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Angola

April 01, 2023

This article is about the modern country since 1992. For the former country from 1975 to 1992, see People's Republic of Angola.
This article is about the country. For other uses, see Angola (disambiguation).

Coordinates: 12°30′S 18°30′E / 12.500°S 18.500°E / -12.500; 18.500

Angola (/æŋˈɡoʊlə/ (listen); Portuguese: [ɐ̃ˈɡɔlɐ]; Kongo: Ngola, pronounced [ŋɔla]), officially the Republic of Angola (Portuguese: República de Angola, Kongo: Repubilika ya Ngola), is a country located on the west coast of Southern Africa. It is the second-largest Lusophone (Portuguese-speaking) country in both total area and population (behind Brazil in both cases), and is the seventh-largest country in Africa. It is bordered by Namibia to the south, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north, Zambia to the east, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. Angola has an exclave province, the province of Cabinda, that borders the Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The capital and most populous city is Luanda.

Republic of Angola
República de Angola (Portuguese)
Motto: 
  • Virtus Unita Fortior (Latin)
  • (English: "Virtue is stronger when united")
Anthem: "Angola Avante"
(English: "Onwards Angola")
Capital
and largest city
Luanda
8°50′S 13°20′E / 8.833°S 13.333°E / -8.833; 13.333
Official languagesPortuguese
National languages
Ethnic groups
(2021)[1]
Religion
(2020)[2]
Demonym(s)
GovernmentUnitary dominant-party presidential republic
• President
João Lourenço
Esperança da Costa[3]
LegislatureNational Assembly
Formation
11 November 1975
22 November 1976
21 January 2010
Area
• Total
1,246,700 km2 (481,400 sq mi) (22nd)
• Water (%)
negligible
Population
• 2022 estimate
34,795,287[4] (42nd)
• 2014 census
25,789,024[5]
• Density
24.97/km2 (64.7/sq mi) (157th)
GDP (PPP)2022 estimate
• Total
$245.44 billion[6] (62nd)
• Per capita
$7,455[6] (129th)
GDP (nominal)2022 estimate
• Total
 $124.79 billion[6] (61st)
• Per capita
$3,791[6] (125th)
Gini (2018)51.3[7]
high
HDI (2021) 0.588[8]
medium · 146th
CurrencyAngolan kwanza (AOA)
Time zoneUTC+1 (WAT)
Date formatdd/mm/yyyy
Driving sideright
Calling code+244
ISO 3166 codeAO
Internet TLD.ao

Angola has been inhabited since the Paleolithic Age. Its formation as a nation-state originates from Portuguese colonisation, which initially began with coastal settlements and trading posts founded in the 16th century. In the 19th century, European settlers gradually began to establish themselves in the interior. The Portuguese colony that became Angola did not have its present borders until the early 20th century, owing to resistance by native groups such as the Cuamato, the Kwanyama and the Mbunda.

After a protracted anti-colonial struggle, Angola achieved independence in 1975 as a Marxist–Leninist one-party Republic. The country descended into a devastating civil war the same year, between the ruling People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), backed by the Soviet Union and Cuba, the insurgent National Union for the Total Independence of Angola, an originally Maoist and later anti-communist group supported by the United States and South Africa, and the militant organization National Liberation Front of Angola, backed by Zaire. The country has been governed by MPLA ever since its independence in 1975. Following the end of the war in 2002, Angola emerged as a relatively stable unitary, presidential constitutional republic.

Angola has vast mineral and petroleum reserves, and its economy is among the fastest-growing in the world, especially since the end of the civil war; however, economic growth is highly uneven, with most of the nation's wealth concentrated in a disproportionately small part of the population; the largest investment and trade partners are China and the United States.[9] The standard of living remains low for most Angolans; life expectancy is among the lowest in the world, while infant mortality is among the highest.[10] Since 2017, the government of João Lourenço has made fighting corruption its flagship, so much so that many individuals of the previous government are either jailed or awaiting trial. Whilst this effort has been recognised by foreign diplomats to be legitimate,[11] some skeptics see the actions as being politically motivated.[12]

Angola is a member of the United Nations, OPEC, African Union, the Community of Portuguese Language Countries, and the Southern African Development Community. As of 2021, the Angolan population is estimated at 32.87 million. Angola is multicultural and multiethnic. Angolan culture reflects centuries of Portuguese influence, namely the predominance of the Portuguese language and of the Catholic Church, intermingled with a variety of indigenous customs and traditions.

Etymology

The name Angola comes from the Portuguese colonial name Reino de Angola ('Kingdom of Angola'), which appeared as early as Paulo Dias de Novais's 1571 charter.[13] The toponym was derived by the Portuguese from the title ngola held by the kings of Ndongo and Matamba. Ndongo in the highlands, between the Kwanza and Lucala Rivers, was nominally a possession of the Kingdom of Kongo, but was seeking greater independence in the 16th century.[14]

History

Main article: History of Angola

Early migrations and political units

Modern Angola was populated predominantly by nomadic Khoi and San prior to the first Bantu migrations. The Khoi and San peoples were neither pastoralists nor cultivators, but rather hunter-gatherers.[15] They were displaced by Bantu peoples arriving from the north in the first millennium BC, most of whom likely originated in what is today northwestern Nigeria and southern Niger.[16] Bantu speakers introduced the cultivation of bananas and taro, as well as large cattle herds, to Angola's central highlands and the Luanda plain.

A number of political entities were established; the best-known of these was the Kingdom of Kongo, based in Angola, which extended northward to what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Republic of the Congo and Gabon. It established trade routes with other city-states and civilisations up and down the coast of southwestern and western Africa and even with Great Zimbabwe and the Mutapa Empire, although it engaged in little or no transoceanic trade.[17] To its south lay the Kingdom of Ndongo, from which the area of the later Portuguese colony was sometimes known as Dongo, and right next to them lay the Kingdom of Matamba.[18]

Portuguese colonization

Main articles: Colonial history of Angola and Portuguese Angola
 
Coat of arms granted to King Afonso I of Kongo by King Manuel I of Portugal

Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão reached the area in 1484.[18] The previous year, the Portuguese had established relations with the Kongo, which stretched at the time from modern Gabon in the north to the Kwanza River in the south. The Portuguese established their primary early trading post at Soyo, which is now the northernmost city in Angola apart from the Cabinda exclave. Paulo Dias de Novais founded São Paulo de Loanda (Luanda) in 1575 with a hundred families of settlers and four hundred soldiers. Benguela was fortified in 1587 and became a township in 1617.

The Portuguese established several other settlements, forts and trading posts along the Angolan coast, principally trading in Angolan slaves for plantations. Local slave dealers provided a large number of slaves for the Portuguese Empire,[19] usually in exchange for manufactured goods from Europe.[20][21]

This part of the Atlantic slave trade continued until after Brazil's independence in the 1820s.[22]

 
Queen Ana de Sousa of Ndongo meeting with the Portuguese, 1657
 
Depiction of Luanda from 1755

Despite Portugal's territorial claims in Angola, its control over much of the country's vast interior was minimal.[18] In the 16th century Portugal gained control of the coast through a series of treaties and wars. Life for European colonists was difficult and progress was slow. John Iliffe notes that "Portuguese records of Angola from the 16th century show that a great famine occurred on average every seventy years; accompanied by epidemic disease, it might kill one-third or one-half of the population, destroying the demographic growth of a generation and forcing colonists back into the river valleys".[23]

During the Portuguese Restoration War, the Dutch West India Company occupied the principal settlement of Luanda in 1641, using alliances with local peoples to carry out attacks against Portuguese holdings elsewhere.[22] A fleet under Salvador de Sá retook Luanda in 1648; reconquest of the rest of the territory was completed by 1650. New treaties with the Kongo were signed in 1649; others with Njinga's Kingdom of Matamba and Ndongo followed in 1656. The conquest of Pungo Andongo in 1671 was the last major Portuguese expansion from Luanda, as attempts to invade Kongo in 1670 and Matamba in 1681 failed. Colonial outposts also expanded inward from Benguela, but until the late 19th century the inroads from Luanda and Benguela were very limited.[18] Hamstrung by a series of political upheavals in the early 1800s, Portugal was slow to mount a large scale annexation of Angolan territory.[22]

 
History of Angola; written in Luanda in 1680.

The slave trade was abolished in Angola in 1836, and in 1854 the colonial government freed all its existing slaves.[22] Four years later, a more progressive administration appointed by Portugal abolished slavery altogether. However, these decrees remained largely unenforceable, and the Portuguese depended on assistance from the British Royal Navy to enforce their ban on the slave trade.[22] This coincided with a series of renewed military expeditions into the bush.

By the mid-nineteenth century Portugal had established its dominion as far north as the Congo River and as far south as Mossâmedes.[22] Until the late 1880s, Portugal entertained proposals to link Angola with its colony in Mozambique but was blocked by British and Belgian opposition.[24] In this period, the Portuguese came up against different forms of armed resistance from various peoples in Angola.[25]

The Berlin Conference in 1884–1885 set the colony's borders, delineating the boundaries of Portuguese claims in Angola,[24] although many details were unresolved until the 1920s.[26] Trade between Portugal and its African territories rapidly increased as a result of protective tariffs, leading to increased development, and a wave of new Portuguese immigrants.[24]

Between 1939 and 1943 the Portuguese army carried out operations against the nomadic Mucubal people, accused of rebellion, which led to the death of half their population. The survivors were incarcerated in concentration camps, sent to forced labor camps, where the great majority of them perished due to the brutality of the work system, undernourishment and executions.[27]

Angolan independence

Main articles: Angolan War of Independence and Portuguese Colonial War
 
Portuguese Armed Forces marching in Luanda during the Portuguese Colonial Wars (1961–74).

Under colonial law, black Angolans were forbidden from forming political parties or labour unions.[28] The first nationalist movements did not take root until after World War II, spearheaded by a largely Westernised and Portuguese-speaking urban class, which included many mestiços.[29] During the early 1960s they were joined by other associations stemming from ad hoc labour activism in the rural workforce.[28] Portugal's refusal to address increasing Angolan demands for self-determination provoked an armed conflict, which erupted in 1961 with the Baixa de Cassanje revolt and gradually evolved into a protracted war of independence that persisted for the next twelve years.[30] Throughout the conflict, three militant nationalist movements with their own partisan guerrilla wings emerged from the fighting between the Portuguese government and local forces, supported to varying degrees by the Portuguese Communist Party.[29][31]

The National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA) recruited from Bakongo refugees in Zaire.[32] Benefiting from particularly favourable political circumstances in Léopoldville, and especially from a common border with Zaire, Angolan political exiles were able to build up a power base among a large expatriate community from related families, clans, and traditions.[33] People on both sides of the border spoke mutually intelligible dialects and enjoyed shared ties to the historical Kingdom of Kongo.[33] Though as foreigners skilled Angolans could not take advantage of Mobutu Sese Seko's state employment programme, some found work as middlemen for the absentee owners of various lucrative private ventures. The migrants eventually formed the FNLA with the intention of making a bid for political power upon their envisaged return to Angola.[33]

 
Members of the National Liberation Front of Angola training in 1973.

A largely Ovimbundu guerrilla initiative against the Portuguese in central Angola from 1966 was spearheaded by Jonas Savimbi and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA).[32] It remained handicapped by its geographic remoteness from friendly borders, the ethnic fragmentation of the Ovimbundu, and the isolation of peasants on European plantations where they had little opportunity to mobilise.[33]

During the late 1950s, the rise of the Marxist–Leninist Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) in the east and Dembos hills north of Luanda came to hold special significance. Formed as a coalition resistance movement by the Angolan Communist Party,[30] the organisation's leadership remained predominantly Ambundu and courted public sector workers in Luanda.[32] Although both the MPLA and its rivals accepted material assistance from the Soviet Union or the People's Republic of China, the former harboured strong anti-imperialist views and was openly critical of the United States and its support for Portugal.[31] This allowed it to win important ground on the diplomatic front, soliciting support from nonaligned governments in Morocco, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, and the United Arab Republic.[30]

The MPLA attempted to move its headquarters from Conakry to Léopoldville in October 1961, renewing efforts to create a common front with the FNLA, then known as the Union of Angolan Peoples (UPA) and its leader Holden Roberto. Roberto turned down the offer.[30] When the MPLA first attempted to insert its own insurgents into Angola, the cadres were ambushed and annihilated by UPA partisans on Roberto's orders—setting a precedent for the bitter factional strife which would later ignite the Angolan Civil War.[30]

Angolan Civil War

Main article: Angolan Civil War

Throughout the war of independence, the three rival nationalist movements were severely hampered by political and military factionalism, as well as their inability to unite guerrilla efforts against the Portuguese.[34] Between 1961 and 1975 the MPLA, UNITA, and the FNLA competed for influence in the Angolan population and the international community.[34] The Soviet Union and Cuba became especially sympathetic towards the MPLA and supplied that party with arms, ammunition, funding, and training.[34] They also backed UNITA militants until it became clear that the latter was at irreconcilable odds with the MPLA.[35]

The collapse of Portugal's Estado Novo government following the 1974 Carnation Revolution suspended all Portuguese military activity in Africa and the brokering of a ceasefire pending negotiations for Angolan independence.[34] Encouraged by the Organisation of African Unity, Holden Roberto, Jonas Savimbi, and MPLA chairman Agostinho Neto met in Mombasa in early January 1975 and agreed to form a coalition government.[36] This was ratified by the Alvor Agreement later that month, which called for general elections and set the country's independence date for 11 November 1975.[36] All three factions, however, followed up on the ceasefire by taking advantage of the gradual Portuguese withdrawal to seize various strategic positions, acquire more arms, and enlarge their militant forces.[36] The rapid influx of weapons from numerous external sources, especially the Soviet Union and the United States, as well as the escalation of tensions between the nationalist parties, fueled a new outbreak of hostilities.[36] With tacit American and Zairean support the FNLA began massing large numbers of troops in northern Angola in an attempt to gain military superiority.[34] Meanwhile, the MPLA began securing control of Luanda, a traditional Ambundu stronghold.[34] Sporadic violence broke out in Luanda over the next few months after the FNLA attacked MPLA forces in March 1975.[36] The fighting intensified with street clashes in April and May, and UNITA became involved after over two hundred of its members were massacred by an MPLA contingent that June.[36] An upswing in Soviet arms shipments to the MPLA influenced a decision by the Central Intelligence Agency to likewise provide substantial covert aid to the FNLA and UNITA.[37]

In August 1975, the MPLA requested direct assistance from the Soviet Union in the form of ground troops.[37] The Soviets declined, offering to send advisers but no troops; however, Cuba was more forthcoming and in late September dispatched nearly five hundred combat personnel to Angola, along with sophisticated weaponry and supplies.[35] By independence, there were over a thousand Cuban soldiers in the country.[37] They were kept supplied by a massive airbridge carried out with Soviet aircraft.[37] The persistent buildup of Cuban and Soviet military aid allowed the MPLA to drive its opponents from Luanda and blunt an abortive intervention by Zairean and South African troops, which had deployed in a belated attempt to assist the FNLA and UNITA.[36] The FNLA was largely annihilated after the decisive Battle of Quifangondo, although UNITA managed to withdraw its civil officials and militia from Luanda and seek sanctuary in the southern provinces.[34] From there, Savimbi continued to mount a determined insurgent campaign against the MPLA.[37]

 
Cuban tank in Luanda during the Cuban intervention in Angola, 1976

Between 1975 and 1991, the MPLA implemented an economic and political system based on the principles of scientific socialism, incorporating central planning and a Marxist–Leninist one-party state.[38] It embarked on an ambitious programme of nationalisation, and the domestic private sector was essentially abolished.[38] Privately owned enterprises were nationalised and incorporated into a single umbrella of state-owned enterprises known as Unidades Economicas Estatais (UEE).[38] Under the MPLA, Angola experienced a significant degree of modern industrialisation.[38] However, corruption and graft also increased and public resources were either allocated inefficiently or simply embezzled by officials for personal enrichment.[39] The ruling party survived an attempted coup d'état by the Maoist-oriented Communist Organisation of Angola (OCA) in 1977, which was suppressed after a series of bloody political purges left thousands of OCA supporters dead.[40]

The MPLA abandoned its former Marxist ideology at its third party congress in 1990, and declared social democracy to be its new platform.[40] Angola subsequently became a member of the International Monetary Fund; restrictions on the market economy were also reduced in an attempt to draw foreign investment.[41] By May 1991 it reached a peace agreement with UNITA, the Bicesse Accords, which scheduled new general elections for September 1992.[41] When the MPLA secured a major electoral victory, UNITA objected to the results of both the presidential and legislative vote count and returned to war.[41] Following the election, the Halloween massacre occurred from 30 October to 1 November, where MPLA forces killed thousands of UNITA supporters.[42]

21st century

 
Luanda is experiencing widespread urban renewal and redevelopment in the 21st century, backed largely by profits from oil & diamond industries.
Main article: 2000s in Angola

On 22 February 2002, Jonas Savimbi was killed in action against government troops. UNITA and the MPLA reached a cease-fire shortly afterwards. UNITA gave up its armed wing and assumed the role of a major opposition party. Although the political situation of the country began to stabilise, regular democratic processes did not prevail until the elections in Angola in 2008 and 2012 and the adoption of a new constitution in 2010, all of which strengthened the prevailing dominant-party system[43].[citation needed]

Angola has a serious humanitarian crisis; the result of the prolonged war, of the abundance of minefields, and the continued political agitation in favour of the independence of the exclave of Cabinda (carried out in the context of the protracted Cabinda conflict by the FLEC). While most of the internally displaced have now squatted around the capital, in musseques (shanty towns) the general situation for Angolans remains desperate.[44][45]

A drought in 2016 caused the worst food crisis in Southern Africa in 25 years, affecting 1.4 million people across seven of Angola's 18 provinces. Food prices rose and acute malnutrition rates doubled, with more than 95,000 children affected.[citation needed]

José Eduardo dos Santos stepped down as President of Angola after 38 years in 2017, being peacefully succeeded by João Lourenço, Santos' chosen successor.[46] Some members of the dos Santos family were later linked to high levels of corruption. In July 2022, ex-president José Eduardo dos Santos died in Spain.[47]

In August 2022, the ruling party, MPLA, won another outright majority and President Lourenço won a second five-year term in the election. However, the election was the tightest in Angola’s history.[48]

Geography

Main article: Geography of Angola
 
Topography of Angola.

