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Biome

January 28, 2024

A biome (/ˈbaɪ.oʊm/) is a biogeographical unit consisting of a biological community that has formed in response to the physical environment[1] in which they are found and a shared regional climate.[2][3][4] Biomes may span more than one continent. Biome is a broader term than habitat and can comprise a variety of habitats.

One way of mapping terrestrial (land) biomes around the world

While a biome can cover small areas, a microbiome is a mix of organisms that coexist in a defined space on a much smaller scale. For example, the human microbiome is the collection of bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms that are present on or in a human body.[5]

A biota is the total collection of organisms of a geographic region or a time period, from local geographic scales and instantaneous temporal scales all the way up to whole-planet and whole-timescale spatiotemporal scales. The biotas of the Earth make up the biosphere.

Etymology edit

The term was suggested in 1916 by Clements, originally as a synonym for biotic community of Möbius (1877).[6] Later, it gained its current definition, based on earlier concepts of phytophysiognomy, formation and vegetation (used in opposition to flora), with the inclusion of the animal element and the exclusion of the taxonomic element of species composition.[7][8] In 1935, Tansley added the climatic and soil aspects to the idea, calling it ecosystem.[9][10] The International Biological Program (1964–74) projects popularized the concept of biome.[11]

However, in some contexts, the term biome is used in a different manner. In German literature, particularly in the Walter terminology, the term is used similarly as biotope (a concrete geographical unit), while the biome definition used in this article is used as an international, non-regional, terminology—irrespectively of the continent in which an area is present, it takes the same biome name—and corresponds to his "zonobiome", "orobiome" and "pedobiome" (biomes determined by climate zone, altitude or soil).[12]

In Brazilian literature, the term "biome" is sometimes used as synonym of biogeographic province, an area based on species composition (the term floristic province being used when plant species are considered), or also as synonym of the "morphoclimatic and phytogeographical domain" of Ab'Sáber, a geographic space with subcontinental dimensions, with the predominance of similar geomorphologic and climatic characteristics, and of a certain vegetation form. Both include many biomes in fact.[7][13][14]

Classifications edit

To divide the world into a few ecological zones is difficult, notably because of the small-scale variations that exist everywhere on earth and because of the gradual changeover from one biome to the other. Their boundaries must therefore be drawn arbitrarily and their characterization made according to the average conditions that predominate in them.[15]

A 1978 study on North American grasslands[16] found a positive logistic correlation between evapotranspiration in mm/yr and above-ground net primary production in g/m2/yr. The general results from the study were that precipitation and water use led to above-ground primary production, while solar irradiation and temperature lead to below-ground primary production (roots), and temperature and water lead to cool and warm season growth habit.[17] These findings help explain the categories used in Holdridge's bioclassification scheme (see below), which were then later simplified by Whittaker. The number of classification schemes and the variety of determinants used in those schemes, however, should be taken as strong indicators that biomes do not fit perfectly into the classification schemes created.

Holdridge (1947, 1964) life zones edit

 
Holdridge life zone classification scheme. Although conceived as three-dimensional by its originator, it is usually shown as a two-dimensional array of hexagons in a triangular frame.
Main article: Holdridge life zones

In 1947, the American botanist and climatologist Leslie Holdridge classified climates based on the biological effects of temperature and rainfall on vegetation under the assumption that these two abiotic factors are the largest determinants of the types of vegetation found in a habitat. Holdridge uses the four axes to define 30 so-called "humidity provinces", which are clearly visible in his diagram. While this scheme largely ignores soil and sun exposure, Holdridge acknowledged that these were important.

Allee (1949) biome-types edit

The principal biome-types by Allee (1949):[18]

Kendeigh (1961) biomes edit

The principal biomes of the world by Kendeigh (1961):[19]

Whittaker (1962, 1970, 1975) biome-types edit

 
The distribution of vegetation types as a function of mean annual temperature and precipitation.

Whittaker classified biomes using two abiotic factors: precipitation and temperature. His scheme can be seen as a simplification of Holdridge's; more readily accessible, but missing Holdridge's greater specificity.

Whittaker based his approach on theoretical assertions and empirical sampling. He had previously compiled a review of biome classifications.[20]

Key definitions for understanding Whittaker's scheme edit

  • Physiognomy: sometimes referring to the plants' appearance; or the biome's apparent characteristics, outward features, or appearance of ecological communities or species - including plants.
  • Biome: a grouping of terrestrial ecosystems on a given continent that is similar in vegetation structure, physiognomy, features of the environment and characteristics of their animal communities.
  • Formation: a major kind of community of plants on a given continent.
  • Biome-type: grouping of convergent biomes or formations of different continents, defined by physiognomy.
  • Formation-type: a grouping of convergent formations.

