fbpx
Wikipedia

Zinc

April 14, 2024

This article is about the chemical element. For other uses, see Zinc (disambiguation).

Zinc is a chemical element; it has symbol Zn and atomic number 30. It is a slightly brittle metal at room temperature and has a shiny-greyish appearance when oxidation is removed. It is the first element in group 12 (IIB) of the periodic table. In some respects, it is chemically similar to magnesium: both elements exhibit only one normal oxidation state (+2), and the Zn2+ and Mg2+ ions are of similar size.[note 1] Zinc is the 24th most abundant element in Earth's crust and has five stable isotopes. The most common zinc ore is sphalerite (zinc blende), a zinc sulfide mineral. The largest workable lodes are in Australia, Asia, and the United States. Zinc is refined by froth flotation of the ore, roasting, and final extraction using electricity (electrowinning).

Zinc, 30Zn
Zinc
Appearancesilver-gray
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Zn)
Zinc in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
–
↑
Zn
↓
Cd
copper ← zinc → gallium
Atomic number (Z)30
Groupgroup 12
Periodperiod 4
Block  d-block
Electron configuration[Ar] 3d10 4s2
Electrons per shell2, 8, 18, 2
Physical properties
Phase at STPsolid
Melting point692.68 K ​(419.53 °C, ​787.15 °F)
Boiling point1180 K ​(907 °C, ​1665 °F)
Density (near r.t.)7.14 g/cm3
when liquid (at m.p.)6.57 g/cm3
Heat of fusion7.32 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization115 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity25.470 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K) 610 670 750 852 990 1179
Atomic properties
Oxidation states−2, 0, +1, +2 (an amphoteric oxide)
ElectronegativityPauling scale: 1.65
Ionization energies
  • 1st: 906.4 kJ/mol
  • 2nd: 1733.3 kJ/mol
  • 3rd: 3833 kJ/mol
  • (more)
Atomic radiusempirical: 134 pm
Covalent radius122±4 pm
Van der Waals radius139 pm
Spectral lines of zinc
Other properties
Natural occurrenceprimordial
Crystal structure ​hexagonal close-packed (hcp) (hP2)
Lattice constants
a = 266.46 pm
c = 494.55 pm (at 20 °C)[3]
Thermal expansion30.2 µm/(m⋅K) (at 25 °C)
Thermal conductivity116 W/(m⋅K)
Electrical resistivity59.0 nΩ⋅m (at 20 °C)
Magnetic orderingdiamagnetic
Molar magnetic susceptibility−11.4×10−6 cm3/mol (298 K)[4]
Young's modulus108 GPa
Shear modulus43 GPa
Bulk modulus70 GPa
Speed of sound thin rod3850 m/s (at r.t.) (rolled)
Poisson ratio0.25
Mohs hardness2.5
Brinell hardness327–412 MPa
CAS Number7440-66-6
History
DiscoveryIndian metallurgists (before 1000 BCE)
First isolationAndreas Sigismund Marggraf (1746)
Recognized as a unique metal byRasaratna Samuccaya (1300)
Isotopes of zinc
Main isotopes[5] Decay
abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
64Zn 49.2% stable
65Zn synth 244 d β+ 65Cu
66Zn 27.7% stable
67Zn 4% stable
68Zn 18.5% stable
69Zn synth 56 min β− 69Ga
69mZn synth 13.8 h β− 69Ga
70Zn 0.6% stable
71Zn synth 2.4 min β− 71Ga
71mZn synth 4 h β− 71Ga
72Zn synth 46.5 h β− 72Ga
 Category: Zinc
| references

Zinc is an essential trace element for humans,[6][7][8] animals,[9] plants[10] and for microorganisms[11] and is necessary for prenatal and postnatal development.[12] It is the second most abundant trace metal in humans after iron, and the only metal which appears in all enzyme classes.[10][8] It is also an essential nutrient element for coral growth as it is an important cofactor for many enzymes.[13]

Zinc deficiency affects about two billion people in the developing world and is associated with many diseases.[14] In children, deficiency causes growth retardation, delayed sexual maturation, infection susceptibility, and diarrhea.[12] Enzymes with a zinc atom in the reactive center are widespread in biochemistry, such as alcohol dehydrogenase in humans.[15] Consumption of excess zinc may cause ataxia, lethargy, and copper deficiency. In marine biomes, notably within polar regions, a deficit of zinc can compromise the vitality of primary algal communities, potentially destabilizing the intricate marine trophic structures and consequently impacting biodiversity.[16]

Brass, an alloy of copper and zinc in various proportions, was used as early as the third millennium BC in the Aegean area and the region which currently includes Iraq, the United Arab Emirates, Kalmykia, Turkmenistan and Georgia. In the second millennium BC it was used in the regions currently including West India, Uzbekistan, Iran, Syria, Iraq, and Israel.[17][18][19] Zinc metal was not produced on a large scale until the 12th century in India, though it was known to the ancient Romans and Greeks.[20] The mines of Rajasthan have given definite evidence of zinc production going back to the 6th century BC.[21] To date, the oldest evidence of pure zinc comes from Zawar, in Rajasthan, as early as the 9th century AD when a distillation process was employed to make pure zinc.[22] Alchemists burned zinc in air to form what they called "philosopher's wool" or "white snow".

The element was probably named by the alchemist Paracelsus after the German word Zinke (prong, tooth). German chemist Andreas Sigismund Marggraf is credited with discovering pure metallic zinc in 1746. Work by Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta uncovered the electrochemical properties of zinc by 1800. Corrosion-resistant zinc plating of iron (hot-dip galvanizing) is the major application for zinc. Other applications are in electrical batteries, small non-structural castings, and alloys such as brass. A variety of zinc compounds are commonly used, such as zinc carbonate and zinc gluconate (as dietary supplements), zinc chloride (in deodorants), zinc pyrithione (anti-dandruff shampoos), zinc sulfide (in luminescent paints), and dimethylzinc or diethylzinc in the organic laboratory.

Characteristics edit

Physical properties edit

Zinc is a bluish-white, lustrous, diamagnetic metal,[23] though most common commercial grades of the metal have a dull finish.[24] It is somewhat less dense than iron and has a hexagonal crystal structure, with a distorted form of hexagonal close packing, in which each atom has six nearest neighbors (at 265.9 pm) in its own plane and six others at a greater distance of 290.6 pm.[25] The metal is hard and brittle at most temperatures but becomes malleable between 100 and 150 °C.[23][24] Above 210 °C, the metal becomes brittle again and can be pulverized by beating.[26] Zinc is a fair conductor of electricity.[23] For a metal, zinc has relatively low melting (419.5 °C) and boiling point (907 °C).[27] The melting point is the lowest of all the d-block metals aside from mercury and cadmium; for this reason among others, zinc, cadmium, and mercury are often not considered to be transition metals like the rest of the d-block metals.[27]

Many alloys contain zinc, including brass. Other metals long known to form binary alloys with zinc are aluminium, antimony, bismuth, gold, iron, lead, mercury, silver, tin, magnesium, cobalt, nickel, tellurium, and sodium.[28] Although neither zinc nor zirconium is ferromagnetic, their alloy, ZrZn
2, exhibits ferromagnetism below 35 K.[23]

Occurrence edit

See also: Zinc minerals

Zinc makes up about 75 ppm (0.0075%) of Earth's crust, making it the 24th most abundant element. Typical background concentrations of zinc do not exceed 1 μg/m3 in the atmosphere; 300 mg/kg in soil; 100 mg/kg in vegetation; 20 μg/L in freshwater and 5 μg/L in seawater.[29] The element is normally found in association with other base metals such as copper and lead in ores.[30] Zinc is a chalcophile, meaning the element is more likely to be found in minerals together with sulfur and other heavy chalcogens, rather than with the light chalcogen oxygen or with non-chalcogen electronegative elements such as the halogens. Sulfides formed as the crust solidified under the reducing conditions of the early Earth's atmosphere.[31] Sphalerite, which is a form of zinc sulfide, is the most heavily mined zinc-containing ore because its concentrate contains 60–62% zinc.[30]

Other source minerals for zinc include smithsonite (zinc carbonate), hemimorphite (zinc silicate), wurtzite (another zinc sulfide), and sometimes hydrozincite (basic zinc carbonate).[32] With the exception of wurtzite, all these other minerals were formed by weathering of the primordial zinc sulfides.[31]

Identified world zinc resources total about 1.9–2.8 billion tonnes.[33][34] Large deposits are in Australia, Canada and the United States, with the largest reserves in Iran.[31][35][36] The most recent estimate of reserve base for zinc (meets specified minimum physical criteria related to current mining and production practices) was made in 2009 and calculated to be roughly 480 Mt.[37] Zinc reserves, on the other hand, are geologically identified ore bodies whose suitability for recovery is economically based (location, grade, quality, and quantity) at the time of determination. Since exploration and mine development is an ongoing process, the amount of zinc reserves is not a fixed number and sustainability of zinc ore supplies cannot be judged by simply extrapolating the combined mine life of today's zinc mines. This concept is well supported by data from the United States Geological Survey (USGS), which illustrates that although refined zinc production increased 80% between 1990 and 2010, the reserve lifetime for zinc has remained unchanged. About 346 million tonnes have been extracted throughout history to 2002, and scholars have estimated that about 109–305 million tonnes are in use.[38][39][40]

 
Sphalerite (ZnS)

Isotopes edit

Main article: Isotopes of zinc

Five stable isotopes of zinc occur in nature, with 64Zn being the most abundant isotope (49.17% natural abundance).[41][42] The other isotopes found in nature are 66
Zn (27.73%), 67
Zn (4.04%), 68
Zn (18.45%), and 70
Zn (0.61%).[42]

Several dozen radioisotopes have been characterized. 65
Zn, which has a half-life of 243.66 days, is the least active radioisotope, followed by 72
Zn with a half-life of 46.5 hours.[41] Zinc has 10 nuclear isomers, of which 69mZn has the longest half-life, 13.76 h.[41] The superscript m indicates a metastable isotope. The nucleus of a metastable isotope is in an excited state and will return to the ground state by emitting a photon in the form of a gamma ray. 61
Zn has three excited metastable states and 73
Zn has two.[43] The isotopes 65
Zn, 71
Zn, 77
Zn and 78
Zn each have only one excited metastable state.[41]

The most common decay mode of a radioisotope of zinc with a mass number lower than 66 is positron emission (β+), resulting an isotope of copper.[5]

n
30Zn
 → n
29Cu
 +
e+
 +
ν
e

The most common decay mode of a radioisotope of zinc with mass number higher than 66 is beta decay (β−), which produces an isotope of gallium.[41]

n
30Zn
 → n
31Ga
 +
e−
 +
ν
e

Compounds and chemistry edit

Main article: Compounds of zinc

Reactivity edit

See also: Clemmensen reduction

Zinc has an electron configuration of [Ar]3d104s2 and is a member of the group 12 of the periodic table. It is a moderately reactive metal and strong reducing agent.[44] The surface of the pure metal tarnishes quickly, eventually forming a protective passivating layer of the basic zinc carbonate, Zn
5(OH)
6(CO3)
2, by reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide.[45]

Zinc burns in air with a bright bluish-green flame, giving off fumes of zinc oxide.[46] Zinc reacts readily with acids, alkalis and other non-metals.[47] Extremely pure zinc reacts only slowly at room temperature with acids.[46] Strong acids, such as hydrochloric or sulfuric acid, can remove the passivating layer and the subsequent reaction with the acid releases hydrogen gas.[46]

The chemistry of zinc is dominated by the +2 oxidation state. When compounds in this oxidation state are formed, the outer shell s electrons are lost, yielding a bare zinc ion with the electronic configuration [Ar]3d10.[48] In aqueous solution an octahedral complex, [Zn(H
2O)6]2+
 is the predominant species.[49] The volatilization of zinc in combination with zinc chloride at temperatures above 285 °C indicates the formation of Zn
2Cl
2, a zinc compound with a +1 oxidation state.[46] No compounds of zinc in positive oxidation states other than +1 or +2 are known.[50] Calculations indicate that a zinc compound with the oxidation state of +4 is unlikely to exist.[51] Zn(III) is predicted to exist in the presence of strongly electronegative trianions;[52] however, there exists some doubt around this possibility.[53] But in 2021 another compound was reported with more evidence that had the oxidation state of +3 with the formula ZnBeB11(CN)12.[54]

Zinc chemistry is similar to the chemistry of the late first-row transition metals, nickel and copper, though it has a filled d-shell and compounds are diamagnetic and mostly colorless.[55] The ionic radii of zinc and magnesium happen to be nearly identical. Because of this some of the equivalent salts have the same crystal structure,[56] and in other circumstances where ionic radius is a determining factor, the chemistry of zinc has much in common with that of magnesium.[46] In other respects, there is little similarity with the late first-row transition metals. Zinc tends to form bonds with a greater degree of covalency and much more stable complexes with N- and S- donors.[55] Complexes of zinc are mostly 4- or 6- coordinate, although 5-coordinate complexes are known.[46]

Zinc(I) compounds edit

Zinc(I) compounds are very rare. The [Zn2]2+ ion is implicated by the formation of a yellow diamagnetic glass by dissolving metallic zinc in molten ZnCl2.[57] The [Zn2]2+ core would be analogous to the [Hg2]2+ cation present in mercury(I) compounds. The diamagnetic nature of the ion confirms its dimeric structure. The first zinc(I) compound containing the Zn–Zn bond, (η5-C5Me5)2Zn2.

Zinc(II) compounds edit

 
Zinc acetate, Zn(CH
3CO
2)
2
 
Zinc chloride

Binary compounds of zinc are known for most of the metalloids and all the nonmetals except the noble gases. The oxide ZnO is a white powder that is nearly insoluble in neutral aqueous solutions, but is amphoteric, dissolving in both strong basic and acidic solutions.[46] The other chalcogenides (ZnS, ZnSe, and ZnTe) have varied applications in electronics and optics.[58] Pnictogenides (Zn
3N
2, Zn
3P
2, Zn
3As
2 and Zn
3Sb
2),[59][60] the peroxide (ZnO
2), the hydride (ZnH
2), and the carbide (ZnC
2) are also known.[61] Of the four halides, ZnF
2 has the most ionic character, while the others (ZnCl
2, ZnBr
2, and ZnI
2) have relatively low melting points and are considered to have more covalent character.[62]

In weak basic solutions containing Zn2+
 ions, the hydroxide Zn(OH)
2 forms as a white precipitate. In stronger alkaline solutions, this hydroxide is dissolved to form zincates ([Zn(OH)4]2−
).[46] The nitrate Zn(NO3)
2, chlorate Zn(ClO3)
2, sulfate ZnSO
4, phosphate Zn
3(PO4)
2, molybdate ZnMoO
4, cyanide Zn(CN)
2, arsenite Zn(AsO2)
2, arsenate Zn(AsO4)
2·8H
2O and the chromate ZnCrO
4 (one of the few colored zinc compounds) are a few examples of other common inorganic compounds of zinc.[63][64]

Organozinc compounds are those that contain zinc–carbon covalent bonds. Diethylzinc ((C
2H5)
2Zn) is a reagent in synthetic chemistry. It was first reported in 1848 from the reaction of zinc and ethyl iodide, and was the first compound known to contain a metal–carbon sigma bond.[65]

Test for zinc edit

Cobalticyanide paper (Rinnmann's test for Zn) can be used as a chemical indicator for zinc. 4 g of K3Co(CN)6 and 1 g of KClO3 is dissolved on 100 ml of water. Paper is dipped in the solution and dried at 100 °C. One drop of the sample is dropped onto the dry paper and heated. A green disc indicates the presence of zinc.[66]

History edit

Ancient use edit

Various isolated examples of the use of impure zinc in ancient times have been discovered. Zinc ores were used to make the zinc–copper alloy brass thousands of years prior to the discovery of zinc as a separate element. Judean brass from the 14th to 10th centuries BC contains 23% zinc.[18]

Knowledge of how to produce brass spread to Ancient Greece by the 7th century BC, but few varieties were made.[19] Ornaments made of alloys containing 80–90% zinc, with lead, iron, antimony, and other metals making up the remainder, have been found that are 2,500 years old.[30] A possibly prehistoric statuette containing 87.5% zinc was found in a Dacian archaeological site.[67]

Strabo writing in the 1st century BC (but quoting a now lost work of the 4th century BC historian Theopompus) mentions "drops of false silver" which when mixed with copper make brass. This may refer to small quantities of zinc that is a by-product of smelting sulfide ores.[68] Zinc in such remnants in smelting ovens was usually discarded as it was thought to be worthless.[69]

The manufacture of brass was known to the Romans by about 30 BC.[70] They made brass by heating powdered calamine (zinc silicate or carbonate), charcoal and copper together in a crucible.[70] The resulting calamine brass was then either cast or hammered into shape for use in weaponry.[71] Some coins struck by Romans in the Christian era are made of what is probably calamine brass.[72]

 
Late Roman brass bucket – the Hemmoorer Eimer from Warstade, Germany, second to third century AD

The oldest known pills were made of the zinc carbonates hydrozincite and smithsonite. The pills were used for sore eyes and were found aboard the Roman ship Relitto del Pozzino, wrecked in 140 BC.[73][74]

The Berne zinc tablet is a votive plaque dating to Roman Gaul made of an alloy that is mostly zinc.[75]

The Charaka Samhita, thought to have been written between 300 and 500 AD,[76] mentions a metal which, when oxidized, produces pushpanjan, thought to be zinc oxide.[77] Zinc mines at Zawar, near Udaipur in India, have been active since the Mauryan period (c. 322 and 187 BC). The smelting of metallic zinc here, however, appears to have begun around the 12th century AD.[78][79] One estimate is that this location produced an estimated million tonnes of metallic zinc and zinc oxide from the 12th to 16th centuries.[32] Another estimate gives a total production of 60,000 tonnes of metallic zinc over this period.[78] The Rasaratna Samuccaya, written in approximately the 13th century AD, mentions two types of zinc-containing ores: one used for metal extraction and another used for medicinal purposes.[79]

Early studies and naming edit

Zinc was distinctly recognized as a metal under the designation of Yasada or Jasada in the medical Lexicon ascribed to the Hindu king Madanapala (of Taka dynasty) and written about the year 1374.[80] Smelting and extraction of impure zinc by reducing calamine with wool and other organic substances was accomplished in the 13th century in India.[23][81] The Chinese did not learn of the technique until the 17th century.[81]

 
Alchemical symbol for the element zinc

Alchemists burned zinc metal in air and collected the resulting zinc oxide on a condenser. Some alchemists called this zinc oxide lana philosophica, Latin for "philosopher's wool", because it collected in wooly tufts, whereas others thought it looked like white snow and named it nix album.[82]

The name of the metal was probably first documented by Paracelsus, a Swiss-born German alchemist, who referred to the metal as "zincum" or "zinken" in his book Liber Mineralium II, in the 16th century.[81][83] The word is probably derived from the German zinke, and supposedly meant "tooth-like, pointed or jagged" (metallic zinc crystals have a needle-like appearance).[84] Zink could also imply "tin-like" because of its relation to German zinn meaning tin.[85] Yet another possibility is that the word is derived from the Persian word سنگ seng meaning stone.[86] The metal was also called Indian tin, tutanego, calamine, and spinter.[30]

German metallurgist Andreas Libavius received a quantity of what he called "calay" (from the Malay or Hindi word for tin) originating from Malabar off a cargo ship captured from the Portuguese in the year 1596.[87] Libavius described the properties of the sample, which may have been zinc. Zinc was regularly imported to Europe from the Orient in the 17th and early 18th centuries,[81] but was at times very expensive.[note 2]

Isolation edit

 
Andreas Sigismund Marggraf is given credit for first isolating pure zinc.

Metallic zinc was isolated in India by 1300 AD.[88][89][90] Before it was isolated in Europe, it was imported from India in about 1600 AD.[91] Postlewayt's Universal Dictionary, a contemporary source giving technological information in Europe, did not mention zinc before 1751 but the element was studied before then.[79][92]

Flemish metallurgist and alchemist P. M. de Respour reported that he had extracted metallic zinc from zinc oxide in 1668.[32] By the start of the 18th century, Étienne François Geoffroy described how zinc oxide condenses as yellow crystals on bars of iron placed above zinc ore that is being smelted.[32] In Britain, John Lane is said to have carried out experiments to smelt zinc, probably at Landore, prior to his bankruptcy in 1726.[93]

In 1738 in Great Britain, William Champion patented a process to extract zinc from calamine in a vertical retort-style smelter.[94] His technique resembled that used at Zawar zinc mines in Rajasthan, but no evidence suggests he visited the Orient.[91] Champion's process was used through 1851.[81]

German chemist Andreas Marggraf normally gets credit for isolating pure metallic zinc in the West, even though Swedish chemist Anton von Swab had distilled zinc from calamine four years previously.[81] In his 1746 experiment, Marggraf heated a mixture of calamine and charcoal in a closed vessel without copper to obtain a metal.[95][69] This procedure became commercially practical by 1752.[96]

Later work edit

 
Galvanization was named after Luigi Galvani.

William Champion's brother, John, patented a process in 1758 for calcining zinc sulfide into an oxide usable in the retort process.[30] Prior to this, only calamine could be used to produce zinc. In 1798, Johann Christian Ruberg improved on the smelting process by building the first horizontal retort smelter.[97] Jean-Jacques Daniel Dony built a different kind of horizontal zinc smelter in Belgium that processed even more zinc.[81] Italian doctor Luigi Galvani discovered in 1780 that connecting the spinal cord of a freshly dissected frog to an iron rail attached by a brass hook caused the frog's leg to twitch.[98] He incorrectly thought he had discovered an ability of nerves and muscles to create electricity and called the effect "animal electricity".[99] The galvanic cell and the process of galvanization were both named for Luigi Galvani, and his discoveries paved the way for electrical batteries, galvanization, and cathodic protection.[99]

Galvani's friend, Alessandro Volta, continued researching the effect and invented the Voltaic pile in 1800.[98] Volta's pile consisted of a stack of simplified galvanic cells, each being one plate of copper and one of zinc connected by an electrolyte. By stacking these units in series, the Voltaic pile (or "battery") as a whole had a higher voltage, which could be used more easily than single cells. Electricity is produced because the Volta potential between the two metal plates makes electrons flow from the zinc to the copper and corrode the zinc.[98]

The non-magnetic character of zinc and its lack of color in solution delayed discovery of its importance to biochemistry and nutrition.[100] This changed in 1940 when carbonic anhydrase, an enzyme that scrubs carbon dioxide from blood, was shown to have zinc in its active site.[100] The digestive enzyme carboxypeptidase became the second known zinc-containing enzyme in 1955.[100]

Production edit

Mining and processing edit

Top zinc mine production output (by countries) 2019[33]
Rank Country Tonnes
1 China 4,210,000
2 Peru 1,400,000
3 Australia 1,330,000
4 United States 753,000
5 India 720,000
6 Mexico 677,000
Main articles: Zinc mining and Zinc smelting
See also: List of countries by zinc production
 
Price of Zinc
 
Percentage of zinc output in 2006 by countries[101]
 
World production trend
 
Zinc Mine Rosh Pinah, Namibia
27°57′17″S 016°46′00″E / 27.95472°S 16.76667°E / -27.95472; 16.76667 (Rosh Pinah)
 
Zinc Mine Skorpion, Namibia
27°49′09″S 016°36′28″E / 27.81917°S 16.60778°E / -27.81917; 16.60778 (Skorpion)

Zinc is the fourth most common metal in use, trailing only iron, aluminium, and copper with an annual production of about 13 million tonnes.[33] The world's largest zinc producer is Nyrstar, a merger of the Australian OZ Minerals and the Belgian Umicore.[102] About 70% of the world's zinc originates from mining, while the remaining 30% comes from recycling secondary zinc.[103]

Commercially pure zinc is known as Special High Grade, often abbreviated SHG, and is 99.995% pure.[104]

Worldwide, 95% of new zinc is mined from sulfidic ore deposits, in which sphalerite (ZnS) is nearly always mixed with the sulfides of copper, lead and iron.[105]: 6  Zinc mines are scattered throughout the world, with the main areas being China, Australia, and Peru. China produced 38% of the global zinc output in 2014.[33]

Zinc metal is produced using extractive metallurgy.[106]: 7  The ore is finely ground, then put through froth flotation to separate minerals from gangue (on the property of hydrophobicity), to get a zinc sulfide ore concentrate[106]: 16  consisting of about 50% zinc, 32% sulfur, 13% iron, and 5% SiO
2.[106]: 16 

Roasting converts the zinc sulfide concentrate to zinc oxide:[105]

 

The sulfur dioxide is used for the production of sulfuric acid, which is necessary for the leaching process. If deposits of zinc carbonate, zinc silicate, or zinc-spinel (like the Skorpion Deposit in Namibia) are used for zinc production, the roasting can be omitted.[107]

For further processing two basic methods are used: pyrometallurgy or electrowinning. Pyrometallurgy reduces zinc oxide with carbon or carbon monoxide at 950 °C (1,740 °F) into the metal, which is distilled as zinc vapor to separate it from other metals, which are not volatile at those temperatures.[108] The zinc vapor is collected in a condenser.[105] The equations below describe this process:[105]

 
 

In electrowinning, zinc is leached from the ore concentrate by sulfuric acid and impurities are precipitated:[109]

 

Finally, the zinc is reduced by electrolysis.[105]

 

The sulfuric acid is regenerated and recycled to the leaching step.