At 1,246,700 km2 (481,400 sq mi),[49] Angola is the world's twenty-fourth largest country — comparable in size to Mali, or twice the size of France or of Texas. It lies mostly between latitudes 4° and 18°S, and longitudes 12° and 24°E.

Angola borders Namibia to the south, Zambia to the east, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north-east and the South Atlantic Ocean to the west.

The coastal exclave of Cabinda in the north has borders with the Republic of the Congo to the north and with the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the south.[citation needed] Angola's capital, Luanda, lies on the Atlantic coast in the northwest of the country.

Angola had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.35/10, ranking it 23rd globally out of 172 countries.[50]

Climate

Main article: Climate of Angola
 
Angola map of Köppen climate classification.

Like the rest of tropical Africa, Angola experiences distinct, alternating rainy and dry seasons.[51] In the north, the rainy season may last for as long as seven months—usually from September to April, with perhaps a brief slackening in January or February.[51] In the south, the rainy season begins later, in November, and lasts until about February.[51] The dry season (cacimbo) is often characterized by a heavy morning mist.[51] In general, precipitation is higher in the north, but at any latitude it is greater in the interior than along the coast and increases with altitude.[51] Temperatures fall with distance from the equator and with altitude and tend to rise closer to the Atlantic Ocean.[51] Thus, at Soyo, at the mouth of the Congo River, the average annual temperature is about 26 °C, but it is under 16 °C at Huambo on the temperate central plateau.[51] The coolest months are July and August (in the middle of the dry season), when frost may sometimes form at higher altitudes.[51]

Administrative divisions

Main articles: Provinces of Angola, Municipalities of Angola, and Communes of Angola
 
Map of Angola with the provinces numbered

As of March 2016, Angola is divided into eighteen provinces (províncias) and 162 municipalities. The municipalities are further divided into 559 communes (townships).[52] The provinces are:

Number Province Capital Area (km2)[53] Population
(2014 Census)[54]
1 Bengo Caxito 31,371 356,641
2 Benguela Benguela 39,826 2,231,385
3 Bié Cuíto 70,314 1,455,255
4 Cabinda Cabinda 7,270 716,076
5 Cuando Cubango Menongue 199,049 534,002
6 Cuanza Norte N'dalatando 24,110 443,386
7 Cuanza Sul Sumbe 55,600 1,881,873
8 Cunene Ondjiva 87,342 990,087
9 Huambo Huambo 34,270 2,019,555
10 Huíla Lubango 79,023 2,497,422
11 Luanda Luanda 2,417 6,945,386
12 Lunda Norte Dundo 103,760 862,566
13 Lunda Sul Saurimo 77,637 537,587
14 Malanje Malanje 97,602 986,363
15 Moxico Luena 223,023 758,568
16 Namibe Moçâmedes 57,091 495,326
17 Uíge Uíge 58,698 1,483,118
18 Zaire M'banza-Kongo 40,130 594,428

Exclave of Cabinda

Main article: Cabinda Province

With an area of approximately 7,283 square kilometres (2,812 sq mi), the Northern Angolan province of Cabinda is unusual in being separated from the rest of the country by a strip, some 60 kilometres (37 mi) wide, of the Democratic Republic of Congo along the lower Congo River. Cabinda borders the Congo Republic to the north and north-northeast and the DRC to the east and south. The town of Cabinda is the chief population centre.

According to a 1995 census, Cabinda had an estimated population of 600,000, approximately 400,000 of whom are citizens of neighboring countries. Population estimates are, however, highly unreliable. Consisting largely of tropical forest, Cabinda produces hardwoods, coffee, cocoa, crude rubber and palm oil.

The product for which it is best known, however, is its oil, which has given it the nickname, "the Kuwait of Africa". Cabinda's petroleum production from its considerable offshore reserves now accounts for more than half of Angola's output.[55] Most of the oil along its coast was discovered under Portuguese rule by the Cabinda Gulf Oil Company (CABGOC) from 1968 onwards.

Ever since Portugal handed over sovereignty of its former overseas province of Angola to the local independence groups (MPLA, UNITA and FNLA), the territory of Cabinda has been a focus of separatist guerrilla actions opposing the Government of Angola (which has employed its armed forces, the FAA—Forças Armadas Angolanas) and Cabindan separatists. The Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda-Armed Forces of Cabinda (FLEC-FAC) announced the virtual Federal Republic of Cabinda under the Presidency of N'Zita Henriques Tiago. One of the characteristics of the Cabindan independence movement is its constant fragmentation, into smaller and smaller factions.[citation needed]

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Angola
See also: Elections in Angola and List of political parties in Angola

The Angolan government is composed of three branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial. The executive branch of the government is composed of the President, the Vice-Presidents and the Council of Ministers.

The legislative branch comprises a 220-seat unicameral legislature, the National Assembly of Angola, elected from multi-member province-wide and nationwide constituencies using party-list proportional representation. For decades, political power has been concentrated in the presidency.[56]

After 38 years of rule, in 2017 President dos Santos stepped down from MPLA leadership.[57] The leader of the winning party at the parliamentary elections in August 2017 would become the next president of Angola. The MPLA selected the former Defense Minister João Lourenço as Santos' chosen successor.[58] Out of 32 ministers there were 12 women.

In what has been described as a political purge[59] to cement his power and reduce the influence of the Dos Santos family, Lourenço subsequently sacked the chief of the national police, Ambrósio de Lemos, and the head of the intelligence service, Apolinário José Pereira. Both are considered allies of former president Dos Santos.[60] He also removed Isabel Dos Santos, daughter of the former president, as head of the country's state oil company Sonangol.[61] In August 2020, José Filomeno dos Santos, son of Angola's former president, was sentenced for five years in jail for fraud and corruption.[62]

Constitution

Main article: Constitution of Angola

The Constitution of 2010 establishes the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens. The legal system is based on Portuguese law and customary law but is weak and fragmented, and courts operate in only 12 of more than 140 municipalities.[63] A Supreme Court serves as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court does not hold the powers of judicial review.[64] Governors of the 18 provinces are appointed by the president. After the end of the civil war, the regime came under pressure from within as well as from the international community to become more democratic and less authoritarian. Its reaction was to implement a number of changes without substantially changing its character.[65]

The new constitution, adopted in 2010, did away with presidential elections, introducing a system in which the president and the vice-president of the political party that wins the parliamentary elections automatically become president and vice-president. Directly or indirectly, the president controls all other organs of the state, so there is de facto no separation of powers.[66] In the classifications used in constitutional law, this government falls under the category of authoritarian regime.[67]

Armed forces

Main article: Angolan Armed Forces

The Angolan Armed Forces (Forças Armadas Angolanas, FAA) are headed by a Chief of Staff who reports to the Minister of Defence. There are three divisions—the Army (Exército), Navy (Marinha de Guerra, MGA) and National Air Force (Força Aérea Nacional, FAN). Total manpower is 107,000; plus paramilitary forces of 10,000 (2015 est.).[68]

Its equipment includes Russian-manufactured fighters, bombers and transport planes. There are also Brazilian-made EMB-312 Tucanos for training, Czech-made L-39s for training and bombing, and a variety of western-made aircraft such as the C-212\Aviocar, Sud Aviation Alouette III, etc. A small number of FAA personnel are stationed in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Kinshasa)[69] and the Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville)[citation needed]. The FAA has also participated in the Southern African Development Community (SADC)'s mission for peace in Cabo Delgado, Mozambique.[70]

Police

Main article: Law enforcement in Angola
 
Angolan National Police officers.

The National Police departments are Public Order, Criminal Investigation, Traffic and Transport, Investigation and Inspection of Economic Activities, Taxation and Frontier Supervision, Riot Police and the Rapid Intervention Police. The National Police are in the process of standing up an air wing,[when?] to provide helicopter support for operations. The National Police are developing their criminal investigation and forensic capabilities. The force has an estimated 6,000 patrol officers, 2,500 taxation and frontier supervision officers, 182 criminal investigators and 100 financial crimes detectives and around 90 economic activity inspectors.[citation needed]

The National Police have implemented a modernisation and development plan to increase the capabilities and efficiency of the total force. In addition to administrative reorganisation, modernisation projects include procurement of new vehicles, aircraft and equipment, construction of new police stations and forensic laboratories, restructured training programmes and the replacement of AKM rifles with 9 mm Uzis for officers in urban areas.

Justice

A Supreme Court serves as a court of appeal. The Constitutional Court is the supreme body of the constitutional jurisdiction, established with the approval of Law no. 2/08, of 17 June – Organic Law of the Constitutional Court and Law n. 3/08, of 17 June – Organic Law of the Constitutional Process. The legal system is based on Portuguese and customary law. There are 12 courts in more than 140 counties in the country. Its first task was the validation of the candidacies of the political parties to the legislative elections of 5 September 2008. Thus, on 25 June 2008, the Constitutional Court was institutionalized and its Judicial Counselors assumed the position before the President of the Republic. Currently, seven advisory judges are present, four men and three women.[citation needed]

In 2014, a new penal code took effect in Angola. The classification of money-laundering as a crime is one of the novelties in the new legislation.[71]

Foreign relations

Main articles: Foreign relations of Angola and List of diplomatic missions of Angola

Angola is a founding member state of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), also known as the Lusophone Commonwealth, an international organization and political association of Lusophone nations across four continents, where Portuguese is an official language.

On 16 October 2014, Angola was elected for the second time a non-permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, with 190 favorable votes out of a total of 193. The term of office began on 1 January 2015 and expired on 31 December 2016.[72]

Since January 2014, the Republic of Angola has been chairing the International Conference for the Great Lakes Region (CIRGL). [80] In 2015, CIRGL Executive Secretary Ntumba Luaba said that Angola is the example to be followed by the members of the organization, due to the significant progress made during the 12 years of peace, namely in terms of socio-economic stability and political-military.[73]

Human rights

See also: Human rights in Angola and LGBT rights in Angola

Angola was classified as 'not free' by Freedom House in the Freedom in the World 2014 report.[74] The report noted that the August 2012 parliamentary elections, in which the ruling Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola won more than 70% of the vote, suffered from serious flaws, including outdated and inaccurate voter rolls.[74] Voter turnout dropped from 80% in 2008 to 60%.[74]

A 2012 report by the U.S. Department of State said, "The three most important human rights abuses [in 2012] were official corruption and impunity; limits on the freedoms of assembly, association, speech, and press; and cruel and excessive punishment, including reported cases of torture and beatings as well as unlawful killings by police and other security personnel."[75]

Angola ranked forty-two of forty-eight sub-Saharan African states on the 2007 Index of African Governance list and scored poorly on the 2013 Ibrahim Index of African Governance.[76]: 8  It was ranked 39 out of 52 sub-Saharan African countries, scoring particularly badly in the areas of participation and human rights, sustainable economic opportunity and human development. The Ibrahim Index uses a number of variables to compile its list which reflects the state of governance in Africa.[77]

In 2019, homosexual acts were decriminalized in Angola, and the government also prohibited discrimination based on sexual orientation. The vote was overwhelming: 155 for, 1 against, 7 abstaining.[78]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Angola
 
A proportional representation of Angola exports, 2019
 
GDP per capita 1950 to 2018

Angola has diamonds, oil, gold, copper and rich wildlife (which was dramatically depleted during the civil war), forest and fossil fuels. Since independence, oil and diamonds have been the most important economic resource. Smallholder and plantation agriculture dramatically dropped in the Angolan Civil War, but began to recover after 2002.

Angola's economy has in recent years moved on from the disarray caused by a quarter-century of Angolan civil war to become the fastest-growing economy in Africa and one of the fastest-growing in the world, with an average GDP growth of 20% between 2005 and 2007.[79] In the period 2001–10, Angola had the world's highest annual average GDP growth, at 11.1%.

In 2004, the Exim Bank of China approved a $2 billion line of credit to Angola, to be used for rebuilding Angola's infrastructure, and to limit the influence of the International Monetary Fund there.[80]

China is Angola's biggest trade partner and export destination as well as the fourth-largest source of imports. Bilateral trade reached $27.67 billion in 2011, up 11.5% year-on-year. China's imports, mainly crude oil and diamonds, increased 9.1% to $24.89 billion while China's exports to Angola, including mechanical and electrical products, machinery parts and construction materials, surged 38.8%.[81] The oil glut led to a local price for unleaded gasoline of £0.37 a gallon.[82]

The Angolan economy grew 18% in 2005, 26% in 2006 and 17.6% in 2007. Due to the global recession, the economy contracted an estimated −0.3% in 2009.[64] The security brought about by the 2002 peace settlement has allowed the resettlement of 4 million displaced persons and a resulting large-scale increase in agriculture production. Angola's economy is expected to grow by 3.9 per cent in 2014 said the International Monetary Fund (IMF), robust growth in the non-oil economy, mainly driven by a very good performance in the agricultural sector, is expected to offset a temporary drop in oil production.[83]

Angola's financial system is maintained by the National Bank of Angola and managed by the governor Jose de Lima Massano. According to a study on the banking sector, carried out by Deloitte, the monetary policy led by Banco Nacional de Angola (BNA), the Angolan national bank, allowed a decrease in the inflation rate put at 7.96% in December 2013, which contributed to the sector's growth trend.[84] Estimates released by Angola's central bank, said the country's economy should grow at an annual average rate of 5 per cent over the next four years, boosted by the increasing participation of the private sector.[85]

Although the country's economy has grown significantly since Angola achieved political stability in 2002, mainly due to fast-rising earnings in the oil sector, Angola faces huge social and economic problems. These are in part a result of almost continual armed conflict from 1961 on, although the highest level of destruction and socio-economic damage took place after the 1975 independence, during the long years of civil war. However, high poverty rates and blatant social inequality chiefly stems from persistent authoritarianism, "neo-patrimonial" practices at all levels of the political, administrative, military and economic structures, and of a pervasive corruption.[86][87] The main beneficiaries are political, administrative, economic and military power holders, who have accumulated (and continue to accumulate) enormous wealth.[88]

 
Luanda Financial City.

"Secondary beneficiaries" are the middle strata that are about to become social classes. However, almost half the population has to be considered poor, with dramatic differences between the countryside and the cities, where slightly more than 50% of the people reside.[citation needed]

A study carried out in 2008 by the Angolan Instituto Nacional de Estatística found that in rural areas roughly 58% must be classified as "poor" according to UN norms but in the urban areas only 19%, and an overall rate of 37%.[89] In cities, a majority of families, well beyond those officially classified as poor, must adopt a variety of survival strategies.[90][clarification needed] In urban areas social inequality is most evident and it is extreme in Luanda.[91] In the Human Development Index Angola constantly ranks in the bottom group.[92]

 
Tourism in Angola has grown with the country's economy and stability.

In January 2020, a leak of government documents known as the Luanda Leaks showed that U.S. consulting companies such as Boston Consulting Group, McKinsey & Company, and PricewaterhouseCoopers had helped members of the family of former President José Eduardo dos Santos (especially his daughter Isabel dos Santos) corruptly run Sonangol for their own personal profit, helping them use the company's revenues to fund vanity projects in France and Switzerland.[93] After further revelations in the Pandora Papers, former generals Dias and do Nascimento and former presidential advisers were also accused of misappropriating significant public funds for personal benefit.[94]

The enormous differences between the regions pose a serious structural problem for the Angolan economy, illustrated by the fact that about one third of economic activities are concentrated in Luanda and neighbouring Bengo province, while several areas of the interior suffer economic stagnation and even regression.[95]

One of the economic consequences of social and regional disparities is a sharp increase in Angolan private investments abroad. The small fringe of Angolan society where most of the asset accumulation takes place seeks to spread its assets, for reasons of security and profit. For the time being, the biggest share of these investments is concentrated in Portugal where the Angolan presence (including the family of the state president) in banks as well as in the domains of energy, telecommunications, and mass media has become notable, as has the acquisition of vineyards and orchards as well as of tourism enterprises.[96]

 
Corporate headquarters in Luanda

Angola has upgraded critical infrastructure, an investment made possible by funds from the nation's development of oil resources.[97] According to a report, just slightly more than ten years after the end of the civil war Angola's standard of living has overall greatly improved. Life expectancy, which was just 46 years in 2002, reached 51 in 2011. Mortality rates for children fell from 25 per cent in 2001 to 19 per cent in 2010 and the number of students enrolled in primary school has tripled since 2001.[98] However, at the same time the social and economic inequality that has characterised the country for so long has not diminished, but has deepened in all respects.