Whittaker's distinction between biome and formation can be simplified: formation is used when applied to plant communities only, while biome is used when concerned with both plants and animals. Whittaker's convention of biome-type or formation-type is a broader method to categorize similar communities.[21]

Whittaker's parameters for classifying biome-types edit

Whittaker used what he called "gradient analysis" of ecocline patterns to relate communities to climate on a worldwide scale. Whittaker considered four main ecoclines in the terrestrial realm.[21]

  1. Intertidal levels: The wetness gradient of areas that are exposed to alternating water and dryness with intensities that vary by location from high to low tide
  2. Climatic moisture gradient
  3. Temperature gradient by altitude
  4. Temperature gradient by latitude

Along these gradients, Whittaker noted several trends that allowed him to qualitatively establish biome-types:

  • The gradient runs from favorable to the extreme, with corresponding changes in productivity.
  • Changes in physiognomic complexity vary with how favorable of an environment exists (decreasing community structure and reduction of stratal differentiation as the environment becomes less favorable).
  • Trends in the diversity of structure follow trends in species diversity; alpha and beta species diversities decrease from favorable to extreme environments.
  • Each growth-form (i.e. grasses, shrubs, etc.) has its characteristic place of maximum importance along the ecoclines.
  • The same growth forms may be dominant in similar environments in widely different parts of the world.

Whittaker summed the effects of gradients (3) and (4) to get an overall temperature gradient and combined this with a gradient (2), the moisture gradient, to express the above conclusions in what is known as the Whittaker classification scheme. The scheme graphs average annual precipitation (x-axis) versus average annual temperature (y-axis) to classify biome-types.

Biome-types edit

  1. Tropical rainforest
  2. Tropical seasonal rainforest
  3. Temperate giant rainforest
  4. Montane rainforest
  5. Temperate deciduous forest
  6. Temperate evergreen forest
  7. Subarctic-subalpine needle-leaved forests (taiga)
  8. Elfin woodland
  9. Thorn forests and woodlands
  10. Thorn scrub
  11. Temperate woodland
  12. Temperate shrublands
  13. Savanna
  14. Temperate grassland
  15. Alpine grasslands
  16. Tundra
  17. Tropical desert
  18. Warm-temperate desert
  19. Cool temperate desert scrub
  20. Arctic-alpine desert
  21. Bog
  22. Tropical fresh-water swamp forest
  23. Temperate fresh-water swamp forest
  24. Mangrove swamp
  25. Salt marsh
  26. Wetland[22]

Goodall (1974–) ecosystem types edit

The multi-authored series Ecosystems of the World, edited by David W. Goodall, provides a comprehensive coverage of the major "ecosystem types or biomes" on Earth:[23]

  1. Terrestrial Ecosystems
    1. Natural Terrestrial Ecosystems
      1. Wet Coastal Ecosystems
      2. Dry Coastal Ecosystems
      3. Polar and Alpine Tundra
      4. Mires: Swamp, Bog, Fen, and Moor
      5. Temperate Deserts and Semi-Deserts
      6. Coniferous Forests
      7. Temperate Deciduous Forests
      8. Natural Grasslands
      9. Heathlands and Related Shrublands
      10. Temperate Broad-Leaved Evergreen Forests
      11. Mediterranean-Type Shrublands
      12. Hot Deserts and Arid Shrublands
      13. Tropical Savannas
      14. Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystems
      15. Wetland Forests
      16. Ecosystems of Disturbed Ground
    2. Managed Terrestrial Ecosystems
      1. Managed Grasslands
      2. Field Crop Ecosystems
      3. Tree Crop Ecosystems
      4. Greenhouse Ecosystems
      5. Bioindustrial Ecosystems
  2. Aquatic Ecosystems
    1. Inland Aquatic Ecosystems
      1. River and Stream Ecosystems
      2. Lakes and Reservoirs
    2. Marine Ecosystems
      1. Intertidal and Littoral Ecosystems
      2. Coral Reefs
      3. Estuaries and Enclosed Seas
      4. Ecosystems of the Continental Shelves
      5. Ecosystems of the Deep Ocean
    3. Managed Aquatic Ecosystems
      1. Managed Aquatic Ecosystems
  3. Underground Ecosystems
    1. Cave Ecosystems

Walter (1976, 2002) zonobiomes edit

The eponymously named Heinrich Walter classification scheme considers the seasonality of temperature and precipitation. The system, also assessing precipitation and temperature, finds nine major biome types, with the important climate traits and vegetation types. The boundaries of each biome correlate to the conditions of moisture and cold stress that are strong determinants of plant form, and therefore the vegetation that defines the region. Extreme conditions, such as flooding in a swamp, can create different kinds of communities within the same biome.[12][24][25]