When galvanised feedstock is fed to an electric arc furnace, the zinc is recovered from the dust by a number of processes, predominantly the Waelz process (90% as of 2014).[110]

Environmental impact edit

Refinement of sulfidic zinc ores produces large volumes of sulfur dioxide and cadmium vapor. Smelter slag and other residues contain significant quantities of metals. About 1.1 million tonnes of metallic zinc and 130 thousand tonnes of lead were mined and smelted in the Belgian towns of La Calamine and Plombières between 1806 and 1882.[111] The dumps of the past mining operations leach zinc and cadmium, and the sediments of the Geul River contain non-trivial amounts of metals.[111] About two thousand years ago, emissions of zinc from mining and smelting totaled 10 thousand tonnes a year. After increasing 10-fold from 1850, zinc emissions peaked at 3.4 million tonnes per year in the 1980s and declined to 2.7 million tonnes in the 1990s, although a 2005 study of the Arctic troposphere found that the concentrations there did not reflect the decline. Man-made and natural emissions occur at a ratio of 20 to 1.[10]

Zinc in rivers flowing through industrial and mining areas can be as high as 20 ppm.[112] Effective sewage treatment greatly reduces this; treatment along the Rhine, for example, has decreased zinc levels to 50 ppb.[112] Concentrations of zinc as low as 2 ppm adversely affects the amount of oxygen that fish can carry in their blood.[113]

 
Historically responsible for high metal levels in the Derwent River,[114] the zinc works at Lutana is the largest exporter in Tasmania, generating 2.5% of the state's GDP, and producing more than 250,000 tonnes of zinc per year.[115]

Soils contaminated with zinc from mining, refining, or fertilizing with zinc-bearing sludge can contain several grams of zinc per kilogram of dry soil. Levels of zinc in excess of 500 ppm in soil interfere with the ability of plants to absorb other essential metals, such as iron and manganese. Zinc levels of 2000 ppm to 180,000 ppm (18%) have been recorded in some soil samples.[112] The European Soil Observatory has published the first high resolution spatial assessment of topsoil Zinc (Zn) concentrations in Europe. The mean concentration of Zn in topsoils is 47 mg/kg while 1% of the measured 22,000 samples had concentrations higher than 167 mg/kg.[116]

Applications edit

Major applications of zinc include, with percentages given for the US[117]

  1. Galvanizing (55%)
  2. Brass and bronze (16%)
  3. Other alloys (21%)
  4. Miscellaneous (8%)

Anti-corrosion and batteries edit

 
Hot-dip handrail galvanized crystalline surface
 
Zinc sacrificial anode

Zinc is most commonly used as an anti-corrosion agent,[118] and galvanization (coating of iron or steel) is the most familiar form. In 2009 in the United States, 55% or 893,000 tons of the zinc metal was used for galvanization.[117]

Zinc is more reactive than iron or steel and thus will attract almost all local oxidation until it completely corrodes away.[119] A protective surface layer of oxide and carbonate (Zn
5(OH)
6(CO
3)
2) forms as the zinc corrodes.[120] This protection lasts even after the zinc layer is scratched but degrades through time as the zinc corrodes away.[120] The zinc is applied electrochemically or as molten zinc by hot-dip galvanizing or spraying. Galvanization is used on chain-link fencing, guard rails, suspension bridges, lightposts, metal roofs, heat exchangers, and car bodies.[121]

The relative reactivity of zinc and its ability to attract oxidation to itself makes it an efficient sacrificial anode in cathodic protection (CP). For example, cathodic protection of a buried pipeline can be achieved by connecting anodes made from zinc to the pipe.[120] Zinc acts as the anode (negative terminus) by slowly corroding away as it passes electric current to the steel pipeline.[120][note 3] Zinc is also used to cathodically protect metals that are exposed to sea water.[122] A zinc disc attached to a ship's iron rudder will slowly corrode while the rudder stays intact.[119] Similarly, a zinc plug attached to a propeller or the metal protective guard for the keel of the ship provides temporary protection.

With a standard electrode potential (SEP) of −0.76 volts, zinc is used as an anode material for batteries. (More reactive lithium (SEP −3.04 V) is used for anodes in lithium batteries ). Powdered zinc is used in this way in alkaline batteries and the case (which also serves as the anode) of zinc–carbon batteries is formed from sheet zinc.[123][124] Zinc is used as the anode or fuel of the zinc–air battery/fuel cell.[125][126][127] The zinc-cerium redox flow battery also relies on a zinc-based negative half-cell.[128]

Alloys edit

A widely used zinc alloy is brass, in which copper is alloyed with anywhere from 3% to 45% zinc, depending upon the type of brass.[120] Brass is generally more ductile and stronger than copper, and has superior corrosion resistance.[120] These properties make it useful in communication equipment, hardware, musical instruments, and water valves.[120]

 
Cast brass microstructure at magnification 400x

Other widely used zinc alloys include nickel silver, typewriter metal, soft and aluminium solder, and commercial bronze.[23] Zinc is also used in contemporary pipe organs as a substitute for the traditional lead/tin alloy in pipes.[129] Alloys of 85–88% zinc, 4–10% copper, and 2–8% aluminium find limited use in certain types of machine bearings. Zinc has been the primary metal in American one cent coins (pennies) since 1982.[130] The zinc core is coated with a thin layer of copper to give the appearance of a copper coin. In 1994, 33,200 tonnes (36,600 short tons) of zinc were used to produce 13.6 billion pennies in the United States.[131]

Alloys of zinc with small amounts of copper, aluminium, and magnesium are useful in die casting as well as spin casting, especially in the automotive, electrical, and hardware industries.[23] These alloys are marketed under the name Zamak.[132] An example of this is zinc aluminium. The low melting point together with the low viscosity of the alloy makes possible the production of small and intricate shapes. The low working temperature leads to rapid cooling of the cast products and fast production for assembly.[23][133] Another alloy, marketed under the brand name Prestal, contains 78% zinc and 22% aluminium, and is reported to be nearly as strong as steel but as malleable as plastic.[23][134] This superplasticity of the alloy allows it to be molded using die casts made of ceramics and cement.[23]

Similar alloys with the addition of a small amount of lead can be cold-rolled into sheets. An alloy of 96% zinc and 4% aluminium is used to make stamping dies for low production run applications for which ferrous metal dies would be too expensive.[135] For building facades, roofing, and other applications for sheet metal formed by deep drawing, roll forming, or bending, zinc alloys with titanium and copper are used.[136] Unalloyed zinc is too brittle for these manufacturing processes.[136]

As a dense, inexpensive, easily worked material, zinc is used as a lead replacement. In the wake of lead concerns, zinc appears in weights for various applications ranging from fishing[137] to tire balances and flywheels.[138]

Cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) is a semiconductive alloy that can be divided into an array of small sensing devices.[139] These devices are similar to an integrated circuit and can detect the energy of incoming gamma ray photons.[139] When behind an absorbing mask, the CZT sensor array can determine the direction of the rays.[139]

Other industrial uses edit

 
Zinc oxide is used as a white pigment in paints.

Roughly one quarter of all zinc output in the United States in 2009 was consumed in zinc compounds;[117] a variety of which are used industrially. Zinc oxide is widely used as a white pigment in paints and as a catalyst in the manufacture of rubber to disperse heat. Zinc oxide is used to protect rubber polymers and plastics from ultraviolet radiation (UV).[121] The semiconductor properties of zinc oxide make it useful in varistors and photocopying products.[140] The zinc zinc-oxide cycle is a two step thermochemical process based on zinc and zinc oxide for hydrogen production.[141]

Zinc chloride is often added to lumber as a fire retardant[142] and sometimes as a wood preservative.[143] It is used in the manufacture of other chemicals.[142] Zinc methyl (Zn(CH3)
2) is used in a number of organic syntheses.[144] Zinc sulfide (ZnS) is used in luminescent pigments such as on the hands of clocks, X-ray and television screens, and luminous paints.[145] Crystals of ZnS are used in lasers that operate in the mid-infrared part of the spectrum.[146] Zinc sulfate is a chemical in dyes and pigments.[142] Zinc pyrithione is used in antifouling paints.[147]

Zinc powder is sometimes used as a propellant in model rockets.[148] When a compressed mixture of 70% zinc and 30% sulfur powder is ignited there is a violent chemical reaction.[148] This produces zinc sulfide, together with large amounts of hot gas, heat, and light.[148]

Zinc sheet metal is used as a durable covering for roofs, walls, and countertops, the last often seen in bistros and oyster bars, and is known for the rustic look imparted by its surface oxidation in use to a blue-gray patina and susceptibility to scratching.[149][150][151][152]

64
Zn, the most abundant isotope of zinc, is very susceptible to neutron activation, being transmuted into the highly radioactive 65
Zn, which has a half-life of 244 days and produces intense gamma radiation. Because of this, zinc oxide used in nuclear reactors as an anti-corrosion agent is depleted of 64
Zn before use, this is called depleted zinc oxide. For the same reason, zinc has been proposed as a salting material for nuclear weapons (cobalt is another, better-known salting material).[153] A jacket of isotopically enriched 64
Zn would be irradiated by the intense high-energy neutron flux from an exploding thermonuclear weapon, forming a large amount of 65
Zn significantly increasing the radioactivity of the weapon's fallout.[153] Such a weapon is not known to have ever been built, tested, or used.[153]

65
Zn is used as a tracer to study how alloys that contain zinc wear out, or the path and the role of zinc in organisms.[154]

Zinc dithiocarbamate complexes are used as agricultural fungicides; these include Zineb, Metiram, Propineb and Ziram.[155] Zinc naphthenate is used as wood preservative.[156] Zinc in the form of ZDDP, is used as an anti-wear additive for metal parts in engine oil.[157]

Organic chemistry edit

 
Enantioselective addition of diphenylzinc to an aldehyde[158]

Organozinc chemistry is the science of compounds that contain carbon-zinc bonds, describing the physical properties, synthesis, and chemical reactions. Many organozinc compounds are commercially important.[159][160][161][162] Among important applications are:

  • The Frankland-Duppa Reaction in which an oxalate ester (ROCOCOOR) reacts with an alkyl halide R'X, zinc and hydrochloric acid to form α-hydroxycarboxylic esters RR'COHCOOR[163][164]
  • Organozincs have similar reactivity to Grignard reagents but are much less nucleophilic, and they are expensive and difficult to handle. Organozincs typically perform nucleophilic addition on electrophiles such as aldehydes, which are then reduced to alcohols. Commercially available diorganozinc compounds include dimethylzinc, diethylzinc and diphenylzinc. Like Grignard reagents, organozincs are commonly produced from organobromine precursors.

Zinc has found many uses in catalysis in organic synthesis including enantioselective synthesis, being a cheap and readily available alternative to precious metal complexes. Quantitative results (yield and enantiomeric excess) obtained with chiral zinc catalysts can be comparable to those achieved with palladium, ruthenium, iridium and others.[165]

Dietary supplement edit

 
Zinc gluconate supplement pills
 
Zinc gluconate is one compound used for the delivery of zinc as a dietary supplement.
See also: Zinc sulfate (medical use) and Zinc gluconate

Zinc, a vital trace mineral, is not stored in the body in large quantities, necessitating regular dietary intake for optimal health. Regular intake is particularly crucial given zinc's extensive involvement in human health, including its roles in cellular metabolism (zinc is integral to the function of over 300 enzymes in the human body), immune function, protein synthesis, DNA synthesis, and cell division.[166]

In most single-tablet, over-the-counter, daily vitamin and mineral supplements, zinc is included in such forms as zinc oxide, zinc acetate, zinc gluconate, or zinc amino acid chelate.[167][168]

Generally, zinc supplement is recommended where there is high risk of zinc deficiency (such as low and middle income countries) as a preventive measure.[169] Although zinc sulfate is a commonly used zinc form, zinc citrate, gluconate and picolinate may be valid options as well. These forms are better absorbed than zinc oxide.[170]

Gastroenteritis edit

Zinc is an inexpensive and effective part of treatment of diarrhea among children in the developing world. Zinc becomes depleted in the body during diarrhea and replenishing zinc with a 10- to 14-day course of treatment can reduce the duration and severity of diarrheal episodes and may also prevent future episodes for as long as three months.[171] Gastroenteritis is strongly attenuated by ingestion of zinc, possibly by direct antimicrobial action of the ions in the gastrointestinal tract, or by the absorption of the zinc and re-release from immune cells (all granulocytes secrete zinc), or both.[172][173]

Common cold edit

This section is an excerpt from Zinc and the common cold.[edit]

Zinc supplements (frequently zinc acetate or zinc gluconate lozenges) are a group of dietary supplements that are commonly used for the treatment of the common cold.[174] The use of zinc supplements at doses in excess of 75 mg/day within 24 hours of the onset of symptoms has been shown to reduce the duration of cold symptoms by about 1 day in adults.[174][175] Adverse effects with zinc supplements by mouth include bad taste and nausea.[174][175] The intranasal use of zinc-containing nasal sprays has been associated with the loss of the sense of smell;[174] consequently, in June 2009, the United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) warned consumers to stop using intranasal zinc.[174]

The human rhinovirus – the most common viral pathogen in humans – is the predominant cause of the common cold.[176] The hypothesized mechanism of action by which zinc reduces the severity and/or duration of cold symptoms is the suppression of nasal inflammation and the direct inhibition of rhinoviral receptor binding and rhinoviral replication in the nasal mucosa.[174]

Weight gain edit

See also: Zinc deficiency § Appetite

Zinc deficiency may lead to loss of appetite.[177] The use of zinc in the treatment of anorexia has been advocated since 1979. At least 15 clinical trials have shown that zinc improved weight gain in anorexia. A 1994 trial showed that zinc doubled the rate of body mass increase in the treatment of anorexia nervosa. Deficiency of other nutrients such as tyrosine, tryptophan and thiamine could contribute to this phenomenon of "malnutrition-induced malnutrition".[178] A meta-analysis of 33 prospective intervention trials regarding zinc supplementation and its effects on the growth of children in many countries showed that zinc supplementation alone had a statistically significant effect on linear growth and body weight gain, indicating that other deficiencies that may have been present were not responsible for growth retardation.[179]

Other edit

A 2023 Cochrane review stated that people taking zinc supplements may be less likely to progress to age-related macular degeneration.[180] Zinc supplement is an effective treatment for acrodermatitis enteropathica, a genetic disorder affecting zinc absorption that was previously fatal to affected infants.[70] Zinc deficiency has been associated with major depressive disorder (MDD), and zinc supplements may be an effective treatment.[181] Zinc may help individuals sleep more.[8]

Topical use edit

Further information: Zinc oxide § Medicine

Topical preparations of zinc include those used on the skin, often in the form of zinc oxide. Zinc oxide is generally recognised by the FDA as safe and effective[182] and is considered a very photo-stable.[183] Zinc oxide is one of the most common active ingredients formulated into a sunscreen to mitigate sunburn.[70] Applied thinly to a baby's diaper area (perineum) with each diaper change, it can protect against diaper rash.[70]

Chelated zinc is used in toothpastes and mouthwashes to prevent bad breath; zinc citrate helps reduce the build-up of calculus (tartar).[184][185]

Zinc pyrithione is widely included in shampoos to prevent dandruff.[186]

Topical zinc has also been shown to effectively treat, as well as prolong remission in genital herpes.[187]

Biological role edit

Main article: Zinc in biology

Zinc is an essential trace element for humans[188][6][7][8] and other animals,[9] for plants[10] and for microorganisms.[11] Zinc is required for the function of over 300 enzymes and 1000 transcription factors,[166][8] and is stored and transferred in metallothioneins.[189][190] It is the second most abundant trace metal in humans after iron and it is the only metal which appears in all enzyme classes.[10][8]

In proteins, zinc ions are often coordinated to the amino acid side chains of aspartic acid, glutamic acid, cysteine and histidine. The theoretical and computational description of this zinc binding in proteins (as well as that of other transition metals) is difficult.[191]

Roughly 2–4 grams of zinc[192] are distributed throughout the human body. Most zinc is in the brain, muscle, bones, kidney, and liver, with the highest concentrations in the prostate and parts of the eye.[193] Semen is particularly rich in zinc, a key factor in prostate gland function and reproductive organ growth.[194]

Zinc homeostasis of the body is mainly controlled by the intestine. Here, ZIP4 and especially TRPM7 were linked to intestinal zinc uptake essential for postnatal survival.[195][196]

In humans, the biological roles of zinc are ubiquitous.[12][7] It interacts with "a wide range of organic ligands",[12] and has roles in the metabolism of RNA and DNA, signal transduction, and gene expression. It also regulates apoptosis. A review from 2015 indicated that about 10% of human proteins (~3000) bind zinc,[197] in addition to hundreds more that transport and traffic zinc; a similar in silico study in the plant Arabidopsis thaliana found 2367 zinc-related proteins.[10]

In the brain, zinc is stored in specific synaptic vesicles by glutamatergic neurons and can modulate neuronal excitability.[7][8][198] It plays a key role in synaptic plasticity and so in learning.[7][199] Zinc homeostasis also plays a critical role in the functional regulation of the central nervous system.[7][198][8] Dysregulation of zinc homeostasis in the central nervous system that results in excessive synaptic zinc concentrations is believed to induce neurotoxicity through mitochondrial oxidative stress (e.g., by disrupting certain enzymes involved in the electron transport chain, including complex I, complex III, and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase), the dysregulation of calcium homeostasis, glutamatergic neuronal excitotoxicity, and interference with intraneuronal signal transduction.[7][200] L- and D-histidine facilitate brain zinc uptake.[201] SLC30A3 is the primary zinc transporter involved in cerebral zinc homeostasis.[7]

Enzymes edit

 
Ribbon diagram of human carbonic anhydrase II, with zinc atom visible in the center
 
Zinc fingers help read DNA sequences.

Zinc is an efficient Lewis acid, making it a useful catalytic agent in hydroxylation and other enzymatic reactions.[202] The metal also has a flexible coordination geometry, which allows proteins using it to rapidly shift conformations to perform biological reactions.[203] Two examples of zinc-containing enzymes are carbonic anhydrase and carboxypeptidase, which are vital to the processes of carbon dioxide (CO
2) regulation and digestion of proteins, respectively.[204]

In vertebrate blood, carbonic anhydrase converts CO
2 into bicarbonate and the same enzyme transforms the bicarbonate back into CO
2 for exhalation through the lungs.[205] Without this enzyme, this conversion would occur about one million times slower[206] at the normal blood pH of 7 or would require a pH of 10 or more.[207] The non-related β-carbonic anhydrase is required in plants for leaf formation, the synthesis of indole acetic acid (auxin) and alcoholic fermentation.[208]

Carboxypeptidase cleaves peptide linkages during digestion of proteins. A coordinate covalent bond is formed between the terminal peptide and a C=O group attached to zinc, which gives the carbon a positive charge. This helps to create a hydrophobic pocket on the enzyme near the zinc, which attracts the non-polar part of the protein being digested.[204]

Signalling edit

Zinc has been recognized as a messenger, able to activate signalling pathways. Many of these pathways provide the driving force in aberrant cancer growth. They can be targeted through ZIP transporters.[209]

Other proteins edit

Zinc serves a purely structural role in zinc fingers, twists and clusters.[210] Zinc fingers form parts of some transcription factors, which are proteins that recognize DNA base sequences during the replication and transcription of DNA. Each of the nine or ten Zn2+
 ions in a zinc finger helps maintain the finger's structure by coordinately binding to four amino acids in the transcription factor.[206]

In blood plasma, zinc is bound to and transported by albumin (60%, low-affinity) and transferrin (10%).[192] Because transferrin also transports iron, excessive iron reduces zinc absorption, and vice versa. A similar antagonism exists with copper.[211] The concentration of zinc in blood plasma stays relatively constant regardless of zinc intake.[202] Cells in the salivary gland, prostate, immune system, and intestine use zinc signaling to communicate with other cells.[212]

Zinc may be held in metallothionein reserves within microorganisms or in the intestines or liver of animals.[213] Metallothionein in intestinal cells is capable of adjusting absorption of zinc by 15–40%.[214] However, inadequate or excessive zinc intake can be harmful; excess zinc particularly impairs copper absorption because metallothionein absorbs both metals.[215]

The human dopamine transporter contains a high affinity extracellular zinc binding site which, upon zinc binding, inhibits dopamine reuptake and amplifies amphetamine-induced dopamine efflux in vitro.[216][217][218] The human serotonin transporter and norepinephrine transporter do not contain zinc binding sites.[218] Some EF-hand calcium binding proteins such as S100 or NCS-1 are also able to bind zinc ions.[219]

Nutrition edit

Dietary recommendations edit

The U.S. Institute of Medicine (IOM) updated Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for zinc in 2001. The current EARs for zinc for women and men ages 14 and up is 6.8 and 9.4 mg/day, respectively. The RDAs are 8 and 11 mg/day. RDAs are higher than EARs so as to identify amounts that will cover people with higher than average requirements. RDA for pregnancy is 11 mg/day. RDA for lactation is 12 mg/day. For infants up to 12 months the RDA is 3 mg/day. For children ages 1–13 years the RDA increases with age from 3 to 8 mg/day. As for safety, the IOM sets Tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) for vitamins and minerals when evidence is sufficient. In the case of zinc the adult UL is 40 mg/day including both food and supplements combined (lower for children). Collectively the EARs, RDAs, AIs and ULs are referred to as Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs).[202]

The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) refers to the collective set of information as Dietary Reference Values, with Population Reference Intake (PRI) instead of RDA, and Average Requirement instead of EAR. AI and UL are defined the same as in the United States. For people ages 18 and older the PRI calculations are complex, as the EFSA has set higher and higher values as the phytate content of the diet increases. For women, PRIs increase from 7.5 to 12.7 mg/day as phytate intake increases from 300 to 1200 mg/day; for men the range is 9.4 to 16.3 mg/day. These PRIs are higher than the U.S. RDAs.[220] The EFSA reviewed the same safety question and set its UL at 25 mg/day, which is much lower than the U.S. value.[221]

For U.S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value (%DV). For zinc labeling purposes 100% of the Daily Value was 15 mg, but on May 27, 2016, it was revised to 11 mg.[222][223] A table of the old and new adult daily values is provided at Reference Daily Intake.