With a stock of assets corresponding to 70 billion Kz (US$6.8 billion), Angola is now the third-largest financial market in sub-Saharan Africa, surpassed only by Nigeria and South Africa. According to the Angolan Minister of Economy, Abraão Gourgel, the financial market of the country grew modestly since 2002 and now occupies third place in sub-Saharan Africa.[99]

On 19 December 2014, the Capital Market in Angola was launched. BODIVA (Angola Stock Exchange and Derivatives, in English) was allocated the secondary public debt market, and was expected to launch the corporate debt market by 2015, though the stock market itself was only expected to commence trading in 2016.[100]

Natural resources

 
An offshore oil drilling platform off the coast of central Angola

The Economist reported in 2008 that diamonds and oil make up 60% of Angola's economy, almost all of the country's revenue and all of its dominant exports.[101] Growth is almost entirely driven by rising oil production which surpassed 1.4 million barrels per day (220,000 m3/d) in late 2005 and was expected to grow to 2 million barrels per day (320,000 m3/d) by 2007. Control of the oil industry is consolidated in Sonangol Group, a conglomerate owned by the Angolan government. In December 2006, Angola was admitted as a member of OPEC.[102]

According to the Heritage Foundation, a conservative American think tank, oil production from Angola has increased so significantly that Angola now is China's biggest supplier of oil.[103] "China has extended three multi-billion dollar lines of credit to the Angolan government; two loans of $2 billion from China Exim Bank, one in 2004, the second in 2007, as well as one loan in 2005 of $2.9 billion from China International Fund Ltd."[104]

Growing oil revenues also created opportunities for corruption: according to a recent Human Rights Watch report, 32 billion US dollars disappeared from government accounts in 2007–2010.[105] Furthermore, Sonangol, the state-run oil company, controls 51% of Cabinda's oil. Due to this market control, the company ends up determining the profit received by the government and the taxes it pays. The council of foreign affairs states that the World Bank mentioned that Sonangol is a taxpayer, it carries out quasi-fiscal activities, it invests public funds, and, as concessionaire, it is a sector regulator. This multifarious work program creates conflicts of interest and characterises a complex relationship between Sonangol and the government that weakens the formal budgetary process and creates uncertainty as regards the actual fiscal stance of the state."[106]

In 2002, Angola demanded compensation for oil spills allegedly caused by Chevron Corporation, the first time it had fined a multinational corporation operating in its waters.[107]

Operations in its diamond mines include partnerships between state-run Endiama and mining companies such as ALROSA which operate in Angola.[108]

Access to biocapacity in Angola is higher than world average. In 2016, Angola had 1.9 global hectares[109] of biocapacity per person within its territory, slightly more than world average of 1.6 global hectares per person.[110] In 2016, Angola used 1.01 global hectares of biocapacity per person - their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use about half as much biocapacity as Angola contains. As a result, Angola is running a biocapacity reserve.[109]

Agriculture

Main article: Agriculture in Angola

Agriculture and forestry is an area of potential opportunity for the country. The African Economic Outlook organization states that "Angola requires 4.5 million tonnes a year of grain but grows only about 55% of the maize it needs, 20% of the rice and just 5% of its required wheat".[111]

In addition, the World Bank estimates that "less than 3 per cent of Angola's abundant fertile land is cultivated and the economic potential of the forestry sector remains largely unexploited".[112]

Before independence in 1975, Angola was a bread-basket of southern Africa and a major exporter of bananas, coffee and sisal, but three decades of civil war (1975–2002) destroyed fertile countryside, left it littered with landmines and drove millions into the cities.

The country now depends on expensive food imports, mainly from South Africa and Portugal, while more than 90% of farming is done at the family and subsistence level. Thousands of Angolan small-scale farmers are trapped in poverty.[113]

Transport

Main article: Transport in Angola
 
TAAG Angola Airlines is the country's state-owned national carrier.

Transport in Angola consists of:

  • Three separate railway systems totalling 2,761 km (1,716 mi)
  • 76,626 km (47,613 mi) of highway of which 19,156 km (11,903 mi) is paved
  • 1,295 navigable inland waterways
  • five major sea ports
  • 243 airports, of which 32 are paved.

Angola centers its port trade in five main ports: Namibe, Lobito, Soyo, Cabinda and Luanda. The port of Luanda is the largest of the five, as well as being one of the busiest on the African continent.[114]

 
Catumbela Bridge in Benguela.

Travel on highways outside of towns and cities in Angola (and in some cases within) is[when?] often not best advised for those without four-by-four vehicles. While reasonable road infrastructure has existed within Angola, time and war have taken their toll on the road surfaces, leaving many severely potholed, littered with broken asphalt. In many areas drivers have established alternative tracks to avoid the worst parts of the surface, although careful attention must be paid to the presence or absence of landmine warning markers by the side of the road. The Angolan government has contracted the restoration of many of the country's roads. The road between Lubango and Namibe, for example, was completed recently with funding from the European Union,[115] and is comparable to many European main routes. Completing the road infrastructure is likely to take some decades, but substantial efforts are already being made.[citation needed]

Telecommunications

 
Lobito hosts a major seaport.
 
Luanda's construction boom is financed largely by oil and diamonds.

The telecommunications industry is considered one of the main strategic sectors in Angola.[116]

For additional, see Telephone numbers in Angola.

In October 2014, the building of an optic fiber underwater cable was announced.[117] This project aims to turn Angola into a continental hub, thus improving Internet connections both nationally and internationally.[118]

On 11 March 2015, the First Angolan Forum of Telecommunications and Information Technology was held in Luanda under the motto "The challenges of telecommunications in the current context of Angola",[119] to promote debate on topical issues on telecommunications in Angola and worldwide.[120] A study of this sector, presented at the forum, said Angola had the first telecommunications operator in Africa to test LTE – with speeds up to 400 Mbit/s – and mobile penetration of about 75%; there are about 3.5 million smartphones in the Angolan market; There are about 25,000 kilometres (16,000 miles) of optical fibre installed in the country.[121][122]

The first Angolan satellite, AngoSat-1, was launched into orbit on 26 December 2017.[123] It was launched from the Baikonur space center in Kazakhstan on board a Zenit 3F rocket. The satellite was built by Russia's RSC Energia, a subsidiary of the state-run space industry player Roscosmos. The satellite payload was supplied by Airbus Defence & Space.[124] Due to an on-board power failure during solar panel deployment, on 27 December, RSC Energia revealed that they lost communications contact with the satellite. Although, subsequent attempts to restore communications with the satellite were successful, the satellite eventually stopped sending data and RSC Energia confirmed that AngoSat-1 was inoperable. The launch of AngoSat-1 was aimed at ensuring telecommunications throughout the country.[125] According to Aristides Safeca, Secretary of State for Telecommunications, the satellite was aimed at providing telecommunications services, TV, internet and e-government and was expected to remain in orbit "at best" for 18 years.[126] A replacement satellite named AngoSat-2 is in the works and was expected to be in service by 2020.[127] As of February 2021, Ango-Sat-2 was about 60% ready. The officials reported the launch is expected in about 17 months, by July 2022.[128]

Technology

The management of the top-level domain '.ao' passed from Portugal to Angola in 2015, following new legislation.[129] A joint decree of Minister of Telecommunications and Information Technologies José Carvalho da Rocha and the minister of Science and Technology, Maria Cândida Pereira Teixeira, states that "under the massification" of that Angolan domain, "conditions are created for the transfer of the domain root '.ao' of Portugal to Angola".[130]

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Angola
 
Historical ethnic divisions of Angola

Angola has a population of 24,383,301 inhabitants according to the preliminary results of its 2014 census, the first one conducted or carried out since 15 December 1970.[5] It is composed of Ovimbundu (language Umbundu) 37%, Ambundu (language Kimbundu) 23%, Bakongo 13%, and 32% other ethnic groups (including the Chokwe, the Ovambo, the Ganguela and the Xindonga) as well as about 2% mulattos (mixed European and African), 1.6% Chinese and 1% European.[64] The Ambundu and Ovimbundu ethnic groups combined form a majority of the population, at 62%.[131] The population is forecast to grow to over 60 million people in 2050, 2.7 times the 2014 population.[132] However, on 23 March 2016, official data revealed by Angola's National Statistic Institute – Instituto Nacional de Estatística (INE), states that Angola has a population of 25,789,024 inhabitants.

It is estimated that Angola was host to 12,100 refugees and 2,900 asylum seekers by the end of 2007. 11,400 of those refugees were originally from the Democratic Republic of Congo, who arrived in the 1970s.[133] As of 2008 there were an estimated 400,000 Democratic Republic of the Congo migrant workers,[134] at least 220,000 Portuguese,[135] and about 259,000 Chinese living in Angola.[136] 1 million Angolans are mixed race (black and white). Also, 40,000 Vietnamese live in the country.[9][10]

Since 2003, more than 400,000 Congolese migrants have been expelled from Angola.[137] Prior to independence in 1975, Angola had a community of approximately 350,000 Portuguese,[138][139] but the vast majority left after independence and the ensuing civil war. However, Angola has recovered its Portuguese minority in recent years; currently, there are about 200,000 registered with the consulates, and increasing due to the debt crisis in Portugal and the relative prosperity in Angola.[140] The Chinese population stands at 258,920, mostly composed of temporary migrants.[141] Also, there is a small Brazilian community of about 5,000 people.[142] The Roma were deported to Angola from Portugal.[143]

As of 2007, the total fertility rate of Angola is 5.54 children born per woman (2012 estimates), the 11th highest in the world.[64]

Languages

Main article: Languages of Angola
Languages in Angola (2014 Census)[5]
Languages percent
Portuguese
 
 71.1%
Umbundu
 
 23.0%
Kikongo
 
 8.2%
Kimbundu
 
 7.8%
Chokwe
 
 6.5%
Nyaneka
 
 3.4%
Ngangela
 
 3.1%
Fiote
 
 2.4%
Kwanyama
 
 2.3%
Muhumbi
 
 2.1%
Luvale
 
 1.0%
Other
 
 4.1%

The languages in Angola are those originally spoken by the different ethnic groups and Portuguese, introduced during the Portuguese colonial era. The most widely spoken indigenous languages are Umbundu, Kimbundu and Kikongo, in that order. Portuguese is the official language of the country.

Although the exact numbers of those fluent in Portuguese or who speak Portuguese as a first language are unknown, a 2012 study mentions that Portuguese is the first language of 39% of the population.[144] In 2014, a census carried out by the Instituto Nacional de Estatística in Angola mentions that 71.15% of the nearly 25.8 million inhabitants of Angola (meaning around 18.3 million people) use Portuguese as a first or second language.[145]

According to the 2014 census, Portuguese is spoken by 71.1% of Angolans, Umbundu by 23%, Kikongo by 8.2%, Kimbundu by 7.8%, Chokwe by 6.5%, Nyaneka by 3.4%, Ngangela by 3.1%, Fiote by 2.4%, Kwanyama by 2.3%, Muhumbi by 2.1%, Luvale by 1%, and other languages by 4.1%.[146]

Religion

Main article: Religion in Angola
Religion in Angola (2015)[147]
Religion Percent
Roman Catholicism
 
 56.4%
Protestantism
 
 23.4%
Other Christian
 
 13.6%
Traditional faiths
 
 4.5%
Irreligion
 
 1.0%
Others
 
 1.1%

There are about 1,000 religious communities, mostly Christian, in Angola.[148] While reliable statistics are nonexistent, estimates have it that more than half of the population are Catholics, while about a quarter adhere to the Protestant churches introduced during the colonial period: the Congregationalists mainly among the Ovimbundu of the Central Highlands and the coastal region to its west, the Methodists concentrating on the Kimbundu speaking strip from Luanda to Malanje, the Baptists almost exclusively among the Bakongo of the north-west (now present in Luanda as well) and dispersed Adventists, Reformed and Lutherans.[149][150]

In Luanda and region there subsists a nucleus of the "syncretic" Tocoists and in the north-west a sprinkling of Kimbanguism can be found, spreading from the Congo/Zaïre. Since independence, hundreds of Pentecostal and similar communities have sprung up in the cities, whereby now about 50% of the population is living; several of these communities/churches are of Brazilian origin.

 
Catholic church of Uaco Cungo.

As of 2008 the U.S. Department of State estimates the Muslim population at 80,000–90,000, less than 1% of the population,[151] while the Islamic Community of Angola puts the figure closer to 500,000.[152] Muslims consist largely of migrants from West Africa and the Middle East (especially Lebanon), although some are local converts.[153] The Angolan government does not legally recognize any Muslim organizations and often shuts down mosques or prevents their construction.[154]

In a study assessing nations' levels of religious regulation and persecution with scores ranging from 0 to 10 where 0 represented low levels of regulation or persecution, Angola was scored 0.8 on Government Regulation of Religion, 4.0 on Social Regulation of Religion, 0 on Government Favoritism of Religion and 0 on Religious Persecution.[155]

Foreign missionaries were very active prior to independence in 1975, although since the beginning of the anti-colonial fight in 1961 the Portuguese colonial authorities expelled a series of Protestant missionaries and closed mission stations based on the belief that the missionaries were inciting pro-independence sentiments. Missionaries have been able to return to the country since the early 1990s, although security conditions due to the civil war have prevented them until 2002 from restoring many of their former inland mission stations.[156]

The Catholic Church and some major Protestant denominations mostly keep to themselves in contrast to the "New Churches" which actively proselytize. Catholics, as well as some major Protestant denominations, provide help for the poor in the form of crop seeds, farm animals, medical care and education.[157][158]

Urbanization

 
 
Largest cities or towns in Angola
According to the 2014 Census[159]
Rank Name Province Pop.
 
Luanda
 
Lubango 		1 Luanda Luanda 6,759,313  
Huambo
 
Benguela
2 Lubango Huíla 600,751
3 Huambo Huambo 595,304
4 Benguela Benguela 555,124
5 Cabinda Cabinda 550,000
6 Malanje Malanje 455,000
7 Saurimo Lunda Sul 393,000
8 Lobito Benguela 357,950
9 Cuíto Bié 355,423
10 Uíge Uíge 322,531

Health

Main article: Health in Angola
 
Lucrécia Paím Maternity Hospital.

Epidemics of cholera, malaria, rabies and African hemorrhagic fevers like Marburg hemorrhagic fever, are common diseases in several parts of the country. Many regions in this country have high incidence rates of tuberculosis and high HIV prevalence rates. Dengue, filariasis, leishmaniasis and onchocerciasis (river blindness) are other diseases carried by insects that also occur in the region. Angola has one of the highest infant mortality rates in the world and one of the world's lowest life expectancies. A 2007 survey concluded that low and deficient niacin status was common in Angola.[160] Demographic and Health Surveys is currently conducting several surveys in Angola on malaria, domestic violence and more.[161]

In September 2014, the Angolan Institute for Cancer Control (IACC) was created by presidential decree, and it will integrate the National Health Service in Angola.[162] The purpose of this new centre is to ensure health and medical care in oncology, policy implementation, programmes and plans for prevention and specialised treatment.[163] This cancer institute will be assumed as a reference institution in the central and southern regions of Africa.[164]

In 2014, Angola launched a national campaign of vaccination against measles, extended to every child under ten years old and aiming to go to all 18 provinces in the country.[165] The measure is part of the Strategic Plan for the Elimination of Measles 2014–2020 created by the Angolan Ministry of Health which includes strengthening routine immunisation, a proper dealing with measles cases, national campaigns, introducing a second dose of vaccination in the national routine vaccination calendar and active epidemiological surveillance for measles. This campaign took place together with the vaccination against polio and vitamin A supplementation.[166]

A yellow fever outbreak, the worst in the country in three decades[167] began in December 2015. By August 2016, when the outbreak began to subside, nearly 4,000 people were suspected of being infected. As many as 369 may have died. The outbreak began in the capital, Luanda, and spread to at least 16 of the 18 provinces.

Education

Main article: Education in Angola

Although by law education in Angola is compulsory and free for eight years, the government reports that a percentage of pupils are not attending due to a lack of school buildings and teachers.[168] Pupils are often responsible for paying additional school-related expenses, including fees for books and supplies.[168]

In 1999, the gross primary enrollment rate was 74 per cent and in 1998, the most recent year for which data are available, the net primary enrollment rate was 61 per cent.[168] Gross and net enrollment ratios are based on the number of pupils formally registered in primary school and therefore do not necessarily reflect actual school attendance.[168] There continue to be significant disparities in enrollment between rural and urban areas. In 1995, 71.2 per cent of children ages 7 to 14 years were attending school.[168] It is reported that higher percentages of boys attend school than girls.[168] During the Angolan Civil War (1975–2002), nearly half of all schools were reportedly looted and destroyed, leading to current problems with overcrowding.[168]

 
A primary school in Province of Cuanza Sul

The Ministry of Education recruited 20,000 new teachers in 2005 and continued to implement teacher training.[168] Teachers tend to be underpaid, inadequately trained and overworked (sometimes teaching two or three shifts a day).[168] Some teachers may reportedly demand payment or bribes directly from their pupils.[168] Other factors, such as the presence of landmines, lack of resources and identity papers, and poor health prevent children from regularly attending school.[168] Although budgetary allocations for education were increased in 2004, the education system in Angola continues to be extremely under-funded.[168]

According to estimates by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, the adult literacy rate in 2011 was 70.4%.[169] By 2015, this had increased to 71.1%.[170] 82.9% of men and 54.2% of women are literate as of 2001.[171] Since independence from Portugal in 1975, a number of Angolan students continued to be admitted every year at high schools, polytechnical institutes and universities in Portugal and Brazil through bilateral agreements; in general, these students belong to the elites.

 
Mutu-ya Kevela Prep. School

In September 2014, the Angolan Ministry of Education announced an investment of 16 million Euros in the computerisation of over 300 classrooms across the country. The project also includes training teachers at a national level, "as a way to introduce and use new information technologies in primary schools, thus reflecting an improvement in the quality of teaching".[172]

In 2010, the Angolan government started building the Angolan Media Libraries Network, distributed throughout several provinces in the country to facilitate the people's access to information and knowledge. Each site has a bibliographic archive, multimedia resources and computers with Internet access, as well as areas for reading, researching and socialising.[173] The plan envisages the establishment of one media library in each Angolan province by 2017. The project also includes the implementation of several media libraries, in order to provide the several contents available in the fixed media libraries to the most isolated populations in the country.[174] At this time, the mobile media libraries are already operating in the provinces of Luanda, Malanje, Uíge, Cabinda and Lunda South. As for REMA, the provinces of Luanda, Benguela, Lubango and Soyo have currently working media libraries.[175]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Angola
See also: Music of Angola and Angolan cuisine
 
Agostinho Neto National Memorial in Luanda.