Zonobiome Zonal soil type Zonal vegetation type
ZB I. Equatorial, always moist, little temperature seasonality Equatorial brown clays Evergreen tropical rainforest
ZB II. Tropical, summer rainy season and cooler "winter" dry season Red clays or red earths Tropical seasonal forest, seasonal dry forest, scrub, or savanna
ZB III. Subtropical, highly seasonal, arid climate Serosemes, sierozemes Desert vegetation with considerable exposed surface
ZB IV. Mediterranean, winter rainy season and summer drought Mediterranean brown earths Sclerophyllous (drought-adapted), frost-sensitive shrublands and woodlands
ZB V. Warm temperate, occasional frost, often with summer rainfall maximum Yellow or red forest soils, slightly podsolic soils Temperate evergreen forest, somewhat frost-sensitive
ZB VI. Nemoral, moderate climate with winter freezing Forest brown earths and grey forest soils Frost-resistant, deciduous, temperate forest
ZB VII. Continental, arid, with warm or hot summers and cold winters Chernozems to serozems Grasslands and temperate deserts
ZB VIII. Boreal, cold temperate with cool summers and long winters Podsols Evergreen, frost-hardy, needle-leaved forest (taiga)
ZB IX. Polar, short, cool summers and long, cold winters Tundra humus soils with solifluction (permafrost soils) Low, evergreen vegetation, without trees, growing over permanently frozen soils

Schultz (1988) eco-zones edit

Schultz (1988, 2005) defined nine ecozones (his concept of ecozone is more similar to the concept of biome than to the concept of ecozone of BBC):[26]

  1. polar/subpolar zone
  2. boreal zone
  3. humid mid-latitudes
  4. dry mid-latitudes
  5. subtropics with winter rain
  6. subtropics with year-round rain
  7. dry tropics and subtropics
  8. tropics with summer rain
  9. tropics with year-round rain

Bailey (1989) ecoregions edit

Robert G. Bailey nearly developed a biogeographical classification system of ecoregions for the United States in a map published in 1976. He subsequently expanded the system to include the rest of North America in 1981, and the world in 1989. The Bailey system, based on climate, is divided into four domains (polar, humid temperate, dry, and humid tropical), with further divisions based on other climate characteristics (subarctic, warm temperate, hot temperate, and subtropical; marine and continental; lowland and mountain).[27][28]

  • 100 Polar Domain
    • 120 Tundra Division (Köppen: Ft)
    • M120 Tundra Division – Mountain Provinces
    • 130 Subarctic Division (Köppen: E)
    • M130 Subarctic Division – Mountain Provinces
  • 200 Humid Temperate Domain
    • 210 Warm Continental Division (Köppen: portion of Dcb)
    • M210 Warm Continental Division – Mountain Provinces
    • 220 Hot Continental Division (Köppen: portion of Dca)
    • M220 Hot Continental Division – Mountain Provinces
    • 230 Subtropical Division (Köppen: portion of Cf)
    • M230 Subtropical Division – Mountain Provinces
    • 240 Marine Division (Köppen: Do)
    • M240 Marine Division – Mountain Provinces
    • 250 Prairie Division (Köppen: arid portions of Cf, Dca, Dcb)
    • 260 Mediterranean Division (Köppen: Cs)
    • M260 Mediterranean Division – Mountain Provinces
  • 300 Dry Domain
    • 310 Tropical/Subtropical Steppe Division
    • M310 Tropical/Subtropical Steppe Division – Mountain Provinces
    • 320 Tropical/Subtropical Desert Division
    • 330 Temperate Steppe Division
    • 340 Temperate Desert Division
  • 400 Humid Tropical Domain
    • 410 Savanna Division
    • 420 Rainforest Division

Olson & Dinerstein (1998) biomes for WWF / Global 200 edit

 
Terrestrial biomes of the world according to Olson et al. and used by the WWF and Global 200.
Main article: Global 200

A team of biologists convened by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) developed a scheme that divided the world's land area into biogeographic realms (called "ecozones" in a BBC scheme), and these into ecoregions (Olson & Dinerstein, 1998, etc.). Each ecoregion is characterized by a main biome (also called major habitat type).[29][30]

This classification is used to define the Global 200 list of ecoregions identified by the WWF as priorities for conservation.[29]

For the terrestrial ecoregions, there is a specific EcoID, format XXnnNN (XX is the biogeographic realm, nn is the biome number, NN is the individual number).

Biogeographic realms (terrestrial and freshwater) edit

The applicability of the realms scheme above - based on Udvardy (1975)—to most freshwater taxa is unresolved.[31]

Biogeographic realms (marine) edit

Biomes (terrestrial) edit

  1. Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests (tropical and subtropical, humid)
  2. Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests (tropical and subtropical, semihumid)
  3. Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests (tropical and subtropical, semihumid)
  4. Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests (temperate, humid)
  5. Temperate coniferous forests (temperate, humid to semihumid)
  6. Boreal forests/taiga (subarctic, humid)
  7. Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands (tropical and subtropical, semiarid)
  8. Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands (temperate, semiarid)
  9. Flooded grasslands and savannas (temperate to tropical, fresh or brackish water inundated)
  10. Montane grasslands and shrublands (alpine or montane climate)
  11. Tundra (Arctic)
  12. Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub or sclerophyll forests (temperate warm, semihumid to semiarid with winter rainfall)
  13. Deserts and xeric shrublands (temperate to tropical, arid)
  14. Mangrove (subtropical and tropical, salt water inundated)[30]

Biomes (freshwater) edit

According to the WWF, the following are classified as freshwater biomes:[33]