Dietary intake edit

 
Foods and seasonings containing zinc

Animal products such as meat, fish, shellfish, fowl, eggs, and dairy contain zinc. The concentration of zinc in plants varies with the level in the soil. With adequate zinc in the soil, the food plants that contain the most zinc are wheat (germ and bran) and various seeds, including sesame, poppy, alfalfa, celery, and mustard.[224] Zinc is also found in beans, nuts, almonds, whole grains, pumpkin seeds, sunflower seeds, and blackcurrant.[225]

Other sources include fortified food and dietary supplements in various forms. A 1998 review concluded that zinc oxide, one of the most common supplements in the United States, and zinc carbonate are nearly insoluble and poorly absorbed in the body.[226] This review cited studies that found lower plasma zinc concentrations in the subjects who consumed zinc oxide and zinc carbonate than in those who took zinc acetate and sulfate salts.[226] For fortification, however, a 2003 review recommended cereals (containing zinc oxide) as a cheap, stable source that is as easily absorbed as the more expensive forms.[227] A 2005 study found that various compounds of zinc, including oxide and sulfate, did not show statistically significant differences in absorption when added as fortificants to maize tortillas.[228]

Deficiency edit

Main article: Zinc deficiency

Nearly two billion people in the developing world are deficient in zinc. Groups at risk include children in developing countries and elderly with chronic illnesses.[14] In children, it causes an increase in infection and diarrhea and contributes to the death of about 800,000 children worldwide per year.[12] The World Health Organization advocates zinc supplementation for severe malnutrition and diarrhea.[229] Zinc supplements help prevent disease and reduce mortality, especially among children with low birth weight or stunted growth.[229] However, zinc supplements should not be administered alone, because many in the developing world have several deficiencies, and zinc interacts with other micronutrients.[230] While zinc deficiency is usually due to insufficient dietary intake, it can be associated with malabsorption, acrodermatitis enteropathica, chronic liver disease, chronic renal disease, sickle cell disease, diabetes, malignancy, and other chronic illnesses.[14]

In the United States, a federal survey of food consumption determined that for women and men over the age of 19, average consumption was 9.7 and 14.2 mg/day, respectively. For women, 17% consumed less than the EAR, for men 11%. The percentages below EAR increased with age.[231] The most recent published update of the survey (NHANES 2013–2014) reported lower averages – 9.3 and 13.2 mg/day – again with intake decreasing with age.[232]

Symptoms of mild zinc deficiency are diverse.[202] Clinical outcomes include depressed growth, diarrhea, impotence and delayed sexual maturation, alopecia, eye and skin lesions, impaired appetite, altered cognition, impaired immune functions, defects in carbohydrate use, and reproductive teratogenesis.[202] Zinc deficiency depresses immunity,[233] but excessive zinc does also.[192]

Despite some concerns,[234] western vegetarians and vegans do not suffer any more from overt zinc deficiency than meat-eaters.[235] Major plant sources of zinc include cooked dried beans, sea vegetables, fortified cereals, soy foods, nuts, peas, and seeds.[234] However, phytates in many whole-grains and fibers may interfere with zinc absorption and marginal zinc intake has poorly understood effects. The zinc chelator phytate, found in seeds and cereal bran, can contribute to zinc malabsorption.[14] Some evidence suggests that more than the US RDA (8 mg/day for adult women; 11 mg/day for adult men) may be needed in those whose diet is high in phytates, such as some vegetarians.[234] The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) guidelines attempt to compensate for this by recommending higher zinc intake when dietary phytate intake is greater.[220] These considerations must be balanced against the paucity of adequate zinc biomarkers, and the most widely used indicator, plasma zinc, has poor sensitivity and specificity.[236]

Soil remediation edit

Species of Calluna, Erica and Vaccinium can grow in zinc-metalliferous soils, because translocation of toxic ions is prevented by the action of ericoid mycorrhizal fungi.[237]

Agriculture edit

Zinc deficiency appears to be the most common micronutrient deficiency in crop plants; it is particularly common in high-pH soils.[238] Zinc-deficient soil is cultivated in the cropland of about half of Turkey and India, a third of China, and most of Western Australia. Substantial responses to zinc fertilization have been reported in these areas.[10] Plants that grow in soils that are zinc-deficient are more susceptible to disease. Zinc is added to the soil primarily through the weathering of rocks, but humans have added zinc through fossil fuel combustion, mine waste, phosphate fertilizers, pesticide (zinc phosphide), limestone, manure, sewage sludge, and particles from galvanized surfaces. Excess zinc is toxic to plants, although zinc toxicity is far less widespread.[10]

Precautions edit

Main article: Zinc toxicity

Toxicity edit

Although zinc is an essential requirement for good health, excess zinc can be harmful. Excessive absorption of zinc suppresses copper and iron absorption.[215] The free zinc ion in solution is highly toxic to plants, invertebrates, and even vertebrate fish.[239] The Free Ion Activity Model is well-established in the literature, and shows that just micromolar amounts of the free ion kills some organisms. A recent example showed 6 micromolar killing 93% of all Daphnia in water.[240]

The free zinc ion is a powerful Lewis acid up to the point of being corrosive. Stomach acid contains hydrochloric acid, in which metallic zinc dissolves readily to give corrosive zinc chloride. Swallowing a post-1982 American one cent piece (97.5% zinc) can cause damage to the stomach lining through the high solubility of the zinc ion in the acidic stomach.[241]

Evidence shows that people taking 100–300 mg of zinc daily may suffer induced copper deficiency. A 2007 trial observed that elderly men taking 80 mg daily were hospitalized for urinary complications more often than those taking a placebo.[242] Levels of 100–300 mg may interfere with the use of copper and iron or adversely affect cholesterol.[215] Zinc in excess of 500 ppm in soil interferes with the plant absorption of other essential metals, such as iron and manganese.[112] A condition called the zinc shakes or "zinc chills" can be induced by inhalation of zinc fumes while brazing or welding galvanized materials.[145] Zinc is a common ingredient of denture cream which may contain between 17 and 38 mg of zinc per gram. Disability and even deaths from excessive use of these products have been claimed.[243]

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) states that zinc damages nerve receptors in the nose, causing anosmia. Reports of anosmia were also observed in the 1930s when zinc preparations were used in a failed attempt to prevent polio infections.[244] On June 16, 2009, the FDA ordered removal of zinc-based intranasal cold products from store shelves. The FDA said the loss of smell can be life-threatening because people with impaired smell cannot detect leaking gas or smoke, and cannot tell if food has spoiled before they eat it.[245]

Recent research suggests that the topical antimicrobial zinc pyrithione is a potent heat shock response inducer that may impair genomic integrity with induction of PARP-dependent energy crisis in cultured human keratinocytes and melanocytes.[246]

Poisoning edit

In 1982, the US Mint began minting pennies coated in copper but containing primarily zinc. Zinc pennies pose a risk of zinc toxicosis, which can be fatal. One reported case of chronic ingestion of 425 pennies (over 1 kg of zinc) resulted in death due to gastrointestinal bacterial and fungal sepsis. Another patient who ingested 12 grams of zinc showed only lethargy and ataxia (gross lack of coordination of muscle movements).[247] Several other cases have been reported of humans suffering zinc intoxication by the ingestion of zinc coins.[248][249]

Pennies and other small coins are sometimes ingested by dogs, requiring veterinary removal of the foreign objects. The zinc content of some coins can cause zinc toxicity, commonly fatal in dogs through severe hemolytic anemia and liver or kidney damage; vomiting and diarrhea are possible symptoms.[250] Zinc is highly toxic in parrots and poisoning can often be fatal.[251] The consumption of fruit juices stored in galvanized cans has resulted in mass parrot poisonings with zinc.[70]

See also edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ The elements are from different metal groups. See periodic table.
  2. ^ An East India Company ship carrying a cargo of nearly pure zinc metal from the Orient sank off the coast Sweden in 1745.(Emsley 2001, p. 502)
  3. ^ Electric current will naturally flow between zinc and steel but in some circumstances inert anodes are used with an external DC source.