Angolan culture has been heavily influenced by Portuguese culture, especially in language and religion, and the culture of the indigenous ethnic groups of Angola, predominantly Bantu culture.

The diverse ethnic communities—the Ovimbundu, Ambundu, Bakongo, Chokwe, Mbunda and other peoples—to varying degrees maintain their own cultural traits, traditions and languages, but in the cities, where slightly more than half of the population now lives, a mixed culture has been emerging since colonial times; in Luanda, since its foundation in the 16th century.

In this urban culture, Portuguese heritage has become more and more dominant. African roots are evident in music and dance and is moulding the way in which Portuguese is spoken. This process is well reflected in contemporary Angolan literature, especially in the works of Angolan authors.

In 2014, Angola resumed the National Festival of Angolan Culture after a 25-year break. The festival took place in all the provincial capitals and lasted for 20 days, with the theme ”Culture as a Factor of Peace and Development.[176]

Cinema

Main article: Cinema of Angola

In 1972, one of Angola's first feature films, Sarah Maldoror's internationally co-produced Sambizanga, was released at the Carthage Film Festival to critical acclaim, winning the Tanit d'Or, the festival's highest prize.[177]

Sports

 
The National Stadium in Benguela.

Basketball is the second most popular sport in Angola. Its national team has won the AfroBasket 11 times and holds the record of most titles. As a top team in Africa, it is a regular competitor at the Summer Olympic Games and the FIBA World Cup. Angola is home to one of Africa's first competitive leagues.[178]

In football, Angola hosted the 2010 Africa Cup of Nations. The Angola national football team qualified for the 2006 FIFA World Cup, their first appearance in the World Cup finals. They were eliminated after one defeat and two draws in the group stage. They won three COSAFA Cups and finished runner-up in the 2011 African Nations Championship.

Angola has participated in the World Women's Handball Championship for several years. The country has also appeared in the Summer Olympics for seven years and both regularly competes in and once has hosted the FIRS Roller Hockey World Cup, where the best finish is sixth. Angola is also often believed to have historic roots in the martial art "Capoeira Angola" and "Batuque" which were practised by enslaved African Angolans transported as part of the Atlantic slave trade.[179]

See also

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Further reading

  • Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911), "Angola" , Encyclopædia Britannica, vol. 2 (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 38–40
  • Birmingham, David (2006) Empire in Africa: Angola and its Neighbors, Ohio University Press: Athens, Ohio.
  • Bösl, Anton (2008) Angola's Parliamentary Elections in 2008. A Country on its Way to One-Party-Democracy, KAS Auslandsinformationen 10/2008. Die Parlamentswahlen in Angola 2008
  • Cilliers, Jackie and Christian Dietrich, Eds. (2000). Angola's War Economy: The Role of Oil and Diamonds. Pretoria, South Africa, Institute for Security Studies.
  • Global Witness (1999). A Crude Awakening, The Role of Oil and Banking Industries in Angola's Civil War and the Plundering of State Assets. London, UK, Global Witness. A Crude Awakening
  • Hodges, Tony (2001). Angola from Afro-Stalinism to Petro-Diamond Capitalism. Oxford: James Currey.
  • Hodges, Tony (2004). Angola: The Anatomy of an Oil State. Oxford, UK and Indianapolis, US, The Fridtjol Nansen Institute & The International African Institute in association with James Currey and Indiana University Press.
  • Human Rights Watch (2004). Some Transparency, No Accountability: The Use of Oil Revenues in Angola and Its Impact on Human Rights. New York, Human Rights Watch. Some Transparency, No Accountability: The Use of Oil Revenue in Angola and Its Impact on Human Rights (Human Rights Watch Report, January 2004)
  • Human Rights Watch (2005). Coming Home, Return and Reintegration in Angola. New York, Human Rights Watch. Coming Home: Return and Reintegration in Angola
  • James, Walter (1992). A political history of the civil war in Angola, 1964–1990. New Brunswick, Transaction Publishers.
  • Kapuściński, Ryszard. Another Day of Life, Penguin, 1975. ISBN 978-0-14-118678-8. A Polish journalist's account of Portuguese withdrawal from Angola and the beginning of the civil war.
  • Kevlihan, R. (2003). "Sanctions and humanitarian concerns: Ireland and Angola, 2001-2". Irish Studies in International Affairs 14: 95–106.
  • Lari, A. (2004). . Pretoria, South Africa, Institute for Security Studies.
  • Lari, A. and R. Kevlihan (2004). African Security Review 13(4): 29–41.
  • Le Billon, Philippe (2005) Aid in the Midst of Plenty: Oil Wealth, Misery and Advocacy in Angola, Disasters 29(1): 1–25.
  • Le Billon, Philippe (2001). "Angola's Political Economy of War: The Role of Oil and Diamonds". African Affairs (100): 55–80.
  • Le Billon, P. (March 2006). Fuelling War: Natural Resources and Armed Conflicts. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-37970-0.
  • MacQueen, Norrie An Ill Wind? Rethinking the Angolan Crisis and the Portuguese Revolution, 1974–1976, Itinerario: European Journal of Overseas History, 26/2, 2000, pp. 22–44
  • Médecins Sans Frontières (2002). . Luanda, Angola, MSF.
  • Mwakikagile, Godfrey Nyerere and Africa: End of an Era, Third Edition, Pretoria, South Africa, 2006, on Angola in Chapter 11, "American Involvement in Angola and Southern Africa: Nyerere's Response", pp. 324–346, ISBN 978-0-9802534-1-2.
  • Pearce, Justin (2004). "War, Peace and Diamonds in Angola: Popular perceptions of the diamond industry in the Lundas". African Security Review 13 (2), pp 51–64.
  • Porto, João Gomes (2003). . Pretoria, South Africa, Institute for Security Studies.
  • Tvedten, Inge (1997). Angola, Struggle for Peace and Reconstruction. Boulder, Colorado, Westview Press.
  • Vines, Alex (1999). Angola Unravels: The Rise and Fall of the Lusaka Peace Process. New York and London, UK, Human Rights Watch.