Biomes (marine) edit

Biomes of the coastal and continental shelf areas (neritic zone):

Summary of the scheme edit

Example:

Other biomes edit

Marine biomes edit

Further information: Marine habitats

Pruvot (1896) zones or "systems":[35]

Longhurst (1998) biomes:[36]

  • Coastal
  • Polar
  • Trade wind
  • Westerly

Other marine habitat types (not covered yet by the Global 200/WWF scheme):[citation needed]

Anthropogenic biomes edit

Further information: Anthropogenic biome

Humans have altered global patterns of biodiversity and ecosystem processes. As a result, vegetation forms predicted by conventional biome systems can no longer be observed across much of Earth's land surface as they have been replaced by crop and rangelands or cities. Anthropogenic biomes provide an alternative view of the terrestrial biosphere based on global patterns of sustained direct human interaction with ecosystems, including agriculture, human settlements, urbanization, forestry and other uses of land. Anthropogenic biomes offer a way to recognize the irreversible coupling of human and ecological systems at global scales and manage Earth's biosphere and anthropogenic biomes.

Major anthropogenic biomes:

Microbial biomes edit

Main article: Microbiome
Further information: Habitat § Microhabitats

Endolithic biomes edit

The endolithic biome, consisting entirely of microscopic life in rock pores and cracks, kilometers beneath the surface, has only recently been discovered, and does not fit well into most classification schemes.[38]

Effects of climate change edit

Further information: Effects of climate change on biomes

Anthropogenic climate change has the potential to greatly alter the distribution of Earth's biomes.[39][40] Meaning, biomes around the world could change so much that they would be at risk of becoming new biomes entirely.[41] General frequency models have been a staple in finding out the impact climate change could have on biomes.[42] More specifically, 54% and 22% of global land area will experience climates that correspond to other biomes.[39] 3.6% of land area will experience climates that are completely new or unusual.[43][44] Average temperatures have risen more than twice the usual amount in both arctic and mountainous biomes,[45][46][47] which leads to the conclusion that arctic and mountainous biomes are currently the most vulnerable to climate change.[45] The current reasoning surrounding as to why this is the case are based around the fact that colder environments tend to reflect more sunlight, as a result of the snow and ice covering the ground. Since the annual average temperatures are rising, ice and snow is melting. As a result, albedo is lowered.[48][49] Keeping a keen eye on terrestrial biomes is important, as they play a crucial role in climate regulation.[50][51] South American terrestrial biomes have been predicted to go through the same temperature trends as arctic and mountainous biomes.[50][52] With its annual average temperature continuing to increase, the moisture currently located in forest biomes will dry up.[50][51]

See also edit

  • Climate classification – Systems that categorize the world's climates
  • Ecotope – Smallest ecologically distinct landscape features in a landscape mapping and classification system
  • Life zone – Concept was developed by C. Hart Merriam in 1889
  • Natural environment – Living and non-living things on Earth

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Further reading edit

  • Ritter, Michael E. (2005). . University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point.

External links edit

 
Look up Biome in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
 
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Biomes and ecosystems.
  • University of California Museum of Paleontology Berkeley's The World's Biomes
  • Gale/Cengage (archived 11 July 2011)
  • "Biomes". Encyclopedia of Earth.
  • Global Currents and Terrestrial Biomes Map
  • (archived 22 February 2011)
  • Panda.org's (archived 6 July 2017)
  • NASA's Earth Observatory Mission: Biomes
  • World Map of Desert Biomes