Citations edit

  1. ^ "Standard Atomic Weights: Zinc". CIAAW. 2007.
  2. ^ Prohaska, Thomas; Irrgeher, Johanna; Benefield, Jacqueline; Böhlke, John K.; Chesson, Lesley A.; Coplen, Tyler B.; Ding, Tiping; Dunn, Philip J. H.; Gröning, Manfred; Holden, Norman E.; Meijer, Harro A. J. (May 4, 2022). "Standard atomic weights of the elements 2021 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. doi:10.1515/pac-2019-0603. ISSN 1365-3075.
  3. ^ Arblaster, John W. (2018). Selected Values of the Crystallographic Properties of Elements. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International. ISBN 978-1-62708-155-9.
  4. ^ Weast, Robert (1984). CRC, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Boca Raton, Florida: Chemical Rubber Company Publishing. pp. E110. ISBN 0-8493-0464-4.
  5. ^ a b Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae.
  6. ^ a b Maret, Wolfgang (2013). "Zinc and Human Disease". In Astrid Sigel; Helmut Sigel; Roland K. O. Sigel (eds.). Interrelations between Essential Metal Ions and Human Diseases. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 13. Springer. pp. 389–414. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7500-8_12. ISBN 978-94-007-7499-5. PMID 24470098.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h Prakash A, Bharti K, Majeed AB (April 2015). "Zinc: indications in brain disorders". Fundam Clin Pharmacol. 29 (2): 131–149. doi:10.1111/fcp.12110. PMID 25659970. S2CID 21141511.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h Cherasse Y, Urade Y (November 2017). "Dietary Zinc Acts as a Sleep Modulator". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 18 (11): 2334. doi:10.3390/ijms18112334. PMC 5713303. PMID 29113075. Zinc is the second most abundant trace metal in the human body, and is essential for many biological processes.  ... The trace metal zinc is an essential cofactor for more than 300 enzymes and 1000 transcription factors [16]. ... In the central nervous system, zinc is the second most abundant trace metal and is involved in many processes. In addition to its role in enzymatic activity, it also plays a major role in cell signaling and modulation of neuronal activity.
  9. ^ a b Prasad A. S. (2008). "Zinc in Human Health: Effect of Zinc on Immune Cells". Mol. Med. 14 (5–6): 353–7. doi:10.2119/2008-00033.Prasad. PMC 2277319. PMID 18385818.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h Broadley, M. R.; White, P. J.; Hammond, J. P.; Zelko I.; Lux A. (2007). "Zinc in plants". New Phytologist. 173 (4): 677–702. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.01996.x. PMID 17286818.
  11. ^ a b Zinc's role in microorganisms is particularly reviewed in: Sugarman B (1983). "Zinc and infection". Reviews of Infectious Diseases. 5 (1): 137–47. doi:10.1093/clinids/5.1.137. PMID 6338570.
  12. ^ a b c d e Hambidge, K. M. & Krebs, N. F. (2007). "Zinc deficiency: a special challenge". J. Nutr. 137 (4): 1101–5. doi:10.1093/jn/137.4.1101. PMID 17374687.
  13. ^ Xiao, Hangfang; Deng, Wenfeng; Wei, Gangjian; Chen, Jiubin; Zheng, Xinqing; Shi, Tuo; Chen, Xuefei; Wang, Chenying; Liu, Xi (October 30, 2020). "A Pilot Study on Zinc Isotopic Compositions in Shallow-Water Coral Skeletons". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 21 (11). Bibcode:2020GGG....2109430X. doi:10.1029/2020GC009430. S2CID 228975484. from the original on November 22, 2022. Retrieved November 22, 2022.
  14. ^ a b c d Prasad, AS (2003). "Zinc deficiency : Has been known of for 40 years but ignored by global health organisations". British Medical Journal. 326 (7386): 409–410. doi:10.1136/bmj.326.7386.409. PMC 1125304. PMID 12595353.
  15. ^ Maret, Wolfgang (2013). "Zinc and the Zinc Proteome". In Banci, Lucia (ed.). Metallomics and the Cell. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 12. Springer. pp. 479–501. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-5561-1_14. ISBN 978-94-007-5561-1. PMID 23595681.
  16. ^ Anglia, University of East. "Zinc vital to evolution of complex life in polar oceans". phys.org. from the original on September 3, 2023. Retrieved September 3, 2023.
  17. ^ Thornton, C. P. (2007). "Of brass and bronze in prehistoric Southwest Asia" (PDF). Metals and Mines Studies in Archaeometallurgy. Archetype Publications. ISBN 978-1-904982-19-7. (PDF) from the original on September 24, 2015 – via Papers and Lectures Online.
  18. ^ a b Greenwood & Earnshaw 1997, p. 1201
  19. ^ a b Craddock, Paul T. (1978). "The composition of copper alloys used by the Greek, Etruscan and Roman civilizations. The origins and early use of brass". Journal of Archaeological Science. 5 (1): 1–16. doi:10.1016/0305-4403(78)90015-8.
  20. ^ "Zinc – Royal Society Of Chemistry". from the original on July 11, 2017.
  21. ^ "India Was the First to Smelt Zinc by Distillation Process". Infinityfoundation.com. Archived from the original on May 16, 2016. Retrieved April 25, 2014.
  22. ^ Kharakwal, J. S. & Gurjar, L. K. (December 1, 2006). "Zinc and Brass in Archaeological Perspective". Ancient Asia. 1: 139–159. doi:10.5334/aa.06112.
  23. ^ a b c d e f g h i j CRC 2006, p. 4–41
  24. ^ a b Heiserman 1992, p. 123
  25. ^ Wells A.F. (1984) Structural Inorganic Chemistry 5th edition p 1277 Oxford Science Publications ISBN 0-19-855370-6
  26. ^ Scoffern, John (1861). The Useful Metals and Their Alloys. Houlston and Wright. pp. 591–603. from the original on March 17, 2024. Retrieved April 6, 2009.
  27. ^ a b "Zinc Metal Properties". American Galvanizers Association. 2008. from the original on March 28, 2015. Retrieved April 7, 2015.
  28. ^ Ingalls, Walter Renton (1902). "Production and Properties of Zinc: A Treatise on the Occurrence and Distribution of Zinc Ore, the Commercial and Technical Conditions Affecting the Production of the Spelter, Its Chemical and Physical Properties and Uses in the Arts, Together with a Historical and Statistical Review of the Industry". The Engineering and Mining Journal: 142–6. from the original on March 17, 2024. Retrieved September 27, 2020.
  29. ^ Rieuwerts, John (2015). The Elements of Environmental Pollution. London and New York: Earthscan Routledge. p. 286. ISBN 978-0-415-85919-6. OCLC 886492996. from the original on June 3, 2023. Retrieved November 11, 2021.
  30. ^ a b c d e Lehto 1968, p. 822
  31. ^ a b c Greenwood & Earnshaw 1997, p. 1202
  32. ^ a b c d Emsley 2001, p. 502
  33. ^ a b c d Sai Srujan, A.V (2021). "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2021: Zinc" (PDF). United States Geological Survey. (PDF) from the original on June 3, 2023. Retrieved June 21, 2021.
  34. ^ Erickson, R. L. (1973). "Crustal Abundance of Elements, and Mineral Reserves and Resources". U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper (820): 21–25.
  35. ^ . ECO Trade and development bank. Archived from the original on October 26, 2011. Retrieved June 6, 2011.
  36. ^ "IRAN – a growing market with enormous potential". IMRG. July 5, 2010. from the original on February 17, 2013. Retrieved March 3, 2010.
  37. ^ Tolcin, A. C. (2009). "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2009: Zinc" (PDF). United States Geological Survey. (PDF) from the original on July 2, 2016. Retrieved August 4, 2016.
  38. ^ Gordon, R. B.; Bertram, M.; Graedel, T. E. (2006). "Metal stocks and sustainability". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (5): 1209–14. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.1209G. doi:10.1073/pnas.0509498103. PMC 1360560. PMID 16432205.
  39. ^ Gerst, Michael (2008). "In-Use Stocks of Metals: Status and Implications". Environmental Science and Technology. 42 (19): 7038–45. Bibcode:2008EnST...42.7038G. doi:10.1021/es800420p. PMID 18939524.
  40. ^ Meylan, Gregoire (2016). "The anthropogenic cycle of zinc: Status quo and perspectives". Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 123: 1–10. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2016.01.006.
  41. ^ a b c d e Alejandro A. Sonzogni (Database Manager), ed. (2008). "Chart of Nuclides". Upton (NY): National Nuclear Data Center, Brookhaven National Laboratory. from the original on May 22, 2008. Retrieved September 13, 2008.
  42. ^ a b Audi, G.; Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S. (2017). "The NUBASE2016 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 41 (3): 030001. Bibcode:2017ChPhC..41c0001A. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/41/3/030001.
  43. ^ Audi, Georges; Bersillon, Olivier; Blachot, Jean; Wapstra, Aaldert Hendrik (2003), "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties", Nuclear Physics A, 729: 3–128, Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A, doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001
  44. ^ CRC 2006, pp. 8–29
  45. ^ Porter, Frank C. (1994). Corrosion Resistance of Zinc and Zinc Alloys. CRC Press. p. 121. ISBN 978-0-8247-9213-8.
  46. ^ a b c d e f g h Holleman, Arnold F.; Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils (1985). "Zink". Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie (in German) (91–100 ed.). Walter de Gruyter. pp. 1034–1041. ISBN 978-3-11-007511-3.
  47. ^ Hinds, John Iredelle Dillard (1908). Inorganic Chemistry: With the Elements of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 506–508. from the original on March 17, 2024. Retrieved September 27, 2020.
  48. ^ Ritchie, Rob (2004). Chemistry (2nd ed.). Letts and Lonsdale. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-84315-438-9. from the original on March 17, 2024. Retrieved September 27, 2020.
  49. ^ Burgess, John (1978). Metal ions in solution. New York: Ellis Horwood. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-470-26293-1.
  50. ^ Brady, James E.; Humiston, Gerard E.; Heikkinen, Henry (1983). General Chemistry: Principles and Structure (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 671. ISBN 978-0-471-86739-5.
  51. ^ Kaupp M.; Dolg M.; Stoll H.; Von Schnering H. G. (1994). "Oxidation state +IV in group 12 chemistry. Ab initio study of zinc(IV), cadmium(IV), and mercury(IV) fluorides". Inorganic Chemistry. 33 (10): 2122–2131. doi:10.1021/ic00088a012. from the original on June 4, 2023. Retrieved September 4, 2019.
  52. ^ Samanta, Devleena; Jena, Puru (2012). "Zn in the +III Oxidation State". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 134 (20): 8400–8403. doi:10.1021/ja3029119. PMID 22559713. from the original on June 4, 2023. Retrieved August 27, 2021.
  53. ^ Schlöder, Tobias; et al. (2012). "Can Zinc Really Exist in Its Oxidation State +III?". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 134 (29): 11977–11979. doi:10.1021/ja3052409. PMID 22775535. from the original on June 4, 2023. Retrieved August 27, 2021.
  54. ^ Fang, Hong; Banjade, Huta; Deepika; Jena, Puru (2021). "Realization of the Zn3+ oxidation state". Nanoscale. 13 (33): 14041–14048. doi:10.1039/D1NR02816B. PMID 34477685. S2CID 237400349.
  55. ^ a b Greenwood & Earnshaw 1997, p. 1206
  56. ^ CRC 2006, pp. 12–11–12
  57. ^ Housecroft, C. E.; Sharpe, A. G. (2008). Inorganic Chemistry (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall. p. 739–741, 843. ISBN 978-0-13-175553-6.
  58. ^ "Zinc Sulfide". American Elements. Archived from the original on July 17, 2012. Retrieved February 3, 2009.
  59. ^ Academic American Encyclopedia. Danbury, Connecticut: Grolier Inc. 1994. p. 202. ISBN 978-0-7172-2053-3. from the original on March 17, 2024. Retrieved September 27, 2020.
  60. ^ "Zinc Phosphide". American Elements. Archived from the original on July 17, 2012. Retrieved February 3, 2009.
  61. ^ Shulzhenko AA, Ignatyeva IY, Osipov AS, Smirnova TI (2000). "Peculiarities of interaction in the Zn–C system under high pressures and temperatures". Diamond and Related Materials. 9 (2): 129–133. Bibcode:2000DRM.....9..129S. doi:10.1016/S0925-9635(99)00231-9.
  62. ^ Greenwood & Earnshaw 1997, p. 1211
  63. ^ Rasmussen, J. K.; Heilmann, S. M. (1990). "In situ Cyanosilylation of Carbonyl Compounds: O-Trimethylsilyl-4-Methoxymandelonitrile". Organic Syntheses, Collected Volume. 7: 521. from the original on September 30, 2007.
  64. ^ Perry, D. L. (1995). Handbook of Inorganic Compounds. CRC Press. pp. 448–458. ISBN 978-0-8493-8671-8.
  65. ^ Frankland, E. (1850). "On the isolation of the organic radicals". Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society. 2 (3): 263. doi:10.1039/QJ8500200263. from the original on June 4, 2023. Retrieved September 27, 2020.
  66. ^ Lide, David (1998). CRC- Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. CRC press. pp. Section 8 Page 1. ISBN 978-0-8493-0479-8.
  67. ^ Weeks 1933, p. 20
  68. ^ Craddock, P. T. (1998). "Zinc in classical antiquity". In Craddock, P.T. (ed.). 2000 years of zinc and brass (rev. ed.). London: British Museum. pp. 3–5. ISBN 978-0-86159-124-4.
  69. ^ a b Weeks 1933, p. 21
  70. ^ a b c d e f Emsley 2001, p. 501
  71. ^ . How Products are Made. The Gale Group. 2002. Archived from the original on April 11, 2006. Retrieved February 21, 2009.
  72. ^ Chambers 1901, p. 799
  73. ^ "World's oldest pills treated sore eyes". New Scientist. January 7, 2013. from the original on January 22, 2013. Retrieved February 5, 2013.
  74. ^ Giachi, Gianna; Pallecchi, Pasquino; Romualdi, Antonella; Ribechini, Erika; Lucejko, Jeannette Jacqueline; Colombini, Maria Perla; Mariotti Lippi, Marta (2013). "Ingredients of a 2,000-y-old medicine revealed by chemical, mineralogical, and botanical investigations". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 110 (4): 1193–1196. Bibcode:2013PNAS..110.1193G. doi:10.1073/pnas.1216776110. PMC 3557061. PMID 23297212.
  75. ^ Rehren, Th. (1996). S. Demirci; et al. (eds.). A Roman zinc tablet from Bern, Switzerland: Reconstruction of the Manufacture. Archaeometry 94. The Proceedings of the 29th International Symposium on Archaeometry. pp. 35–45.
  76. ^ Meulenbeld, G. J. (1999). A History of Indian Medical Literature. Vol. IA. Groningen: Forsten. pp. 130–141. OCLC 165833440.
  77. ^ Craddock, P. T.; et al. (1998). "Zinc in India". 2000 years of zinc and brass (rev. ed.). London: British Museum. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-86159-124-4.
  78. ^ a b p. 46, Ancient mining and metallurgy in Rajasthan, S. M. Gandhi, chapter 2 in Crustal Evolution and Metallogeny in the Northwestern Indian Shield: A Festschrift for Asoke Mookherjee, M. Deb, ed., Alpha Science Int'l Ltd., 2000, ISBN 1-84265-001-7.
  79. ^ a b c Craddock, P. T.; Gurjar L. K.; Hegde K. T. M. (1983). "Zinc production in medieval India". World Archaeology. 15 (2): 211–217. doi:10.1080/00438243.1983.9979899. JSTOR 124653.
  80. ^ Ray, Prafulla Chandra (1903). A History of Hindu Chemistry from the Earliest Times to the Middle of the Sixteenth Century, A.D.: With Sanskrit Texts, Variants, Translation and Illustrations. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). The Bengal Chemical & Pharmaceutical Works, Ltd. pp. 157–158. from the original on March 17, 2024. Retrieved September 27, 2020. (public domain text)
  81. ^ a b c d e f g Habashi, Fathi. (PDF). International Zinc Association (IZA). Archived from the original (PDF) on March 4, 2009. Retrieved December 13, 2008.
  82. ^ Arny, Henry Vinecome (1917). Principles of Pharmacy (2nd ed.). W. B. Saunders company. p. 483. from the original on March 17, 2024. Retrieved September 27, 2020.
  83. ^ Hoover, Herbert Clark (2003). Georgius Agricola de Re Metallica. Kessinger Publishing. p. 409. ISBN 978-0-7661-3197-2.
  84. ^ Gerhartz, Wolfgang; et al. (1996). Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (5th ed.). VHC. p. 509. ISBN 978-3-527-20100-6.
  85. ^ Skeat, W. W (2005). Concise Etymological Dictionary of the English Language. Cosimo, Inc. p. 622. ISBN 978-1-59605-092-1. from the original on March 17, 2024. Retrieved September 27, 2020.
  86. ^ Fathi Habashi (1997). Handbook of Extractive Metallurgy. Wiley-VHC. p. 642. ISBN 978-3-527-28792-5.
  87. ^ Lach, Donald F. (1994). "Technology and the Natural Sciences". Asia in the Making of Europe. University of Chicago Press. p. 426. ISBN 978-0-226-46734-4. from the original on March 17, 2024. Retrieved September 27, 2020.
  88. ^ Vaughan, L Brent (1897). "Zincography". The Junior Encyclopedia Britannica A Reference Library of General Knowledge Volume III P-Z. Chicago: E. G. Melven & Company.
  89. ^ Castellani, Michael. "Transition Metal Elements" (PDF). (PDF) from the original on October 10, 2014. Retrieved October 14, 2014.
  90. ^ Habib, Irfan (2011). Chatopadhyaya, D. P. (ed.). Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500. New Delhi: Pearson Longman. p. 86. ISBN 978-81-317-2791-1. from the original on April 14, 2016.
  91. ^ a b Jenkins, Rhys (1945). "The Zinc Industry in England: the early years up to 1850". Transactions of the Newcomen Society. 25: 41–52. doi:10.1179/tns.1945.006.
  92. ^ Willies, Lynn; Craddock, P. T.; Gurjar, L. J.; Hegde, K. T. M. (1984). "Ancient Lead and Zinc Mining in Rajasthan, India". World Archaeology. 16 (2, Mines and Quarries): 222–233. doi:10.1080/00438243.1984.9979929. JSTOR 124574.
  93. ^ Roberts, R. O. (1951). "Dr John Lane and the foundation of the non-ferrous metal industry in the Swansea valley". Gower (4). Gower Society: 19.
  94. ^ Comyns, Alan E. (2007). Encyclopedic Dictionary of Named Processes in Chemical Technology (3rd ed.). CRC Press. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-8493-9163-7. from the original on March 17, 2024. Retrieved September 27, 2020.
  95. ^ Marggraf (1746). "Experiences sur la maniere de tirer le Zinc de sa veritable miniere, c'est à dire, de la pierre calaminaire" [Experiments on a way of extracting zinc from its true mineral; i.e., the stone calamine]. Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences et Belles-Lettres de Berlin (in French). 2: 49–57. from the original on June 4, 2023. Retrieved October 16, 2020.
  96. ^ Heiserman 1992, p. 122
  97. ^ Gray, Leon (2005). Zinc. Marshall Cavendish. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-7614-1922-8.
  98. ^ a b c Warren, Neville G. (2000). Excel Preliminary Physics. Pascal Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-1-74020-085-1. from the original on March 17, 2024. Retrieved September 27, 2020.
  99. ^ a b "Galvanic Cell". The New International Encyclopaedia. Dodd, Mead and Company. 1903. p. 80. from the original on March 17, 2024. Retrieved September 27, 2020.
  100. ^ a b c Cotton et al. 1999, p. 626
  101. ^ Jasinski, Stephen M. "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2007: Zinc" (PDF). United States Geological Survey. (PDF) from the original on December 17, 2008. Retrieved November 25, 2008.
  102. ^ Attwood, James (February 13, 2006). "Zinifex, Umicore Combine to Form Top Zinc Maker". The Wall Street Journal. from the original on January 26, 2017.
  103. ^ . International Zinc Association. Archived from the original on October 21, 2011. Retrieved November 28, 2008.
  104. ^ (PDF). Nyrstar. 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 4, 2009. Retrieved December 1, 2008.
  105. ^ a b c d e Porter, Frank C. (1991). Zinc Handbook. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8247-8340-2. from the original on March 17, 2024. Retrieved September 27, 2020.
  106. ^ a b c Rosenqvist, Terkel (1922). Principles of Extractive Metallurgy (2nd ed.). Tapir Academic Press. pp. 7, 16, 186. ISBN 978-82-519-1922-7.
  107. ^ Borg, Gregor; Kärner, Katrin; Buxton, Mike; Armstrong, Richard; van der Merwe, Schalk W. (2003). "Geology of the Skorpion Supergene Zinc Deposit, Southern Namibia". Economic Geology. 98 (4): 749–771. doi:10.2113/98.4.749.
  108. ^ Bodsworth, Colin (1994). The Extraction and Refining of Metals. CRC Press. p. 148. ISBN 978-0-8493-4433-6.
  109. ^ Gupta, C. K.; Mukherjee, T. K. (1990). Hydrometallurgy in Extraction Processes. CRC Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-8493-6804-2.
  110. ^ Antrekowitsch, Jürgen; Steinlechner, Stefan; Unger, Alois; Rösler, Gernot; Pichler, Christoph; Rumpold, Rene (2014), "9. Zinc and Residue Recycling", in Worrell, Ernst; Reuter, Markus (eds.), Handbook of Recycling: State-of-the-art for Practitioners, Analysts, and Scientists
  111. ^ a b Kucha, H.; Martens, A.; Ottenburgs, R.; De Vos, W.; Viaene, W. (1996). "Primary minerals of Zn-Pb mining and metallurgical dumps and their environmental behavior at Plombières, Belgium". Environmental Geology. 27 (1): 1–15. Bibcode:1996EnGeo..27....1K. doi:10.1007/BF00770598. S2CID 129717791.
  112. ^ a b c d Emsley 2001, p. 504
  113. ^ Heath, Alan G. (1995). Water pollution and fish physiology. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-87371-632-1. from the original on March 17, 2024. Retrieved September 27, 2020.
  114. ^ . Derwent Estuary Program. June 2007. Archived from the original on March 21, 2012. Retrieved July 11, 2009.
  115. ^ "The Zinc Works". TChange. from the original on April 27, 2009. Retrieved July 11, 2009.
  116. ^ Van Eynde, Elise; Fendrich, Arthur Nicolaus; Ballabio, Cristiano; Panagos, Panos (September 1, 2023). "Spatial assessment of topsoil zinc concentrations in Europe". Science of the Total Environment. 892: 164512. Bibcode:2023ScTEn.892p4512V. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.164512. PMID 37268130. from the original on October 14, 2023. Retrieved February 21, 2024.
  117. ^ a b c "Zinc: World Mine Production (zinc content of concentrate) by Country" (PDF). 2009 Minerals Yearbook: Zinc. Washington, D.C.: United States Geological Survey. February 2010. (PDF) from the original on June 8, 2011. Retrieved June 6, 2001.
  118. ^ Greenwood & Earnshaw 1997, p. 1203
  119. ^ a b Stwertka 1998, p. 99
  120. ^ a b c d e f g Lehto 1968, p. 829
  121. ^ a b Emsley 2001, p. 503
  122. ^ Bounoughaz, M.; Salhi, E.; Benzine, K.; Ghali E.; Dalard F. (2003). "A comparative study of the electrochemical behaviour of Algerian zinc and a zinc from a commercial sacrificial anode". Journal of Materials Science. 38 (6): 1139–1145. Bibcode:2003JMatS..38.1139B. doi:10.1023/A:1022824813564. S2CID 135744939.
  123. ^ Besenhard, Jürgen O. (1999). Handbook of Battery Materials. Wiley-VCH. Bibcode:1999hbm..book.....B. ISBN 978-3-527-29469-5.
  124. ^ Wiaux, J.-P.; Waefler, J. -P. (1995). "Recycling zinc batteries: an economical challenge in consumer waste management". Journal of Power Sources. 57 (1–2): 61–65. Bibcode:1995JPS....57...61W. doi:10.1016/0378-7753(95)02242-2.
  125. ^ Culter, T. (1996). "A design guide for rechargeable zinc–air battery technology". Southcon/96. Conference Record. p. 616. doi:10.1109/SOUTHC.1996.535134. ISBN 978-0-7803-3268-3. S2CID 106826667.
  126. ^ Whartman, Jonathan; Brown, Ian. (PDF). The 15th International Electric Vehicle Symposium. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 12, 2006. Retrieved October 8, 2008.
  127. ^ Cooper, J. F.; Fleming, D.; Hargrove, D.; Koopman, R.; Peterman, K (1995). "A refuelable zinc/air battery for fleet electric vehicle propulsion". NASA Sti/Recon Technical Report N. 96. Society of Automotive Engineers future transportation technology conference and exposition: 11394. Bibcode:1995STIN...9611394C. OSTI 82465.
  128. ^ Xie, Z.; Liu, Q.; Chang, Z.; Zhang, X. (2013). "The developments and challenges of cerium half-cell in zinc–cerium redox flow battery for energy storage". Electrochimica Acta. 90: 695–704. doi:10.1016/j.electacta.2012.12.066.
  129. ^ Bush, Douglas Earl; Kassel, Richard (2006). The Organ: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 679. ISBN 978-0-415-94174-7. from the original on March 17, 2024. Retrieved September 27, 2020.
  130. ^ "Coin Specifications". United States Mint. from the original on February 18, 2015. Retrieved October 8, 2008.
  131. ^ Jasinski, Stephen M. "Mineral Yearbook 1994: Zinc" (PDF). United States Geological Survey. (PDF) from the original on October 29, 2008. Retrieved November 13, 2008.
  132. ^ "Diecasting Alloys". Maybrook, NY: Eastern Alloys. from the original on December 25, 2008. Retrieved January 19, 2009.
  133. ^ Apelian, D.; Paliwal, M.; Herrschaft, D. C. (1981). "Casting with Zinc Alloys". Journal of Metals. 33 (11): 12–19. Bibcode:1981JOM....33k..12A. doi:10.1007/bf03339527.
  134. ^ Davies, Geoff (2003). Materials for automobile bodies. Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 157. ISBN 978-0-7506-5692-4. from the original on March 17, 2024. Retrieved September 27, 2020.
  135. ^ Samans, Carl Hubert (1949). Engineering Metals and Their Alloys. Macmillan Co.
  136. ^ a b Porter, Frank (1994). "Wrought Zinc". Corrosion Resistance of Zinc and Zinc Alloys. CRC Press. pp. 6–7. ISBN 978-0-8247-9213-8. from the original on March 17, 2024. Retrieved September 27, 2020.
  137. ^ McClane, Albert Jules & Gardner, Keith (1987). The Complete book of fishing: a guide to freshwater, saltwater & big-game fishing. Gallery Books. ISBN 978-0-8317-1565-6. from the original on November 15, 2012. Retrieved June 26, 2012.
  138. ^ . Minoura. Archived from the original on March 23, 2013.
  139. ^ a b c Katz, Johnathan I. (2002). The Biggest Bangs. Oxford University Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-19-514570-0.
  140. ^ Zhang, Xiaoge Gregory (1996). Corrosion and Electrochemistry of Zinc. Springer. p. 93. ISBN 978-0-306-45334-2.
  141. ^ Weimer, Al (May 17, 2006). "Development of Solar-powered Thermochemical Production of Hydrogen from Water" (PDF). U.S. Department of Energy. (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved January 10, 2009.
  142. ^ a b c Heiserman 1992, p. 124
  143. ^ Blew, Joseph Oscar (1953). "Wood preservatives" (PDF). Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. hdl:1957/816. (PDF) from the original on January 14, 2012.
  144. ^ Frankland, Edward (1849). "Notiz über eine neue Reihe organischer Körper, welche Metalle, Phosphor u. s. w. enthalten". Liebig's Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie (in German). 71 (2): 213–216. doi:10.1002/jlac.18490710206. from the original on March 31, 2023. Retrieved September 4, 2019.
  145. ^ a b CRC 2006, p. 4-42
  146. ^ Paschotta, Rüdiger (2008). Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology. Wiley-VCH. p. 798. ISBN 978-3-527-40828-3.[permanent dead link]
  147. ^ Konstantinou, I. K.; Albanis, T. A. (2004). "Worldwide occurrence and effects of antifouling paint booster biocides in the aquatic environment: a review". Environment International. 30 (2): 235–248. Bibcode:2004EnInt..30..235K. doi:10.1016/S0160-4120(03)00176-4. PMID 14749112.
  148. ^ a b c Boudreaux, Kevin A. "Zinc + Sulfur". Angelo State University. from the original on December 2, 2008. Retrieved October 8, 2008.
  149. ^ "Rolled and Titanium Zinc Sheet". from the original on July 7, 2022. Retrieved October 21, 2022.
  150. ^ "Things You Should Know About Zinc Countertops". from the original on October 22, 2022. Retrieved October 21, 2022.
  151. ^ "Guide to Zinc Countertops: Benefits of Zinc Kitchen Counters". from the original on October 22, 2022. Retrieved October 21, 2022.
  152. ^ . Zinc Counters. 2008. Archived from the original on November 21, 2008. Retrieved November 29, 2008.
  153. ^ a b c Win, David Tin; Masum, Al (2003). "Weapons of Mass Destruction" (PDF). Assumption University Journal of Technology. 6 (4). Assumption University: 199. (PDF) from the original on March 26, 2009. Retrieved April 6, 2009.
  154. ^ David E. Newton (1999). Chemical Elements: From Carbon to Krypton. U. X. L. /Gale. ISBN 978-0-7876-2846-8. from the original on July 10, 2008. Retrieved April 6, 2009.
  155. ^ Ullmann's Agrochemicals. Wiley-Vch (COR). 2007. pp. 591–592. ISBN 978-3-527-31604-5.[permanent dead link]