External links

 
The Wikibook Wikijunior:Countries A-Z has a page on the topic of: Angola

April 01, 2023
angola, this, article, about, modern, country, since, 1992, former, country, from, 1975, 1992, people, republic, this, article, about, country, other, uses, disambiguation, coordinates, listen, portuguese, ˈɡɔlɐ, kongo, ngola, pronounced, ŋɔla, officially, rep. This article is about the modern country since 1992 For the former country from 1975 to 1992 see People s Republic of Angola This article is about the country For other uses see Angola disambiguation Coordinates 12 30 S 18 30 E 12 500 S 18 500 E 12 500 18 500 Angola ae ŋ ˈ ɡ oʊ l e listen Portuguese ɐ ˈɡɔlɐ Kongo Ngola pronounced ŋɔla officially the Republic of Angola Portuguese Republica de Angola Kongo Repubilika ya Ngola is a country located on the west coast of Southern Africa It is the second largest Lusophone Portuguese speaking country in both total area and population behind Brazil in both cases and is the seventh largest country in Africa It is bordered by Namibia to the south the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north Zambia to the east and the Atlantic Ocean to the west Angola has an exclave province the province of Cabinda that borders the Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo The capital and most populous city is Luanda Republic of AngolaRepublica de Angola Portuguese Flag EmblemMotto Virtus Unita Fortior Latin English Virtue is stronger when united Anthem Angola Avante English Onwards Angola Show globeShow map of AfricaShow map of AngolaCapitaland largest cityLuanda8 50 S 13 20 E 8 833 S 13 333 E 8 833 13 333Official languagesPortugueseNational languagesKimbunduUmbunduChokweKikongoEthnic groups 2021 1 37 Ovimbundu25 Ambundu13 Bakongo21 Other African2 Mestico mixed European and African 1 Chinese1 EuropeanReligion 2020 2 92 9 Christianity 53 9 Roman Catholic 27 4 Protestant 11 6 Other Christian5 1 Traditional faiths1 1 Islam0 9 Other NoneDemonym s AngolanGovernmentUnitary dominant party presidential republic PresidentJoao Lourenco Vice PresidentEsperanca da Costa 3 LegislatureNational AssemblyFormation Independence from Portugal under Communist rule11 November 1975 United Nations full membership22 November 1976 Current constitution21 January 2010Area Total1 246 700 km2 481 400 sq mi 22nd Water negligiblePopulation 2022 estimate34 795 287 4 42nd 2014 census25 789 024 5 Density24 97 km2 64 7 sq mi 157th GDP PPP 2022 estimate Total 245 44 billion 6 62nd Per capita 7 455 6 129th GDP nominal 2022 estimate Total 124 79 billion 6 61st Per capita 3 791 6 125th Gini 2018 51 3 7 highHDI 2021 0 588 8 medium 146thCurrencyAngolan kwanza AOA Time zoneUTC 1 WAT Date formatdd mm yyyyDriving siderightCalling code 244ISO 3166 codeAOInternet TLD aoPreceded byPeople s Republic of AngolaAngola has been inhabited since the Paleolithic Age Its formation as a nation state originates from Portuguese colonisation which initially began with coastal settlements and trading posts founded in the 16th century In the 19th century European settlers gradually began to establish themselves in the interior The Portuguese colony that became Angola did not have its present borders until the early 20th century owing to resistance by native groups such as the Cuamato the Kwanyama and the Mbunda After a protracted anti colonial struggle Angola achieved independence in 1975 as a Marxist Leninist one party Republic The country descended into a devastating civil war the same year between the ruling People s Movement for the Liberation of Angola MPLA backed by the Soviet Union and Cuba the insurgent National Union for the Total Independence of Angola an originally Maoist and later anti communist group supported by the United States and South Africa and the militant organization National Liberation Front of Angola backed by Zaire The country has been governed by MPLA ever since its independence in 1975 Following the end of the war in 2002 Angola emerged as a relatively stable unitary presidential constitutional republic Angola has vast mineral and petroleum reserves and its economy is among the fastest growing in the world especially since the end of the civil war however economic growth is highly uneven with most of the nation s wealth concentrated in a disproportionately small part of the population the largest investment and trade partners are China and the United States 9 The standard of living remains low for most Angolans life expectancy is among the lowest in the world while infant mortality is among the highest 10 Since 2017 the government of Joao Lourenco has made fighting corruption its flagship so much so that many individuals of the previous government are either jailed or awaiting trial Whilst this effort has been recognised by foreign diplomats to be legitimate 11 some skeptics see the actions as being politically motivated 12 Angola is a member of the United Nations OPEC African Union the Community of Portuguese Language Countries and the Southern African Development Community As of 2021 update the Angolan population is estimated at 32 87 million Angola is multicultural and multiethnic Angolan culture reflects centuries of Portuguese influence namely the predominance of the Portuguese language and of the Catholic Church intermingled with a variety of indigenous customs and traditions Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2 1 Early migrations and political units 2 2 Portuguese colonization 2 3 Angolan independence 2 4 Angolan Civil War 2 5 21st century 3 Geography 3 1 Climate 3 2 Administrative divisions 3 3 Exclave of Cabinda 4 Government and politics 4 1 Constitution 4 2 Armed forces 4 3 Police 4 4 Justice 4 5 Foreign relations 4 6 Human rights 5 Economy 5 1 Natural resources 5 2 Agriculture 5 3 Transport 5 4 Telecommunications 5 5 Technology 6 Demographics 6 1 Languages 6 2 Religion 6 3 Urbanization 6 4 Health 6 5 Education 7 Culture 7 1 Cinema 7 2 Sports 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External linksEtymology EditThe name Angola comes from the Portuguese colonial name Reino de Angola Kingdom of Angola which appeared as early as Paulo Dias de Novais s 1571 charter 13 The toponym was derived by the Portuguese from the title ngola held by the kings of Ndongo and Matamba Ndongo in the highlands between the Kwanza and Lucala Rivers was nominally a possession of the Kingdom of Kongo but was seeking greater independence in the 16th century 14 History EditMain article History of Angola Early migrations and political units Edit King Joao I Manikongo of the Kingdom of Kongo Modern Angola was populated predominantly by nomadic Khoi and San prior to the first Bantu migrations The Khoi and San peoples were neither pastoralists nor cultivators but rather hunter gatherers 15 They were displaced by Bantu peoples arriving from the north in the first millennium BC most of whom likely originated in what is today northwestern Nigeria and southern Niger 16 Bantu speakers introduced the cultivation of bananas and taro as well as large cattle herds to Angola s central highlands and the Luanda plain A number of political entities were established the best known of these was the Kingdom of Kongo based in Angola which extended northward to what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo the Republic of the Congo and Gabon It established trade routes with other city states and civilisations up and down the coast of southwestern and western Africa and even with Great Zimbabwe and the Mutapa Empire although it engaged in little or no transoceanic trade 17 To its south lay the Kingdom of Ndongo from which the area of the later Portuguese colony was sometimes known as Dongo and right next to them lay the Kingdom of Matamba 18 Portuguese colonization Edit Main articles Colonial history of Angola and Portuguese Angola Coat of arms granted to King Afonso I of Kongo by King Manuel I of Portugal Portuguese explorer Diogo Cao reached the area in 1484 18 The previous year the Portuguese had established relations with the Kongo which stretched at the time from modern Gabon in the north to the Kwanza River in the south The Portuguese established their primary early trading post at Soyo which is now the northernmost city in Angola apart from the Cabinda exclave Paulo Dias de Novais founded Sao Paulo de Loanda Luanda in 1575 with a hundred families of settlers and four hundred soldiers Benguela was fortified in 1587 and became a township in 1617 The Portuguese established several other settlements forts and trading posts along the Angolan coast principally trading in Angolan slaves for plantations Local slave dealers provided a large number of slaves for the Portuguese Empire 19 usually in exchange for manufactured goods from Europe 20 21 This part of the Atlantic slave trade continued until after Brazil s independence in the 1820s 22 Queen Ana de Sousa of Ndongo meeting with the Portuguese 1657 Depiction of Luanda from 1755 Despite Portugal s territorial claims in Angola its control over much of the country s vast interior was minimal 18 In the 16th century Portugal gained control of the coast through a series of treaties and wars Life for European colonists was difficult and progress was slow John Iliffe notes that Portuguese records of Angola from the 16th century show that a great famine occurred on average every seventy years accompanied by epidemic disease it might kill one third or one half of the population destroying the demographic growth of a generation and forcing colonists back into the river valleys 23 During the Portuguese Restoration War the Dutch West India Company occupied the principal settlement of Luanda in 1641 using alliances with local peoples to carry out attacks against Portuguese holdings elsewhere 22 A fleet under Salvador de Sa retook Luanda in 1648 reconquest of the rest of the territory was completed by 1650 New treaties with the Kongo were signed in 1649 others with Njinga s Kingdom of Matamba and Ndongo followed in 1656 The conquest of Pungo Andongo in 1671 was the last major Portuguese expansion from Luanda as attempts to invade Kongo in 1670 and Matamba in 1681 failed Colonial outposts also expanded inward from Benguela but until the late 19th century the inroads from Luanda and Benguela were very limited 18 Hamstrung by a series of political upheavals in the early 1800s Portugal was slow to mount a large scale annexation of Angolan territory 22 History of Angola written in Luanda in 1680 The slave trade was abolished in Angola in 1836 and in 1854 the colonial government freed all its existing slaves 22 Four years later a more progressive administration appointed by Portugal abolished slavery altogether However these decrees remained largely unenforceable and the Portuguese depended on assistance from the British Royal Navy to enforce their ban on the slave trade 22 This coincided with a series of renewed military expeditions into the bush By the mid nineteenth century Portugal had established its dominion as far north as the Congo River and as far south as Mossamedes 22 Until the late 1880s Portugal entertained proposals to link Angola with its colony in Mozambique but was blocked by British and Belgian opposition 24 In this period the Portuguese came up against different forms of armed resistance from various peoples in Angola 25 The Berlin Conference in 1884 1885 set the colony s borders delineating the boundaries of Portuguese claims in Angola 24 although many details were unresolved until the 1920s 26 Trade between Portugal and its African territories rapidly increased as a result of protective tariffs leading to increased development and a wave of new Portuguese immigrants 24 Between 1939 and 1943 the Portuguese army carried out operations against the nomadic Mucubal people accused of rebellion which led to the death of half their population The survivors were incarcerated in concentration camps sent to forced labor camps where the great majority of them perished due to the brutality of the work system undernourishment and executions 27 Angolan independence Edit Main articles Angolan War of Independence and Portuguese Colonial War Portuguese Armed Forces marching in Luanda during the Portuguese Colonial Wars 1961 74 Under colonial law black Angolans were forbidden from forming political parties or labour unions 28 The first nationalist movements did not take root until after World War II spearheaded by a largely Westernised and Portuguese speaking urban class which included many mesticos 29 During the early 1960s they were joined by other associations stemming from ad hoc labour activism in the rural workforce 28 Portugal s refusal to address increasing Angolan demands for self determination provoked an armed conflict which erupted in 1961 with the Baixa de Cassanje revolt and gradually evolved into a protracted war of independence that persisted for the next twelve years 30 Throughout the conflict three militant nationalist movements with their own partisan guerrilla wings emerged from the fighting between the Portuguese government and local forces supported to varying degrees by the Portuguese Communist Party 29 31 The National Front for the Liberation of Angola FNLA recruited from Bakongo refugees in Zaire 32 Benefiting from particularly favourable political circumstances in Leopoldville and especially from a common border with Zaire Angolan political exiles were able to build up a power base among a large expatriate community from related families clans and traditions 33 People on both sides of the border spoke mutually intelligible dialects and enjoyed shared ties to the historical Kingdom of Kongo 33 Though as foreigners skilled Angolans could not take advantage of Mobutu Sese Seko s state employment programme some found work as middlemen for the absentee owners of various lucrative private ventures The migrants eventually formed the FNLA with the intention of making a bid for political power upon their envisaged return to Angola 33 Members of the National Liberation Front of Angola training in 1973 A largely Ovimbundu guerrilla initiative against the Portuguese in central Angola from 1966 was spearheaded by Jonas Savimbi and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola UNITA 32 It remained handicapped by its geographic remoteness from friendly borders the ethnic fragmentation of the Ovimbundu and the isolation of peasants on European plantations where they had little opportunity to mobilise 33 During the late 1950s the rise of the Marxist Leninist Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola MPLA in the east and Dembos hills north of Luanda came to hold special significance Formed as a coalition resistance movement by the Angolan Communist Party 30 the organisation s leadership remained predominantly Ambundu and courted public sector workers in Luanda 32 Although both the MPLA and its rivals accepted material assistance from the Soviet Union or the People s Republic of China the former harboured strong anti imperialist views and was openly critical of the United States and its support for Portugal 31 This allowed it to win important ground on the diplomatic front soliciting support from nonaligned governments in Morocco Ghana Guinea Mali and the United Arab Republic 30 The MPLA attempted to move its headquarters from Conakry to Leopoldville in October 1961 renewing efforts to create a common front with the FNLA then known as the Union of Angolan Peoples UPA and its leader Holden Roberto Roberto turned down the offer 30 When the MPLA first attempted to insert its own insurgents into Angola the cadres were ambushed and annihilated by UPA partisans on Roberto s orders setting a precedent for the bitter factional strife which would later ignite the Angolan Civil War 30 Angolan Civil War Edit Main article Angolan Civil War Agostinho Neto first President of Angola Throughout the war of independence the three rival nationalist movements were severely hampered by political and military factionalism as well as their inability to unite guerrilla efforts against the Portuguese 34 Between 1961 and 1975 the MPLA UNITA and the FNLA competed for influence in the Angolan population and the international community 34 The Soviet Union and Cuba became especially sympathetic towards the MPLA and supplied that party with arms ammunition funding and training 34 They also backed UNITA militants until it became clear that the latter was at irreconcilable odds with the MPLA 35 The collapse of Portugal s Estado Novo government following the 1974 Carnation Revolution suspended all Portuguese military activity in Africa and the brokering of a ceasefire pending negotiations for Angolan independence 34 Encouraged by the Organisation of African Unity Holden Roberto Jonas Savimbi and MPLA chairman Agostinho Neto met in Mombasa in early January 1975 and agreed to form a coalition government 36 This was ratified by the Alvor Agreement later that month which called for general elections and set the country s independence date for 11 November 1975 36 All three factions however followed up on the ceasefire by taking advantage of the gradual Portuguese withdrawal to seize various strategic positions acquire more arms and enlarge their militant forces 36 The rapid influx of weapons from numerous external sources especially the Soviet Union and the United States as well as the escalation of tensions between the nationalist parties fueled a new outbreak of hostilities 36 With tacit American and Zairean support the FNLA began massing large numbers of troops in northern Angola in an attempt to gain military superiority 34 Meanwhile the MPLA began securing control of Luanda a traditional Ambundu stronghold 34 Sporadic violence broke out in Luanda over the next few months after the FNLA attacked MPLA forces in March 1975 36 The fighting intensified with street clashes in April and May and UNITA became involved after over two hundred of its members were massacred by an MPLA contingent that June 36 An upswing in Soviet arms shipments to the MPLA influenced a decision by the Central Intelligence Agency to likewise provide substantial covert aid to the FNLA and UNITA 37 In August 1975 the MPLA requested direct assistance from the Soviet Union in the form of ground troops 37 The Soviets declined offering to send advisers but no troops however Cuba was more forthcoming and in late September dispatched nearly five hundred combat personnel to Angola along with sophisticated weaponry and supplies 35 By independence there were over a thousand Cuban soldiers in the country 37 They were kept supplied by a massive airbridge carried out with Soviet aircraft 37 The persistent buildup of Cuban and Soviet military aid allowed the MPLA to drive its opponents from Luanda and blunt an abortive intervention by Zairean and South African troops which had deployed in a belated attempt to assist the FNLA and UNITA 36 The FNLA was largely annihilated after the decisive Battle of Quifangondo although UNITA managed to withdraw its civil officials and militia from Luanda and seek sanctuary in the southern provinces 34 From there Savimbi continued to mount a determined insurgent campaign against the MPLA 37 Cuban tank in Luanda during the Cuban intervention in Angola 1976 Between 1975 and 1991 the MPLA implemented an economic and political system based on the principles of scientific socialism incorporating central planning and a Marxist Leninist one party state 38 It embarked on an ambitious programme of nationalisation and the domestic private sector was essentially abolished 38 Privately owned enterprises were nationalised and incorporated into a single umbrella of state owned enterprises known as Unidades Economicas Estatais UEE 38 Under the MPLA Angola experienced a significant degree of modern industrialisation 38 However corruption and graft also increased and public resources were either allocated inefficiently or simply embezzled by officials for personal enrichment 39 The ruling party survived an attempted coup d etat by the Maoist oriented Communist Organisation of Angola OCA in 1977 which was suppressed after a series of bloody political purges left thousands of OCA supporters dead 40 The MPLA abandoned its former Marxist ideology at its third party congress in 1990 and declared social democracy to be its new platform 40 Angola subsequently became a member of the International Monetary Fund restrictions on the market economy were also reduced in an attempt to draw foreign investment 41 By May 1991 it reached a peace agreement with UNITA the Bicesse Accords which scheduled new general elections for September 1992 41 When the MPLA secured a major electoral victory UNITA objected to the results of both the presidential and legislative vote count and returned to war 41 Following the election the Halloween massacre occurred from 30 October to 1 November where MPLA forces killed thousands of UNITA supporters 42 21st century Edit Luanda is experiencing widespread urban renewal and redevelopment in the 21st century backed largely by profits from oil amp diamond industries Main article 2000s in Angola On 22 February 2002 Jonas Savimbi was killed in action against government troops UNITA and the MPLA reached a cease fire shortly afterwards UNITA gave up its armed wing and assumed the role of a major opposition party Although the political situation of the country began to stabilise regular democratic processes did not prevail until the elections in Angola in 2008 and 2012 and the adoption of a new constitution in 2010 all of which strengthened the prevailing dominant party system 43 citation needed Angola has a serious humanitarian crisis the result of the prolonged war of the abundance of minefields and the continued political agitation in favour of the independence of the exclave of Cabinda carried out in the context of the protracted Cabinda conflict by the FLEC While most of the internally displaced have now squatted around the capital in musseques shanty towns the general situation for Angolans remains desperate 44 45 A drought in 2016 caused the worst food crisis in Southern Africa in 25 years affecting 1 4 million people across seven of Angola s 18 provinces Food prices rose and acute malnutrition rates doubled with more than 95 000 children affected citation needed Jose Eduardo dos Santos stepped down as President of Angola after 38 years in 2017 being peacefully succeeded by Joao Lourenco Santos chosen successor 46 Some members of the dos Santos family were later linked to high levels of corruption In July 2022 ex president Jose Eduardo dos Santos died in Spain 47 In August 2022 the ruling party MPLA won another outright majority and President Lourenco won a second five year term in the election However the election was the tightest in Angola s history 48 Geography EditMain article Geography of Angola Topography of Angola At 1 246 700 km2 481 400 sq mi 49 Angola is the world s twenty fourth largest country comparable in size to Mali or twice the size of France or of Texas It lies mostly between latitudes 4 and 18 S and longitudes 12 and 24 E Angola borders Namibia to the south Zambia to the east the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north east and the South Atlantic Ocean to the west The coastal exclave of Cabinda in the north has borders with the Republic of the Congo to the north and with the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the south citation needed Angola s capital Luanda lies on the Atlantic coast in the northwest of the country Angola had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8 35 10 ranking it 23rd globally out of 172 countries 50 Climate Edit Main article Climate of Angola Angola map of Koppen climate classification Like the rest of tropical Africa Angola experiences distinct alternating rainy and dry seasons 51 In the north the rainy season may last for as long as seven months usually from September to April with perhaps a brief slackening in January or February 51 In the south the rainy season begins later in November and lasts until about February 51 The dry season cacimbo is