786304995 Krumdieck Susan 2020 Transition Engineering Building a Sustainable Future CRC Press ISBN 978 0 367 34126 8 Renewable energy explained eia gov U S Energy Information Administration April 2022 Archived from the original on 2023 03 13 Data source U S Energy Information Administration Monthly Energy Review Appendix D 1 and Tables 1 3 an 10 1 April 2022 preliminary data for 2021 Wood includes wood and wood waste Renewables includes biofuels geothermal solar and wind Smil Vaclav 2010 Energy Transitions History Requirements Prospects Praeger ISBN 978 0 313 38177 5 Hafelse W Sassin W 1977 The global energy system Annual Review of Energy 2 1 30 doi 10 1146 annurev eg 02 110177 000245 Fressoz Jean Baptiste 2014 Pour une histoire desorientee de l energie HAL Open Science Retrieved 2022 03 12 Figure 1 World Energy Consumption by Source based on Vaclav Smil Hook Mikael Li Junchen Johansson Kersti Snowden Simon 2011 Growth Rates of Global Energy Systems and Future Outlooks Natural Resources Research 21 1 23 41 doi 10 1007 s11053 011 9162 0 S2CID 154697732 Sovacool Benjamin K 2016 03 01 How long will it take Conceptualizing the temporal dynamics of energy transitions Energy Research amp Social Science 13 202 215 Bibcode 2016ERSS 13 202S doi 10 1016 j erss 2015 12 020 ISSN 2214 6296 Podobnik B 1999 Toward a sustainable energy regime a long wave interpretation of global energy shifts Technological Forecasting and Social Change 62 3 155 172 doi 10 1016 S0040 1625 99 00042 6 Ruhl C Appleby P Fennema F Naumov A Schaffer M 2012 Economic development and the demand for energy a historical perspective on the next 20 years Energy Policy 50 109 116 Bibcode 2012EnPol 50 109R doi 10 1016 j enpol 2012 07 039 Debeir J C Deleage J P Hemery D 1991 In the Servitude of Power Energy and Civilisation Through the Ages London Zed Books ISBN 9780862329426 Nef J U 1977 Early energy crisis and its consequences Scientific American 237 5 140 151 Bibcode 1977SciAm 237e 140N doi 10 1038 scientificamerican1177 140 Fouquet R Pearson P J G 1998 A thousand years of energy use in the United Kingdom The Energy Journal 19 4 1 41 doi 10 5547 ISSN0195 6574 EJ Vol19 No4 1 JSTOR 41322802 Unger R W 1984 Energy sources for the dutch golden age peat wind and coal Research in Economic History 9 221 256 Bardi U 2007 Energy prices and resource depletion lessons from the case of whaling in the nineteenth century PDF Energy Sources Part B Economics Planning and Policy 2 3 297 304 Bibcode 2007EneSB 2 297B doi 10 1080 15567240600629435 hdl 2158 776587 S2CID 37970344 Archived from the original PDF on 2021 06 24 Retrieved 2020 03 23 The Great Carbon Arbitrage Going short on coal and long on renewables Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research SIEPR siepr stanford edu Retrieved 2023 03 29 Chrobak Ula Chodosh Sara 2021 01 28 Solar power got cheap So why aren t we using it more Popular Science Archived from the original on 2021 01 29 2023 Levelized Cost Of Energy Lazard 2023 04 12 p 9 Archived from the original on 2023 08 27 Download link labeled Lazard s LCOE April 2023 1 PDF 1MB Ritchie Hannah Roser Max 2021 What are the safest and cleanest sources of energy Our World in Data Archived from the original on 2024 01 15 Data sources Markandya amp Wilkinson 2007 UNSCEAR 2008 2018 Sovacool et al 2016 IPCC AR5 2014 Pehl et al 2017 Ember Energy 2021 Gregory Andrew 2023 11 29 Air pollution from fossil fuels kills 5 million people a year The Guardian ISSN 0261 3077 Phasing out fossil fuels could save millions of lives www mpic de Retrieved 2024 04 19 Roser Max 2024 03 18 Data review how many people die from air pollution Our World in Data M Pathak R Slade P R Shukla J Skea R Pichs Madruga D Urge Vorsatz 2022 Technical Summary In Climate Change 2022 Mitigation of Climate Change Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change P R Shukla J Skea R Slade A Al Khourdajie R van Diemen D McCollum M Pathak S Some P Vyas R Fradera M Belkacemi A Hasija G Lisboa S Luz J Malley eds Cambridge University Press Cambridge UK and New York NY USA doi 