January 28, 2024
biome, biome, biogeographical, unit, consisting, biological, community, that, formed, response, physical, environment, which, they, found, shared, regional, climate, span, more, than, continent, broader, term, than, habitat, comprise, variety, habitats, mappin. A biome ˈ b aɪ oʊ m is a biogeographical unit consisting of a biological community that has formed in response to the physical environment 1 in which they are found and a shared regional climate 2 3 4 Biomes may span more than one continent Biome is a broader term than habitat and can comprise a variety of habitats One way of mapping terrestrial land biomes around the worldWhile a biome can cover small areas a microbiome is a mix of organisms that coexist in a defined space on a much smaller scale For example the human microbiome is the collection of bacteria viruses and other microorganisms that are present on or in a human body 5 A biota is the total collection of organisms of a geographic region or a time period from local geographic scales and instantaneous temporal scales all the way up to whole planet and whole timescale spatiotemporal scales The biotas of the Earth make up the biosphere Contents 1 Etymology 2 Classifications 2 1 Holdridge 1947 1964 life zones 2 2 Allee 1949 biome types 2 3 Kendeigh 1961 biomes 2 4 Whittaker 1962 1970 1975 biome types 2 4 1 Key definitions for understanding Whittaker s scheme 2 4 2 Whittaker s parameters for classifying biome types 2 4 3 Biome types 2 5 Goodall 1974 ecosystem types 2 6 Walter 1976 2002 zonobiomes 2 7 Schultz 1988 eco zones 2 8 Bailey 1989 ecoregions 2 9 Olson amp Dinerstein 1998 biomes for WWF Global 200 2 9 1 Biogeographic realms terrestrial and freshwater 2 9 2 Biogeographic realms marine 2 9 3 Biomes terrestrial 2 9 4 Biomes freshwater 2 9 5 Biomes marine 2 9 6 Summary of the scheme 3 Other biomes 3 1 Marine biomes 3 2 Anthropogenic biomes 3 3 Microbial biomes 3 3 1 Endolithic biomes 4 Effects of climate change 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External linksEtymology editThe term was suggested in 1916 by Clements originally as a synonym for biotic community of Mobius 1877 6 Later it gained its current definition based on earlier concepts of phytophysiognomy formation and vegetation used in opposition to flora with the inclusion of the animal element and the exclusion of the taxonomic element of species composition 7 8 In 1935 Tansley added the climatic and soil aspects to the idea calling it ecosystem 9 10 The International Biological Program 1964 74 projects popularized the concept of biome 11 However in some contexts the term biome is used in a different manner In German literature particularly in the Walter terminology the term is used similarly as biotope a concrete geographical unit while the biome definition used in this article is used as an international non regional terminology irrespectively of the continent in which an area is present it takes the same biome name and corresponds to his zonobiome orobiome and pedobiome biomes determined by climate zone altitude or soil 12 In Brazilian literature the term biome is sometimes used as synonym of biogeographic province an area based on species composition the term floristic province being used when plant species are considered or also as synonym of the morphoclimatic and phytogeographical domain of Ab Saber a geographic space with subcontinental dimensions with the predominance of similar geomorphologic and climatic characteristics and of a certain vegetation form Both include many biomes in fact 7 13 14 Classifications editTo divide the world into a few ecological zones is difficult notably because of the small scale variations that exist everywhere on earth and because of the gradual changeover from one biome to the other Their boundaries must therefore be drawn arbitrarily and their characterization made according to the average conditions that predominate in them 15 A 1978 study on North American grasslands 16 found a positive logistic correlation between evapotranspiration in mm yr and above ground net primary production in g m2 yr The general results from the study were that precipitation and water use led to above ground primary production while solar irradiation and temperature lead to below ground primary production roots and temperature and water lead to cool and warm season growth habit 17 These findings help explain the categories used in Holdridge s bioclassification scheme see below which were then later simplified by Whittaker The number of classification schemes and the variety of determinants used in those schemes however should be taken as strong indicators that biomes do not fit perfectly into the classification schemes created Holdridge 1947 1964 life zones edit nbsp Holdridge life zone classification scheme Although conceived as three dimensional by its originator it is usually shown as a two dimensional array of hexagons in a triangular frame Main article Holdridge life zones In 1947 the American botanist and climatologist Leslie Holdridge classified climates based on the biological effects of temperature and rainfall on vegetation under the assumption that these two abiotic factors are the largest determinants of the types of vegetation found in a habitat Holdridge uses the four axes to define 30 so called humidity provinces which are clearly visible in his diagram While this scheme largely ignores soil and sun exposure Holdridge acknowledged that these were important Allee 1949 biome types edit The principal biome types by Allee 1949 18 Tundra Taiga Deciduous forest Grasslands Desert High plateaus Tropical forest Minor terrestrial biomesKendeigh 1961 biomes edit The principal biomes of the world by Kendeigh 1961 19 Terrestrial Temperate deciduous forest Coniferous forest Woodland Chaparral Tundra Grassland Desert Tropical savanna Tropical forest Marine Oceanic plankton and nekton Balanoid gastropod thallophyte Pelecypod annelid Coral reefWhittaker 1962 1970 1975 biome types edit nbsp The