often characterized by a heavy morning mist 51 In general precipitation is higher in the north but at any latitude it is greater in the interior than along the coast and increases with altitude 51 Temperatures fall with distance from the equator and with altitude and tend to rise closer to the Atlantic Ocean 51 Thus at Soyo at the mouth of the Congo River the average annual temperature is about 26 C but it is under 16 C at Huambo on the temperate central plateau 51 The coolest months are July and August in the middle of the dry season when frost may sometimes form at higher altitudes 51 Administrative divisions Edit Main articles Provinces of Angola Municipalities of Angola and Communes of Angola Map of Angola with the provinces numbered Provincial Government of Huambo As of March 2016 update Angola is divided into eighteen provinces provincias and 162 municipalities The municipalities are further divided into 559 communes townships 52 The provinces are Number Province Capital Area km2 53 Population 2014 Census 54 1 Bengo Caxito 31 371 356 6412 Benguela Benguela 39 826 2 231 3853 Bie Cuito 70 314 1 455 2554 Cabinda Cabinda 7 270 716 0765 Cuando Cubango Menongue 199 049 534 0026 Cuanza Norte N dalatando 24 110 443 3867 Cuanza Sul Sumbe 55 600 1 881 8738 Cunene Ondjiva 87 342 990 0879 Huambo Huambo 34 270 2 019 55510 Huila Lubango 79 023 2 497 42211 Luanda Luanda 2 417 6 945 38612 Lunda Norte Dundo 103 760 862 56613 Lunda Sul Saurimo 77 637 537 58714 Malanje Malanje 97 602 986 36315 Moxico Luena 223 023 758 56816 Namibe Mocamedes 57 091 495 32617 Uige Uige 58 698 1 483 11818 Zaire M banza Kongo 40 130 594 428Exclave of Cabinda Edit Main article Cabinda Province Provincial Government of Namibe With an area of approximately 7 283 square kilometres 2 812 sq mi the Northern Angolan province of Cabinda is unusual in being separated from the rest of the country by a strip some 60 kilometres 37 mi wide of the Democratic Republic of Congo along the lower Congo River Cabinda borders the Congo Republic to the north and north northeast and the DRC to the east and south The town of Cabinda is the chief population centre According to a 1995 census Cabinda had an estimated population of 600 000 approximately 400 000 of whom are citizens of neighboring countries Population estimates are however highly unreliable Consisting largely of tropical forest Cabinda produces hardwoods coffee cocoa crude rubber and palm oil The product for which it is best known however is its oil which has given it the nickname the Kuwait of Africa Cabinda s petroleum production from its considerable offshore reserves now accounts for more than half of Angola s output 55 Most of the oil along its coast was discovered under Portuguese rule by the Cabinda Gulf Oil Company CABGOC from 1968 onwards Ever since Portugal handed over sovereignty of its former overseas province of Angola to the local independence groups MPLA UNITA and FNLA the territory of Cabinda has been a focus of separatist guerrilla actions opposing the Government of Angola which has employed its armed forces the FAA Forcas Armadas Angolanas and Cabindan separatists The Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda Armed Forces of Cabinda FLEC FAC announced the virtual Federal Republic of Cabinda under the Presidency of N Zita Henriques Tiago One of the characteristics of the Cabindan independence movement is its constant fragmentation into smaller and smaller factions citation needed Government and politics EditThis section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Angola news newspapers books scholar JSTOR November 2020 Learn how and when to remove this template message Main article Politics of Angola See also Elections in Angola and List of political parties in Angola The National Assembly of Angola The Angolan government is composed of three branches of government executive legislative and judicial The executive branch of the government is composed of the President the Vice Presidents and the Council of Ministers The legislative branch comprises a 220 seat unicameral legislature the National Assembly of Angola elected from multi member province wide and nationwide constituencies using party list proportional representation For decades political power has been concentrated in the presidency 56 After 38 years of rule in 2017 President dos Santos stepped down from MPLA leadership 57 The leader of the winning party at the parliamentary elections in August 2017 would become the next president of Angola The MPLA selected the former Defense Minister Joao Lourenco as Santos chosen successor 58 Out of 32 ministers there were 12 women In what has been described as a political purge 59 to cement his power and reduce the influence of the Dos Santos family Lourenco subsequently sacked the chief of the national police Ambrosio de Lemos and the head of the intelligence service Apolinario Jose Pereira Both are considered allies of former president Dos Santos 60 He also removed Isabel Dos Santos daughter of the former president as head of the country s state oil company Sonangol 61 In August 2020 Jose Filomeno dos Santos son of Angola s former president was sentenced for five years in jail for fraud and corruption 62 Constitution Edit Joao Lourenco President of Angola Main article Constitution of Angola The Constitution of 2010 establishes the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens The legal system is based on Portuguese law and customary law but is weak and fragmented and courts operate in only 12 of more than 140 municipalities 63 A Supreme Court serves as the appellate tribunal a Constitutional Court does not hold the powers of judicial review 64 Governors of the 18 provinces are appointed by the president After the end of the civil war the regime came under pressure from within as well as from the international community to become more democratic and less authoritarian Its reaction was to implement a number of changes without substantially changing its character 65 The new constitution adopted in 2010 did away with presidential elections introducing a system in which the president and the vice president of the political party that wins the parliamentary elections automatically become president and vice president Directly or indirectly the president controls all other organs of the state so there is de facto no separation of powers 66 In the classifications used in constitutional law this government falls under the category of authoritarian regime 67 Armed forces Edit Main article Angolan Armed Forces Soldiers of the Angolan Armed Forces in full dress uniform The Angolan Armed Forces Forcas Armadas Angolanas FAA are headed by a Chief of Staff who reports to the Minister of Defence There are three divisions the Army Exercito Navy Marinha de Guerra MGA and National Air Force Forca Aerea Nacional FAN Total manpower is 107 000 plus paramilitary forces of 10 000 2015 est 68 Its equipment includes Russian manufactured fighters bombers and transport planes There are also Brazilian made EMB 312 Tucanos for training Czech made L 39s for training and bombing and a variety of western made aircraft such as the C 212 Aviocar Sud Aviation Alouette III etc A small number of FAA personnel are stationed in the Democratic Republic of the Congo Kinshasa 69 and the Republic of the Congo Brazzaville citation needed The FAA has also participated in the Southern African Development Community SADC s mission for peace in Cabo Delgado Mozambique 70 Police Edit Main article Law enforcement in Angola Angolan National Police officers The National Police departments are Public Order Criminal Investigation Traffic and Transport Investigation and Inspection of Economic Activities Taxation and Frontier Supervision Riot Police and the Rapid Intervention Police The National Police are in the process of standing up an air wing when to provide helicopter support for operations The National Police are developing their criminal investigation and forensic capabilities The force has an estimated 6 000 patrol officers 2 500 taxation and frontier supervision officers 182 criminal investigators and 100 financial crimes detectives and around 90 economic activity inspectors citation needed The National Police have implemented a modernisation and development plan to increase the capabilities and efficiency of the total force In addition to administrative reorganisation modernisation projects include procurement of new vehicles aircraft and equipment construction of new police stations and forensic laboratories restructured training programmes and the replacement of AKM rifles with 9 mm Uzis for officers in urban areas Justice Edit A Supreme Court serves as a court of appeal The Constitutional Court is the supreme body of the constitutional jurisdiction established with the approval of Law no 2 08 of 17 June Organic Law of the Constitutional Court and Law n 3 08 of 17 June Organic Law of the Constitutional Process The legal system is based on Portuguese and customary law There are 12 courts in more than 140 counties in the country Its first task was the validation of the candidacies of the political parties to the legislative elections of 5 September 2008 Thus on 25 June 2008 the Constitutional Court was institutionalized and its Judicial Counselors assumed the position before the President of the Republic Currently seven advisory judges are present four men and three women citation needed In 2014 a new penal code took effect in Angola The classification of money laundering as a crime is one of the novelties in the new legislation 71 Foreign relations Edit Main articles Foreign relations of Angola and List of diplomatic missions of Angola Foreign Minister of Angola Manuel Domingos Augusto Angola is a founding member state of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries CPLP also known as the Lusophone Commonwealth an international organization and political association of Lusophone nations across four continents where Portuguese is an official language On 16 October 2014 Angola was elected for the second time a non permanent member of the United Nations Security Council with 190 favorable votes out of a total of 193 The term of office began on 1 January 2015 and expired on 31 December 2016 72 Since January 2014 the Republic of Angola has been chairing the International Conference for the Great Lakes Region CIRGL 80 In 2015 CIRGL Executive Secretary Ntumba Luaba said that Angola is the example to be followed by the members of the organization due to the significant progress made during the 12 years of peace namely in terms of socio economic stability and political military 73 Human rights Edit See also Human rights in Angola and LGBT rights in Angola Angola was classified as not free by Freedom House in the Freedom in the World 2014 report 74 The report noted that the August 2012 parliamentary elections in which the ruling Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola won more than 70 of the vote suffered from serious flaws including outdated and inaccurate voter rolls 74 Voter turnout dropped from 80 in 2008 to 60 74 A 2012 report by the U S Department of State said The three most important human rights abuses in 2012 were official corruption and impunity limits on the freedoms of assembly association speech and press and cruel and excessive punishment including reported cases of torture and beatings as well as unlawful killings by police and other security personnel 75 Angola ranked forty two of forty eight sub Saharan African states on the 2007 Index of African Governance list and scored poorly on the 2013 Ibrahim Index of African Governance 76 8 It was ranked 39 out of 52 sub Saharan African countries scoring particularly badly in the areas of participation and human rights sustainable economic opportunity and human development The Ibrahim Index uses a number of variables to compile its list which reflects the state of governance in Africa 77 In 2019 homosexual acts were decriminalized in Angola and the government also prohibited discrimination based on sexual orientation The vote was overwhelming 155 for 1 against 7 abstaining 78 Economy EditMain article Economy of Angola A proportional representation of Angola exports 2019 GDP per capita 1950 to 2018 Angola has diamonds oil gold copper and rich wildlife which was dramatically depleted during the civil war forest and fossil fuels Since independence oil and diamonds have been the most important economic resource Smallholder and plantation agriculture dramatically dropped in the Angolan Civil War but began to recover after 2002 Angola s economy has in recent years moved on from the disarray caused by a quarter century of Angolan civil war to become the fastest growing economy in Africa and one of the fastest growing in the world with an average GDP growth of 20 between 2005 and 2007 79 In the period 2001 10 Angola had the world s highest annual average GDP growth at 11 1 In 2004 the Exim Bank of China approved a 2 billion line of credit to Angola to be used for rebuilding Angola s infrastructure and to limit the influence of the International Monetary Fund there 80 China is Angola s biggest trade partner and export destination as well as the fourth largest source of imports Bilateral trade reached 27 67 billion in 2011 up 11 5 year on year China s imports mainly crude oil and diamonds increased 9 1 to 24 89 billion while China s exports to Angola including mechanical and electrical products machinery parts and construction materials surged 38 8 81 The oil glut led to a local price for unleaded gasoline of 0 37 a gallon 82 The Angolan economy grew 18 in 2005 26 in 2006 and 17 6 in 2007 Due to the global recession the economy contracted an estimated 0 3 in 2009 64 The security brought about by the 2002 peace settlement has allowed the resettlement of 4 million displaced persons and a resulting large scale increase in agriculture production Angola s economy is expected to grow by 3 9 per cent in 2014 said the International Monetary Fund IMF robust growth in the non oil economy mainly driven by a very good performance in the agricultural sector is expected to offset a temporary drop in oil production 83 The National Bank of Angola Angola s financial system is maintained by the National Bank of Angola and managed by the governor Jose de Lima Massano According to a study on the banking sector carried out by Deloitte the monetary policy led by Banco Nacional de Angola BNA the Angolan national bank allowed a decrease in the inflation rate put at 7 96 in December 2013 which contributed to the sector s growth trend 84 Estimates released by Angola s central bank said the country s economy should grow at an annual average rate of 5 per cent over the next four years boosted by the increasing participation of the private sector 85 Although the country s economy has grown significantly since Angola achieved political stability in 2002 mainly due to fast rising earnings in the oil sector Angola faces huge social and economic problems These are in part a result of almost continual armed conflict from 1961 on although the highest level of destruction and socio economic damage took place after the 1975 independence during the long years of civil war However high poverty rates and blatant social inequality chiefly stems from persistent authoritarianism neo patrimonial practices at all levels of the political administrative military and economic structures and of a pervasive corruption 86 87 The main beneficiaries are political administrative economic and military power holders who have accumulated and continue to accumulate enormous wealth 88 Luanda Financial City Secondary beneficiaries are the middle strata that are about to become social classes However almost half the population has to be considered poor with dramatic differences between the countryside and the cities where slightly more than 50 of the people reside citation needed A study carried out in 2008 by the Angolan Instituto Nacional de Estatistica found that in rural areas roughly 58 must be classified as poor according to UN norms but in the urban areas only 19 and an overall rate of 37 89 In cities a majority of families well beyond those officially classified as poor must adopt a variety of survival strategies 90 clarification needed In urban areas social inequality is most evident and it is extreme in Luanda 91 In the Human Development Index Angola constantly ranks in the bottom group 92 Tourism in Angola has grown with the country s economy and stability In January 2020 a leak of government documents known as the Luanda Leaks showed that U S consulting companies such as Boston Consulting Group McKinsey amp Company and PricewaterhouseCoopers had helped members of the family of former President Jose Eduardo dos Santos especially his daughter Isabel dos Santos corruptly run Sonangol for their own personal profit helping them use the company s revenues to fund vanity projects in France and Switzerland 93 After further revelations in the Pandora Papers former generals Dias and do Nascimento and former presidential advisers were also accused of misappropriating significant public funds for personal benefit 94 The enormous differences between the regions pose a serious structural problem for the Angolan economy illustrated by the fact that about one third of economic activities are concentrated in Luanda and neighbouring Bengo province while several areas of the interior suffer economic stagnation and even regression 95 One of the economic consequences of social and regional disparities is a sharp increase in Angolan private investments abroad The small fringe of Angolan society where most of the asset accumulation takes place seeks to spread its assets for reasons of security and profit For the time being the biggest share of these investments is concentrated in Portugal where the Angolan presence including the family of the state president in banks as well as in the domains of energy telecommunications and mass media has become notable as has the acquisition of vineyards and orchards as well as of tourism enterprises 96 Corporate headquarters in Luanda Angola has upgraded critical infrastructure an investment made possible by funds from the nation s development of oil resources 97 According to a report just slightly more than ten years after the end of the civil war Angola s standard of living has overall greatly improved Life expectancy which was just 46 years in 2002 reached 51 in 2011 Mortality rates for children fell from 25 per cent in 2001 to 19 per cent in 2010 and the number of students enrolled in primary school has tripled since 2001 98 However at the same time the social and economic inequality that has characterised the country for so long has not diminished but has deepened in all respects With a stock of assets corresponding to 70 billion Kz US 6 8 billion Angola is now the third largest financial market in sub Saharan Africa surpassed only by Nigeria and South Africa According to the Angolan Minister of Economy Abraao Gourgel the financial market of the country grew modestly since 2002 and now occupies third place in sub Saharan Africa 99 On 19 December 2014 the Capital Market in Angola was launched BODIVA Angola Stock Exchange and Derivatives in English was allocated the secondary public debt market and was expected to launch the corporate debt market by 2015 though the stock market itself was only expected to commence trading in 2016 100 Natural resources Edit An offshore oil drilling platform off the coast of central Angola The Economist reported in 2008 that diamonds and oil make up 60 of Angola s economy almost all of the country s revenue and all of its dominant exports 101 Growth is almost entirely driven by rising oil production which surpassed 1 4 million barrels per day 220 000 m3 d in late 2005 and was expected to grow to 2 million barrels per day 320 000 m3 d by 2007 Control of the oil industry is consolidated in Sonangol Group a conglomerate owned by the Angolan government In December 2006 Angola was admitted as a member of OPEC 102 According to the Heritage Foundation a conservative American think tank oil production from Angola has increased so significantly that Angola now is China s biggest supplier of oil 103 China has extended three multi billion dollar lines of credit to the Angolan government two loans of 2 billion from China Exim Bank one in 2004 the second in 2007 as well as one loan in 2005 of 2 9 billion from China International Fund Ltd 104 Growing oil revenues also created opportunities for corruption according to a recent Human Rights Watch report 32 billion US dollars disappeared from government accounts in 2007 2010 105 Furthermore Sonangol the state run oil company controls 51 of Cabinda s oil Due to this market control the company ends up determining the profit received by the government and the taxes it pays The council of foreign affairs states that the World Bank mentioned that Sonangol is a taxpayer it carries out quasi fiscal activities it invests public funds and as concessionaire it is a sector regulator This multifarious work program creates conflicts of interest and characterises a complex relationship between Sonangol and the government that weakens the formal budgetary process and creates uncertainty as regards the actual fiscal stance of the state 106 In 2002 Angola demanded compensation for oil spills allegedly caused by Chevron Corporation the first time it had fined a multinational corporation operating in its waters 107 Operations in its diamond mines include partnerships between state run Endiama and mining companies such as ALROSA which operate in Angola 108 Access to biocapacity in Angola is higher than world average In 2016 Angola had 1 9 global hectares 109 of biocapacity per person within its territory slightly more than world average of 1 6 global hectares per person 110 In 2016 Angola used 1 01 global hectares of biocapacity per person their ecological footprint of consumption This means they use about half as much biocapacity as Angola contains As a result Angola is running a biocapacity reserve 109 Agriculture Edit Capanda Dam on the Cuanza Main article Agriculture in Angola Agriculture and forestry is an area of potential opportunity for the country The African Economic Outlook organization states that Angola requires 4 5 million tonnes a year of grain but grows only about 55 of the maize it needs 20 of the rice and just 5 of its required wheat 111 In addition the World Bank estimates that less than 3 per cent of Angola s abundant fertile land is cultivated and the economic potential of the forestry sector remains largely unexploited 112 Before independence in 1975 Angola was a bread basket of southern Africa and a major exporter of bananas coffee and sisal but three decades of civil war 1975 2002 destroyed fertile countryside left it littered with landmines and drove millions into the cities The country now depends on expensive food imports mainly from South Africa and Portugal while more than 90 of farming is done at the family and subsistence level Thousands of Angolan small scale farmers are trapped in poverty 113 Transport Edit Main article Transport in Angola TAAG Angola Airlines is the country s state owned national carrier Transport in Angola consists of Three separate railway systems totalling 2 761 km 1 716 mi 76 626 km 47 613 mi of highway of which 19 156 km 11 903 mi is paved 1 295 navigable inland waterways five major sea ports 243 airports of which 32 are paved Angola centers its port trade in five main ports Namibe Lobito Soyo Cabinda and Luanda The port of Luanda is the largest of the five as well as being one of the busiest on the African continent 114 Catumbela Bridge in Benguela Travel on highways outside of towns and cities in Angola and in some cases within is when often not best advised for those without four by four vehicles While reasonable road infrastructure has existed within Angola time and war have taken their toll on the road surfaces leaving many severely potholed littered with broken asphalt In many areas