10 1017 9781009157926 002 UN Energy 2021 Theme Report on Energy Transition towards the Achievement of SDG 7 and Net Zero Emissions Olivier J G J Peters J A H W 2020 Trends in global CO2 and total greenhouse gas emissions 2020 PDF The Hague PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency Statistical Review of World Energy 2021 PDF BP Retrieved 2022 05 29 IASS Green ID 2019 Future skills and job creation through renewable energy in Vietnam Assessing the co benefits of decarbonising the power sector PDF Realizing the Green Jobs Promise RMI Retrieved 2024 04 18 Renewables set to energize Africa s growth UNEP 2018 01 16 Retrieved 2024 04 18 Renewable energy offers Africa s best opportunity to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals experts say Louie Edward P Pearce Joshua M 2016 06 01 Retraining investment for U S transition from coal to solar photovoltaic employment Energy Economics 57 295 302 Bibcode 2016EneEc 57 295L doi 10 1016 j eneco 2016 05 016 ISSN 0140 9883 a b Meyer Theresa K Hunsberger Carol Pearce Joshua M 2023 09 30 Retraining investment for Alberta s oil and gas workers for green jobs in the solar industry Carbon Neutrality 2 1 28 doi 10 1007 s43979 023 00067 3 ISSN 2731 3948 How to ensure Alberta s oil and gas workers have jobs during the energy transition Alberta News 2023 11 01 Retrieved 2023 12 20 IASS TERI Secure and reliable electricity access with renewable energy mini grids in rural India Assessing the co benefits of decarbonising the power sector PDF Regional Cohesion in Europe 2021 2022 EIB org Retrieved 2022 08 09 Press corner European Commission European Commission Retrieved 2022 08 16 a b c d e f IPCC 2022 Summary for Policymakers In Climate Change 2022 Mitigation of Climate Change Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change P R Shukla J Skea R Slade A Al Khourdajie R van Diemen D McCollum M Pathak S Some P Vyas R Fradera M Belkacemi A Hasija G Lisboa S Luz J Malley eds Cambridge University Press Cambridge UK and New York NY USA doi 10 1017 9781009157926 001 Lazard 2023 IRENA 2022 p 3 Taplin Nathaniel For Taiwan as for Ukraine Energy Security Is Existential WSJ Retrieved 2024 04 18 EURACTIV Press Release Site EURACTIV PR Retrieved 2022 05 22 Europe is importing a solar boom Good news for nearly everyone The Economist ISSN 0013 0613 Retrieved 2024 04 18 Toll Micah 2022 05 12 This quiet electric motorcycle is helping Ukrainian snipers fight back against the Russians Electrek Retrieved 2024 04 18 Farley Robert 2023 11 11 Trump s False Claim That U S Military Moving to Electric Tanks FactCheck org Retrieved 2024 04 18 https www cfe dmha org LinkClick aspx fileticket sJ7hhDPJFl8 3D amp portalid 0 Institute Global Taiwan 2024 02 07 Geopolitics and Energy Security in Taiwan A Refined Analysis Global Taiwan Institute Retrieved 2024 04 18 Ukrenergo Russia targeted solar power plant in Ukraine s rear for the first time Yahoo News 2024 04 04 Retrieved 2024 04 18 Taiwan war game exposes vulnerability of energy grid to a China attack www ft com Retrieved 2024 04 18 Solar the military s secret weapon PDF Ukraine and Kyrgyzstan How solar power can help communities in crisis CANEECCA Vostochnaya Evropa Kavkaz i Centralnaya Aziya caneecca org in Russian 2022 10 23 Retrieved 2024 04 18 Solar Powered Defense How Renewable Energy is Shaping Modern Military Operation Foresight Learning 2023 11 08 Retrieved 2024 04 18 Roza David 2023 10 31 Why the Military May Need Microgrids to Win A Near Peer Fight Air amp Space Forces Magazine Retrieved 2024 04 18 Ukraine says Russia s attacks are threatening energy security Voice of America 2024 03 29 Retrieved 2024 04 18 Taiwan s Election Has Big Ramifications for Energy Security thediplomat com Retrieved 2024 04 18 Przybylak Joanna 2023 11 27 Nuclear power plants in war zones Lessons learned from the war in Ukraine Security and Defence Quarterly doi 10 35467 sdq 174810 ISSN 2300 8741 Pope Francis Laudato si paragraph 165 published 24 May 2015 accessed 19 April 2024 United Nations Environment Programme 2019 p 46 