distribution of vegetation types as a function of mean annual temperature and precipitation Whittaker classified biomes using two abiotic factors precipitation and temperature His scheme can be seen as a simplification of Holdridge s more readily accessible but missing Holdridge s greater specificity Whittaker based his approach on theoretical assertions and empirical sampling He had previously compiled a review of biome classifications 20 Key definitions for understanding Whittaker s scheme edit Physiognomy sometimes referring to the plants appearance or the biome s apparent characteristics outward features or appearance of ecological communities or species including plants Biome a grouping of terrestrial ecosystems on a given continent that is similar in vegetation structure physiognomy features of the environment and characteristics of their animal communities Formation a major kind of community of plants on a given continent Biome type grouping of convergent biomes or formations of different continents defined by physiognomy Formation type a grouping of convergent formations Whittaker s distinction between biome and formation can be simplified formation is used when applied to plant communities only while biome is used when concerned with both plants and animals Whittaker s convention of biome type or formation type is a broader method to categorize similar communities 21 Whittaker s parameters for classifying biome types edit Whittaker used what he called gradient analysis of ecocline patterns to relate communities to climate on a worldwide scale Whittaker considered four main ecoclines in the terrestrial realm 21 Intertidal levels The wetness gradient of areas that are exposed to alternating water and dryness with intensities that vary by location from high to low tide Climatic moisture gradient Temperature gradient by altitude Temperature gradient by latitudeAlong these gradients Whittaker noted several trends that allowed him to qualitatively establish biome types The gradient runs from favorable to the extreme with corresponding changes in productivity Changes in physiognomic complexity vary with how favorable of an environment exists decreasing community structure and reduction of stratal differentiation as the environment becomes less favorable Trends in the diversity of structure follow trends in species diversity alpha and beta species diversities decrease from favorable to extreme environments Each growth form i e grasses shrubs etc has its characteristic place of maximum importance along the ecoclines The same growth forms may be dominant in similar environments in widely different parts of the world Whittaker summed the effects of gradients 3 and 4 to get an overall temperature gradient and combined this with a gradient 2 the moisture gradient to express the above conclusions in what is known as the Whittaker classification scheme The scheme graphs average annual precipitation x axis versus average annual temperature y axis to classify biome types Biome types edit Tropical rainforest Tropical seasonal rainforest deciduous semideciduous Temperate giant rainforest Montane rainforest Temperate deciduous forest Temperate evergreen forest needleleaf sclerophyll Subarctic subalpine needle leaved forests taiga Elfin woodland Thorn forests and woodlands Thorn scrub Temperate woodland Temperate shrublands deciduous heath sclerophyll subalpine needleleaf subalpine broadleaf Savanna Temperate grassland Alpine grasslands Tundra Tropical desert Warm temperate desert Cool temperate desert scrub Arctic alpine desert Bog Tropical fresh water swamp forest Temperate fresh water swamp forest Mangrove swamp Salt marsh Wetland 22 Goodall 1974 ecosystem types edit The multi authored series Ecosystems of the World edited by David W Goodall provides a comprehensive coverage of the major ecosystem types or biomes on Earth 23 Terrestrial Ecosystems Natural Terrestrial Ecosystems Wet Coastal EcosystemsDry Coastal EcosystemsPolar and Alpine TundraMires Swamp Bog Fen and MoorTemperate Deserts and Semi DesertsConiferous ForestsTemperate Deciduous ForestsNatural GrasslandsHeathlands and Related ShrublandsTemperate Broad Leaved Evergreen ForestsMediterranean Type ShrublandsHot Deserts and Arid ShrublandsTropical SavannasTropical Rain Forest EcosystemsWetland ForestsEcosystems of Disturbed GroundManaged Terrestrial Ecosystems Managed GrasslandsField Crop EcosystemsTree Crop EcosystemsGreenhouse EcosystemsBioindustrial EcosystemsAquatic Ecosystems Inland Aquatic Ecosystems River and Stream EcosystemsLakes and ReservoirsMarine Ecosystems Intertidal and Littoral EcosystemsCoral ReefsEstuaries and Enclosed SeasEcosystems of the Continental ShelvesEcosystems of the Deep OceanManaged Aquatic Ecosystems Managed Aquatic EcosystemsUnderground Ecosystems Cave Ecosystems Walter 1976 2002 zonobiomes edit The eponymously named Heinrich Walter classification scheme considers the seasonality of temperature and precipitation The system also assessing precipitation and temperature finds nine major biome types with the important climate traits and vegetation types The boundaries of each biome correlate to the conditions of moisture and cold stress that are strong determinants of plant form and therefore the vegetation that defines the region Extreme conditions such as flooding in a swamp can create different kinds of communities within the same biome 12 24 25 Zonobiome Zonal soil type Zonal vegetation typeZB I Equatorial always moist little temperature seasonality Equatorial brown clays Evergreen tropical rainforestZB II Tropical summer rainy season and cooler winter dry season Red clays or red earths Tropical seasonal forest seasonal dry forest scrub or savannaZB III Subtropical highly seasonal arid climate Serosemes sierozemes Desert vegetation with considerable exposed surfaceZB IV Mediterranean winter rainy season and summer drought Mediterranean brown earths Sclerophyllous drought adapted frost sensitive shrublands and woodlandsZB V Warm temperate