fbpx
Wikipedia

Lithium

January 06, 2023

This article is about the chemical element. For the use of lithium as a medication, see Lithium (medication). For other uses, see Lithium (disambiguation).

Lithium (from Greek: λίθος, romanized: lithos, lit. 'stone') is a chemical element with the symbol Li and atomic number 3. It is a soft, silvery-white alkali metal. Under standard conditions, it is the least dense metal and the least dense solid element. Like all alkali metals, lithium is highly reactive and flammable, and must be stored in vacuum, inert atmosphere, or inert liquid such as purified kerosene or mineral oil. When cut, it exhibits a metallic luster, but moist air corrodes it quickly to a dull silvery gray, then black tarnish. It never occurs freely in nature, but only in (usually ionic) compounds, such as pegmatitic minerals, which were once the main source of lithium. Due to its solubility as an ion, it is present in ocean water and is commonly obtained from brines. Lithium metal is isolated electrolytically from a mixture of lithium chloride and potassium chloride.

Lithium, 3Li
Lithium floating in oil
Lithium
Pronunciation/ˈlɪθiəm/ ​(LITH-ee-əm)
Appearancesilvery-white
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Li)
  • [6.938, 6.997]
  • 6.94±0.06 (abridged)[1]
Lithium in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
H
↑
Li
↓
Na
helium ← lithium → beryllium
Atomic number (Z)3
Groupgroup 1: hydrogen and alkali metals
Periodperiod 2
Block  s-block
Electron configuration[He] 2s1
Electrons per shell2, 1
Physical properties
Phase at STPsolid
Melting point453.65 K ​(180.50 °C, ​356.90 °F)
Boiling point1603 K ​(1330 °C, ​2426 °F)
Density (near r.t.)0.534 g/cm3
when liquid (at m.p.)0.512 g/cm3
Critical point3220 K, 67 MPa (extrapolated)
Heat of fusion3.00 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization136 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity24.860 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K) 797 885 995 1144 1337 1610
Atomic properties
Oxidation states0[2], +1 (a strongly basic oxide)
ElectronegativityPauling scale: 0.98
Ionization energies
  • 1st: 520.2 kJ/mol
  • 2nd: 7298.1 kJ/mol
  • 3rd: 11815.0 kJ/mol
Atomic radiusempirical: 152 pm
Covalent radius128±7 pm
Van der Waals radius182 pm
Spectral lines of lithium
Other properties
Natural occurrenceprimordial
Crystal structure ​body-centered cubic (bcc)
Speed of sound thin rod6000 m/s (at 20 °C)
Thermal expansion46 µm/(m⋅K) (at 25 °C)
Thermal conductivity84.8 W/(m⋅K)
Electrical resistivity92.8 nΩ⋅m (at 20 °C)
Magnetic orderingparamagnetic
Molar magnetic susceptibility+14.2×10−6 cm3/mol (298 K)[3]
Young's modulus4.9 GPa
Shear modulus4.2 GPa
Bulk modulus11 GPa
Mohs hardness0.6
Brinell hardness5 MPa
CAS Number7439-93-2
History
DiscoveryJohan August Arfwedson (1817)
First isolationWilliam Thomas Brande (1821)
Main isotopes of lithium
Abun­dance Half-life (t1/2) Decay mode Pro­duct
6Li 5% stable
7Li 95% stable
 Category: Lithium
| references

The nucleus of the lithium atom verges on instability, since the two stable lithium isotopes found in nature have among the lowest binding energies per nucleon of all stable nuclides. Because of its relative nuclear instability, lithium is less common in the solar system than 25 of the first 32 chemical elements even though its nuclei are very light: it is an exception to the trend that heavier nuclei are less common.[4] For related reasons, lithium has important uses in nuclear physics. The transmutation of lithium atoms to helium in 1932 was the first fully man-made nuclear reaction, and lithium deuteride serves as a fusion fuel in staged thermonuclear weapons.[5]

Lithium and its compounds have several industrial applications, including heat-resistant glass and ceramics, lithium grease lubricants, flux additives for iron, steel and aluminium production, lithium metal batteries, and lithium-ion batteries. These uses consume more than three-quarters of lithium production.