drivers have established alternative tracks to avoid the worst parts of the surface although careful attention must be paid to the presence or absence of landmine warning markers by the side of the road The Angolan government has contracted the restoration of many of the country s roads The road between Lubango and Namibe for example was completed recently with funding from the European Union 115 and is comparable to many European main routes Completing the road infrastructure is likely to take some decades but substantial efforts are already being made citation needed Telecommunications Edit Lobito hosts a major seaport Luanda s construction boom is financed largely by oil and diamonds The telecommunications industry is considered one of the main strategic sectors in Angola 116 For additional see Telephone numbers in Angola In October 2014 the building of an optic fiber underwater cable was announced 117 This project aims to turn Angola into a continental hub thus improving Internet connections both nationally and internationally 118 On 11 March 2015 the First Angolan Forum of Telecommunications and Information Technology was held in Luanda under the motto The challenges of telecommunications in the current context of Angola 119 to promote debate on topical issues on telecommunications in Angola and worldwide 120 A study of this sector presented at the forum said Angola had the first telecommunications operator in Africa to test LTE with speeds up to 400 Mbit s and mobile penetration of about 75 there are about 3 5 million smartphones in the Angolan market There are about 25 000 kilometres 16 000 miles of optical fibre installed in the country 121 122 The first Angolan satellite AngoSat 1 was launched into orbit on 26 December 2017 123 It was launched from the Baikonur space center in Kazakhstan on board a Zenit 3F rocket The satellite was built by Russia s RSC Energia a subsidiary of the state run space industry player Roscosmos The satellite payload was supplied by Airbus Defence amp Space 124 Due to an on board power failure during solar panel deployment on 27 December RSC Energia revealed that they lost communications contact with the satellite Although subsequent attempts to restore communications with the satellite were successful the satellite eventually stopped sending data and RSC Energia confirmed that AngoSat 1 was inoperable The launch of AngoSat 1 was aimed at ensuring telecommunications throughout the country 125 According to Aristides Safeca Secretary of State for Telecommunications the satellite was aimed at providing telecommunications services TV internet and e government and was expected to remain in orbit at best for 18 years 126 A replacement satellite named AngoSat 2 is in the works and was expected to be in service by 2020 127 As of February 2021 Ango Sat 2 was about 60 ready The officials reported the launch is expected in about 17 months by July 2022 128 Technology Edit The management of the top level domain ao passed from Portugal to Angola in 2015 following new legislation 129 A joint decree of Minister of Telecommunications and Information Technologies Jose Carvalho da Rocha and the minister of Science and Technology Maria Candida Pereira Teixeira states that under the massification of that Angolan domain conditions are created for the transfer of the domain root ao of Portugal to Angola 130 Demographics EditMain article Demographics of Angola Historical ethnic divisions of Angola Angola has a population of 24 383 301 inhabitants according to the preliminary results of its 2014 census the first one conducted or carried out since 15 December 1970 5 It is composed of Ovimbundu language Umbundu 37 Ambundu language Kimbundu 23 Bakongo 13 and 32 other ethnic groups including the Chokwe the Ovambo the Ganguela and the Xindonga as well as about 2 mulattos mixed European and African 1 6 Chinese and 1 European 64 The Ambundu and Ovimbundu ethnic groups combined form a majority of the population at 62 131 The population is forecast to grow to over 60 million people in 2050 2 7 times the 2014 population 132 However on 23 March 2016 official data revealed by Angola s National Statistic Institute Instituto Nacional de Estatistica INE states that Angola has a population of 25 789 024 inhabitants It is estimated that Angola was host to 12 100 refugees and 2 900 asylum seekers by the end of 2007 11 400 of those refugees were originally from the Democratic Republic of Congo who arrived in the 1970s 133 As of 2008 update there were an estimated 400 000 Democratic Republic of the Congo migrant workers 134 at least 220 000 Portuguese 135 and about 259 000 Chinese living in Angola 136 1 million Angolans are mixed race black and white Also 40 000 Vietnamese live in the country 9 10 Since 2003 more than 400 000 Congolese migrants have been expelled from Angola 137 Prior to independence in 1975 Angola had a community of approximately 350 000 Portuguese 138 139 but the vast majority left after independence and the ensuing civil war However Angola has recovered its Portuguese minority in recent years currently there are about 200 000 registered with the consulates and increasing due to the debt crisis in Portugal and the relative prosperity in Angola 140 The Chinese population stands at 258 920 mostly composed of temporary migrants 141 Also there is a small Brazilian community of about 5 000 people 142 The Roma were deported to Angola from Portugal 143 As of 2007 update the total fertility rate of Angola is 5 54 children born per woman 2012 estimates the 11th highest in the world 64 Languages Edit Main article Languages of Angola Languages in Angola 2014 Census 5 Languages percentPortuguese 71 1 Umbundu 23 0 Kikongo 8 2 Kimbundu 7 8 Chokwe 6 5 Nyaneka 3 4 Ngangela 3 1 Fiote 2 4 Kwanyama 2 3 Muhumbi 2 1 Luvale 1 0 Other 4 1 The languages in Angola are those originally spoken by the different ethnic groups and Portuguese introduced during the Portuguese colonial era The most widely spoken indigenous languages are Umbundu Kimbundu and Kikongo in that order Portuguese is the official language of the country Although the exact numbers of those fluent in Portuguese or who speak Portuguese as a first language are unknown a 2012 study mentions that Portuguese is the first language of 39 of the population 144 In 2014 a census carried out by the Instituto Nacional de Estatistica in Angola mentions that 71 15 of the nearly 25 8 million inhabitants of Angola meaning around 18 3 million people use Portuguese as a first or second language 145 According to the 2014 census Portuguese is spoken by 71 1 of Angolans Umbundu by 23 Kikongo by 8 2 Kimbundu by 7 8 Chokwe by 6 5 Nyaneka by 3 4 Ngangela by 3 1 Fiote by 2 4 Kwanyama by 2 3 Muhumbi by 2 1 Luvale by 1 and other languages by 4 1 146 Religion Edit Main article Religion in Angola Religion in Angola 2015 147 Religion PercentRoman Catholicism 56 4 Protestantism 23 4 Other Christian 13 6 Traditional faiths 4 5 Irreligion 1 0 Others 1 1 There are about 1 000 religious communities mostly Christian in Angola 148 While reliable statistics are nonexistent estimates have it that more than half of the population are Catholics while about a quarter adhere to the Protestant churches introduced during the colonial period the Congregationalists mainly among the Ovimbundu of the Central Highlands and the coastal region to its west the Methodists concentrating on the Kimbundu speaking strip from Luanda to Malanje the Baptists almost exclusively among the Bakongo of the north west now present in Luanda as well and dispersed Adventists Reformed and Lutherans 149 150 In Luanda and region there subsists a nucleus of the syncretic Tocoists and in the north west a sprinkling of Kimbanguism can be found spreading from the Congo Zaire Since independence hundreds of Pentecostal and similar communities have sprung up in the cities whereby now about 50 of the population is living several of these communities churches are of Brazilian origin Catholic church of Uaco Cungo As of 2008 update the U S Department of State estimates the Muslim population at 80 000 90 000 less than 1 of the population 151 while the Islamic Community of Angola puts the figure closer to 500 000 152 Muslims consist largely of migrants from West Africa and the Middle East especially Lebanon although some are local converts 153 The Angolan government does not legally recognize any Muslim organizations and often shuts down mosques or prevents their construction 154 In a study assessing nations levels of religious regulation and persecution with scores ranging from 0 to 10 where 0 represented low levels of regulation or persecution Angola was scored 0 8 on Government Regulation of Religion 4 0 on Social Regulation of Religion 0 on Government Favoritism of Religion and 0 on Religious Persecution 155 Foreign missionaries were very active prior to independence in 1975 although since the beginning of the anti colonial fight in 1961 the Portuguese colonial authorities expelled a series of Protestant missionaries and closed mission stations based on the belief that the missionaries were inciting pro independence sentiments Missionaries have been able to return to the country since the early 1990s although security conditions due to the civil war have prevented them until 2002 from restoring many of their former inland mission stations 156 The Catholic Church and some major Protestant denominations mostly keep to themselves in contrast to the New Churches which actively proselytize Catholics as well as some major Protestant denominations provide help for the poor in the form of crop seeds farm animals medical care and education 157 158 Urbanization Edit Largest cities or towns in Angola According to the 2014 Census 159 Rank Name Province Pop Luanda Lubango 1 Luanda Luanda 6 759 313 Huambo Benguela2 Lubango Huila 600 7513 Huambo Huambo 595 3044 Benguela Benguela 555 1245 Cabinda Cabinda 550 0006 Malanje Malanje 455 0007 Saurimo Lunda Sul 393 0008 Lobito Benguela 357 9509 Cuito Bie 355 42310 Uige Uige 322 531 Health Edit Main article Health in Angola Lucrecia Paim Maternity Hospital Epidemics of cholera malaria rabies and African hemorrhagic fevers like Marburg hemorrhagic fever are common diseases in several parts of the country Many regions in this country have high incidence rates of tuberculosis and high HIV prevalence rates Dengue filariasis leishmaniasis and onchocerciasis river blindness are other diseases carried by insects that also occur in the region Angola has one of the highest infant mortality rates in the world and one of the world s lowest life expectancies A 2007 survey concluded that low and deficient niacin status was common in Angola 160 Demographic and Health Surveys is currently conducting several surveys in Angola on malaria domestic violence and more 161 In September 2014 the Angolan Institute for Cancer Control IACC was created by presidential decree and it will integrate the National Health Service in Angola 162 The purpose of this new centre is to ensure health and medical care in oncology policy implementation programmes and plans for prevention and specialised treatment 163 This cancer institute will be assumed as a reference institution in the central and southern regions of Africa 164 In 2014 Angola launched a national campaign of vaccination against measles extended to every child under ten years old and aiming to go to all 18 provinces in the country 165 The measure is part of the Strategic Plan for the Elimination of Measles 2014 2020 created by the Angolan Ministry of Health which includes strengthening routine immunisation a proper dealing with measles cases national campaigns introducing a second dose of vaccination in the national routine vaccination calendar and active epidemiological surveillance for measles This campaign took place together with the vaccination against polio and vitamin A supplementation 166 A yellow fever outbreak the worst in the country in three decades 167 began in December 2015 By August 2016 when the outbreak began to subside nearly 4 000 people were suspected of being infected As many as 369 may have died The outbreak began in the capital Luanda and spread to at least 16 of the 18 provinces Education Edit Main article Education in Angola Agostinho Neto University Although by law education in Angola is compulsory and free for eight years the government reports that a percentage of pupils are not attending due to a lack of school buildings and teachers 168 Pupils are often responsible for paying additional school related expenses including fees for books and supplies 168 In 1999 the gross primary enrollment rate was 74 per cent and in 1998 the most recent year for which data are available the net primary enrollment rate was 61 per cent 168 Gross and net enrollment ratios are based on the number of pupils formally registered in primary school and therefore do not necessarily reflect actual school attendance 168 There continue to be significant disparities in enrollment between rural and urban areas In 1995 71 2 per cent of children ages 7 to 14 years were attending school 168 It is reported that higher percentages of boys attend school than girls 168 During the Angolan Civil War 1975 2002 nearly half of all schools were reportedly looted and destroyed leading to current problems with overcrowding 168 A primary school in Province of Cuanza Sul The Ministry of Education recruited 20 000 new teachers in 2005 and continued to implement teacher training 168 Teachers tend to be underpaid inadequately trained and overworked sometimes teaching two or three shifts a day 168 Some teachers may reportedly demand payment or bribes directly from their pupils 168 Other factors such as the presence of landmines lack of resources and identity papers and poor health prevent children from regularly attending school 168 Although budgetary allocations for education were increased in 2004 the education system in Angola continues to be extremely under funded 168 According to estimates by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics the adult literacy rate in 2011 was 70 4 169 By 2015 this had increased to 71 1 170 82 9 of men and 54 2 of women are literate as of 2001 171 Since independence from Portugal in 1975 a number of Angolan students continued to be admitted every year at high schools polytechnical institutes and universities in Portugal and Brazil through bilateral agreements in general these students belong to the elites Mutu ya Kevela Prep School In September 2014 the Angolan Ministry of Education announced an investment of 16 million Euros in the computerisation of over 300 classrooms across the country The project also includes training teachers at a national level as a way to introduce and use new information technologies in primary schools thus reflecting an improvement in the quality of teaching 172 In 2010 the Angolan government started building the Angolan Media Libraries Network distributed throughout several provinces in the country to facilitate the people s access to information and knowledge Each site has a bibliographic archive multimedia resources and computers with Internet access as well as areas for reading researching and socialising 173 The plan envisages the establishment of one media library in each Angolan province by 2017 The project also includes the implementation of several media libraries in order to provide the several contents available in the fixed media libraries to the most isolated populations in the country 174 At this time the mobile media libraries are already operating in the provinces of Luanda Malanje Uige Cabinda and Lunda South As for REMA the provinces of Luanda Benguela Lubango and Soyo have currently working media libraries 175 Culture EditMain article Culture of Angola See also Music of Angola and Angolan cuisine Agostinho Neto National Memorial in Luanda Angolan culture has been heavily influenced by Portuguese culture especially in language and religion and the culture of the indigenous ethnic groups of Angola predominantly Bantu culture The diverse ethnic communities the Ovimbundu Ambundu Bakongo Chokwe Mbunda and other peoples to varying degrees maintain their own cultural traits traditions and languages but in the cities where slightly more than half of the population now lives a mixed culture has been emerging since colonial times in Luanda since its foundation in the 16th century In this urban culture Portuguese heritage has become more and more dominant African roots are evident in music and dance and is moulding the way in which Portuguese is spoken This process is well reflected in contemporary Angolan literature especially in the works of Angolan authors In 2014 Angola resumed the National Festival of Angolan Culture after a 25 year break The festival took place in all the provincial capitals and lasted for 20 days with the theme Culture as a Factor of Peace and Development 176 Cinema Edit Main article Cinema of Angola In 1972 one of Angola s first feature films Sarah Maldoror s internationally co produced Sambizanga was released at the Carthage Film Festival to critical acclaim winning the Tanit d Or the festival s highest prize 177 Sports Edit The National Stadium in Benguela Basketball is the second most popular sport in Angola Its national team has won the AfroBasket 11 times and holds the record of most titles As a top team in Africa it is a regular competitor at the Summer Olympic Games and the FIBA World Cup Angola is home to one of Africa s first competitive leagues 178 In football Angola hosted the 2010 Africa Cup of Nations The Angola national football team qualified for the 2006 FIFA World Cup their first appearance in the World Cup finals They were eliminated after one defeat and two draws in the group stage They won three COSAFA Cups and finished runner up in the 2011 African Nations Championship Angola has participated in the World Women s Handball Championship for several years The country has also appeared in the Summer Olympics for seven years and both regularly competes in and once has hosted the FIRS Roller Hockey World Cup where the best finish is sixth Angola is also often believed to have historic roots in the martial art Capoeira Angola and Batuque which were practised by enslaved African Angolans transported as part of the Atlantic slave trade 179 See also Edit Africa portalOutline of Angola Index of Angola related articlesReferences Edit Main ethnic groups in Angola 2021 Statista Angola Major World Religions 1900 2050 The Association of Religion Data Archives Retrieved 8 October 2022 Investidura do Presidente da Republica Radio Nacional de Angola 15 September 2022 Angola The World Factbook 2023 ed Central Intelligence Agency Retrieved 24 September 2022 a b c Resultados Definitivos do Recenseamento Geral da Populacao e da Habitacao de Angola 2014 Final Results of the General Census of Population and Housing of Angola 2014 PDF in Portuguese Instituto Nacional de Estatistica March 2016 archived from the original PDF on 6 May 2016 a b c d World Economic Outlook Database October 2022 IMF org International Monetary Fund October 2022 Retrieved 11 October 2022 GINI index World Bank estimate Angola data worldbank org World Bank Archived from the original on 7 June 2019 Retrieved 22 March 2020 Human Development Report 2021 2022 PDF United Nations Development Programme 8 September 2022 Retrieved 8 September 2022 a b Transparency and Accountability in Angola Human Rights Watch 13 April 2010 Archived from the original on 6 October 2015 Retrieved 1 April 2016 a b Life expectancy at birth World Fact Book United States Central Intelligence Agency 2014 Archived from the original on 20 January 2016 Retrieved 4 March 2010 Diplomat recognizes government s effort in fight against corruption Agencia Angola Press 30 June 2021 Archived from the original on 6 October 2021 Retrieved 5 July 2021 Is Angola s Anti Corruption Drive Real or Cosmetic VOA News 10 January 2020 Archived from the original on 28 June 2021 Retrieved 24 June 2021 Heywood Linda M Thornton John K 2007 Central Africans Atlantic Creoles and the Foundation of the Americas 1585 1660 Cambridge University Press p 82 ISBN 978 0521770651 Archived from the original on 20 March 2015 Leander 18 May 2016 Kingdom of Kongo 1390 1914 South African History Online Archived from the original on 23 February 2019 Retrieved 25 February 2019 Henderson Lawrence 1979 Angola Five Centuries of Conflict Ithaca Cornell University Press pp 40 42 ISBN 978 0812216202 Miller Josep h 1979 Kings and Kinsmen Early Mbundu States in Angola Ithaca Cornell University Press pp 55 56 ISBN 978 0198227045 The Story of Africa BBC Archived from the original on 24 May 2010 Retrieved 27 June 2010 a b c d Baynes T S ed 1878 Angola Encyclopaedia Britannica vol 2 9th ed New York Charles Scribner s Sons p 45 Fleisch Axel 2004 Angola Slave Trade Abolition of In Shillington Kevin ed Encyclopedia of African History Vol 1 Routledge pp 131 133 ISBN 1 57958 245 1 Global Investment and Business Center 1 January 2006 Angola in the Eighteenth Century Slave trading in the 1700s Angola President Jose Eduardo Dos Santos Handbook Int l Business Publications p 153 ISBN 0739716069 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a author has generic name help World Bank The History of Brazil Africa Relations PDF Bridging the Atlantic p 27 Archived PDF from the original on 30 May 2016 Retrieved 14 May 2016 a b c d e f Collelo Thomas ed 1991 Angola a Country Study Area Handbook Series Third ed Washington D C Department of the Army American University pp 14 26 ISBN 978 0160308444 Iliffe John 2007 Africans the history of a continent Archived 10 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine Cambridge University Press p 68 ISBN 0 521 68297 5 For valuable complements for the 16th and 17th centuries see Beatrix Heintze Studien zur Geschichte Angolas im 16 und 17 Jahrhundert Colonia Alemanha Koppe 1996 a b c Corrado Jacopo 2008 The Creole Elite and the Rise of Angolan Protonationalism 1870 1920 Amherst New York Cambria Press pp 11 13 ISBN 978 1604975291 See Rene Pelissier Les guerres grises Resistance et revoltes en Angola 1845 1941 Editions Pelissier Montamets 78630 Orgeval France 1977 See Rene Pelissier La colonie du Minotaure Nationalismes et revoltes en Angola 1926 1961 editions Pelissier Montamets 78630 Orgeval France 1979 Rafael Coca de Campos Kakombola O genocidio dos Mucubais na Angola colonial 1930 1943 Ponta Grossa 2021 a b Okoth Assa 2006 A History of Africa African nationalism and the de colonisation process Nairobi East African Educational Publishers pp 143 147 ISBN 9966 25 358 0 a b Dowden Richard 2010 Africa Altered States Ordinary Miracles London Portobello Books pp 207 208 ISBN 978 1 58648 753 9 a b c d e Cornwell Richard 1 November 2000 The War of Independence PDF Pretoria Institute for Security Studies Archived from the original PDF on 21 February 2015 Retrieved 20 February 2015 a b Stockwell John 1979 1978 In Search of Enemies London Futura Publications Limited pp 44 45 ISBN 978 0393009262 a b c Hanlon Joseph 1986 Beggar Your Neighbours Apartheid Power in Southern Africa Bloomington Indiana University Press p 155 ISBN 978 0253331311 a b c d Chabal Patrick 2002 A History of Postcolonial Lusophone Africa Bloomington Indiana University Press p 142 ISBN 978 0253215659 a b c d e f g Rothschild Donald 1997 Managing Ethnic Conflict in Africa Pressures and Incentives for Cooperation Washington The Brookings Institution pp 115 120 ISBN 978 0815775935 a b Dominguez Jorge 1989 To Make a World Safe for Revolution Cuba s Foreign Policy Cambridge Harvard University Press pp 131 133 ISBN 978 0674893252 a b c d e f g Weigert Stephen 2011 Angola A Modern Military History Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan pp 56 65 ISBN 978 0230117778 a b c d e Vanneman Peter 1990 Soviet Strategy in Southern Africa Gorbachev s Pragmatic Approach Stanford Hoover Institution Press pp 48 49 ISBN 978 0817989026 a b c d Ferreira Manuel 2002 Brauer Jurgen Dunne J Paul eds Arming the South The Economics of Military Expenditure Arms