  156. ^ Walker, J. C. F. (2006). Primary Wood Processing: Principles and Practice. Springer. p. 317. ISBN 978-1-4020-4392-5.
  157. ^ "ZDDP Engine Oil – The Zinc Factor". Mustang Monthly. from the original on September 12, 2009. Retrieved September 19, 2009.
  158. ^ Kim, Jeung Gon; Walsh, Patrick J. (2006). "From Aryl Bromides to Enantioenriched Benzylic Alcohols in a Single Flask: Catalytic Asymmetric Arylation of Aldehydes". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 45 (25): 4175–4178. doi:10.1002/anie.200600741. PMID 16721894.
  159. ^ Overman, Larry E.; Carpenter, Nancy E. (2005). The Allylic Trihaloacetimidate Rearrangement. Organic Reactions. Vol. 66. pp. 1–107. doi:10.1002/0471264180.or066.01. ISBN 978-0-471-26418-7.
  160. ^ Rappoport, Zvi; Marek, Ilan (December 17, 2007). The Chemistry of Organozinc Compounds: R-Zn. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-09337-5. from the original on April 14, 2016.
  161. ^ Knochel, Paul; Jones, Philip (1999). Organozinc reagents: A practical approach. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-850121-3. from the original on April 14, 2016.
  162. ^ Herrmann, Wolfgang A. (January 2002). Synthetic Methods of Organometallic and Inorganic Chemistry: Catalysis. Georg Thieme Verlag. ISBN 978-3-13-103061-0. from the original on April 14, 2016.
  163. ^ E. Frankland, Ann. 126, 109 (1863)
  164. ^ E. Frankland, B. F. Duppa, Ann. 135, 25 (1865)
  165. ^ Łowicki, Daniel; Baś, Sebastian; Mlynarski, Jacek (2015). "Chiral zinc catalysts for asymmetric synthesis". Tetrahedron. 71 (9): 1339–1394. doi:10.1016/j.tet.2014.12.022.
  166. ^ a b Stiles LI, Ferrao K, Mehta KJ (February 2024). "Role of zinc in health and disease". Clin Exp Med. 24 (1): 38. doi:10.1007/s10238-024-01302-6. PMC 10874324. PMID 38367035.
  167. ^ DiSilvestro, Robert A. (2004). Handbook of Minerals as Nutritional Supplements. CRC Press. pp. 135, 155. ISBN 978-0-8493-1652-4.
  168. ^ Sanchez, Juliana (February 13, 2013). Zinc Sulphate vs. Zinc Amino Acid Chelate (ZAZO) (Report). USA Government. NCT01791608. from the original on April 6, 2022. Retrieved April 6, 2022 – via U.S. National Library of Medecine.
  169. ^ Mayo-Wilson, E; Junior, JA; Imdad, A; Dean, S; Chan, XH; Chan, ES; Jaswal, A; Bhutta, ZA (May 15, 2014). "Zinc supplementation for preventing mortality, morbidity, and growth failure in children aged 6 months to 12 years of age". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (5): CD009384. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009384.pub2. PMID 24826920.
  170. ^ Santos HO, Teixeira FJ, Schoenfeld BJ (2019). "Dietary vs. pharmacological doses of zinc: A clinical review". Clin Nutr. 130 (5): 1345–1353. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2019.06.024. PMID 31303527. S2CID 196616666.
  171. ^ Bhutta ZA, Bird SM, Black RE, Brown KH, Gardner JM, Hidayat A, Khatun F, Martorell R, et al. (2000). "Therapeutic effects of oral zinc in acute and persistent diarrhea in children in developing countries: pooled analysis of randomized controlled trials". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 72 (6): 1516–1522. doi:10.1093/ajcn/72.6.1516. PMID 11101480.
  172. ^ Aydemir, T. B.; Blanchard, R. K.; Cousins, R. J. (2006). "Zinc supplementation of young men alters metallothionein, zinc transporter, and cytokine gene expression in leukocyte populations". PNAS. 103 (6): 1699–704. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.1699A. doi:10.1073/pnas.0510407103. PMC 1413653. PMID 16434472.
  173. ^ Valko, M.; Morris, H.; Cronin, M. T. D. (2005). (PDF). Current Medicinal Chemistry. 12 (10): 1161–208. doi:10.2174/0929867053764635. PMID 15892631. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 8, 2017.
  174. ^ a b c d e f "Zinc – Fact Sheet for Health Professionals". Office of Dietary Supplements, US National Institutes of Health. February 11, 2016. Retrieved January 7, 2018.
  175. ^ a b Science M, Johnstone J, Roth DE, Guyatt G, Loeb M (July 2012). "Zinc for the treatment of the common cold: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials". CMAJ. 184 (10): E551-61. doi:10.1503/cmaj.111990. PMC 3394849. PMID 22566526.
  176. ^ "Common Cold and Runny Nose". United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. September 26, 2017. Retrieved January 7, 2018.
  177. ^ Suzuki H, Asakawa A, Li JB, Tsai M, Amitani H, Ohinata K, Komai M, Inui A (2011). "Zinc as an appetite stimulator – the possible role of zinc in the progression of diseases such as cachexia and sarcopenia". Recent Patents on Food, Nutrition & Agriculture. 3 (3): 226–231. doi:10.2174/2212798411103030226. PMID 21846317.
  178. ^ Shay, Neil F.; Mangian, Heather F. (2000). "Neurobiology of Zinc-Influenced Eating Behavior". The Journal of Nutrition. 130 (5): 1493S–1499S. doi:10.1093/jn/130.5.1493S. PMID 10801965.
  179. ^ Rabinovich D, Smadi Y (2019). "Zinc". StatPearls [Internet]. PMID 31613478.
  180. ^ Evans, Jennifer R.; Lawrenson, John G. (September 13, 2023). "Antioxidant vitamin and mineral supplements for slowing the progression of age-related macular degeneration". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2023 (9): CD000254. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000254.pub5. ISSN 1469-493X. PMC 10498493. PMID 37702300. from the original on September 29, 2023. Retrieved October 16, 2023.
  181. ^ Swardfager W, Herrmann N, McIntyre RS, Mazereeuw G, Goldberger K, Cha DS, Schwartz Y, Lanctôt KL (June 2013). "Potential roles of zinc in the pathophysiology and treatment of major depressive disorder". Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 37 (5): 911–929. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.03.018. PMID 23567517. S2CID 1725139.
  182. ^ Research, Center for Drug Evaluation and (November 16, 2021). "Questions and Answers: FDA posts deemed final order and proposed order for over-the-counter sunscreen". FDA. from the original on August 16, 2022. Retrieved October 31, 2022.
  183. ^ Chauhan, Ravi; Kumar, Amit; Tripathi, Ramna; Kumar, Akhilesh (2021), Mallakpour, Shadpour; Hussain, Chaudhery Mustansar (eds.), "Advancing of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles for Cosmetic Applications", Handbook of Consumer Nanoproducts, Singapore: Springer, pp. 1–16, doi:10.1007/978-981-15-6453-6_100-1, ISBN 978-981-15-6453-6, S2CID 245778598, from the original on March 17, 2024, retrieved October 31, 2022
  184. ^ Roldán, S.; Winkel, E. G.; Herrera, D.; Sanz, M.; Van Winkelhoff, A. J. (2003). "The effects of a new mouthrinse containing chlorhexidine, cetylpyridinium chloride and zinc lactate on the microflora of oral halitosis patients: a dual-centre, double-blind placebo-controlled study". Journal of Clinical Periodontology. 30 (5): 427–434. doi:10.1034/j.1600-051X.2003.20004.x. PMID 12716335.
  185. ^ "Toothpastes". www.ada.org. from the original on March 5, 2016. Retrieved September 27, 2020.
  186. ^ Marks, R.; Pearse, A. D.; Walker, A. P. (1985). "The effects of a shampoo containing zinc pyrithione on the control of dandruff". British Journal of Dermatology. 112 (4): 415–422. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2133.1985.tb02314.x. PMID 3158327. S2CID 23368244.
  187. ^ Mahajan, BB; Dhawan, M; Singh, R (January 2013). "Herpes genitalis – Topical zinc sulfate: An alternative therapeutic and modality". Indian Journal of Sexually Transmitted Diseases and AIDS. 34 (1): 32–4. doi:10.4103/0253-7184.112867. PMC 3730471. PMID 23919052.
  188. ^ Kong, Lingyun; Heydari, Zahra; Lami, Ghadeer Hazim; Saberi, Abbas; Baltatu, Madalina Simona; Vizureanu, Petrica (July 3, 2023). "A Comprehensive Review of the Current Research Status of Biodegradable Zinc Alloys and Composites for Biomedical Applications". Materials. 16 (13): 4797. Bibcode:2023Mate...16.4797K. doi:10.3390/ma16134797. ISSN 1996-1944. PMC 10343804. PMID 37445111.
  189. ^ Cotton et al. 1999, pp. 625–629
  190. ^ Plum, Laura; Rink, Lothar; Haase, Hajo (2010). "The Essential Toxin: Impact of Zinc on Human Health". Int J Environ Res Public Health. 7 (4): 1342–1365. doi:10.3390/ijerph7041342. PMC 2872358. PMID 20617034.
  191. ^ Brandt, Erik G.; Hellgren, Mikko; Brinck, Tore; Bergman, Tomas; Edholm, Olle (2009). "Molecular dynamics study of zinc binding to cysteines in a peptide mimic of the alcohol dehydrogenase structural zinc site". Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 11 (6): 975–83. Bibcode:2009PCCP...11..975B. doi:10.1039/b815482a. PMID 19177216. from the original on May 24, 2023. Retrieved September 9, 2019.
  192. ^ a b c Rink, L.; Gabriel P. (2000). "Zinc and the immune system". Proc Nutr Soc. 59 (4): 541–52. doi:10.1017/S0029665100000781. PMID 11115789.
  193. ^ Wapnir, Raul A. (1990). Protein Nutrition and Mineral Absorption. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-5227-0. from the original on March 17, 2024. Retrieved September 27, 2020.
  194. ^ Berdanier, Carolyn D.; Dwyer, Johanna T.; Feldman, Elaine B. (2007). Handbook of Nutrition and Food. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-9218-4. from the original on March 17, 2024. Retrieved September 27, 2020.
  195. ^ Mittermeier, Lorenz; Gudermann, Thomas; Zakharian, Eleonora; Simmons, David G.; Braun, Vladimir; Chubanov, Masayuki; Hilgendorff, Anne; Recordati, Camilla; Breit, Andreas (February 15, 2019). "TRPM7 is the central gatekeeper of intestinal mineral absorption essential for postnatal survival". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 116 (10): 4706–4715. Bibcode:2019PNAS..116.4706M. doi:10.1073/pnas.1810633116. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 6410795. PMID 30770447.
  196. ^ Kasana, Shakhenabat; Din, Jamila; Maret, Wolfgang (January 2015). "Genetic causes and gene–nutrient interactions in mammalian zinc deficiencies: acrodermatitis enteropathica and transient neonatal zinc deficiency as examples". Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology. 29: 47–62. doi:10.1016/j.jtemb.2014.10.003. ISSN 1878-3252. PMID 25468189.
  197. ^ Djoko KY, Ong CL, Walker MJ, McEwan AG (July 2015). "The Role of Copper and Zinc Toxicity in Innate Immune Defense against Bacterial Pathogens". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 290 (31): 18954–61. doi:10.1074/jbc.R115.647099. PMC 4521016. PMID 26055706. Zn is present in up to 10% of proteins in the human proteome and computational analysis predicted that ~30% of these ~3000 Zn-containing proteins are crucial cellular enzymes, such as hydrolases, ligases, transferases, oxidoreductases, and isomerases (42,43).
  198. ^ a b Bitanihirwe BK, Cunningham MG (November 2009). "Zinc: the brain's dark horse". Synapse. 63 (11): 1029–1049. doi:10.1002/syn.20683. PMID 19623531. S2CID 206520330.
  199. ^ Nakashima AS; Dyck RH (2009). "Zinc and cortical plasticity". Brain Res Rev. 59 (2): 347–73. doi:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2008.10.003. PMID 19026685. S2CID 22507338.
  200. ^ Tyszka-Czochara M, Grzywacz A, Gdula-Argasińska J, Librowski T, Wiliński B, Opoka W (May 2014). "The role of zinc in the pathogenesis and treatment of central nervous system (CNS) diseases. Implications of zinc homeostasis for proper CNS function" (PDF). Acta Pol. Pharm. 71 (3): 369–377. PMID 25265815. (PDF) from the original on August 29, 2017.
  201. ^ Yokel, R. A. (2006). "Blood-brain barrier flux of aluminum, manganese, iron and other metals suspected to contribute to metal-induced neurodegeneration". Journal of Alzheimer's Disease. 10 (2–3): 223–53. doi:10.3233/JAD-2006-102-309. PMID 17119290.
  202. ^ a b c d e Institute of Medicine (2001). "Zinc". Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. pp. 442–501. doi:10.17226/10026. ISBN 978-0-309-07279-3. PMID 25057538. from the original on September 19, 2017.
  203. ^ Stipanuk, Martha H. (2006). Biochemical, Physiological & Molecular Aspects of Human Nutrition. W. B. Saunders Company. pp. 1043–1067. ISBN 978-0-7216-4452-3.
  204. ^ a b Greenwood & Earnshaw 1997, pp. 1224–1225
  205. ^ Kohen, Amnon; Limbach, Hans-Heinrich (2006). Isotope Effects in Chemistry and Biology. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. p. 850. ISBN 978-0-8247-2449-8. from the original on March 17, 2024. Retrieved September 27, 2020.
  206. ^ a b Greenwood & Earnshaw 1997, p. 1225
  207. ^ Cotton et al. 1999, p. 627
  208. ^ Gadallah, MA (2000). "Effects of indole-3-acetic acid and zinc on the growth, osmotic potential and soluble carbon and nitrogen components of soybean plants growing under water deficit". Journal of Arid Environments. 44 (4): 451–467. Bibcode:2000JArEn..44..451G. doi:10.1006/jare.1999.0610.
  209. ^ Ziliotto, Silvia; Ogle, Olivia; Yaylor, Kathryn M. (2018). "Chapter 17. Targeting Zinc(II) Signalling to Prevent Cancer". In Sigel, Astrid; Sigel, Helmut; Freisinger, Eva; Sigel, Roland K. O. (eds.). Metallo-Drugs: Development and Action of Anticancer Agents. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 18. Berlin: de Gruyter GmbH. pp. 507–529. doi:10.1515/9783110470734-023. ISBN 9783110470734. PMID 29394036.
  210. ^ Cotton et al. 1999, p. 628
  211. ^ Whitney, Eleanor Noss; Rolfes, Sharon Rady (2005). Understanding Nutrition (10th ed.). Thomson Learning. pp. 447–450. ISBN 978-1-4288-1893-4.
  212. ^ Hershfinkel, M; Silverman WF; Sekler I (2007). "The Zinc Sensing Receptor, a Link Between Zinc and Cell Signaling". Molecular Medicine. 13 (7–8): 331–336. doi:10.2119/2006-00038.Hershfinkel. PMC 1952663. PMID 17728842.
  213. ^ Cotton et al. 1999, p. 629
  214. ^ Blake, Steve (2007). Vitamins and Minerals Demystified. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 242. ISBN 
April 14, 2024
zinc, this, article, about, chemical, element, other, uses, disambiguation, chemical, element, symbol, atomic, number, slightly, brittle, metal, room, temperature, shiny, greyish, appearance, when, oxidation, removed, first, element, group, periodic, table, so. This article is about the chemical element For other uses see Zinc disambiguation Zinc is a chemical element it has symbol Zn and atomic number 30 It is a slightly brittle metal at room temperature and has a shiny greyish appearance when oxidation is removed It is the first element in group 12 IIB of the periodic table In some respects it is chemically similar to magnesium both elements exhibit only one normal oxidation state 2 and the Zn2 and Mg2 ions are of similar size note 1 Zinc is the 24th most abundant element in Earth s crust and has five stable isotopes The most common zinc ore is sphalerite zinc blende a zinc sulfide mineral The largest workable lodes are in Australia Asia and the United States Zinc is refined by froth flotation of the ore roasting and final extraction using electricity electrowinning Zinc 30ZnZincAppearancesilver grayStandard atomic weight Ar Zn 65 38 0 02 1 65 38 0 02 abridged 2 Zinc in the periodic tableHydrogen HeliumLithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine NeonSodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine ArgonPotassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine KryptonRubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine XenonCaesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury element Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine RadonFrancium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson Zn Cdcopper zinc galliumAtomic number Z 30Groupgroup 12Periodperiod 4Block d blockElectron configuration Ar 3d10 4s2Electrons per shell2 8 18 2Physical propertiesPhase at STPsolidMelting point692 68 K 419 53 C 787 15 F Boiling point1180 K 907 C 1665 F Density near r t 7 14 g cm3when liquid at m p 6 57 g cm3Heat of fusion7 32 kJ molHeat of vaporization115 kJ molMolar heat capacity25 470 J mol K Vapor pressureP Pa 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 kat T K 610 670 750 852 990 1179Atomic propertiesOxidation states 2 0 1 2 an amphoteric oxide ElectronegativityPauling scale 1 65Ionization energies1st 906 4 kJ mol2nd 1733 3 kJ mol3rd 3833 kJ mol more Atomic radiusempirical 134 pmCovalent radius122 4 pmVan der Waals radius139 pmSpectral lines of zincOther propertiesNatural occurrenceprimordialCrystal structure hexagonal close packed hcp hP2 Lattice constantsa 266 46 pmc 494 55 pm at 20 C 3 Thermal expansion30 2 µm m K at 25 C Thermal conductivity116 W m K Electrical resistivity59 0 nW m at 20 C Magnetic orderingdiamagneticMolar magnetic susceptibility 11 4 10 6 cm3 mol 298 K 4 Young s modulus108 GPaShear modulus43 GPaBulk modulus70 GPaSpeed of sound thin rod3850 m s at r t rolled Poisson ratio0 25Mohs hardness2 5Brinell hardness327 412 MPaCAS Number7440 66 6HistoryDiscoveryIndian metallurgists before 1000 BCE First isolationAndreas Sigismund Marggraf 1746 Recognized as a unique metal byRasaratna Samuccaya 1300 Isotopes of zincveMain isotopes 5 Decayabun dance half life t1 2 mode pro duct64Zn 49 2 stable65Zn synth 244 d b 65Cu66Zn 27 7 stable67Zn 4 stable68Zn 18 5 stable69Zn synth 56 min b 69Ga69mZn synth 13 8 h b 69Ga70Zn 0 6 stable71Zn synth 2 4 min b 71Ga71mZn synth 4 h b 71Ga72Zn synth 46 5 h b 72Ga Category Zincviewtalkedit referencesZinc is an essential trace element for humans 6 7 8 animals 9 plants 10 and for microorganisms 11 and is necessary for prenatal and postnatal development 12 It is the second most abundant trace metal in humans after iron and the only metal which appears in all enzyme classes 10 8 It is also an essential nutrient element for coral growth as it is an important cofactor for many enzymes 13 Zinc deficiency affects about two billion people in the developing world and is associated with many diseases 14 In children deficiency causes growth retardation delayed sexual maturation infection susceptibility and diarrhea 12 Enzymes with a zinc atom in the reactive center are widespread in biochemistry such as alcohol dehydrogenase in humans 15 Consumption of excess zinc may cause ataxia lethargy and copper deficiency In marine biomes notably within polar regions a deficit of zinc can compromise the vitality of primary algal communities potentially destabilizing the intricate marine trophic structures and consequently impacting biodiversity 16 Brass an alloy of copper and zinc in various proportions was used as early as the third millennium BC in the Aegean area and the region which currently includes Iraq the United Arab Emirates Kalmykia Turkmenistan and Georgia In the second millennium BC it was used in the regions currently including West India Uzbekistan Iran Syria Iraq and Israel 17 18 19 Zinc metal was not produced on a large scale until the 12th century in India though it was known to the ancient Romans and Greeks 20 The mines of Rajasthan have given definite evidence of zinc production going back to the 6th century BC 21 To date the oldest evidence of pure zinc comes from Zawar in Rajasthan as early as the 9th century AD when a distillation process was employed to make pure zinc 22 Alchemists burned zinc in air to form what they called philosopher s wool or white snow The element was probably named by the alchemist Paracelsus after the German word Zinke prong tooth German chemist Andreas Sigismund Marggraf is credited with discovering pure metallic zinc in 1746 Work by Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta uncovered the electrochemical properties of zinc by 1800 Corrosion resistant zinc plating of iron hot dip galvanizing is the major application for zinc Other applications are in electrical batteries small non structural castings and alloys such as brass A variety of zinc compounds are commonly used such as zinc carbonate and zinc gluconate as dietary supplements zinc chloride in deodorants zinc pyrithione anti dandruff shampoos zinc sulfide in luminescent paints and dimethylzinc or diethylzinc in the organic laboratory Contents 1 Characteristics 1 1 Physical properties 1 2 Occurrence 1 3 Isotopes 2 Compounds and chemistry 2 1 Reactivity 2 2 Zinc I compounds 2 3 Zinc II compounds 2 4 Test for zinc 3 History 3 1 Ancient use 3 2 Early studies and naming 3 3 Isolation 3 4 Later work 4 Production 4 1 Mining and processing 4 2 Environmental impact 5 Applications 5 1 Anti corrosion and batteries 5 2 Alloys 5 3 Other industrial uses 5 4 Organic chemistry 5 5 Dietary supplement 5 5 1 Gastroenteritis 5 5 2 Common cold 5 5 3 Weight gain 5 5 4 Other 5 6 Topical use 6 Biological role 6 1 Enzymes 6 2 Signalling 6 3 Other proteins 6 4 Nutrition 6 4 1 Dietary recommendations 6 4 2 Dietary intake 6 5 Deficiency 6 6 Soil remediation 6 7 Agriculture 7 Precautions 7 1 Toxicity 7 2 Poisoning 8 See also 9 Notes 10 Citations 11 Bibliography 12 External linksCharacteristics editPhysical properties edit Zinc is a bluish white lustrous diamagnetic metal 23 though most common commercial grades of the metal have a dull finish 24 It is somewhat less dense than iron and has a hexagonal crystal structure with a distorted form of hexagonal close packing in which each atom has six nearest neighbors at 265 9 pm in its own plane and six others at a greater distance of 290 6 pm 25 The metal is hard and brittle at most temperatures but becomes malleable between 100 and 150 C 23 24 Above 210 C the metal becomes brittle again and can be pulverized by beating 26 Zinc is a fair conductor of electricity 23 For a metal zinc has relatively low melting 419 5 C and boiling point 907 C 27 The melting point is the lowest of all the d block metals aside from mercury and cadmium for this reason among others zinc cadmium and mercury are often not considered to be transition metals like the rest of the d block metals 27 Many alloys contain zinc including brass Other metals long known to form binary alloys with zinc are aluminium antimony bismuth gold iron lead mercury silver tin magnesium cobalt nickel tellurium and sodium 28 Although neither zinc nor zirconium is ferromagnetic their alloy ZrZn2 exhibits ferromagnetism below 35 K 23 Occurrence edit See also Zinc minerals Zinc makes up about 75 ppm 0 0075 of Earth s crust making it the 24th most abundant element Typical background concentrations of zinc do not exceed 1 mg m3 in the atmosphere 300 mg kg in soil 100 mg kg in vegetation 20 mg L in freshwater and 5 mg L in seawater 29 The element is normally found in association with other base metals such as copper and lead in ores 30 Zinc is a chalcophile meaning the element is more likely to be found in minerals together with sulfur and other heavy chalcogens rather than with the light chalcogen oxygen or with non chalcogen electronegative elements such as the halogens Sulfides formed as the crust solidified under the reducing conditions of the early Earth s atmosphere 31 Sphalerite which is a form of zinc sulfide is the most heavily mined zinc containing ore because its concentrate contains 60 62 zinc 30 Other source minerals for zinc include smithsonite zinc carbonate hemimorphite zinc silicate wurtzite another zinc sulfide and sometimes hydrozincite basic zinc carbonate 32 With the exception of wurtzite all these other minerals were formed by weathering of the primordial zinc sulfides 31 Identified world zinc resources total about 1 9 2 8 billion tonnes 33 34 Large deposits are in Australia Canada and the United States with the largest reserves in Iran 31 35 36 The most recent estimate of reserve base for zinc meets specified minimum physical criteria related to current mining and production practices was made in 2009 and calculated to be roughly 480 Mt 37 Zinc reserves on the other hand are geologically identified ore bodies whose suitability for recovery is economically based location grade quality and quantity at the time of determination Since exploration and mine development is an ongoing process the amount of zinc reserves is not a fixed number and sustainability of zinc ore supplies cannot be judged by simply extrapolating the combined mine life of today s zinc mines This concept is well supported by data from the United States Geological Survey USGS which illustrates that although refined zinc production increased 80 between 1990 and 2010 the reserve lifetime for zinc has remained unchanged About 346 million tonnes have been extracted throughout history to 2002 and scholars have estimated that about 109 305 million tonnes are in use 38 39 40 nbsp Sphalerite ZnS Isotopes edit Main article Isotopes of zinc Five stable isotopes of zinc occur in nature with 64Zn being the most abundant isotope 49 17 natural abundance 41 42 The other isotopes found in nature are 66 Zn 27 73 67 Zn 4 04 68 Zn 18 45 and 70 Zn 0 61 42 Several dozen radioisotopes have been characterized 65 Zn which has a half life of 243 66 days is the least active radioisotope followed by 72 Zn with a half life of 46 5 hours 41 Zinc has 10 nuclear isomers of which 69mZn has the longest half life 13 76 h 41 The superscript m indicates a metastable isotope The nucleus of a metastable isotope is in an excited state and will return to the ground state by emitting a photon in the form of a gamma ray 61 Zn has three excited metastable states and 73 Zn has two 43 The isotopes 65 Zn 71 Zn 77 Zn and 78 Zn each have only one excited metastable state 41 The most common decay mode of a radioisotope of zinc with a mass number lower than 66 is positron emission b resulting an isotope of copper 5 n30 Zn n29 Cu e neThe most common decay mode of a radioisotope of zinc with mass number higher than 66 is beta decay b which produces an isotope of gallium 41 n30 Zn n31 Ga e n eCompounds and chemistry editMain article Compounds of zinc Reactivity edit See also Clemmensen reduction Zinc has an electron configuration of Ar 3d104s2 and is a member of the group 12 of the periodic table It is a moderately reactive metal and strong reducing agent 44 The surface of the pure metal tarnishes quickly eventually forming a protective passivating layer of the basic zinc carbonate Zn5 OH 6 CO3 2 by reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide 45 Zinc burns in air with a bright bluish green flame giving off fumes of zinc oxide 46 Zinc reacts readily with acids alkalis and other non metals 47 Extremely pure zinc reacts only slowly at room temperature with acids 46 Strong acids such as hydrochloric or sulfuric acid can remove the passivating layer and the subsequent reaction with the acid releases hydrogen gas 46 The chemistry of zinc is dominated by the 2 oxidation state When compounds in this oxidation state are formed the outer shell s electrons are lost yielding a bare zinc ion with the electronic configuration Ar 3d10 48 In aqueous solution an octahedral complex Zn H2 O 6 2 is the predominant species 49 The volatilization of zinc in combination with zinc chloride at temperatures above 285 C indicates the formation of Zn2 Cl2 a zinc compound with a 1 oxidation state 46 No compounds of zinc in positive oxidation states other than 1 or 2 are known 50 Calculations indicate that a zinc compound with the oxidation state of 4 is unlikely to exist 51 Zn III is predicted to exist in the presence of strongly electronegative trianions 52 however there exists some doubt around this possibility 53 But in 2021 another compound was reported with more evidence that had the oxidation state of 3 with the formula ZnBeB11 CN 12 54 Zinc chemistry is similar to the chemistry of the late first row transition metals nickel and copper though it has a filled d shell and compounds are diamagnetic and mostly colorless 55 The ionic radii of zinc and magnesium happen to be nearly identical Because of this some of the equivalent salts have the same crystal structure 56 and in other circumstances where ionic radius is a determining factor the chemistry of zinc has much in common with that of magnesium 46 