Lithium is present in biological systems in trace amounts; its functions are uncertain. Lithium salts have proven to be useful as a mood stabilizer and antidepressant in the treatment of mental illness such as bipolar disorder.

Properties

Atomic and physical

 
Lithium ingots with a thin layer of black nitride tarnish

The alkali metals are also called the lithium family, after its leading element. Like the other alkali metals (which are sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), caesium (Cs), and francium (Fr)), lithium has a single valence electron that is easily given up to form a cation.[6] Because of this, lithium is a good conductor of heat and electricity as well as a highly reactive element, though it is the least reactive of the alkali metals. Lithium's low reactivity is due to the proximity of its valence electron to its nucleus (the remaining two electrons are in the 1s orbital, much lower in energy, and do not participate in chemical bonds).[6] Molten lithium is significantly more reactive than its solid form.[7][8]

Lithium metal is soft enough to be cut with a knife. When cut, it possesses a silvery-white color that quickly changes to gray as it oxidizes to lithium oxide.[6] Its melting point of 180.50 °C (453.65 K; 356.90 °F)[9] and its boiling point of 1,342 °C (1,615 K; 2,448 °F)[9] are each the highest of all the alkali metals while its density of 0.534 g/cm3 is the lowest.

Lithium has a very low density (0.534 g/cm3), comparable with pine wood.[10] It is the least dense of all elements that are solids at room temperature; the next lightest solid element (potassium, at 0.862 g/cm3) is more than 60% denser. Apart from helium and hydrogen, as a solid it is less dense than any other element as a liquid, being only two-thirds as dense as liquid nitrogen (0.808 g/cm3).[11] Lithium can float on the lightest hydrocarbon oils and is one of only three metals that can float on water, the other two being sodium and potassium.

 
Lithium floating in oil

Lithium's coefficient of thermal expansion is twice that of aluminium and almost four times that of iron.[12] Lithium is superconductive below 400 μK at standard pressure[13] and at higher temperatures (more than 9 K) at very high pressures (>20 GPa).[14] At temperatures below 70 K, lithium, like sodium, undergoes diffusionless phase change transformations. At 4.2 K it has a rhombohedral crystal system (with a nine-layer repeat spacing); at higher temperatures it transforms to face-centered cubic and then body-centered cubic. At liquid-helium temperatures (4 K) the rhombohedral structure is prevalent.[15] Multiple allotropic forms have been identified for lithium at high pressures.[16]

Lithium has a mass specific heat capacity of 3.58 kilojoules per kilogram-kelvin, the highest of all solids.[17][18] Because of this, lithium metal is often used in coolants for heat transfer applications.[17]

Isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of lithium

Naturally occurring lithium is composed of two stable isotopes, 6Li and 7Li, the latter being the more abundant (92.5% natural abundance).[6][19][20] Both natural isotopes have anomalously low nuclear binding energy per nucleon (compared to the neighboring elements on the periodic table, helium and beryllium); lithium is the only low numbered element that can produce net energy through nuclear fission. The two lithium nuclei have lower binding energies per nucleon than any other stable nuclides other than hydrogen-1, deuterium and helium-3.[21] As a result of this, though very light in atomic weight, lithium is less common in the Solar System than 25 of the first 32 chemical elements.[4] Seven radioisotopes have been characterized, the most stable being 8Li with a half-life of 838 ms and 9Li with a half-life of 178 ms. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are shorter than 8.6 ms. The shortest-lived isotope of lithium is 4Li, which decays through proton emission and has a half-life of 7.6 × 10−23 s.[22] The 6Li isotope is one of only five stable nuclides to have both an odd number of protons and an odd number of neutrons, the other four stable odd-odd nuclides being hydrogen-2, boron-10, nitrogen-14, and tantalum-180m.[23]