Production and Arms Trade in Developing Countries Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan pp 251 255 ISBN 978 0 230 50125 6 Akongdit Addis Ababa Othow 2013 Impact of Political Stability on Economic Development Case of South Sudan Bloomington AuthorHouse Ltd Publishers pp 74 75 ISBN 978 1491876442 a b Tucker Spencer 2013 Encyclopedia of Insurgency and Counterinsurgency A New Era of Modern Warfare Santa Barbara ABC CLIO Ltd Publishers pp 374 375 ISBN 978 1610692793 a b c Tordoff William 1997 Government and Politics in Africa Third ed Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan pp 97 98 ISBN 978 0333694749 W James Martin 2004 Historical Dictionary of Angola Rowman amp Littlefield pp 161 162 ISBN 978 1538111239 Pacatolo Carlos 2022 The Emerging Predominant Party Systems in Angola 2008 2017 Lisboa CIEP Centro de Investigacao do Instituto de Estudos Politicos pp 3 15 Lari 2004 Human Rights Watch 2005 For an overall analysis see Ricardo Soares de Oliveira Magnificent and Beggar Land Angola since the Civil War London Hurst 2015 Who is Angola s new president Joao Lourenco DW 26 09 2017 DW COM Archived from the original on 3 February 2021 Retrieved 26 February 2021 Jose Eduardo dos Santos State funeral for Angola ex president BBC News 28 August 2022 Angola s MPLA ruling party wins elections and presidency www aljazeera com Country Comparisons Area The World Factbook United States Central Intelligence Agency Archived from the original on 4 February 2021 Grantham H S Duncan A Evans T D Jones K R Beyer H L Schuster R Walston J Ray J C Robinson J G Callow M Clements T Costa H M DeGemmis A Elsen P R Ervin J Franco P Goldman E Goetz S Hansen A Hofsvang E Jantz P Jupiter S Kang A Langhammer P Laurance W F Lieberman S Linkie M Malhi Y Maxwell S Mendez M Mittermeier R Murray N J Possingham H Radachowsky J Saatchi S Samper C Silverman J Shapiro A Strassburg B Stevens T Stokes E Taylor R Tear T Tizard R Venter O Visconti P Wang S Watson J E M 2020 Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40 of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity Supplementary Material Nature Communications 11 1 5978 Bibcode 2020NatCo 11 5978G doi 10 1038 s41467 020 19493 3 ISSN 2041 1723 PMC 7723057 PMID 33293507 a b c d e f g h This article incorporates text from this source which is in the public domain Collelo Thomas ed 1989 Angola a country study Washington D C Federal Research Division Library of Congress pp 57 61 OCLC 44357178 Archived from the original on 8 April 2022 Retrieved 19 June 2022 Resultados Definitivos do Recenseamento Geral da Populacao e da Habitacao de Angola 2014 Final Results of the General Census of Population and Housing of Angola 2014 PDF in Portuguese Instituto Nacional de Estatistica March 2016 p 27 archived from the original PDF on 6 May 2016 Angola General Information geohive com Archived from the original on 30 September 2016 Retrieved 3 March 2022 Resultados Definitivos Recenseamento Geral da Populacao e Habitacao 2014 PDF Instituto Nacional de Estatistica Republica de Angola Archived from the original PDF on 14 December 2019 Retrieved 3 May 2020 Angola profile BBC News 22 December 2013 Archived from the original on 24 June 2018 Retrieved 21 June 2018 Der neue Fischer Weltalmanach 2019 Fischer 1 July 2018 p 38 ISBN 978 3 596 72019 4 Angolan Leader Dos Santos to Step Down After 38 Years in Power Archived 7 April 2017 at the Wayback Machine Bloomberg 3 February 2017 Retrieved on 26 April 2017 Thiefaine Charles 5 December 2016 En Angola le ministre de la Defense devrait succeder au president Dos Santos In Angola the minister of defense is to succeed President Dos Santos Lefigaro fr in French Archived from the original on 25 March 2017 Retrieved 26 April 2017 Angola une purge au sein de la Sonangol emporte Isabel dos Santos BENIN WEB TV in French 15 November 2017 Retrieved 21 November 2017 permanent dead link Angola s Lourenco replaces police and intelligence chiefs Reuters 20 November 2017 Archived from the original on 20 November 2017 Retrieved 21 November 2017 Angola sacks Africa s richest woman BBC News British Broadcasting Corporation 15 November 2017 Archived from the original on 18 November 2017 Retrieved 21 November 2017 Jose Filomeno dos Santos Son of Angola s ex leader jailed for five years BBC News 14 August 2020 Archived from the original on 7 June 2022 Retrieved 7 June 2022 Angola State gov US Department of State Archived from the original on 10 February 2020 Retrieved 22 November 2016 a b c d Angola The World Factbook 2023 ed Central Intelligence Agency Retrieved 15 May 2007 Archived 2007 edition Peclard Didier ed 2008 L Angola dans la paix Autoritarisme et reconversions special issue of Politique africains Paris p 110 Miranda Jorge 2010 A Constituicao de Angola de 2010 O Direito Lisbon vol 142 Amundsen Inge 2011 Angola Party Politics Into the African Trend PDF Chr Michelsen Institute CMI and Centro de Estudos e Investigacao Cientifica CEIC The Hutchinson Unabridged Encyclopedia with Atlas and Weather guide Abington UK Helicon 2018 ISBN 978 1 84972 716 7 AfricaNews 6 July 2020 DRC Angolan soldier killed in Kasai Africanews Archived from the original on 10 May 2022 Retrieved 10 May 2022 Angola to join SADC military mission to Mozambique Xinhua English news cn www xinhuanet com Archived from the original on 25 October 2021 Retrieved 10 May 2022 Angola com novo Codigo Penal ainda este ano Archived 15 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine Noticias ao Minuto 24 September 2014 Ribeiro Joao Ruela 16 October 2014 Angola eleita para o Conselho de Seguranca da ONU Angola elected to the UN Security Council publico pt in Portuguese Archived from the original on 6 September 2016 Retrieved 14 June 2017 Public 16 October 2014 Angola deve servir de exemplo para os paises da CIRGL Ntumba Luaba Archived from the original on 5 March 2016 Retrieved 14 June 2017 Expansion 8 January 2015 a b c Angola Freedom in the World 2014 Freedom House Archived from the original on 7 February 2015 Retrieved 7 February 2015 2012 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices Angola PDF Bureau of Democracy Human Rights and Labor U S Department of State archived PDF from the original on 26 March 2017 retrieved 12 June 2019 Condon Madison 1 January 2012 China in Africa What the Policy of Nonintervention Adds to the Western Development Dilemma PRAXIS The Fletcher Journal of Human Security 27 5 Archived from the original on 26 October 2020 Retrieved 30 November 2020 Ibrahim Index of African Governance Mo Ibrahim Foundation Archived from the original on 1 August 2014 Retrieved 9 August 2014 Williams Sophie 24 January 2019 Angola decriminalises homosexuality and bans discrimination based on sexual orientation The Evening Standard Archived from the original on 24 January 2019 Retrieved 25 January 2019 Angola Financial Sector Profile MFW4A Making Finance Work for Africa Archived 13 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine MFW4A Retrieved 9 August 2013 The Increasing Importance of African Oil Power and Interest Report 20 March 2006 Archived from the original on 5 May 2006 Angolo Global Trade Logistic Archived from the original on 21 January 2019 Retrieved 20 January 2019 Luanda capital of Angola retains title of world s most expensive for expats The Daily Telegraph Retrieved 9 August 2013 Archived from the original on 5 September 2017 Retrieved 4 April 2018 Angola s economy to grow by 3 9 percent IMF Archived 13 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine StarAfrica 4 September 2014 Angola Sector bancario mantem crescimento em 2013 Archived 6 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine Angola Press 26 September 2014 Angola seen growing average 5 percent Central Bank Archived 1 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine Reuters Africa 10 June 2014 Anti corruption watchdog Transparency International rates Angola one of the 10 most corrupt countries in the world Dolan Kerry A 23 January 2013 Isabel Dos Santos Daughter Of Angola s President Is Africa s First Woman Billionaire Archived 15 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine Forbes This process is well analyzed by authors like Christine Messiant Tony Hodges and others For an eloquent illustration see the Angolan magazine Infra Estruturas Africa 7 2010 Pais ao raios X Angola Exame 12 November 2010 Udelsmann Rodrigues Cristina 2006 O Trabalho Dignifica o Homem Estrategias de Sobrevivencia em Luanda Lisbon Colibri As an excellent illustration see Luanda A vida na cidade dos extremos in Visao 11 November 2010 The HDI 2010 lists Angola in the 146th position among 169 countries one position below that of Haiti MLP l Human Development Index and its components Archived 28 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine Forsythe Michael Gurney Kyra Alecci Scilla Hallman Ben 19 January 2020 How U S Firms Helped Africa s Richest Woman Exploit Her Country s Wealth The New York Times The New York Times Archived from the original on 19 January 2020 Retrieved 20 January 2020 Fitzgibbon Will 28 January 2022 Dos Santos and clique still appearing in leaks Business News namibian com na The Namibian Archived from the original on 3 February 2022 Retrieved 3 February 2022 Manuel Alves da Rocha 2010 Desigualdades e assimetrias regionais em Angola Os factores da competitividade territorial Archived 18 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine Luanda Centro de Estudos e Investigacao Cientifica da Universidade Catolica de Angola A forca do kwanza Visao Lisbon 993 15 May 2012 pp 50 54 The New Prosperity Strategies for Improving Well Being in Sub Saharan Africa Archived 8 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine Tony Blair Africa Governance Initiative 1 May 2013 The New Prosperity Strategies for Improving Well Being in Sub Saharan Africa Archived 13 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine Report by The Boston Consulting Group and Tony Blair Africa Governance Initiative May 2013 Angola is the third largest sub Saharan financial market Archived 14 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine MacauHub 23 July 2014 CMC prepares launch of debt secondary market Archived 18 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine Angola Press Agency 16 December 2014 Marching towards riches and democracy Archived 31 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine The Economist 30 August 2008 p 46 Angola Country Admitted As Opec Member Angola Press Agency 14 December 2006 Archived from the original on 19 October 2012 Retrieved 15 December 2006 Alt Robert Into Africa China s Grab for Influence and Oil Heritage org Archived from the original on 13 March 2010 Retrieved 27 June 2010 Angola s Political and Economic Development Council on Foreign Relations Archived from the original on 21 April 2016 Angola Explain Missing Government Funds Human Rights Watch 20 December 2011 Archived from the original on 21 December 2011 Retrieved 22 December 2011 Hanson Stephanie 21 July 2008 Angola s political and economical development Council of Foreign Relations Archived from the original on 21 April 2016 Business Angola fines Chevron for pollution BBC News 1 July 2002 Archived from the original on 13 March 2012 Retrieved 15 September 2020 Angolan Diamond Centenary Conference 2013 Highlights Endiama and Alrosa Joint Venture for Future Geological Exploration of diamond deposits of Angola s Territory PDF Press release angolancentenary com Archived from the original PDF on 14 November 2013 a b Country Trends Global Footprint Network Archived from the original on 8 August 2017 Retrieved 2 June 2020 Lin David Hanscom Laurel Murthy Adeline Galli Alessandro Evans Mikel Neill Evan Mancini MariaSerena Martindill Jon Medouar FatimeZahra Huang Shiyu Wackernagel Mathis 2018 Ecological Footprint Accounting for Countries Updates and Results of the National Footprint Accounts 2012 2018 Resources 7 3 58 doi 10 3390 resources7030058 Muzima Joel Mazivila Domingos Angola 2014 Retrieved from www africaneconomicoutlook org Archived 30 May 2018 at the Wayback Machine Country partnership strategy for the Republic of Angola 15 August 2013 World Bank Report No 76225 A0 Redvers Louise POVERTY ANGOLA Inter Press Service News Agency NGOs Sceptical of Govt s Rural Development Plans Archived 12 May 2010 at the Wayback Machine The top eight busiest ports in Africa Photos and Infographic African Business Central Archived from the original on 4 February 2020 Retrieved 4 February 2020 ec europa eu 1992 Archived 26 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine Sectores Economicos Prioritarios in Portuguese ANIP Archived from the original on 11 April 2013 Angola Cables e parceiros estrangeiros anunciam construcao de cabo submarino in Portuguese ANGOP 14 October 2014 Archived from the original on 25 November 2014 Retrieved 13 November 2014 Machado Andre 30 January 2014 Cabo submarino que ligara Brasil a Africa tera capacidade de 40 terabits por segundo O Globo in Portuguese Archived from the original on 12 October 2014 Retrieved 13 November 2014 Inacio Adelina 12 March 2015 Nacao esta mais ligada in Portuguese Jornal de Angola Archived from the original on 19 March 2015 Retrieved 12 March 2015 Angola has about 14 million mobile phone network users Minister ANGOP 12 March 2015 Archived from the original on 18 March 2015 Retrieved 12 March 2015 Angola com crescimento anual superior a 55 no sector das TIC in Portuguese Platina Line 12 March 2015 Archived from the original on 13 July 2015 Retrieved 16 April 2015 Sector das TIC com crescimento anual superior a 55 por cento na ultima decada in Portuguese Ver Angola 13 March 2015 Archived from the original on 16 April 2015 Retrieved 16 April 2015 Satbeams World of Satellites at your fingertips Satbeams Web and Mobile Archived from the original on 17 September 2018 Retrieved 17 September 2018 AngoSat 1 space skyrocket de Archived from the original on 17 September 2018 Retrieved 17 September 2018 Conclusion works of Angosat project set for 2016 ANGOP 8 September 2014 Archived from the original on 15 December 2014 Retrieved 11 December 2014 Agencia Lusa 4 November 2014 Primeiro satelite angolano pronto para ser lancado em 2016 in Portuguese Observador Archived from the original on 29 November 2014 Retrieved 11 December 2014 GGPEN Leia Mais www ggpen gov ao Archived from the original on 17 September 2018 Retrieved 17 September 2018 AngoSat 2 More Than 60 per cent Ready Launch in 17 Months February 2021 Archived from the original on 14 April 2021 Retrieved 14 April 2021 Angola to manage own internet domain from 2015 Archived 13 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine Telecompaper 16 September 2014 Angola manages its own Internet domain Archived 23 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine Macauhub 16 September 2014 As no reliable census data exist at this stage 2011 all these numbers are rough estimates only subject to adjustments and updates 2050 Population as a Multiple of 2014 Archived 2 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine PRB 2014 World Population Data Sheet U S Committee for Refugees and Immigrants World Refugee Survey 2008 p 37 World Refugee Survey 2008 Angola Archived 10 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine UNHCR NB This figure is highly doubtful as it makes no clear distinction between migrant workers refugees and immigrants Jose Eduardo dos Santos diz que trabalhadores portugueses sao bem vindos em Angola Observatorio da Emigracao Archived from the original on 20 September 2013 Retrieved 22 July 2013 presenca de cerca de 200 mil trabalhadores portugueses no pais Angola Cerca de 259 000 chineses vivem atualmente no pais Visao 25 April 2012 Archived from the original on 9 May 2013 Retrieved 13 January 2013 Calls for Angola to Investigate Abuse of Congolese Migrants Archived 25 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine Inter Press Service 21 May 2012 Bender Gerald Yoder Stanley 1974 Whites in Angola on the 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Angola Provinces Major Cities Urban Localities amp Urban Agglomerations Population Statistics Maps Charts Weather and Web Information Archived from the original on 22 August 2021 Retrieved 7 December 2021 Seal Andrew J Creeke Paul I Dibari Filippo et al 2007 Low and deficient niacin status and pellagra are endemic in postwar Angola The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 85 1 218 224 doi 10 1093 ajcn 85 1 218 hdl 10144 125625 PMID 17209199 Angola Surveys Archived 27 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine measuredhs com Novo instituto oncologico de Angola quer ser referencia em Africa Archived 18 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine Noticias ao Minuto Source Lusa Agency 9 September 2014 Novo instituto oncologico de Angola quer ser referencia em Africa Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine Diario Digital Source Lusa Agency 9 September 2014 Novo instituto oncologico angolano quer ser instituicao de referencia no continente Archived 6 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine Ver Angola 11 September 2014 Angola Over 30 000 Children Vaccinated Against Measles in Huila Archived 6 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine All Africa 30 September 2014 Angola lanca vacinacao nacional contra sarampo Angola launches national measles vaccination Noticias ao Minuto in Portuguese Lusa 18 September 2014 Archived from the original on 6 October 2014 Goldschmidt Debra 19 May 2016 WHO Yellow fever outbreak is serious and of great concern CNN Archived from the original on 29 May 2016 Retrieved 29 May 2016 a b c d e f g h i j k l Botswana 2005 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor Bureau of International Labor Affairs U S Department of Labor 2006 This article incorporates text from this source which is in the public domain National adult literacy rates 15 youth literacy rates 15 24 and elderly literacy rates 65 UNESCO Institute for Statistics Archived from the original on 29 October 2013 Retrieved 27 July 2013 UIS Education data uis unesco org Archived from the original on 5 September 2017 Retrieved 22 October 2017 Angola Statistics UNICEF Archived from the original on 13 June 2010 Retrieved 27 June 2010 Angola investe 16 milhoes na informatizacao de 300 salas de aula em todo o pais Archived 7 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine jornal i 28 September 2014 Sumario Executivo do Plano Director da ReMA Executive Summary of the ReMA Master Plan PDF in Portuguese Rede de Mediatecas de Angola May 2013 archived from the original PDF on 12 December 2016 Government to open digital libraries in every province Archived 18 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine Angola Press Agency 8 January 2015 Mediateca movel aberta ao publico Archived 9 February 2015 at the Portuguese Web Archive Jornal de Angola 9 January 2015 Retrospect2014 Fenacult marks cultural year Archived 31 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine Angola Press Agency 18 December 2014 Dovey Lindiwe 11 March 2015 Curating Africa in the Age of Film Festivals New York NY Palgrave MacMillan ISBN 978 1137404145 Archived from the original on 15 September 2018 Retrieved 15 September 2018 Nxumalo Lee 20 December 2020 Basketball s next frontier is Africa New Frame Archived from the original on 16 January 2021 Retrieved 11 January 2021 Poncianinho Mestre Almeida Ponciano 2007 Capoeira The Essential Guide to Mastering the Art New Holland Publishers pp 18 ISBN 978 1 84537 761 8 Archived from the original on 20 March 2015 Retrieved 14 October 2015 Further reading EditChisholm Hugh ed 1911 Angola Encyclopaedia Britannica vol 2 11th ed Cambridge University Press pp 38 40 Birmingham David 2006 Empire in Africa Angola and its Neighbors Ohio University Press Athens Ohio Bosl Anton 2008 Angola s Parliamentary Elections in 2008 A Country on its Way to One Party Democracy KAS Auslandsinformationen 10 2008 Die Parlamentswahlen in Angola 2008 Cilliers Jackie and Christian Dietrich Eds 2000 Angola s War Economy The Role of Oil and Diamonds Pretoria South Africa Institute for Security Studies Global Witness 1999 A Crude Awakening The Role of Oil and Banking Industries in Angola s Civil War and the Plundering of State Assets London UK Global Witness A Crude Awakening Hodges Tony 2001 Angola from Afro Stalinism to Petro Diamond Capitalism Oxford James Currey Hodges Tony 2004 Angola The Anatomy of an Oil State Oxford UK and Indianapolis US The Fridtjol Nansen Institute amp The International African Institute in association with James Currey and Indiana University Press Human Rights Watch 2004 Some Transparency No Accountability The Use of Oil Revenues in Angola and Its Impact on Human Rights New York Human Rights Watch Some Transparency No Accountability The Use of Oil Revenue in Angola and Its Impact on Human Rights Human Rights Watch Report January 2004 Human Rights Watch 2005 Coming Home Return and Reintegration in Angola New York Human Rights Watch Coming Home Return and Reintegration in Angola James Walter 1992 A political history of the civil war in Angola 1964 1990 New Brunswick Transaction Publishers Kapuscinski Ryszard Another Day of Life Penguin 1975 ISBN 978 0 14 118678 8 A Polish journalist s account of Portuguese withdrawal from Angola and the beginning of the civil war Kevlihan R 2003 Sanctions and humanitarian concerns Ireland and Angola 2001 2 Irish Studies in International Affairs 14 95 106 Lari A 2004 Returning home to a normal life The plight of displaced Angolans Pretoria South Africa Institute for Security Studies Lari A and R Kevlihan 2004 International Human Rights Protection in Situations of Conflict and Post Conflict A Case Study of Angola African Security Review 13 4 29 41 Le Billon Philippe 2005 Aid in the Midst of Plenty Oil Wealth Misery and Advocacy in Angola Disasters 29 1 1 25 Le Billon Philippe 2001 Angola s Political Economy of War The Role of Oil and Diamonds African Affairs 100 55 80 Le Billon P March 2006 Fuelling War Natural Resources and Armed Conflicts Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 37970 0 MacQueen Norrie An Ill Wind Rethinking the Angolan Crisis and the Portuguese Revolution 1974 1976 Itinerario European Journal of Overseas History 26 2 2000 pp 22 44 Medecins Sans Frontieres 2002 Angola Sacrifice of a People Luanda Angola MSF Mwakikagile Godfrey Nyerere and Africa End of an Era Third Edition Pretoria South Africa 2006 on Angola in Chapter 11 American Involvement in Angola and Southern Africa Nyerere s Response pp 324 346 ISBN 978 0 9802534 1 2 Pearce Justin 2004 War Peace and Diamonds in Angola Popular perceptions of the diamond industry in the Lundas African Security Review 13 2 pp 51 64 Wayback Machine Porto Joao Gomes 2003 Cabinda Notes on a soon to be forgotten war Pretoria South Africa Institute for Security Studies Tvedten Inge 1997 Angola Struggle for Peace and Reconstruction Boulder Colorado Westview Press Vines Alex 1999 Angola Unravels The Rise and Fall of the Lusaka Peace Process New York and London UK Human Rights Watch External links Edit The Wikibook Wikijunior Countries A Z has a page on the topic of Angola Angola at Wikipedia s sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel information from Wikivoyage Data from Wikidata Official website in Portuguese Angola The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency Angola at Curlie Angola from UCB Libraries GovPubs Angola profile from the BBC News Wikimedia Atlas of Angola Geographic data related to Angola at OpenStreetMap Key Development Forecasts for Angola from International Futures Bertelsmann Transformation Index 2012 Angola Country Report Markus Weimer The Peace Dividend Analysis of a Decade of Angolan Indicators 2002 2012 The participation of Hungarian soldiers in UN peacekeeping operations in Angola Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Angola amp oldid 1146170650, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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