occasional frost often with summer rainfall maximum Yellow or red forest soils slightly podsolic soils Temperate evergreen forest somewhat frost sensitiveZB VI Nemoral moderate climate with winter freezing Forest brown earths and grey forest soils Frost resistant deciduous temperate forestZB VII Continental arid with warm or hot summers and cold winters Chernozems to serozems Grasslands and temperate desertsZB VIII Boreal cold temperate with cool summers and long winters Podsols Evergreen frost hardy needle leaved forest taiga ZB IX Polar short cool summers and long cold winters Tundra humus soils with solifluction permafrost soils Low evergreen vegetation without trees growing over permanently frozen soilsSchultz 1988 eco zones edit Schultz 1988 2005 defined nine ecozones his concept of ecozone is more similar to the concept of biome than to the concept of ecozone of BBC 26 polar subpolar zone boreal zone humid mid latitudes dry mid latitudes subtropics with winter rain subtropics with year round rain dry tropics and subtropics tropics with summer rain tropics with year round rain Bailey 1989 ecoregions edit Robert G Bailey nearly developed a biogeographical classification system of ecoregions for the United States in a map published in 1976 He subsequently expanded the system to include the rest of North America in 1981 and the world in 1989 The Bailey system based on climate is divided into four domains polar humid temperate dry and humid tropical with further divisions based on other climate characteristics subarctic warm temperate hot temperate and subtropical marine and continental lowland and mountain 27 28 100 Polar Domain 120 Tundra Division Koppen Ft M120 Tundra Division Mountain Provinces 130 Subarctic Division Koppen E M130 Subarctic Division Mountain Provinces 200 Humid Temperate Domain 210 Warm Continental Division Koppen portion of Dcb M210 Warm Continental Division Mountain Provinces 220 Hot Continental Division Koppen portion of Dca M220 Hot Continental Division Mountain Provinces 230 Subtropical Division Koppen portion of Cf M230 Subtropical Division Mountain Provinces 240 Marine Division Koppen Do M240 Marine Division Mountain Provinces 250 Prairie Division Koppen arid portions of Cf Dca Dcb 260 Mediterranean Division Koppen Cs M260 Mediterranean Division Mountain Provinces 300 Dry Domain 310 Tropical Subtropical Steppe Division M310 Tropical Subtropical Steppe Division Mountain Provinces 320 Tropical Subtropical Desert Division 330 Temperate Steppe Division 340 Temperate Desert Division 400 Humid Tropical Domain 410 Savanna Division 420 Rainforest Division Olson amp Dinerstein 1998 biomes for WWF Global 200 edit nbsp Terrestrial biomes of the world according to Olson et al and used by the WWF and Global 200 Main article Global 200 A team of biologists convened by the World Wildlife Fund WWF developed a scheme that divided the world s land area into biogeographic realms called ecozones in a BBC scheme and these into ecoregions Olson amp Dinerstein 1998 etc Each ecoregion is characterized by a main biome also called major habitat type 29 30 This classification is used to define the Global 200 list of ecoregions identified by the WWF as priorities for conservation 29 For the terrestrial ecoregions there is a specific EcoID format XXnnNN XX is the biogeographic realm nn is the biome number NN is the individual number Biogeographic realms terrestrial and freshwater edit NA Nearctic PA Palearctic AT Afrotropic IM Indomalaya AA Australasia NT Neotropic OC Oceania AN Antarctic 30 The applicability of the realms scheme above based on Udvardy 1975 to most freshwater taxa is unresolved 31 Biogeographic realms marine edit Arctic Temperate Northern Atlantic Temperate Northern Pacific Tropical Atlantic Western Indo Pacific Central Indo Pacific Eastern Indo Pacific Tropical Eastern Pacific Temperate South America Temperate Southern Africa Temperate Australasia Southern Ocean 32 Biomes terrestrial edit Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests tropical and subtropical humid Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests tropical and subtropical semihumid Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests tropical and subtropical semihumid Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests temperate humid Temperate coniferous forests temperate humid to semihumid Boreal forests taiga subarctic humid Tropical and subtropical grasslands savannas and shrublands tropical and subtropical semiarid Temperate grasslands savannas and shrublands temperate semiarid Flooded grasslands and savannas temperate to tropical fresh or brackish water inundated Montane grasslands and shrublands alpine or montane climate Tundra Arctic Mediterranean forests woodlands and scrub or sclerophyll forests temperate warm semihumid to semiarid with winter rainfall Deserts and xeric shrublands temperate to tropical arid Mangrove subtropical and tropical salt water inundated 30 Biomes freshwater edit According to the WWF the following are classified as freshwater biomes 33 Large lakes Large river deltas Polar freshwaters Montane freshwaters Temperate coastal rivers Temperate floodplain rivers and wetlands Temperate upland rivers Tropical and subtropical coastal rivers Tropical and subtropical floodplain rivers and wetlands Tropical and subtropical upland rivers Xeric freshwaters and endorheic basins Oceanic islands Biomes marine edit Biomes of the coastal and continental shelf areas neritic zone Polar Temperate shelves and sea Temperate upwelling Tropical upwelling Tropical coral 34 Summary of the scheme edit Biosphere Biogeographic realms terrestrial 8 Ecoregions 867 each characterized by a main biome type 14 Ecosystems biotopes Biosphere Biogeographic realms freshwater 8 Ecoregions 426 each characterized by a main biome type 12 Ecosystems biotopes Biosphere Biogeographic realms marine 12 Marine provinces 62 Ecoregions 232 each characterized by a main biome type 5 Ecosystems biotopes Example Biosphere Biogeographic realm