In other respects there is little similarity with the late first row transition metals Zinc tends to form bonds with a greater degree of covalency and much more stable complexes with N and S donors 55 Complexes of zinc are mostly 4 or 6 coordinate although 5 coordinate complexes are known 46 Zinc I compounds edit Zinc I compounds are very rare The Zn2 2 ion is implicated by the formation of a yellow diamagnetic glass by dissolving metallic zinc in molten ZnCl2 57 The Zn2 2 core would be analogous to the Hg2 2 cation present in mercury I compounds The diamagnetic nature of the ion confirms its dimeric structure The first zinc I compound containing the Zn Zn bond h5 C5Me5 2Zn2 Zinc II compounds edit nbsp Zinc acetate Zn CH3 CO2 2 nbsp Zinc chlorideBinary compounds of zinc are known for most of the metalloids and all the nonmetals except the noble gases The oxide ZnO is a white powder that is nearly insoluble in neutral aqueous solutions but is amphoteric dissolving in both strong basic and acidic solutions 46 The other chalcogenides ZnS ZnSe and ZnTe have varied applications in electronics and optics 58 Pnictogenides Zn3 N2 Zn3 P2 Zn3 As2 and Zn3 Sb2 59 60 the peroxide ZnO2 the hydride ZnH2 and the carbide ZnC2 are also known 61 Of the four halides ZnF2 has the most ionic character while the others ZnCl2 ZnBr2 and ZnI2 have relatively low melting points and are considered to have more covalent character 62 In weak basic solutions containing Zn2 ions the hydroxide Zn OH 2 forms as a white precipitate In stronger alkaline solutions this hydroxide is dissolved to form zincates Zn OH 4 2 46 The nitrate Zn NO3 2 chlorate Zn ClO3 2 sulfate ZnSO4 phosphate Zn3 PO4 2 molybdate ZnMoO4 cyanide Zn CN 2 arsenite Zn AsO2 2 arsenate Zn AsO4 2 8H2 O and the chromate ZnCrO4 one of the few colored zinc compounds are a few examples of other common inorganic compounds of zinc 63 64 Organozinc compounds are those that contain zinc carbon covalent bonds Diethylzinc C2 H5 2 Zn is a reagent in synthetic chemistry It was first reported in 1848 from the reaction of zinc and ethyl iodide and was the first compound known to contain a metal carbon sigma bond 65 Test for zinc edit Cobalticyanide paper Rinnmann s test for Zn can be used as a chemical indicator for zinc 4 g of K3Co CN 6 and 1 g of KClO3 is dissolved on 100 ml of water Paper is dipped in the solution and dried at 100 C One drop of the sample is dropped onto the dry paper and heated A green disc indicates the presence of zinc 66 History editAncient use edit Various isolated examples of the use of impure zinc in ancient times have been discovered Zinc ores were used to make the zinc copper alloy brass thousands of years prior to the discovery of zinc as a separate element Judean brass from the 14th to 10th centuries BC contains 23 zinc 18 Knowledge of how to produce brass spread to Ancient Greece by the 7th century BC but few varieties were made 19 Ornaments made of alloys containing 80 90 zinc with lead iron antimony and other metals making up the remainder have been found that are 2 500 years old 30 A possibly prehistoric statuette containing 87 5 zinc was found in a Dacian archaeological site 67 Strabo writing in the 1st century BC but quoting a now lost work of the 4th century BC historian Theopompus mentions drops of false silver which when mixed with copper make brass This may refer to small quantities of zinc that is a by product of smelting sulfide ores 68 Zinc in such remnants in smelting ovens was usually discarded as it was thought to be worthless 69 The manufacture of brass was known to the Romans by about 30 BC 70 They made brass by heating powdered calamine zinc silicate or carbonate charcoal and copper together in a crucible 70 The resulting calamine brass was then either cast or hammered into shape for use in weaponry 71 Some coins struck by Romans in the Christian era are made of what is probably calamine brass 72 nbsp Late Roman brass bucket the Hemmoorer Eimer from Warstade Germany second to third century ADThe oldest known pills were made of the zinc carbonates hydrozincite and smithsonite The pills were used for sore eyes and were found aboard the Roman ship Relitto del Pozzino wrecked in 140 BC 73 74 The Berne zinc tablet is a votive plaque dating to Roman Gaul made of an alloy that is mostly zinc 75 The Charaka Samhita thought to have been written between 300 and 500 AD 76 mentions a metal which when oxidized produces pushpanjan thought to be zinc oxide 77 Zinc mines at Zawar near Udaipur in India have been active since the Mauryan period c 322 and 187 BC The smelting of metallic zinc here however appears to have begun around the 12th century AD 78 79 One estimate is that this location produced an estimated million tonnes of metallic zinc and zinc oxide from the 12th to 16th centuries 32 Another estimate gives a total production of 60 000 tonnes of metallic zinc over this period 78 The Rasaratna Samuccaya written in approximately the 13th century AD mentions two types of zinc containing ores one used for metal extraction and another used for medicinal purposes 79 Early studies and naming edit Zinc was distinctly recognized as a metal under the designation of Yasada or Jasada in the medical Lexicon ascribed to the Hindu king Madanapala of Taka dynasty and written about the year 1374 80 Smelting and extraction of impure zinc by reducing calamine with wool and other organic substances was accomplished in the 13th century in India 23 81 The Chinese did not learn of the technique until the 17th century 81 nbsp Alchemical symbol for the element zincAlchemists burned zinc metal in air and collected the resulting zinc oxide on a condenser Some alchemists called this zinc oxide lana philosophica Latin for philosopher s wool because it collected in wooly tufts whereas others thought it looked like white snow and named it nix album 82 The name of the metal was probably first documented by Paracelsus a Swiss born German alchemist who referred to the metal as zincum or zinken in his book Liber Mineralium II in the 16th century 81 83 The word is probably derived from the German zinke and supposedly meant tooth like pointed or jagged metallic zinc crystals have a needle like appearance 84 Zink could also imply tin like because of its relation to German zinn meaning tin 85 Yet another possibility is that the word is derived from the Persian word سنگ seng meaning stone 86 The metal was also called Indian tin tutanego calamine and spinter 30 German metallurgist Andreas Libavius received a quantity of what he called calay from the Malay or Hindi word for tin originating from Malabar off a cargo ship captured from the Portuguese in the year 1596 87 Libavius described the properties of the sample which may have been zinc Zinc was regularly imported to Europe from the Orient in the 17th and early 18th centuries 81 but was at times very expensive note 2 Isolation edit nbsp Andreas Sigismund Marggraf is given credit for first isolating pure zinc Metallic zinc was isolated in India by 1300 AD 88 89 90 Before it was isolated in Europe it was imported from India in about 1600 AD 91 Postlewayt s Universal Dictionary a contemporary source giving technological information in Europe did not mention zinc before 1751 but the element was studied before then 79 92 Flemish metallurgist and alchemist P M de Respour reported that he had extracted metallic zinc from zinc oxide in 1668 32 By the start of the 18th century Etienne Francois Geoffroy described how zinc oxide condenses as yellow crystals on bars of iron placed above zinc ore that is being smelted 32 In Britain John Lane is said to have carried out experiments to smelt zinc probably at Landore prior to his bankruptcy in 1726 93 In 1738 in Great Britain William Champion patented a process to extract zinc from calamine in a vertical retort style smelter 94 His technique resembled that used at Zawar zinc mines in Rajasthan but no evidence suggests he visited the Orient 91 Champion s process was used through 1851 81 German chemist Andreas Marggraf normally gets credit for isolating pure metallic zinc in the West even though Swedish chemist Anton von Swab had distilled zinc from calamine four years previously 81 In his 1746 experiment Marggraf heated a mixture of calamine and charcoal in a closed vessel without copper to obtain a metal 95 69 This procedure became commercially practical by 1752 96 Later work edit nbsp Galvanization was named after Luigi Galvani William Champion s brother John patented a process in 1758 for calcining zinc sulfide into an oxide usable in the retort process 30 Prior to this only calamine could be used to produce zinc In 1798 Johann Christian Ruberg improved on the smelting process by building the first horizontal retort smelter 97 Jean Jacques Daniel Dony built a different kind of horizontal zinc smelter in Belgium that processed even more zinc 81 Italian doctor Luigi Galvani discovered in 1780 that connecting the spinal cord of a freshly dissected frog to an iron rail attached by a brass hook caused the frog s leg to twitch 98 He incorrectly thought he had discovered an ability of nerves and muscles to create electricity and called the effect animal electricity 99 The galvanic cell and the process of galvanization were both named for Luigi Galvani and his discoveries paved the way for electrical batteries galvanization and cathodic protection 99 Galvani s friend Alessandro Volta continued researching the effect and invented the Voltaic pile in 1800 98 Volta s pile consisted of a stack of simplified galvanic cells each being one plate of copper and one of zinc connected by an electrolyte By stacking these units in series the Voltaic pile or battery as a whole had a higher voltage which could be used more easily than single cells Electricity is produced because the Volta potential between the two metal plates makes electrons flow from the zinc to the copper and corrode the zinc 98 The non magnetic character of zinc and its lack of color in solution delayed discovery of its importance to biochemistry and nutrition 100 This changed in 1940 when carbonic anhydrase an enzyme that scrubs carbon dioxide from blood was shown to have zinc in its active site 100 The digestive enzyme carboxypeptidase became the second known zinc containing enzyme in 1955 100 Production editMining and processing edit Top zinc mine production output by countries 2019 33 Rank Country Tonnes1 China 4 210 0002 Peru 1 400 0003 Australia 1 330 0004 United States 753 0005 India 720 0006 Mexico 677 000Main articles Zinc mining and Zinc smelting See also List of countries by zinc production nbsp Price of Zinc nbsp Percentage of zinc output in 2006 by countries 101 nbsp World production trend nbsp Zinc Mine Rosh Pinah Namibia27 57 17 S 016 46 00 E 27 95472 S 16 76667 E 27 95472 16 76667 Rosh Pinah nbsp Zinc Mine Skorpion Namibia27 49 09 S 016 36 28 E 27 81917 S 16 60778 E 27 81917 16 60778 Skorpion Zinc is the fourth most common metal in use trailing only iron aluminium and copper with an annual production of about 13 million tonnes 33 The world s largest zinc producer is Nyrstar a merger of the Australian OZ Minerals and the Belgian Umicore 102 About 70 of the world s zinc originates from mining while the remaining 30 comes from recycling secondary zinc 103 Commercially pure zinc is known as Special High Grade often abbreviated SHG and is 99 995 pure 104 Worldwide 95 of new zinc is mined from sulfidic ore deposits in which sphalerite ZnS is nearly always mixed with the sulfides of copper lead and iron 105 6 Zinc mines are scattered throughout the world with the main areas being China Australia and Peru China produced 38 of the global zinc output in 2014 33 Zinc metal is produced using extractive metallurgy 106 7 The ore is finely ground then put through froth flotation to separate minerals from gangue on the property of hydrophobicity to get a zinc sulfide ore concentrate 106 16 consisting of about 50 zinc 32 sulfur 13 iron and 5 SiO2 106 16 Roasting converts the zinc sulfide concentrate to zinc oxide 105 2ZnS 3O2 to2ZnO 2SO2 displaystyle ce 2ZnS 3O2 gt t o 2ZnO 2SO2 nbsp The sulfur dioxide is used for the production of sulfuric acid which is necessary for the leaching process If deposits of zinc carbonate zinc silicate or zinc spinel like the Skorpion Deposit in Namibia are used for zinc production the roasting can be omitted 107 For further processing two basic methods are used pyrometallurgy or electrowinning Pyrometallurgy reduces zinc oxide with carbon or carbon monoxide at 950 C 1 740 F into the metal which is distilled as zinc vapor to separate it from other metals which are not volatile at those temperatures 108 The zinc vapor is collected in a condenser 105 The equations below describe this process 105 ZnO C 950 CZn CO displaystyle ce ZnO C gt 950 circ C Zn CO nbsp ZnO CO 950 CZn CO2 displaystyle ce ZnO CO gt 950 circ C Zn CO2 nbsp In electrowinning zinc is leached from the ore concentrate by sulfuric acid and impurities are precipitated 109 ZnO H2SO4 ZnSO4 H2O displaystyle ce ZnO H2SO4 gt ZnSO4 H2O nbsp Finally the zinc is reduced by electrolysis 105 2ZnSO4 2H2O 2Zn O2 2H2SO4 displaystyle ce 2ZnSO4 2H2O gt 2Zn O2 2H2SO4 nbsp The sulfuric acid is regenerated and recycled to the leaching step When galvanised feedstock is fed to an electric arc furnace the zinc is recovered from the dust by a number of processes predominantly the Waelz process 90 as of 2014 110 Environmental impact edit Refinement of sulfidic zinc ores produces large volumes of sulfur dioxide and cadmium vapor Smelter slag and other residues contain significant quantities of metals About 1 1 million tonnes of metallic zinc and 130 thousand tonnes of lead were mined and smelted in the Belgian towns of La Calamine and Plombieres between 1806 and 1882 111 The dumps of the past mining operations leach zinc and cadmium and the sediments of the Geul River contain non trivial amounts of metals 111 About two thousand years ago emissions of zinc from mining and smelting totaled 10 thousand tonnes a year After increasing 10 fold from 1850 zinc emissions peaked at 3 4 million tonnes per year in the 1980s and declined to 2 7 million tonnes in the 1990s although a 2005 study of the Arctic troposphere found that the concentrations there did not reflect the decline Man made and natural emissions occur at a ratio of 20 to 1 10 Zinc in rivers flowing through industrial and mining areas can be as high as 20 ppm 112 Effective sewage treatment greatly reduces this treatment along the Rhine for example has decreased zinc levels to 50 ppb 112 Concentrations of zinc as low as 2 ppm adversely affects the amount of oxygen that fish can carry in their blood 113 nbsp Historically responsible for high metal levels in the Derwent River 114 the zinc works at Lutana is the largest exporter in Tasmania generating 2 5 of the state s GDP and producing more than 250 000 tonnes of zinc per year 115 Soils contaminated with zinc from mining refining or fertilizing with zinc bearing sludge can contain several grams of zinc per kilogram of dry soil Levels of zinc in excess of 500 ppm in soil interfere with the ability of plants to absorb other essential metals such as iron and manganese Zinc levels of 2000 ppm to 180 000 ppm 18 have been recorded in some soil samples 112 The European Soil Observatory has published the first high resolution spatial assessment of topsoil Zinc Zn concentrations in Europe The mean concentration of Zn in topsoils is 47 mg kg while 1 of the measured 22 000 samples had concentrations higher than 167 mg kg 116 Applications editMajor applications of zinc include with percentages given for the US 117 Galvanizing 55 Brass and bronze 16 Other alloys 21 Miscellaneous 8 Anti corrosion and batteries edit nbsp Hot dip handrail galvanized crystalline surface nbsp Zinc sacrificial anodeZinc is most commonly used as an anti corrosion agent 118 and galvanization coating of iron or steel is the most familiar form In 2009 in the United States 55 or 893 000 tons of the zinc metal was used for galvanization 117 Zinc is more reactive than iron or steel and thus will attract almost all local oxidation until it completely corrodes away 119 A protective surface layer of oxide and carbonate Zn5 OH 6 CO3 2 forms as the zinc corrodes 120 This protection lasts even after the zinc layer is scratched but degrades through time as the zinc corrodes away 120 The zinc is applied electrochemically or as molten zinc by hot dip galvanizing or spraying Galvanization is used on chain link fencing guard rails suspension bridges lightposts metal roofs heat exchangers and car bodies 121 The relative reactivity of zinc and its ability to attract oxidation to itself makes it an efficient sacrificial anode in cathodic protection CP For example cathodic protection of a buried pipeline can be achieved by connecting anodes made from zinc to the pipe 120 Zinc acts as the anode negative terminus by slowly corroding away as it passes electric current to the steel pipeline 120 note 3 Zinc is also used to cathodically protect metals that are exposed to sea water 122 A zinc disc attached to a ship s iron rudder will slowly corrode while the rudder stays intact 119 Similarly a zinc plug attached to a propeller or the metal protective guard for the keel of the ship provides temporary protection With a standard electrode potential SEP of 0 76 volts zinc is used as an anode material for batteries More reactive lithium SEP 3 04 V is used for anodes in lithium batteries Powdered zinc is used in this way in alkaline batteries and the case which also serves as the anode of zinc carbon batteries is formed from sheet zinc 123 124 Zinc is used as the anode or fuel of the zinc air battery fuel cell 125 126 127 The zinc cerium redox flow battery also relies on a zinc based negative half cell 128 Alloys edit A widely used zinc alloy is brass in which copper is alloyed with anywhere from 3 to 45 zinc depending upon the type of brass 120 Brass is generally more ductile and stronger than copper and has superior corrosion resistance 120 These properties make it useful in communication equipment hardware musical instruments and water valves 120 nbsp Cast brass microstructure at magnification 400xOther widely used zinc alloys include nickel silver typewriter metal soft and aluminium solder and commercial bronze 23 Zinc is also used in contemporary pipe organs as a substitute for the traditional lead tin alloy in pipes 129 Alloys of 85 88 zinc 4 10 copper and 2 8 aluminium find limited use in certain types of machine bearings Zinc has been the primary metal in American one cent coins pennies since 1982 130 The zinc core is coated with a thin layer of copper to give the appearance of a copper coin In 1994 33 200 tonnes 36 600 short tons of zinc were used to produce 13 6 billion pennies in the United States 131 Alloys of zinc with small amounts of copper aluminium and magnesium are useful in die casting as well as spin casting especially in the automotive electrical and hardware industries 23 These alloys are marketed under the name Zamak 132 An example of this is zinc aluminium The low melting point together with the low viscosity of the alloy makes possible the production of small and intricate shapes The low working temperature leads to rapid cooling of the cast products and fast production for assembly 23 133 Another alloy marketed under the brand name Prestal contains 78 zinc and 22 aluminium and is reported to be nearly as strong as steel but as malleable as plastic 23 134 This superplasticity of the alloy allows it to be molded using die casts made of ceramics and cement 23 Similar alloys with the addition of a small amount of lead can be cold rolled into sheets An alloy of 96 zinc and 4 aluminium is used to make stamping dies for low production run applications for which ferrous metal dies would be too expensive 135 For building facades roofing and other applications for sheet metal formed by deep drawing roll forming or bending zinc alloys with titanium and copper are used 136 Unalloyed zinc is too brittle for these manufacturing processes 136 As a dense inexpensive easily worked material zinc is used as a lead replacement In the wake of lead concerns zinc appears in weights for various applications ranging from fishing 137 to tire balances and flywheels 138 Cadmium zinc telluride CZT is a semiconductive alloy that can be divided into an array of small sensing devices 139 These devices are similar to an integrated circuit and can detect the energy of incoming gamma ray photons 139 When behind an absorbing mask the CZT sensor array can determine the direction of the rays 139 Other industrial uses edit nbsp Zinc oxide is used as a white pigment in paints Roughly one quarter of all zinc output in the United States in 2009 was consumed in zinc compounds 117 a variety of which are used industrially Zinc oxide is widely used as a white pigment in paints and as a catalyst in the manufacture of rubber to disperse heat Zinc oxide is used to protect rubber polymers and plastics from ultraviolet radiation UV 121 The semiconductor properties of zinc oxide make it useful in varistors and photocopying products 140 The zinc zinc oxide cycle is a two step thermochemical process based on zinc and zinc oxide for hydrogen production 141 Zinc chloride is often added to lumber as a fire retardant 142 and sometimes as a wood preservative 143 It is used in the manufacture of other chemicals 142 Zinc methyl Zn CH3 2 is used in a number of organic syntheses 144 Zinc sulfide ZnS is used in luminescent pigments such as on the hands of clocks X ray and television screens and luminous paints 145 Crystals of ZnS are used in lasers that operate in the mid infrared part of the spectrum 146 Zinc sulfate is a chemical in dyes and pigments 142 Zinc pyrithione is used in antifouling paints 147 Zinc powder is sometimes used as a propellant in model rockets 148 When a compressed mixture of 70 zinc and 30 sulfur powder is ignited there is a violent chemical reaction 148 This produces zinc sulfide together with large amounts of hot gas heat and light 148 Zinc sheet metal is used as a durable covering for roofs walls and countertops the last often seen in bistros and oyster bars and is known for the rustic look imparted by its surface oxidation in use to a blue gray patina and susceptibility to scratching 149 150 151 152 64 Zn the most abundant isotope of zinc is very susceptible to neutron activation being transmuted into the highly radioactive 65 Zn which has a half life of 244 days and produces intense gamma radiation Because of this zinc oxide used in nuclear reactors as an anti corrosion agent is depleted of 64 Zn before use this is called depleted zinc oxide For the same reason zinc has been proposed as a salting material for nuclear weapons cobalt is another better known salting material 153 A jacket of isotopically enriched 64 Zn would be irradiated by the intense high energy neutron flux from an exploding thermonuclear weapon forming a large amount of 65 Zn significantly increasing the radioactivity of the weapon s fallout 153 Such a weapon is not known to have ever been built tested or used 153 65 Zn is used as a tracer to study how alloys that contain zinc wear out or the path and the role of zinc in organisms 154 Zinc dithiocarbamate complexes are used as agricultural fungicides these include Zineb Metiram Propineb and Ziram 155 Zinc naphthenate is used as wood preservative 156 Zinc in the form of ZDDP is used as an anti wear additive for metal parts in engine oil 157 Organic chemistry edit nbsp Enantioselective addition of diphenylzinc to an aldehyde 158 Organozinc chemistry is the science of compounds that contain carbon zinc bonds describing the physical properties synthesis and chemical reactions Many organozinc compounds are commercially important 159 160 161 162 Among important applications are The Frankland Duppa Reaction in which an oxalate ester ROCOCOOR reacts with an alkyl halide R X zinc and hydrochloric acid to form a hydroxycarboxylic esters RR COHCOOR 163 164 Organozincs have similar reactivity to Grignard reagents but are much less nucleophilic and they are expensive and difficult to handle Organozincs typically perform nucleophilic addition on electrophiles such as aldehydes which are then reduced to alcohols Commercially available diorganozinc compounds include dimethylzinc diethylzinc and diphenylzinc Like Grignard reagents organozincs are commonly produced from organobromine precursors Zinc has found many uses in catalysis in organic synthesis including enantioselective synthesis being a cheap and readily available alternative to precious metal complexes Quantitative results yield and enantiomeric excess obtained with chiral zinc catalysts can be comparable to those achieved with palladium ruthenium iridium and others 165 Dietary supplement edit nbsp Zinc gluconate supplement pills nbsp Zinc gluconate is one compound used for the delivery of zinc as a dietary supplement See also Zinc sulfate medical use and Zinc gluconate Zinc a vital trace mineral is not stored in the body in large quantities necessitating regular dietary intake for optimal health Regular intake is particularly crucial given zinc s extensive involvement in human health including its roles in cellular metabolism zinc is integral to the function of over 300 enzymes in the human body immune function protein synthesis DNA synthesis and cell division 166 In most single tablet over the counter daily vitamin and mineral supplements zinc is included in such forms as zinc oxide zinc acetate zinc gluconate or zinc amino acid chelate 167 168 Generally zinc supplement is recommended where there is high risk of zinc deficiency such as low and middle income countries as a preventive measure 169 Although zinc sulfate is a commonly used zinc form zinc citrate gluconate and picolinate may be valid options as well These forms are better absorbed than zinc oxide 170 Gastroenteritis edit Zinc is an inexpensive and effective part of treatment of diarrhea among children in the developing world Zinc becomes depleted in the body during diarrhea and replenishing zinc with a 10 to 14 day course of treatment can reduce the duration and severity of diarrheal episodes and may also prevent future episodes for as long as three months 171 Gastroenteritis is strongly attenuated by ingestion of zinc possibly by direct antimicrobial action of the ions in the gastrointestinal tract or by the absorption of the zinc and re release from immune cells all granulocytes secrete zinc or both 172 173 Common cold edit This section is an excerpt from Zinc and the common cold edit Zinc supplements frequently zinc acetate or zinc gluconate lozenges are a group of dietary supplements that are commonly used for the treatment of the common cold 174 The use of zinc supplements at doses in excess of 75 mg day within 24 hours of the onset of symptoms has been shown to reduce the duration of cold symptoms by about 1 day in adults 174 175 Adverse effects with zinc supplements by mouth include bad taste and nausea 174 175 The intranasal use of zinc containing nasal sprays has been associated with the loss of the sense of smell 174 consequently in June 2009 the United States Food and Drug Administration USFDA warned consumers to stop using intranasal zinc 174 The human rhinovirus the most common viral pathogen in humans is the predominant cause of the common cold 176 The hypothesized mechanism of action by which zinc reduces the severity and or duration of cold symptoms is the suppression of nasal inflammation and the direct inhibition