7Li is one of the primordial elements (or, more properly, primordial nuclides) produced in Big Bang nucleosynthesis. A small amount of both 6Li and 7Li are produced in stars during stellar nucleosynthesis, but it is further "burned" as fast as produced.[24] 7Li can also be generated in carbon stars.[25] Additional small amounts of both 6Li and 7Li may be generated from solar wind, cosmic rays hitting heavier atoms, and from early solar system 7Be and 10Be radioactive decay.[26]

Lithium isotopes fractionate substantially during a wide variety of natural processes,[27] including mineral formation (chemical precipitation), metabolism, and ion exchange. Lithium ions substitute for magnesium and iron in octahedral sites in clay minerals, where 6Li is preferred to 7Li, resulting in enrichment of the light isotope in processes of hyperfiltration and rock alteration. The exotic 11Li is known to exhibit a neutron halo, with 2 neutrons orbiting around its nucleus of 3 protons and 6 neutrons. The process known as laser isotope separation can be used to separate lithium isotopes, in particular 7Li from 6Li.[28]

Nuclear weapons manufacture and other nuclear physics applications are a major source of artificial lithium fractionation, with the light isotope 6Li being retained by industry and military stockpiles to such an extent that it has caused slight but measurable change in the 6Li to 7Li ratios in natural sources, such as rivers. This has led to unusual uncertainty in the standardized atomic weight of lithium, since this quantity depends on the natural abundance ratios of these naturally-occurring stable lithium isotopes, as they are available in commercial lithium mineral sources.[29]

Both stable isotopes of lithium can be laser cooled and were used to produce the first quantum degenerate Bose-Fermi mixture.[30]

Occurrence

 
Lithium is about as common as chlorine in the Earth's upper continental crust, on a per-atom basis.

Astronomical

Main articles: Nucleosynthesis, Stellar nucleosynthesis, and Lithium burning

Although it was synthesized in the Big Bang, lithium (together with beryllium and boron) is markedly less abundant in the universe than other elements. This is a result of the comparatively low stellar temperatures necessary to destroy lithium, along with a lack of common processes to produce it.[31]

According to modern cosmological theory, lithium—in both stable isotopes (lithium-6 and lithium-7)—was one of the three elements synthesized in the Big Bang.[32] Though the amount of lithium generated in Big Bang nucleosynthesis is dependent upon the number of photons per baryon, for accepted values the lithium abundance can be calculated, and there is a "cosmological lithium discrepancy" in the universe: older stars seem to have less lithium than they should, and some younger stars have much more.[33] The lack of lithium in older stars is apparently caused by the "mixing" of lithium into the interior of stars, where it is destroyed,[34] while lithium is produced in younger stars. Although it transmutes into two atoms of helium due to collision with a proton at temperatures above 2.4 million degrees Celsius (most stars easily attain this temperature in their interiors), lithium is more abundant than computations would predict in later-generation stars.[19]

 
Nova Centauri 2013 is the first in which evidence of lithium has been found.[35]

Lithium is also found in brown dwarf substellar objects and certain anomalous orange stars. Because lithium is present in cooler, less-massive brown dwarfs, but is destroyed in hotter red dwarf stars, its presence in the stars' spectra can be used in the "lithium test" to differentiate the two, as both are smaller than the Sun.[19][36][37] Certain orange stars can also contain a high concentration of lithium. Those orange stars found to have a higher than usual concentration of lithium (such as Centaurus X-4) orbit massive objects—neutron stars or black holes—whose gravity evidently pulls heavier lithium to the surface of a hydrogen-helium star, causing more lithium to be observed.[19]

On 27 May 2020, astronomers reported that classical nova explosions are galactic producers of lithium-7.[38][39]

Terrestrial

See also: Lithium compounds and Lithium minerals

Although lithium is widely distributed on Earth, it does not naturally occur in elemental form due to its high reactivity.[6] The total lithium content of seawater is very large and is estimated as 230 billion tonnes, where the element exists at a relatively constant concentration of 0.14 to 0.25 parts per million (ppm),[40][41] or 25 micromolar;[42] higher concentrations approaching 7 ppm are found near hydrothermal vents.[41]

Estimates for the Earth's crustal content range from 20 to 70 ppm by weight.[43] Lithium constitutes about 0.002 percent of Earth's crust.[44] In keeping with its name, lithium forms a minor part of igneous rocks, with the largest concentrations in granites. Granitic pegmatites also provide the greatest abundance of lithium-containing minerals, with spodumene and petalite being the most commercially viable sources.[43] Another significant mineral of lithium is lepidolite which is now an obsolete name for a series formed by polylithionite and trilithionite.[45][46] A newer source for lithium is hectorite clay, the only active development of which is through the Western Lithium Corporation in the United States.[47] At 20 mg lithium per kg of Earth's crust,[48] lithium is the 25th most abundant element.