Palearctic Ecoregion Dinaric Mountains mixed forests PA0418 biome type temperate broadleaf and mixed forests Ecosystem Orjen vegetation belt between 1 100 and 1 450 m Oromediterranean zone nemoral zone temperate zone Biotope Oreoherzogio Abietetum illyricae Fuk Plant list Plant Silver fir Abies alba Other biomes editMarine biomes edit Further information Marine habitats Pruvot 1896 zones or systems 35 Littoral zone Pelagic zone Abyssal zoneLonghurst 1998 biomes 36 Coastal Polar Trade wind WesterlyOther marine habitat types not covered yet by the Global 200 WWF scheme citation needed Open sea Deep sea Hydrothermal vents Cold seeps Benthic zone Pelagic zone trades and westerlies Abyssal Hadal ocean trench Littoral Intertidal zone Salt marsh Estuaries Coastal lagoons Atoll lagoons Kelp forest Pack ice Anthropogenic biomes edit Further information Anthropogenic biome Humans have altered global patterns of biodiversity and ecosystem processes As a result vegetation forms predicted by conventional biome systems can no longer be observed across much of Earth s land surface as they have been replaced by crop and rangelands or cities Anthropogenic biomes provide an alternative view of the terrestrial biosphere based on global patterns of sustained direct human interaction with ecosystems including agriculture human settlements urbanization forestry and other uses of land Anthropogenic biomes offer a way to recognize the irreversible coupling of human and ecological systems at global scales and manage Earth s biosphere and anthropogenic biomes Major anthropogenic biomes Dense settlements Croplands Rangelands Forested Indoor 37 Microbial biomes edit Main article Microbiome Further information Habitat Microhabitats Endolithic biomes edit The endolithic biome consisting entirely of microscopic life in rock pores and cracks kilometers beneath the surface has only recently been discovered and does not fit well into most classification schemes 38 Effects of climate change editFurther information Effects of climate change on biomes Anthropogenic climate change has the potential to greatly alter the distribution of Earth s biomes 39 40 Meaning biomes around the world could change so much that they would be at risk of becoming new biomes entirely 41 General frequency models have been a staple in finding out the impact climate change could have on biomes 42 More specifically 54 and 22 of global land area will experience climates that correspond to other biomes 39 3 6 of land area will experience climates that are completely new or unusual 43 44 Average temperatures have risen more than twice the usual amount in both arctic and mountainous biomes 45 46 47 which leads to the conclusion that arctic and mountainous biomes are currently the most vulnerable to climate change 45 The current reasoning surrounding as to why this is the case are based around the fact that colder environments tend to reflect more sunlight as a result of the snow and ice covering the ground Since the annual average temperatures are rising ice and snow is melting As a result albedo is lowered 48 49 Keeping a keen eye on terrestrial biomes is important as they play a crucial role in climate regulation 50 51 South American terrestrial biomes have been predicted to go through the same temperature trends as arctic and mountainous biomes 50 52 With its annual average temperature continuing to increase the moisture currently located in forest biomes will dry up 50 51 See also editClimate classification Systems that categorize the world s climates Ecotope Smallest ecologically distinct landscape features in a landscape mapping and classification system Life zone Concept was developed by C Hart Merriam in 1889 Natural environment Living and non living things on EarthReferences edit Rull Valenti 2020 Organisms adaption extinction and biogeographical reorganizations Quaternary Ecology Evolution and Biogeography Academic Press p 67 ISBN 978 0 12 820473 3 The world s biomes www ucmp berkeley edu Archived from the original on 2008 12 04 Retrieved 2008 11 25 Cain Michael Bowman William Hacker Sally 2014 Ecology Third ed Massachusetts Sinauer p 51 ISBN 9780878939084 Bowman William D Hacker Sally D 2021 Ecology 5th ed Oxford University Press pp H3 1 51 ISBN 978 1605359212 Finally A Map Of All The Microbes On Your Body NPR Archived from the original on 2018 04 16 Retrieved 2018 04 05 Clements F E 1917 The development and structure of biotic communities Journal of Ecology 5 120 121 JSTOR 2255652 Archived from the original on 2016 10 07 a b Coutinho L M 2006 O conceito de bioma The biome concept Acta Botanica Brasilica in Portuguese 20 1 13 23 doi 10 1590 S0102 33062006000100002 Martins F R amp Batalha M A 2011 Formas de vida espectro biologico de Raunkiaer e fisionomia da vegetacao In Felfili J M Eisenlohr P V Fiuza de Melo M M R Andrade L A Meira Neto J A A Org Fitossociologia no Brasil metodos e estudos de caso Vol 1 Vicosa Editora UFV pp 44 85 1 Archived 2016 09 24 at the Wayback Machine Earlier version 2003 2 Archived 2016 08 27 at the Wayback Machine Cox C B Moore P D Ladle R J 2016 Biogeography an ecological and evolutionary 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Geography University of Wisconsin Stevens Point External links edit nbsp Look up Biome in Wiktionary the free dictionary nbsp Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Biomes and ecosystems University of California Museum of Paleontology Berkeley s The World s Biomes Gale Cengage Biome Overview archived 11 July 2011 Biomes Encyclopedia of Earth Global Currents and Terrestrial Biomes Map WorldBiomes com archived 22 February 2011 Panda org s Major Habitat Types archived 6 July 2017 NASA s Earth Observatory Mission Biomes World Map of Desert Biomes Portals nbsp Biology nbsp Earth sciences nbsp Ecology nbsp Environment Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Biome amp oldid 1196672508, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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