of rhinoviral receptor binding and rhinoviral replication in the nasal mucosa 174 Weight gain edit See also Zinc deficiency Appetite Zinc deficiency may lead to loss of appetite 177 The use of zinc in the treatment of anorexia has been advocated since 1979 At least 15 clinical trials have shown that zinc improved weight gain in anorexia A 1994 trial showed that zinc doubled the rate of body mass increase in the treatment of anorexia nervosa Deficiency of other nutrients such as tyrosine tryptophan and thiamine could contribute to this phenomenon of malnutrition induced malnutrition 178 A meta analysis of 33 prospective intervention trials regarding zinc supplementation and its effects on the growth of children in many countries showed that zinc supplementation alone had a statistically significant effect on linear growth and body weight gain indicating that other deficiencies that may have been present were not responsible for growth retardation 179 Other edit A 2023 Cochrane review stated that people taking zinc supplements may be less likely to progress to age related macular degeneration 180 Zinc supplement is an effective treatment for acrodermatitis enteropathica a genetic disorder affecting zinc absorption that was previously fatal to affected infants 70 Zinc deficiency has been associated with major depressive disorder MDD and zinc supplements may be an effective treatment 181 Zinc may help individuals sleep more 8 Topical use edit Further information Zinc oxide Medicine Topical preparations of zinc include those used on the skin often in the form of zinc oxide Zinc oxide is generally recognised by the FDA as safe and effective 182 and is considered a very photo stable 183 Zinc oxide is one of the most common active ingredients formulated into a sunscreen to mitigate sunburn 70 Applied thinly to a baby s diaper area perineum with each diaper change it can protect against diaper rash 70 Chelated zinc is used in toothpastes and mouthwashes to prevent bad breath zinc citrate helps reduce the build up of calculus tartar 184 185 Zinc pyrithione is widely included in shampoos to prevent dandruff 186 Topical zinc has also been shown to effectively treat as well as prolong remission in genital herpes 187 Biological role editMain article Zinc in biology Zinc is an essential trace element for humans 188 6 7 8 and other animals 9 for plants 10 and for microorganisms 11 Zinc is required for the function of over 300 enzymes and 1000 transcription factors 166 8 and is stored and transferred in metallothioneins 189 190 It is the second most abundant trace metal in humans after iron and it is the only metal which appears in all enzyme classes 10 8 In proteins zinc ions are often coordinated to the amino acid side chains of aspartic acid glutamic acid cysteine and histidine The theoretical and computational description of this zinc binding in proteins as well as that of other transition metals is difficult 191 Roughly 2 4 grams of zinc 192 are distributed throughout the human body Most zinc is in the brain muscle bones kidney and liver with the highest concentrations in the prostate and parts of the eye 193 Semen is particularly rich in zinc a key factor in prostate gland function and reproductive organ growth 194 Zinc homeostasis of the body is mainly controlled by the intestine Here ZIP4 and especially TRPM7 were linked to intestinal zinc uptake essential for postnatal survival 195 196 In humans the biological roles of zinc are ubiquitous 12 7 It interacts with a wide range of organic ligands 12 and has roles in the metabolism of RNA and DNA signal transduction and gene expression It also regulates apoptosis A review from 2015 indicated that about 10 of human proteins 3000 bind zinc 197 in addition to hundreds more that transport and traffic zinc a similar in silico study in the plant Arabidopsis thaliana found 2367 zinc related proteins 10 In the brain zinc is stored in specific synaptic vesicles by glutamatergic neurons and can modulate neuronal excitability 7 8 198 It plays a key role in synaptic plasticity and so in learning 7 199 Zinc homeostasis also plays a critical role in the functional regulation of the central nervous system 7 198 8 Dysregulation of zinc homeostasis in the central nervous system that results in excessive synaptic zinc concentrations is believed to induce neurotoxicity through mitochondrial oxidative stress e g by disrupting certain enzymes involved in the electron transport chain including complex I complex III and a ketoglutarate dehydrogenase the dysregulation of calcium homeostasis glutamatergic neuronal excitotoxicity and interference with intraneuronal signal transduction 7 200 L and D histidine facilitate brain zinc uptake 201 SLC30A3 is the primary zinc transporter involved in cerebral zinc homeostasis 7 Enzymes edit nbsp Ribbon diagram of human carbonic anhydrase II with zinc atom visible in the center nbsp Zinc fingers help read DNA sequences Zinc is an efficient Lewis acid making it a useful catalytic agent in hydroxylation and other enzymatic reactions 202 The metal also has a flexible coordination geometry which allows proteins using it to rapidly shift conformations to perform biological reactions 203 Two examples of zinc containing enzymes are carbonic anhydrase and carboxypeptidase which are vital to the processes of carbon dioxide CO2 regulation and digestion of proteins respectively 204 In vertebrate blood carbonic anhydrase converts CO2 into bicarbonate and the same enzyme transforms the bicarbonate back into CO2 for exhalation through the lungs 205 Without this enzyme this conversion would occur about one million times slower 206 at the normal blood pH of 7 or would require a pH of 10 or more 207 The non related b carbonic anhydrase is required in plants for leaf formation the synthesis of indole acetic acid auxin and alcoholic fermentation 208 Carboxypeptidase cleaves peptide linkages during digestion of proteins A coordinate covalent bond is formed between the terminal peptide and a C O group attached to zinc which gives the carbon a positive charge This helps to create a hydrophobic pocket on the enzyme near the zinc which attracts the non polar part of the protein being digested 204 Signalling edit Zinc has been recognized as a messenger able to activate signalling pathways Many of these pathways provide the driving force in aberrant cancer growth They can be targeted through ZIP transporters 209 Other proteins edit Zinc serves a purely structural role in zinc fingers twists and clusters 210 Zinc fingers form parts of some transcription factors which are proteins that recognize DNA base sequences during the replication and transcription of DNA Each of the nine or ten Zn2 ions in a zinc finger helps maintain the finger s structure by coordinately binding to four amino acids in the transcription factor 206 In blood plasma zinc is bound to and transported by albumin 60 low affinity and transferrin 10 192 Because transferrin also transports iron excessive iron reduces zinc absorption and vice versa A similar antagonism exists with copper 211 The concentration of zinc in blood plasma stays relatively constant regardless of zinc intake 202 Cells in the salivary gland prostate immune system and intestine use zinc signaling to communicate with other cells 212 Zinc may be held in metallothionein reserves within microorganisms or in the intestines or liver of animals 213 Metallothionein in intestinal cells is capable of adjusting absorption of zinc by 15 40 214 However inadequate or excessive zinc intake can be harmful excess zinc particularly impairs copper absorption because metallothionein absorbs both metals 215 The human dopamine transporter contains a high affinity extracellular zinc binding site which upon zinc binding inhibits dopamine reuptake and amplifies amphetamine induced dopamine efflux in vitro 216 217 218 The human serotonin transporter and norepinephrine transporter do not contain zinc binding sites 218 Some EF hand calcium binding proteins such as S100 or NCS 1 are also able to bind zinc ions 219 Nutrition edit Dietary recommendations edit The U S Institute of Medicine IOM updated Estimated Average Requirements EARs and Recommended Dietary Allowances RDAs for zinc in 2001 The current EARs for zinc for women and men ages 14 and up is 6 8 and 9 4 mg day respectively The RDAs are 8 and 11 mg day RDAs are higher than EARs so as to identify amounts that will cover people with higher than average requirements RDA for pregnancy is 11 mg day RDA for lactation is 12 mg day For infants up to 12 months the RDA is 3 mg day For children ages 1 13 years the RDA increases with age from 3 to 8 mg day As for safety the IOM sets Tolerable upper intake levels ULs for vitamins and minerals when evidence is sufficient In the case of zinc the adult UL is 40 mg day including both food and supplements combined lower for children Collectively the EARs RDAs AIs and ULs are referred to as Dietary Reference Intakes DRIs 202 The European Food Safety Authority EFSA refers to the collective set of information as Dietary Reference Values with Population Reference Intake PRI instead of RDA and Average Requirement instead of EAR AI and UL are defined the same as in the United States For people ages 18 and older the PRI calculations are complex as the EFSA has set higher and higher values as the phytate content of the diet increases For women PRIs increase from 7 5 to 12 7 mg day as phytate intake increases from 300 to 1200 mg day for men the range is 9 4 to 16 3 mg day These PRIs are higher than the U S RDAs 220 The EFSA reviewed the same safety question and set its UL at 25 mg day which is much lower than the U S value 221 For U S food and dietary supplement labeling purposes the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value DV For zinc labeling purposes 100 of the Daily Value was 15 mg but on May 27 2016 it was revised to 11 mg 222 223 A table of the old and new adult daily values is provided at Reference Daily Intake Dietary intake edit nbsp Foods and seasonings containing zincAnimal products such as meat fish shellfish fowl eggs and dairy contain zinc The concentration of zinc in plants varies with the level in the soil With adequate zinc in the soil the food plants that contain the most zinc are wheat germ and bran and various seeds including sesame poppy alfalfa celery and mustard 224 Zinc is also found in beans nuts almonds whole grains pumpkin seeds sunflower seeds and blackcurrant 225 Other sources include fortified food and dietary supplements in various forms A 1998 review concluded that zinc oxide one of the most common supplements in the United States and zinc carbonate are nearly insoluble and poorly absorbed in the body 226 This review cited studies that found lower plasma zinc concentrations in the subjects who consumed zinc oxide and zinc carbonate than in those who took zinc acetate and sulfate salts 226 For fortification however a 2003 review recommended cereals containing zinc oxide as a cheap stable source that is as easily absorbed as the more expensive forms 227 A 2005 study found that various compounds of zinc including oxide and sulfate did not show statistically significant differences in absorption when added as fortificants to maize tortillas 228 Deficiency edit Main article Zinc deficiency Nearly two billion people in the developing world are deficient in zinc Groups at risk include children in developing countries and elderly with chronic illnesses 14 In children it causes an increase in infection and diarrhea and contributes to the death of about 800 000 children worldwide per year 12 The World Health Organization advocates zinc supplementation for severe malnutrition and diarrhea 229 Zinc supplements help prevent disease and reduce mortality especially among children with low birth weight or stunted growth 229 However zinc supplements should not be administered alone because many in the developing world have several deficiencies and zinc interacts with other micronutrients 230 While zinc deficiency is usually due to insufficient dietary intake it can be associated with malabsorption acrodermatitis enteropathica chronic liver disease chronic renal disease sickle cell disease diabetes malignancy and other chronic illnesses 14 In the United States a federal survey of food consumption determined that for women and men over the age of 19 average consumption was 9 7 and 14 2 mg day respectively For women 17 consumed less than the EAR for men 11 The percentages below EAR increased with age 231 The most recent published update of the survey NHANES 2013 2014 reported lower averages 9 3 and 13 2 mg day again with intake decreasing with age 232 Symptoms of mild zinc deficiency are diverse 202 Clinical outcomes include depressed growth diarrhea impotence and delayed sexual maturation alopecia eye and skin lesions impaired appetite altered cognition impaired immune functions defects in carbohydrate use and reproductive teratogenesis 202 Zinc deficiency depresses immunity 233 but excessive zinc does also 192 Despite some concerns 234 western vegetarians and vegans do not suffer any more from overt zinc deficiency than meat eaters 235 Major plant sources of zinc include cooked dried beans sea vegetables fortified cereals soy foods nuts peas and seeds 234 However phytates in many whole grains and fibers may interfere with zinc absorption and marginal zinc intake has poorly understood effects The zinc chelator phytate found in seeds and cereal bran can contribute to zinc malabsorption 14 Some evidence suggests that more than the US RDA 8 mg day for adult women 11 mg day for adult men may be needed in those whose diet is high in phytates such as some vegetarians 234 The European Food Safety Authority EFSA guidelines attempt to compensate for this by recommending higher zinc intake when dietary phytate intake is greater 220 These considerations must be balanced against the paucity of adequate zinc biomarkers and the most widely used indicator plasma zinc has poor sensitivity and specificity 236 Soil remediation edit Species of Calluna Erica and Vaccinium can grow in zinc metalliferous soils because translocation of toxic ions is prevented by the action of ericoid mycorrhizal fungi 237 Agriculture edit Zinc deficiency appears to be the most common micronutrient deficiency in crop plants it is particularly common in high pH soils 238 Zinc deficient soil is cultivated in the cropland of about half of Turkey and India a third of China and most of Western Australia Substantial responses to zinc fertilization have been reported in these areas 10 Plants that grow in soils that are zinc deficient are more susceptible to disease Zinc is added to the soil primarily through the weathering of rocks but humans have added zinc through fossil fuel combustion mine waste phosphate fertilizers pesticide zinc phosphide limestone manure sewage sludge and particles from galvanized surfaces Excess zinc is toxic to plants although zinc toxicity is far less widespread 10 Precautions editMain article Zinc toxicity Toxicity edit Although zinc is an essential requirement for good health excess zinc can be harmful Excessive absorption of zinc suppresses copper and iron absorption 215 The free zinc ion in solution is highly toxic to plants invertebrates and even vertebrate fish 239 The Free Ion Activity Model is well established in the literature and shows that just micromolar amounts of the free ion kills some organisms A recent example showed 6 micromolar killing 93 of all Daphnia in water 240 The free zinc ion is a powerful Lewis acid up to the point of being corrosive Stomach acid contains hydrochloric acid in which metallic zinc dissolves readily to give corrosive zinc chloride Swallowing a post 1982 American one cent piece 97 5 zinc can cause damage to the stomach lining through the high solubility of the zinc ion in the acidic stomach 241 Evidence shows that people taking 100 300 mg of zinc daily may suffer induced copper deficiency A 2007 trial observed that elderly men taking 80 mg daily were hospitalized for urinary complications more often than those taking a placebo 242 Levels of 100 300 mg may interfere with the use of copper and iron or adversely affect cholesterol 215 Zinc in excess of 500 ppm in soil interferes with the plant absorption of other essential metals such as iron and manganese 112 A condition called the zinc shakes or zinc chills can be induced by inhalation of zinc fumes while brazing or welding galvanized materials 145 Zinc is a common ingredient of denture cream which may contain between 17 and 38 mg of zinc per gram Disability and even deaths from excessive use of these products have been claimed 243 The U S Food and Drug Administration FDA states that zinc damages nerve receptors in the nose causing anosmia Reports of anosmia were also observed in the 1930s when zinc preparations were used in a failed attempt to prevent polio infections 244 On June 16 2009 the FDA ordered removal of zinc based intranasal cold products from store shelves The FDA said the loss of smell can be life threatening because people with impaired smell cannot detect leaking gas or smoke and cannot tell if food has spoiled before they eat it 245 Recent research suggests that the topical antimicrobial zinc pyrithione is a potent heat shock response inducer that may impair genomic integrity with induction of PARP dependent energy crisis in cultured human keratinocytes and melanocytes 246 Poisoning edit In 1982 the US Mint began minting pennies coated in copper but containing primarily zinc Zinc pennies pose a risk of zinc toxicosis which can be fatal One reported case of chronic ingestion of 425 pennies over 1 kg of zinc resulted in death due to gastrointestinal bacterial and fungal sepsis Another patient who ingested 12 grams of zinc showed only lethargy and ataxia gross lack of coordination of muscle movements 247 Several other cases have been reported of humans suffering zinc intoxication by the ingestion of zinc coins 248 249 Pennies and other small coins are sometimes ingested by dogs requiring veterinary removal of the foreign objects The zinc content of some coins can cause zinc toxicity commonly fatal in dogs through severe hemolytic anemia and liver or kidney damage vomiting and diarrhea are possible symptoms 250 Zinc is highly toxic in parrots and poisoning can often be fatal 251 The consumption of fruit juices stored in galvanized cans has resulted in mass parrot poisonings with zinc 70 See also editList of countries by zinc production Spelter Wet storage stain Zinc alloy electroplating Metal fume fever Piotr SteinkellerNotes edit The elements are from different metal groups See periodic table An East India Company ship carrying a cargo of nearly pure zinc metal from the Orient sank off the coast Sweden in 1745 Emsley 2001 p 502 Electric current will naturally flow between zinc and steel but in some circumstances inert anodes are used with an external DC source Citations edit Standard Atomic Weights Zinc CIAAW 2007 Prohaska Thomas Irrgeher Johanna Benefield Jacqueline Bohlke John K Chesson Lesley A Coplen Tyler B Ding Tiping Dunn Philip J H Groning Manfred Holden Norman E Meijer Harro A J May 4 2022 Standard atomic weights of the elements 2021 IUPAC Technical Report Pure and Applied Chemistry doi 10 1515 pac 2019 0603 ISSN 1365 3075 Arblaster John W 2018 Selected Values of the Crystallographic Properties of Elements Materials Park Ohio ASM International ISBN 978 1 62708 155 9 Weast Robert 1984 CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics Boca Raton Florida Chemical Rubber Company Publishing pp E110 ISBN 0 8493 0464 4 a b Kondev F G Wang M Huang W J Naimi S Audi G 2021 The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties PDF Chinese Physics C 45 3 030001 doi 10 1088 1674 1137 abddae a b Maret Wolfgang 2013 Zinc and Human Disease In Astrid Sigel Helmut Sigel Roland K O Sigel eds Interrelations between Essential Metal Ions and Human Diseases Metal Ions in Life Sciences Vol 13 Springer pp 389 414 doi 10 1007 978 94 007 7500 8 12 ISBN 978 94 007 7499 5 PMID 24470098 a b c d e f g h Prakash A Bharti K Majeed AB April 2015 Zinc indications in brain disorders Fundam Clin Pharmacol 29 2 131 149 doi 10 1111 fcp 12110 PMID 25659970 S2CID 21141511 a b c d e f g h Cherasse Y Urade Y November 2017 Dietary Zinc Acts as a Sleep Modulator International Journal of Molecular Sciences 18 11 2334 doi 10 3390 ijms18112334 PMC 5713303 PMID 29113075 Zinc is the second most abundant trace metal in the human body and is essential for many biological processes The trace metal zinc is an essential cofactor for more than 300 enzymes and 1000 transcription factors 16 In the central nervous system zinc is the second most abundant trace metal and is involved in many processes In addition to its role in enzymatic activity it also plays a major role in cell signaling and modulation of neuronal activity a b Prasad A S 2008 Zinc in Human Health Effect of Zinc on Immune Cells Mol Med 14 5 6 353 7 doi 10 2119 2008 00033 Prasad PMC 2277319 PMID 18385818 a b c d e f g h Broadley M R White P J Hammond J P Zelko I Lux A 2007 Zinc in plants New Phytologist 173 4 677 702 doi 10 1111 j 1469 8137 2007 01996 x PMID 17286818 a b Zinc s role in microorganisms is particularly reviewed in Sugarman B 1983 Zinc and infection Reviews of Infectious Diseases 5 1 137 47 doi 10 1093 clinids 5 1 137 PMID 6338570 a b c d e Hambidge K M amp Krebs N F 2007 Zinc deficiency a special challenge J Nutr 137 4 1101 5 doi 10 1093 jn 137 4 1101 PMID 17374687 Xiao Hangfang Deng Wenfeng Wei Gangjian Chen Jiubin Zheng Xinqing Shi Tuo Chen Xuefei Wang Chenying Liu Xi October 30 2020 A Pilot Study on Zinc Isotopic Compositions in Shallow Water Coral Skeletons Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems 21 11 Bibcode 2020GGG 2109430X doi 10 1029 2020GC009430 S2CID 228975484 Archived from the original on November 22 2022 Retrieved November 22 2022 a b c d Prasad AS 2003 Zinc deficiency Has been known of for 40 years but ignored by global health organisations British Medical Journal 326 7386 409 410 doi 10 1136 bmj 326 7386 409 PMC 1125304 PMID 12595353 Maret Wolfgang 2013 Zinc and the Zinc Proteome In Banci Lucia ed Metallomics and the Cell Metal Ions in Life Sciences Vol 12 Springer pp 479 501 doi 10 1007 978 94 007 5561 1 14 ISBN 978 94 007 5561 1 PMID 23595681 Anglia University of East Zinc vital to evolution of complex life in polar oceans phys org Archived from the original on September 3 2023 Retrieved September 3 2023 Thornton C P 2007 Of brass and bronze in prehistoric Southwest Asia PDF Metals and Mines Studies in Archaeometallurgy Archetype Publications ISBN 978 1 904982 19 7 Archived PDF from the original on September 24 2015 via Papers and Lectures Online a b Greenwood amp Earnshaw 1997 p 1201 a b Craddock Paul T 1978 The composition of copper alloys used by the Greek Etruscan and Roman civilizations The origins and early use of brass Journal of Archaeological Science 5 1 1 16 doi 10 1016 0305 4403 78 90015 8 Zinc Royal Society Of Chemistry Archived from the original on July 11 2017 India Was the First to Smelt Zinc by Distillation Process Infinityfoundation com Archived from the original on May 16 2016 Retrieved April 25 2014 Kharakwal J S amp Gurjar L K December 1 2006 Zinc and Brass in Archaeological Perspective Ancient Asia 1 139 159 doi 10 5334 aa 06112 a b c d e f g h i j CRC 2006 p 4 41 a b Heiserman 1992 p 123 Wells A F 1984 Structural Inorganic Chemistry 5th edition p 1277 Oxford Science Publications ISBN 0 19 855370 6 Scoffern John 1861 The Useful Metals and Their Alloys Houlston and Wright pp 591 603 Archived from the original on March 17 2024 Retrieved April 6 2009 a b Zinc Metal Properties American Galvanizers Association 2008 Archived from the original on March 28 2015 Retrieved April 7 2015 Ingalls Walter Renton 1902 Production and Properties of Zinc A Treatise on the Occurrence and Distribution of Zinc Ore the Commercial and Technical Conditions Affecting the Production of the Spelter Its Chemical and Physical Properties and Uses in the Arts Together with a Historical and Statistical Review of the Industry The Engineering and Mining Journal 142 6 Archived from the original on March 17 2024 Retrieved September 27 2020 Rieuwerts John 2015 The Elements of Environmental Pollution London and New York Earthscan Routledge p 286 ISBN 978 0 415 85919 6 OCLC 886492996 Archived from the original on June 3 2023 Retrieved November 11 2021 a b c d e Lehto 1968 p 822 a b c Greenwood amp Earnshaw 1997 p 1202 a b c d Emsley 2001 p 502 a b c d Sai Srujan A V 2021 Mineral Commodity Summaries 2021 Zinc PDF United States Geological Survey Archived PDF from the original on June 3 2023 Retrieved June 21 2021 Erickson R L 1973 Crustal Abundance of Elements and Mineral Reserves and Resources U S Geological Survey Professional Paper 820 21 25 Country Partnership Strategy Iran 2011 12 ECO Trade and development bank Archived from the original on October 26 2011 Retrieved June 6 2011 IRAN a growing market with enormous potential IMRG July 5 2010 Archived from the original on February 17 2013 Retrieved March 3 2010 Tolcin A C 2009 Mineral Commodity Summaries 2009 Zinc PDF United States Geological Survey Archived PDF from the original on July 2 2016 Retrieved August 4 2016 Gordon R B Bertram M Graedel T E 2006 Metal stocks and sustainability Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103 5 1209 14 Bibcode 2006PNAS 103 1209G doi 10 1073 pnas 0509498103 PMC 1360560 PMID 16432205 Gerst Michael 2008 In Use Stocks of Metals Status and Implications Environmental Science and Technology 42 19 7038 45 Bibcode 2008EnST 42 7038G doi 10 1021 es800420p PMID 18939524 Meylan Gregoire 2016 The anthropogenic cycle of zinc Status quo and perspectives Resources Conservation and Recycling 123 1 10 doi 10 1016 j resconrec 2016 01 006 a b c d e Alejandro A Sonzogni Database Manager ed 2008 Chart of Nuclides Upton NY National Nuclear Data Center Brookhaven National Laboratory Archived from the original on May 22 2008 Retrieved September 13 2008 a b Audi G Kondev F G Wang M Huang W J Naimi S 2017 The NUBASE2016 evaluation of nuclear properties PDF Chinese Physics C 41 3 030001 Bibcode 2017ChPhC 41c0001A doi 10 1088 1674 1137 41 3 030001 Audi Georges Bersillon Olivier Blachot Jean Wapstra Aaldert Hendrik 2003 The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties Nuclear Physics A 729 3 128 Bibcode 2003NuPhA 729 3A doi 10 1016 j nuclphysa 2003 11 001 CRC 2006 pp 8 29 Porter Frank C 1994 Corrosion Resistance of Zinc and Zinc Alloys CRC Press p 121 ISBN 978 0 8247 9213 8 a b c d e f g h Holleman Arnold F Wiberg Egon Wiberg Nils 1985 Zink Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie in German 91 100 ed Walter de Gruyter pp 1034 1041 ISBN 978 3 11 007511 3 Hinds John Iredelle Dillard 1908 Inorganic Chemistry With the Elements of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry 2nd ed New York John Wiley amp Sons pp 506 508 Archived from the original on March 17 2024 Retrieved September 27 2020 Ritchie Rob 2004 Chemistry 2nd ed Letts and Lonsdale p 71 ISBN 978 1 84315 438 9 Archived from the original on March 17 2024 Retrieved September 27 2020 Burgess John 1978 Metal ions in solution New York Ellis Horwood p 147 ISBN 978 0 470 26293 1 Brady James E Humiston Gerard E Heikkinen Henry 1983 General Chemistry Principles and Structure 3rd ed John Wiley amp Sons p 671 ISBN 978 0 471 86739 5 Kaupp M Dolg M Stoll H Von Schnering H G 1994 Oxidation state IV in group 12 chemistry Ab initio study of zinc IV cadmium