IPCC 2014 Edenhofer O Pichs Madruga R Sokona Y Farahani E et al eds Climate Change 2014 Mitigation of Climate Change Working Group III contribution to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 107 05821 7 OCLC 892580682 Archived from the original on 2017 01 26 Energy Transition Investment Hit 500 Billion in 2020 For First Time BloombergNEF Bloomberg New Energy Finance 2021 01 19 Archived from the original on 2021 01 19 Catsaros Oktavia 2023 01 26 Global Low Carbon Energy Technology Investment Surges Past 1 Trillion for the First Time Figure 1 Bloomberg NEF New Energy Finance Archived from the original on 2023 05 22 Defying supply chain disruptions and macroeconomic headwinds 2022 energy transition investment jumped 31 to draw level with fossil fuels a href Template Cite news html title Template Cite news cite news a CS1 maint location link Energy Transition Investment Now On Par with Fossil Fuel Bloomberg NEF New Energy Finance 2023 02 10 Archived from the original on 2023 03 27 Share of cumulative power capacity by technology 2010 2027 IEA org International Energy Agency IEA 2022 12 05 Archived from the original on 2023 02 04 Source states Fossil fuel capacity from IEA 2022 World Energy Outlook 2022 IEA Licence CC BY 4 0 Source for data beginning in 2017 Renewable Energy Market Update Outlook for 2023 and 2024 PDF IEA org International Energy Agency IEA June 2023 p 19 Archived PDF from the original on 2023 07 11 IEA CC BY 4 0 Source for data through 2016 Renewable Energy Market Update Outlook for 2021 and 2022 PDF IEA org International Energy Agency May 2021 p 8 Archived PDF from the original on 2023 03 25 IEA Licence CC BY 4 0 Bond Kingsmill Butler Sloss Sam Lovins Amory Speelman Laurens Topping Nigel 2023 06 13 Report 2023 X Change Electricity On track for disruption Rocky Mountain Institute Archived from the original on 2023 07 13 a b Race to Net Zero The Pressures of the Battery Boom in Five Charts 2022 07 21 Archived from the original on 2023 09 07 a b Electricity production IEA Retrieved 2022 06 20 Solar Energy Potential Energy gov Archived from the original on 2020 05 23 Retrieved 2020 04 22 Electricity Grids and Secure Energy Transitions Analysis IEA 2023 10 17 Retrieved 2024 04 15 IEA 2023 Electricity Grids and Secure Energy Transitions IEA Paris https www iea org reports electricity grids and secure energy transitions Licence CC BY 4 0 Bogdanov Dmitrii Gulagi Ashish Fasihi Mahdi Breyer Christian 2021 02 01 Full energy sector transition towards 100 renewable energy supply Integrating power heat transport and industry sectors including desalination Applied Energy 283 116273 doi 10 1016 j apenergy 2020 116273 ISSN 0306 2619 Teske Sven ed 2019 Achieving the Paris Climate Agreement Goals doi 10 1007 978 3 030 05843 2 ISBN 978 3 030 05842 5 S2CID 198078901 Cheap safe 100 renewable energy possible before 2050 says Finnish uni study Yle Uutiset 2019 04 12 Retrieved 2021 06 18 Gulagi Ashish Alcanzare Myron Bogdanov Dmitrii Esparcia Eugene Ocon Joey Breyer Christian 2021 07 01 Transition pathway towards 100 renewable energy across the sectors of power heat transport and desalination for the Philippines Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 144 110934 doi 10 1016 j rser 2021 110934 ISSN 1364 0321 Hansen Kenneth et al 2019 Status and perspectives on 100 renewable energy systems Energy 175 471 480 doi 10 1016 j energy 2019 03 092 The great majority of all publications highlights the technical feasibility and economic viability of 100 RE systems Koumoundouros Tessa 2019 12 27 Stanford Researchers Have an Exciting Plan to Tackle The Climate Emergency Worldwide ScienceAlert Retrieved 2020 01 05 Wiseman John et al April 2013 Post Carbon Pathways PDF University of Melbourne Operational amp Long Term Shutdown Reactors IAEA 2013 04 13 Retrieved 2013 04 14 Murtaugh Dan Krystal Chia 2021 11 02 China s Climate Goals Hinge on a 440 Billion Nuclear Buildout Bloomberg Retrieved 2022 07 31 Fearn Nicholas 2024 03 26 AI is accelerating the energy transition say industry leaders Financial