IV and mercury IV fluorides Inorganic Chemistry 33 10 2122 2131 doi 10 1021 ic00088a012 Archived from the original on June 4 2023 Retrieved September 4 2019 Samanta Devleena Jena Puru 2012 Zn in the III Oxidation State Journal of the American Chemical Society 134 20 8400 8403 doi 10 1021 ja3029119 PMID 22559713 Archived from the original on June 4 2023 Retrieved August 27 2021 Schloder Tobias et al 2012 Can Zinc Really Exist in Its Oxidation State III Journal of the American Chemical Society 134 29 11977 11979 doi 10 1021 ja3052409 PMID 22775535 Archived from the original on June 4 2023 Retrieved August 27 2021 Fang Hong Banjade Huta Deepika Jena Puru 2021 Realization of the Zn3 oxidation state Nanoscale 13 33 14041 14048 doi 10 1039 D1NR02816B PMID 34477685 S2CID 237400349 a b Greenwood amp Earnshaw 1997 p 1206 CRC 2006 pp 12 11 12 Housecroft C E Sharpe A G 2008 Inorganic Chemistry 3rd ed Prentice Hall p 739 741 843 ISBN 978 0 13 175553 6 Zinc Sulfide American Elements Archived from the original on July 17 2012 Retrieved February 3 2009 Academic American Encyclopedia Danbury Connecticut Grolier Inc 1994 p 202 ISBN 978 0 7172 2053 3 Archived from the original on March 17 2024 Retrieved September 27 2020 Zinc Phosphide American Elements Archived from the original on July 17 2012 Retrieved February 3 2009 Shulzhenko AA Ignatyeva IY Osipov AS Smirnova TI 2000 Peculiarities of interaction in the Zn C system under high pressures and temperatures Diamond and Related Materials 9 2 129 133 Bibcode 2000DRM 9 129S doi 10 1016 S0925 9635 99 00231 9 Greenwood amp Earnshaw 1997 p 1211 Rasmussen J K Heilmann S M 1990 In situ Cyanosilylation of Carbonyl Compounds O Trimethylsilyl 4 Methoxymandelonitrile Organic Syntheses Collected Volume 7 521 Archived from the original on September 30 2007 Perry D L 1995 Handbook of Inorganic Compounds CRC Press pp 448 458 ISBN 978 0 8493 8671 8 Frankland E 1850 On the isolation of the organic radicals Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society 2 3 263 doi 10 1039 QJ8500200263 Archived from the original on June 4 2023 Retrieved September 27 2020 Lide David 1998 CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics CRC press pp Section 8 Page 1 ISBN 978 0 8493 0479 8 Weeks 1933 p 20 Craddock P T 1998 Zinc in classical antiquity In Craddock P T ed 2000 years of zinc and brass rev ed London British Museum pp 3 5 ISBN 978 0 86159 124 4 a b Weeks 1933 p 21 a b c d e f Emsley 2001 p 501 How is zinc made How Products are Made The Gale Group 2002 Archived from the original on April 11 2006 Retrieved February 21 2009 Chambers 1901 p 799 World s oldest pills treated sore eyes New Scientist January 7 2013 Archived from the original on January 22 2013 Retrieved February 5 2013 Giachi Gianna Pallecchi Pasquino Romualdi Antonella Ribechini Erika Lucejko Jeannette Jacqueline Colombini Maria Perla Mariotti Lippi Marta 2013 Ingredients of a 2 000 y old medicine revealed by chemical mineralogical and botanical investigations Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110 4 1193 1196 Bibcode 2013PNAS 110 1193G doi 10 1073 pnas 1216776110 PMC 3557061 PMID 23297212 Rehren Th 1996 S Demirci et al eds A Roman zinc tablet from Bern Switzerland Reconstruction of the Manufacture Archaeometry 94 The Proceedings of the 29th International Symposium on Archaeometry pp 35 45 Meulenbeld G J 1999 A History of Indian Medical Literature Vol IA Groningen Forsten pp 130 141 OCLC 165833440 Craddock P T et al 1998 Zinc in India 2000 years of zinc and brass rev ed London British Museum p 27 ISBN 978 0 86159 124 4 a b p 46 Ancient mining and metallurgy in Rajasthan S M Gandhi chapter 2 in Crustal Evolution and Metallogeny in the Northwestern Indian Shield A Festschrift for Asoke Mookherjee M Deb ed Alpha Science Int l Ltd 2000 ISBN 1 84265 001 7 a b c Craddock P T Gurjar L K Hegde K T M 1983 Zinc production in medieval India World Archaeology 15 2 211 217 doi 10 1080 00438243 1983 9979899 JSTOR 124653 Ray Prafulla Chandra 1903 A History of Hindu Chemistry from the Earliest Times to the Middle of the Sixteenth Century A D With Sanskrit Texts Variants Translation and Illustrations Vol 1 2nd ed The Bengal Chemical amp Pharmaceutical Works Ltd pp 157 158 Archived from the original on March 17 2024 Retrieved September 27 2020 public domain text a b c d e f g Habashi Fathi Discovering the 8th Metal PDF International Zinc Association IZA Archived from the original PDF on March 4 2009 Retrieved December 13 2008 Arny Henry Vinecome 1917 Principles of Pharmacy 2nd ed W B Saunders company p 483 Archived from the original on March 17 2024 Retrieved September 27 2020 Hoover Herbert Clark 2003 Georgius Agricola de Re Metallica Kessinger Publishing p 409 ISBN 978 0 7661 3197 2 Gerhartz Wolfgang et al 1996 Ullmann s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 5th ed VHC p 509 ISBN 978 3 527 20100 6 Skeat W W 2005 Concise Etymological Dictionary of the English Language Cosimo Inc p 622 ISBN 978 1 59605 092 1 Archived from the original on March 17 2024 Retrieved September 27 2020 Fathi Habashi 1997 Handbook of Extractive Metallurgy Wiley VHC p 642 ISBN 978 3 527 28792 5 Lach Donald F 1994 Technology and the Natural Sciences Asia in the Making of Europe University of Chicago Press p 426 ISBN 978 0 226 46734 4 Archived from the original on March 17 2024 Retrieved September 27 2020 Vaughan L Brent 1897 Zincography The Junior Encyclopedia Britannica A Reference Library of General Knowledge Volume III P Z Chicago E G Melven amp Company Castellani Michael Transition Metal Elements PDF Archived PDF from the original on October 10 2014 Retrieved October 14 2014 Habib Irfan 2011 Chatopadhyaya D P ed Economic History of Medieval India 1200 1500 New Delhi Pearson Longman p 86 ISBN 978 81 317 2791 1 Archived from the original on April 14 2016 a b Jenkins Rhys 1945 The Zinc Industry in England the early years up to 1850 Transactions of the Newcomen Society 25 41 52 doi 10 1179 tns 1945 006 Willies Lynn Craddock P T Gurjar L J Hegde K T M 1984 Ancient Lead and Zinc Mining in Rajasthan India World Archaeology 16 2 Mines and Quarries 222 233 doi 10 1080 00438243 1984 9979929 JSTOR 124574 Roberts R O 1951 Dr John Lane and the foundation of the non ferrous metal industry in the Swansea valley Gower 4 Gower Society 19 Comyns Alan E 2007 Encyclopedic Dictionary of Named Processes in Chemical Technology 3rd ed CRC Press p 71 ISBN 978 0 8493 9163 7 Archived from the original on March 17 2024 Retrieved September 27 2020 Marggraf 1746 Experiences sur la maniere de tirer le Zinc de sa veritable miniere c est a dire de la pierre calaminaire Experiments on a way of extracting zinc from its true mineral i e the stone calamine Histoire de l Academie Royale des Sciences et Belles Lettres de Berlin in French 2 49 57 Archived from the original on June 4 2023 Retrieved October 16 2020 Heiserman 1992 p 122 Gray Leon 2005 Zinc Marshall Cavendish p 8 ISBN 978 0 7614 1922 8 a b c Warren Neville G 2000 Excel Preliminary Physics Pascal Press p 47 ISBN 978 1 74020 085 1 Archived from the original on March 17 2024 Retrieved September 27 2020 a b Galvanic Cell The New International Encyclopaedia Dodd Mead and Company 1903 p 80 Archived from the original on March 17 2024 Retrieved September 27 2020 a b c Cotton et al 1999 p 626 Jasinski Stephen M Mineral Commodity Summaries 2007 Zinc PDF United States Geological Survey Archived PDF from the original on December 17 2008 Retrieved November 25 2008 Attwood James February 13 2006 Zinifex Umicore Combine to Form Top Zinc Maker The Wall Street Journal Archived from the original on January 26 2017 Zinc Recycling International Zinc Association Archived from the original on October 21 2011 Retrieved November 28 2008 Special High Grade Zinc SHG 99 995 PDF Nyrstar 2008 Archived from the original PDF on March 4 2009 Retrieved December 1 2008 a b c d e Porter Frank C 1991 Zinc Handbook CRC Press ISBN 978 0 8247 8340 2 Archived from the original on March 17 2024 Retrieved September 27 2020 a b c Rosenqvist Terkel 1922 Principles of Extractive Metallurgy 2nd ed Tapir Academic Press pp 7 16 186 ISBN 978 82 519 1922 7 Borg Gregor Karner Katrin Buxton Mike Armstrong Richard van der Merwe Schalk W 2003 Geology of the Skorpion Supergene Zinc Deposit Southern Namibia Economic Geology 98 4 749 771 doi 10 2113 98 4 749 Bodsworth Colin 1994 The Extraction and Refining of Metals CRC Press p 148 ISBN 978 0 8493 4433 6 Gupta C K Mukherjee T K 1990 Hydrometallurgy in Extraction Processes CRC Press p 62 ISBN 978 0 8493 6804 2 Antrekowitsch Jurgen Steinlechner Stefan Unger Alois Rosler Gernot Pichler Christoph Rumpold Rene 2014 9 Zinc and Residue Recycling in Worrell Ernst Reuter Markus eds Handbook of Recycling State of the art for Practitioners Analysts and Scientists a b Kucha H Martens A Ottenburgs R De Vos W Viaene W 1996 Primary minerals of Zn Pb mining and metallurgical dumps and their environmental behavior at Plombieres Belgium Environmental Geology 27 1 1 15 Bibcode 1996EnGeo 27 1K doi 10 1007 BF00770598 S2CID 129717791 a b c d Emsley 2001 p 504 Heath Alan G 1995 Water pollution and fish physiology Boca Raton Florida CRC Press p 57 ISBN 978 0 87371 632 1 Archived from the original on March 17 2024 Retrieved September 27 2020 Derwent Estuary Water Quality Improvement Plan for Heavy Metals Derwent Estuary Program June 2007 Archived from the original on March 21 2012 Retrieved July 11 2009 The Zinc Works TChange Archived from the original on April 27 2009 Retrieved July 11 2009 Van Eynde Elise Fendrich Arthur Nicolaus Ballabio Cristiano Panagos Panos September 1 2023 Spatial assessment of topsoil zinc concentrations in Europe Science of the Total Environment 892 164512 Bibcode 2023ScTEn 892p4512V doi 10 1016 j scitotenv 2023 164512 PMID 37268130 Archived from the original on October 14 2023 Retrieved February 21 2024 a b c Zinc World Mine Production zinc content of concentrate by Country PDF 2009 Minerals Yearbook Zinc Washington D C United States Geological Survey February 2010 Archived PDF from the original on June 8 2011 Retrieved June 6 2001 Greenwood amp Earnshaw 1997 p 1203 a b Stwertka 1998 p 99 a b c d e f g Lehto 1968 p 829 a b Emsley 2001 p 503 Bounoughaz M Salhi E Benzine K Ghali E Dalard F 2003 A comparative study of the electrochemical behaviour of Algerian zinc and a zinc from a commercial sacrificial anode Journal of Materials Science 38 6 1139 1145 Bibcode 2003JMatS 38 1139B doi 10 1023 A 1022824813564 S2CID 135744939 Besenhard Jurgen O 1999 Handbook of Battery Materials Wiley VCH Bibcode 1999hbm book B ISBN 978 3 527 29469 5 Wiaux J P Waefler J P 1995 Recycling zinc batteries an economical challenge in consumer waste management Journal of Power Sources 57 1 2 61 65 Bibcode 1995JPS 57 61W doi 10 1016 0378 7753 95 02242 2 Culter T 1996 A design guide for rechargeable zinc air battery technology Southcon 96 Conference Record p 616 doi 10 1109 SOUTHC 1996 535134 ISBN 978 0 7803 3268 3 S2CID 106826667 Whartman Jonathan Brown Ian Zinc Air Battery Battery Hybrid for Powering Electric Scooters and Electric Buses PDF The 15th International Electric Vehicle Symposium Archived from the original PDF on March 12 2006 Retrieved October 8 2008 Cooper J F Fleming D Hargrove D Koopman R Peterman K 1995 A refuelable zinc air battery for fleet electric vehicle propulsion NASA Sti Recon Technical Report N 96 Society of Automotive Engineers future transportation technology conference and exposition 11394 Bibcode 1995STIN 9611394C OSTI 82465 Xie Z Liu Q Chang Z Zhang X 2013 The developments and challenges of cerium half cell in zinc cerium redox flow battery for energy storage Electrochimica Acta 90 695 704 doi 10 1016 j electacta 2012 12 066 Bush Douglas Earl Kassel Richard 2006 The Organ An Encyclopedia Routledge p 679 ISBN 978 0 415 94174 7 Archived from the original on March 17 2024 Retrieved September 27 2020 Coin Specifications United States Mint Archived from the original on February 18 2015 Retrieved October 8 2008 Jasinski Stephen M Mineral Yearbook 1994 Zinc PDF United States Geological Survey Archived PDF from the original on October 29 2008 Retrieved November 13 2008 Diecasting Alloys Maybrook NY Eastern Alloys Archived from the original on December 25 2008 Retrieved January 19 2009 Apelian D Paliwal M Herrschaft D C 1981 Casting with Zinc Alloys Journal of Metals 33 11 12 19 Bibcode 1981JOM 33k 12A doi 10 1007 bf03339527 Davies Geoff 2003 Materials for automobile bodies Butterworth Heinemann p 157 ISBN 978 0 7506 5692 4 Archived from the original on March 17 2024 Retrieved September 27 2020 Samans Carl Hubert 1949 Engineering Metals and Their Alloys Macmillan Co a b Porter Frank 1994 Wrought Zinc Corrosion Resistance of Zinc and Zinc Alloys CRC Press pp 6 7 ISBN 978 0 8247 9213 8 Archived from the original on March 17 2024 Retrieved September 27 2020 McClane Albert Jules amp Gardner Keith 1987 The Complete book of fishing a guide to freshwater saltwater amp big game fishing Gallery Books ISBN 978 0 8317 1565 6 Archived from the original on November 15 2012 Retrieved June 26 2012 Cast flywheel on old Magturbo trainer has been recalled since July 2000 Minoura Archived from the original on March 23 2013 a b c Katz Johnathan I 2002 The Biggest Bangs Oxford University Press p 18 ISBN 978 0 19 514570 0 Zhang Xiaoge Gregory 1996 Corrosion and Electrochemistry of Zinc Springer p 93 ISBN 978 0 306 45334 2 Weimer Al May 17 2006 Development of Solar powered Thermochemical Production of Hydrogen from Water PDF U S Department of Energy Archived PDF from the original on February 5 2009 Retrieved January 10 2009 a b c Heiserman 1992 p 124 Blew Joseph Oscar 1953 Wood preservatives PDF Department of Agriculture Forest Service Forest Products Laboratory hdl 1957 816 Archived PDF from the original on January 14 2012 Frankland Edward 1849 Notiz uber eine neue Reihe organischer Korper welche Metalle Phosphor u s w enthalten Liebig s Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie in German 71 2 213 216 doi 10 1002 jlac 18490710206 Archived from the original on March 31 2023 Retrieved September 4 2019 a b CRC 2006 p 4 42 Paschotta Rudiger 2008 Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology Wiley VCH p 798 ISBN 978 3 527 40828 3 permanent dead link Konstantinou I K Albanis T A 2004 Worldwide occurrence and effects of antifouling paint booster biocides in the aquatic environment a review Environment International 30 2 235 248 Bibcode 2004EnInt 30 235K doi 10 1016 S0160 4120 03 00176 4 PMID 14749112 a b c Boudreaux Kevin A Zinc Sulfur Angelo State University Archived from the original on December 2 2008 Retrieved October 8 2008 Rolled and Titanium Zinc Sheet Archived from the original on July 7 2022 Retrieved October 21 2022 Things You Should Know About Zinc Countertops Archived from the original on October 22 2022 Retrieved October 21 2022 Guide to Zinc Countertops Benefits of Zinc Kitchen Counters Archived from the original on October 22 2022 Retrieved October 21 2022 Technical Information Zinc Counters 2008 Archived from the original on November 21 2008 Retrieved November 29 2008 a b c Win David Tin Masum Al 2003 Weapons of Mass Destruction PDF Assumption University Journal of Technology 6 4 Assumption University 199 Archived PDF from the original on March 26 2009 Retrieved April 6 2009 David E Newton 1999 Chemical Elements From Carbon to Krypton U X L Gale ISBN 978 0 7876 2846 8 Archived from the original on July 10 2008 Retrieved April 6 2009 Ullmann s Agrochemicals Wiley Vch COR 2007 pp 591 592 ISBN 978 3 527 31604 5 permanent dead link Walker J C F 2006 Primary Wood Processing Principles and Practice Springer p 317 ISBN 978 1 4020 4392 5 ZDDP Engine Oil The Zinc Factor Mustang Monthly Archived from the original on September 12 2009 Retrieved September 19 2009 Kim Jeung Gon Walsh Patrick J 2006 From Aryl Bromides to Enantioenriched Benzylic Alcohols in a Single Flask Catalytic Asymmetric Arylation of Aldehydes Angewandte Chemie International Edition 45 25 4175 4178 doi 10 1002 anie 200600741 PMID 16721894 Overman Larry E Carpenter Nancy E 2005 The Allylic Trihaloacetimidate Rearrangement Organic Reactions Vol 66 pp 1 107 doi 10 1002 0471264180 or066 01 ISBN 978 0 471 26418 7 Rappoport Zvi Marek Ilan December 17 2007 The Chemistry of Organozinc Compounds R Zn John Wiley amp Sons ISBN 978 0 470 09337 5 Archived from the original on April 14 2016 Knochel Paul Jones Philip 1999 Organozinc reagents A practical approach Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 850121 3 Archived from the original on April 14 2016 Herrmann Wolfgang A January 2002 Synthetic Methods of Organometallic and Inorganic Chemistry Catalysis Georg Thieme Verlag ISBN 978 3 13 103061 0 Archived from the original on April 14 2016 E Frankland Ann 126 109 1863 E Frankland B F Duppa Ann 135 25 1865 Lowicki Daniel Bas Sebastian Mlynarski Jacek 2015 Chiral zinc catalysts for asymmetric synthesis Tetrahedron 71 9 1339 1394 doi 10 1016 j tet 2014 12 022 a b Stiles LI Ferrao K Mehta KJ February 2024 Role of zinc in health and disease Clin Exp Med 24 1 38 doi 10 1007 s10238 024 01302 6 PMC 10874324 PMID 38367035 DiSilvestro Robert A 2004 Handbook of Minerals as Nutritional Supplements CRC Press pp 135 155 ISBN 978 0 8493 1652 4 Sanchez Juliana February 13 2013 Zinc Sulphate vs Zinc Amino Acid Chelate ZAZO Report USA Government NCT01791608 Archived from the original on April 6 2022 Retrieved April 6 2022 via U S National Library of Medecine Mayo Wilson E Junior JA Imdad A Dean S Chan XH Chan ES Jaswal A Bhutta ZA May 15 2014 Zinc supplementation for preventing mortality morbidity and growth failure in children aged 6 months to 12 years of age The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 5 CD009384 doi 10 1002 14651858 CD009384 pub2 PMID 24826920 Santos HO Teixeira FJ Schoenfeld BJ 2019 Dietary vs pharmacological doses of zinc A clinical review Clin Nutr 130 5 1345 1353 doi 10 1016 j clnu 2019 06 024 PMID 31303527 S2CID 196616666 Bhutta ZA Bird SM Black RE Brown KH Gardner JM Hidayat A Khatun F Martorell R et al 2000 Therapeutic effects of oral zinc in acute and persistent diarrhea in children in developing countries pooled analysis of randomized controlled trials The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 72 6 1516 1522 doi 10 1093 ajcn 72 6 1516 PMID 11101480 Aydemir T B Blanchard R K Cousins R J 2006 Zinc supplementation of young men alters metallothionein zinc transporter and cytokine gene expression in leukocyte populations PNAS 103 6 1699 704 Bibcode 2006PNAS 103 1699A doi 10 1073 pnas 0510407103 PMC 1413653 PMID 16434472 Valko M Morris H Cronin M T D 2005 Metals Toxicity and Oxidative stress PDF Current Medicinal Chemistry 12 10 1161 208 doi 10 2174 0929867053764635 PMID 15892631 Archived from the original PDF on August 8 2017 a b c d e f Zinc Fact Sheet for Health Professionals Office of Dietary Supplements US National Institutes of Health February 11 2016 Retrieved January 7 2018 a b Science M Johnstone J Roth DE Guyatt G Loeb M July 2012 Zinc for the treatment of the common cold a systematic review and meta analysis of randomized controlled trials CMAJ 184 10 E551 61 doi 10 1503 cmaj 111990 PMC 3394849 PMID 22566526 Common Cold and Runny Nose United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention September 26 2017 Retrieved January 7 2018 Suzuki H Asakawa A Li JB Tsai M Amitani H Ohinata K Komai M Inui A 2011 Zinc as an appetite stimulator the possible role of zinc in the progression of diseases such as cachexia and sarcopenia Recent Patents on Food Nutrition amp Agriculture 3 3 226 231 doi 10 2174 2212798411103030226 PMID 21846317 Shay Neil F Mangian Heather F 2000 Neurobiology of Zinc Influenced Eating Behavior The Journal of Nutrition 130 5 1493S 1499S doi 10 1093 jn 130 5 1493S PMID 10801965 Rabinovich D Smadi Y 2019 Zinc StatPearls Internet PMID 31613478 Evans Jennifer R Lawrenson John G September 13 2023 Antioxidant vitamin and mineral supplements for slowing the progression of age related macular degeneration The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2023 9 CD000254 doi 10 1002 14651858 CD000254 pub5 ISSN 1469 493X PMC 10498493 PMID 37702300 Archived from the original on September 29 2023 Retrieved October 16 2023 Swardfager W Herrmann N McIntyre RS Mazereeuw G Goldberger K Cha DS Schwartz Y Lanctot KL June 2013 Potential roles of zinc in the pathophysiology and treatment of major depressive disorder Neurosci Biobehav Rev 37 5 911 929 doi 10 1016 j neubiorev 2013 03 018 PMID 23567517 S2CID 1725139 Research Center for Drug Evaluation and November 16 2021 Questions and Answers FDA posts deemed final order and proposed order for over the counter sunscreen FDA Archived from the original on August 16 2022 Retrieved October 31 2022 Chauhan Ravi Kumar Amit Tripathi Ramna Kumar Akhilesh 2021 Mallakpour Shadpour Hussain Chaudhery Mustansar eds Advancing of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles for Cosmetic Applications Handbook of Consumer Nanoproducts Singapore Springer pp 1 16 doi 10 1007 978 981 15 6453 6 100 1 ISBN 978 981 15 6453 6 S2CID 245778598 archived from the original on March 17 2024 retrieved October 31 2022 Roldan S Winkel E G Herrera D Sanz M Van Winkelhoff A J 2003 The effects of a new mouthrinse containing chlorhexidine cetylpyridinium chloride and zinc lactate on the microflora of oral halitosis patients a dual centre double blind placebo controlled study Journal of Clinical Periodontology 30 5 427 434 doi 10 1034 j 1600 051X 2003 20004 x PMID 12716335 Toothpastes www ada org Archived from the original on March 5 2016 Retrieved September 27 2020 Marks R Pearse A D Walker A P 1985 The effects of a shampoo containing zinc pyrithione on the control of dandruff British Journal of Dermatology 112 4 415 422 doi 10 1111 j 1365 2133 1985 tb02314 x PMID 3158327 S2CID 23368244 Mahajan BB Dhawan M Singh R January 2013 Herpes genitalis Topical zinc sulfate An alternative therapeutic and modality Indian Journal of Sexually Transmitted Diseases and AIDS 34 1 32 4 doi 10 4103 0253 7184 112867 PMC 3730471 PMID 23919052 Kong Lingyun Heydari Zahra Lami Ghadeer Hazim Saberi Abbas Baltatu Madalina Simona Vizureanu Petrica July 3 2023 A Comprehensive Review of the Current Research Status of Biodegradable Zinc Alloys and Composites for Biomedical Applications Materials 16 13 4797 Bibcode 2023Mate 16 4797K doi 10 3390 ma16134797 ISSN 1996 1944 PMC 10343804 PMID 37445111 Cotton et al 1999 pp 625 629 Plum Laura Rink Lothar Haase Hajo 2010 The Essential Toxin Impact of Zinc on Human Health Int J Environ Res Public Health 7 4 1342 1365 doi 10 3390 ijerph7041342 PMC 2872358 PMID 20617034 Brandt Erik G Hellgren Mikko Brinck Tore Bergman Tomas Edholm Olle 2009 Molecular dynamics study of zinc binding to cysteines in a peptide mimic of the alcohol dehydrogenase structural zinc site Phys Chem Chem Phys 11 6 975 83 Bibcode 2009PCCP 11 975B doi 10 1039 b815482a PMID 19177216 Archived from the original on May 24 2023 Retrieved September 9 2019 a b c Rink L Gabriel P 2000 Zinc and the immune system Proc Nutr Soc 59 4 541 52 doi 10 1017 S0029665100000781 PMID 11115789 Wapnir Raul A 1990 Protein Nutrition and Mineral Absorption Boca Raton Florida CRC Press ISBN 978 0 8493 5227 0 Archived from the original on March 17 2024 Retrieved September 27 2020 Berdanier Carolyn D Dwyer Johanna T Feldman Elaine B 2007 Handbook of Nutrition and Food Boca Raton Florida CRC Press ISBN 978 0 8493 9218 4 Archived from the original on March 17 2024 Retrieved September 27 2020 Mittermeier Lorenz Gudermann Thomas Zakharian Eleonora Simmons David G Braun Vladimir Chubanov Masayuki Hilgendorff Anne Recordati Camilla Breit Andreas February 15 2019 TRPM7 is the central gatekeeper of intestinal mineral absorption essential for postnatal survival Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116 10 4706 4715 Bibcode 2019PNAS 116 4706M doi 10 1073 pnas 1810633116 ISSN 0027 8424 PMC 6410795 PMID 30770447 Kasana Shakhenabat Din Jamila Maret Wolfgang January 2015 Genetic causes and gene nutrient interactions in mammalian zinc deficiencies acrodermatitis enteropathica and transient neonatal zinc deficiency as examples Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology 29 47 62 doi 10 1016 j jtemb 2014 10 003 ISSN 1878 3252 PMID 25468189 Djoko KY Ong CL Walker MJ McEwan AG July 2015 The Role of Copper and Zinc Toxicity in Innate Immune Defense against Bacterial Pathogens The Journal of Biological Chemistry 290 31 18954 61 doi 10 1074 jbc R115 647099 PMC 4521016 PMID 26055706 Zn is present in up to 10 of proteins in the human proteome and computational analysis predicted that 30 of these 3000 Zn containing proteins are crucial cellular enzymes such as hydrolases ligases transferases oxidoreductases and isomerases 42 43 a b Bitanihirwe BK Cunningham MG November 2009 Zinc the brain s dark horse Synapse 63 11 1029 1049 doi 10 1002 syn 20683 PMID 19623531 S2CID 206520330 Nakashima AS Dyck RH 2009 Zinc and cortical plasticity Brain Res Rev 59 2 347 73 doi 10 1016 j brainresrev 2008 10 003 PMID 19026685 S2CID 22507338 Tyszka Czochara M Grzywacz A Gdula Argasinska J Librowski T Wilinski B Opoka W May 2014 The role of zinc in the pathogenesis and treatment of central nervous system CNS diseases Implications of zinc homeostasis for proper CNS function PDF Acta Pol Pharm 71 3 369 377 PMID 25265815 Archived PDF from the original on August 29 2017 Yokel R A 2006 Blood brain barrier flux of aluminum manganese iron and other metals suspected to contribute to metal induced neurodegeneration Journal of Alzheimer s Disease 10 2 3 223 53 doi 10 3233 JAD 2006 102 309 PMID 17119290 a b c d e Institute of Medicine 2001 Zinc Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A Vitamin K Arsenic Boron Chromium Copper Iodine Iron Manganese Molybdenum Nickel Silicon Vanadium and Zinc Washington DC National Academy Press pp 442 501 doi 10 17226 10026 ISBN 978 0 309 07279 3 PMID 25057538 Archived from the original on September 19 2017 Stipanuk Martha H 2006 Biochemical Physiological amp Molecular Aspects of Human Nutrition W B Saunders Company pp 1043 1067 ISBN 978 0 7216 4452 3 a b Greenwood amp Earnshaw 1997 pp 1224 1225 Kohen Amnon Limbach Hans Heinrich 2006 Isotope Effects in Chemistry and Biology Boca Raton Florida CRC Press p 850 ISBN 978 0 8247 2449 8 Archived from the original on March 17 2024 Retrieved September 27 2020 a b Greenwood amp Earnshaw 1997 p 1225 Cotton et al 1999 p 627 Gadallah MA 2000 Effects of indole 3 acetic acid and zinc on the growth osmotic potential and soluble carbon and nitrogen components of soybean plants growing under water deficit Journal of Arid Environments 44 4 451 467 Bibcode 2000JArEn 44 451G doi 10 1006 jare 1999 0610 Ziliotto Silvia Ogle Olivia Yaylor Kathryn M 2018 Chapter 17 Targeting Zinc II Signalling to Prevent Cancer In Sigel Astrid Sigel Helmut Freisinger Eva Sigel Roland K O eds Metallo Drugs Development and Action of Anticancer Agents Metal Ions in Life Sciences Vol 18 Berlin de Gruyter GmbH pp 507 529 doi 10 1515 9783110470734 023 ISBN 9783110470734 PMID 29394036 Cotton et al 1999 p 628 Whitney Eleanor Noss Rolfes Sharon Rady 2005 Understanding Nutrition 10th ed Thomson Learning pp 447 450 ISBN 978 1 4288 1893 4 Hershfinkel M Silverman WF Sekler I 2007 The Zinc Sensing Receptor a Link Between Zinc and Cell Signaling Molecular Medicine 13 7 8 331 336 doi 10 2119 2006 00038 Hershfinkel PMC 1952663 PMID 17728842 Cotton et al 1999 p 629 Blake Steve 2007 Vitamins and Minerals Demystified McGraw Hill Professional p 242 ISBN a, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.