Times Retrieved 2024 03 27 Gillespie Todd 2022 03 16 Energy Costs Set to Reach Record 13 of Global GDP This Year Bloomberg com Bloomberg Retrieved 2022 06 20 Scholten D Criekemans D amp de Graaf T V 2020 An Energy Transition Amidst Great Power Rivalry Journal of International Affairs 73 1 195 203 Chiu Allyson Guskin Emily Clement Scott 2023 10 03 Americans don t hate living near solar and wind farms as much as you might think The Washington Post Archived from the original on 2023 10 03 Nzaou Kongo Aubin 2020 Energy Transition Governance Research Materials PDF The Energy Transition Governance Research Materials doi 10 2139 ssrn 3556410 S2CID 216446248 SSRN 3556410 Frumhoff Peter C Heede Richard Oreskes Naomi 2015 07 23 The climate responsibilities of industrial carbon producers Climatic Change 132 2 157 171 Bibcode 2015ClCh 132 157F doi 10 1007 s10584 015 1472 5 ISSN 0165 0009 Mercure J F Pollitt H Vinuales J E Edwards N R Holden P B Chewpreecha U Salas P Sognnaes I Lam A Knobloch F 2018 06 04 Macroeconomic impact of stranded fossil fuel assets PDF Nature Climate Change 8 7 588 593 Bibcode 2018NatCC 8 588M doi 10 1038 s41558 018 0182 1 hdl 10871 37807 ISSN 1758 678X S2CID 89799744 Archived PDF from the original on 2020 07 28 Retrieved 2020 08 19 Howard Emma 2015 A Guide to Fossil Fuel Divestment PDF The Guardian Archived PDF from the original on 2020 10 22 Retrieved 2020 03 29 Divestment Commitments Fossil Free Divestment Archived from the original on 2017 11 19 Retrieved 2020 03 29 Geopolitics of the energy transition Energy security International Renewable Energy Agency Abu Dhabi 2024 04 17 pp 10 12 ISBN 978 92 9260 599 5 Retrieved 2024 04 17 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint date and year link Hoppe Thomas Graf Antonia Warbroek Beau Lammers Imke Lepping Isabella 2015 02 11 Local Governments Supporting Local Energy Initiatives Lessons from the Best Practices of Saerbeck Germany and Lochem The Netherlands Sustainability 7 2 1900 1931 doi 10 3390 su7021900 ISSN 2071 1050 Neves Ana Rita Leal Vitor December 2010 Energy sustainability indicators for local energy planning Review of current practices and derivation of a new framework Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 14 9 2723 2735 doi 10 1016 j rser 2010 07 067 ISSN 1364 0321 SOVACOOL Benjamin 2011 Conceptualizing and measuring energy security A synthesized approach ink library smu edu sg Archived from the original on 2020 03 21 Retrieved 2020 03 29 Strangleman Tim June 2001 Networks Place and Identities in Post industrial Mining Communities International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 25 2 253 267 doi 10 1111 1468 2427 00310 ISSN 0309 1317 a b Bouzarovski Stefan Tirado Herrero Sergio Petrova Saska Frankowski Jan Matousek Roman Maltby Tomas 2017 01 02 Multiple transformations theorizing energy vulnerability as a socio spatial phenomenon Geografiska Annaler Series B Human Geography 99 1 20 41 doi 10 1080 04353684 2016 1276733 ISSN 0435 3684 Training Available for Dislocated Coal Miners and Dependents UMWA Career Centers Inc umwacc com 2015 11 04 Archived from the original on 2020 03 29 Retrieved 2020 03 29 a b Do Thang Nam Burke Paul 2023 Phasing out coal power in a developing country context Insights from Vietnam Energy Policy 176 May 2023 113512 113512 Bibcode 2023EnPol 17613512D doi 10 1016 j enpol 2023 113512 hdl 1885 286612 S2CID 257356936 Marin Anabel Goya Daniel 2021 12 01 Mining The dark side of the energy transition Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions Celebrating a decade of EIST What s next for transition studies 41 86 88 Bibcode 2021EIST 41 86M doi 10 1016 j eist 2021 09 011 ISSN 2210 4224 S2CID 239975201 The energy transition will significantly increase demand for minerals The increasing number of social and environmental conflicts associated with mining in emerging economies is a manifestation of this tension and raises questions about just energy transitions Korean firms asked to consult with indigenous peoples prior to searching for renewable energy resources Korea Times 2022 08 11 Retrieved 2023 01 03 Pai Sandeep Carr Wilson Savannah 2018 Total Transition The Human Side of the Renewable Energy Revolution Rocky Mountain Books ISBN 978 1 77160 248 8 Archived from the original on 2021 05 10 Retrieved 2020 10 03 Stevis Gridneff Matina 2022 10 07 Europe s Energy Crisis Exposes Old Fault Lines and New Power Dynamics The New York Times World Energy Investment 2023 PDF IEA org International Energy Agency May 2023 p 61 Archived PDF from the original on 2023 08 07 Bousso Ron 2023 02 08 Big Oil doubles profits in blockbuster 2022 Reuters Archived from the original on 2023 03 31 Details for 2020 from the more detailed diagram in King Ben 2023 02 12 Why are BP Shell and other oil giants making so much money right now BBC Archived from the original on 2023 04 22 Highlights of the Automotive Trends Report EPA gov U S Environmental Protection Agency EPA 2022 12 12 Archived from the original on 2023 09 02 Cazzola Pierpaolo Paoli Leonardo Teter Jacob November 2023 Trends in the Global Vehicle Fleet 2023 Managing the SUV Shift and the EV Transition PDF Global Fuel Economy Initiative GFEI p 3 doi 10 7922 G2HM56SV Archived PDF from the original on 2023 11 26 Alova G 2020 A global analysis of the progress and failure of electric utilities to adapt their portfolios of power generation assets to the energy transition Nature Energy 5 11 920 927 Bibcode 2020NatEn 5 920A doi 10 1038 s41560 020 00686 5 ISSN 2058 7546 S2CID 225179903 Archived from the original on 2021 03 21 Retrieved 2021 04 16 BP Statistical Review of World Energy Archived 17 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine Workbook xlsx London 2016 World Energy Assessment Archived 12 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine WEA UNDP United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs World Energy Council New York Statistical Review of World Energy June 2018 PDF Retrieved 2019 09 27 Andrews Speed Philip November 2014 China s Energy Policymaking Processes and Their Consequences The National Bureau of Asian Research Energy Security Report Retrieved 2014 12 05 McGrath Matt 2019 11 20 China coal surge threatens Paris climate targets Retrieved 2019 12 09 Ma Tianjie 2016 08 06 China s 5 Year Plan for Energy The Diplomat Retrieved 2016 10 30 DataBank CO2 emissions metric tons per capita The World Bank Retrieved 2020 08 10 Alok Jha 2008 08 01 China leads the world in renewable energy The Guardian Retrieved 2011 02 02 Rosen Daniel Houser Trevor May 2007 China Energy A Guide for the Perplexed PDF piie com Retrieved 2020 04 25 Analysis Will China build hundreds of new coal plants in the 2020s Carbon Brief 2020 03 24 Retrieved 2020 09 11 Guest post Why would anyone finance another coal power plant in China Carbon Brief 2020 09 07 Retrieved 2020 09 11 Renewable Energy in India Indian Power Industry Investment www investindia gov in Retrieved 2022 12 06 Fuller Gary 2024 04 19 Clean up of Indian coal fired power plants could have saved 720 000 lives The Guardian ISSN 0261 3077 Retrieved 2024 04 19 The Electric Vehicle EV sector in India to boost both the ec www investindia gov in Retrieved 2022 12 06 a b Do Thang Nam Burke Paul J Nguyen Hoang Nam Overland Indra Suryadi Beni Swandaru Akbar Yurnaidi Zulfikar 2021 12 01 Vietnam s solar and wind power success Policy implications for the other ASEAN countries Energy for Sustainable Development 65 1 11 doi 10 1016 j esd 2021 09 002 hdl 1885 248804 ISSN 0973 0826 a b Do Thang Nam May 2024 Insider perspectives on Southeast Asiaʼs clean energy transition Asia amp the Pacific Policy Studies 11 2 doi 10 1002 app5 390 ISSN 2050 2680 Do Thang Nam 2023 Phasing out coal power in a developing country context Insights from Vietnam Energy Policy 176 May 2023 113512 113512 Bibcode 2023EnPol 17613512D doi 10 1016 j enpol 2023 113512 hdl 1885 286612 S2CID 257356936 Do Thang Nam Burke Paul J Baldwin Ken Nguyen T C 2020 Underlying drivers and barriers for solar photovoltaics diffusion The case of Vietnam Energy Policy 144 September 2020 111561 Bibcode 2020EnPol 14411561D doi 10 1016 j enpol 2020 111561 hdl 1885 206307 S2CID 225245522 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Tamma Paola Schaart Eline Gurzu Anca 2019 12 11 Europe s Green Deal plan unveiled POLITICO Archived from the original on 2020 11 28 Retrieved 2019 12 29 a b c Simon Frederic 2019 12 11 EU Commission unveils European Green Deal The key points www euractiv com Archived from the original on 2020 12 15 Retrieved 2019 12 29 Bank European Investment 2022 05 05 Digitalisation in Europe 2021 2022 Evidence from the EIB Investment Survey European Investment Bank ISBN 978 92 861 5233 7 a b Germany s energy transformation Energiewende The Economist 2012 07 28 Archived from the original on 2018 01 15 Retrieved 2013 03 06 Wo steht Deutschland bei der Energiewende Die Bundesregierung informiert Startseite in German 2023 07 12 Retrieved 2023 09 14 The cost of financing for renewable power www irena org 2023 05 03 Retrieved 2023 11 03 a b Egli Florian Steffen Bjarne Schmidt Tobias S December 2018 A dynamic analysis of financing conditions for renewable energy technologies Nature Energy 3 12 1084 1092 Bibcode 2018NatEn 3 1084E doi 10 1038 s41560 018 0277 y hdl 20 500 11850 309636 ISSN 2058 7546 Furman Jason A Reconsideration of Fiscal Policy in the Era of Low Interest Rates PDF Germany s energy reform Troubled turn The Economist 2013 02 09 Archived from the original on 2013 03 04 Retrieved 2013 03 06 The Energy of the Future Fourth Energy Transition Monitoring Report Summary PDF Berlin Germany Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy BMWi November 2015 Archived from the original PDF on 2016 09 20 Retrieved 2016 06 09 a b Energy strategy 2050 Archived 19 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine Swiss Federal Office of Energy Federal Department of Environment Transport Energy and Communications page visited on 21 May 2017 The Ten Point Plan for a Green Industrial Revolution HTML version GOV UK Retrieved 2022 06 01 Group Drax Drax Electric Insights Drax Electric Insights Archived from the original on 2020 10 10 Retrieved 2020 09 10 Reducing UK emissions 2020 Progress Report to Parliament Committee on Climate Change Archived from the original on 2020 09 20 Retrieved 2020 09 10 Decarbonisation of Heat Energy Systems Catapult Archived from the original on 2020 09 18 Retrieved 2020 09 10 Office for Low Emission Vehicles GOV UK 2019 06 04 Archived from the original on 2020 09 11 Retrieved 2020 09 10 Land use Policies for a Net Zero UK Committee on Climate Change Archived from the original on 2020 09 22 Retrieved 2020 09 10 Frangoul Anmar 2020 02 18 UK government announces millions in funding for low carbon hydrogen production CNBC Archived from the original on 2020 10 29 Retrieved 2020 09 10 Boydell Ranald 2020 06 22 Why zero carbon homes must lead the green recovery from COVID 19 The Conversation Archived from the original on 2020 09 09 Retrieved 2020 09 10 Penman Hamish 2020 09 02 Gulf between government ambition and ability to deliver green energy transition The Courier Archived from the original on 2020 09 17 Retrieved 2020 09 10 Grubb Professor Michael 2020 09 08 Why a deal on energy could break the Brexit logjam www euractiv com Archived from the original on 2020 09 12 Retrieved 2020 09 10 Big oil need not apply UK raises the bar for UN climate summit sponsorship Climate Home News 2020 08 18 Archived from the original on 2020 09 23 Retrieved 2020 09 10 Sources edit Levelized Cost Of Energy Levelized Cost Of Storage and Levelized Cost Of Hydrogen Lazard 2023 Renewable Capacity Highlights 2022 IRENA2022 2022 04 11 Retrieved 2022 05 29 United Nations Environment Programme 2019 Emissions Gap Report 2019 PDF United Nations Environment Programme ISBN 978 92 807 3766 0 Archived PDF from the original on 2021 05 07 nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Energy transition Portal nbsp Renewable energy Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Energy transition amp oldid 1220760152, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.