According to the Handbook of Lithium and Natural Calcium, "Lithium is a comparatively rare element, although it is found in many rocks and some brines, but always in very low concentrations. There are a fairly large number of both lithium mineral and brine deposits but only comparatively few of them are of actual or potential commercial value. Many are very small, others are too low in grade."[49]

Chile is estimated (2020) to have the largest reserves by far (9.2 million tonnes),[50] and Australia the highest annual production (40,000 tonnes).[50] One of the largest reserve bases[note 1] of lithium is in the Salar de Uyuni area of Bolivia, which has 5.4 million tonnes. Other major suppliers include Australia, Argentina and China.[51][52] As of 2015, the Czech Geological Survey considered the entire Ore Mountains in the Czech Republic as lithium province. Five deposits are registered, one near Cínovec [cs] is considered as a potentially economical deposit, with 160 000 tonnes of lithium.[53] In December 2019, Finnish mining company Keliber Oy reported its Rapasaari lithium deposit has estimated proven and probable ore reserves of 5.280 million tonnes.[54]

In June 2010, The New York Times reported that American geologists were conducting ground surveys on dry salt lakes in western Afghanistan believing that large deposits of lithium are located there.[55] These estimates are "based principally on old data, which was gathered mainly by the Soviets during their occupation of Afghanistan from 1979–1989".[56] The Department of Defense estimated the lithium reserves in Afghanistan to amount to the ones in Bolivia and dubbed it as a potential "Saudi-Arabia of lithium".[57] In Cornwall, England, the presence of brine rich in lithium was well known due to the region's historic mining industry, and private investors have conducted tests to investigate potential lithium extraction in this area.[58][59]

Biological

See also: Potassium in biology, Sodium in biology, and Soil salinity

Lithium is found in trace amount in numerous plants, plankton, and invertebrates, at concentrations of 69 to 5,760 parts per billion (ppb). In vertebrates the concentration is slightly lower, and nearly all vertebrate tissue and body fluids contain lithium ranging from 21 to 763 ppb.[41] Marine organisms tend to bioaccumulate lithium more than terrestrial organisms.[60] Whether lithium has a physiological role in any of these organisms is unknown.[41]

Studies of lithium concentrations in mineral-rich soil give ranges between around 0.1 and 50−100 ppm, with some concentrations as high as 100−400 ppm, although it is unlikely that all of it is available for uptake by plants.[61] Lithium concentration in plant tissue is typically around 1 ppm, with some plant families bioaccumulating more lithium than others; lithium accumulation does not appear to affect the essential nutrient composition of plants.[61] Tolerance to lithium varies by plant species and typically parallels sodium tolerance; maize and Rhodes grass, for example, are highly tolerant to lithium injury while avocado and soybean are very sensitive.[61] Similarly, lithium at concentrations of 5 ppm reduces seed germination in some species (e.g. Asian rice and chickpea) but not in others (e.g. barley and wheat).[61] Many of lithium's major biological effects can be explained by its competition with other ions.[62] The monovalent lithium ion Li+
 competes with other ions such as sodium (immediately below lithium on the periodic table), which like lithium is also a monovalent alkali metal. Lithium also competes with bivalent magnesium ions, whose ionic radius (86 pm) is approximately that of the lithium ion[62] (90 pm). Mechanisms that transport sodium across cellular membranes also transport lithium. For instance, sodium channels (both voltage-gated and epithelial) are particularly major pathways of entry for lithium.[62] Lithium ions can also permeate through ligand-gated ion channels as well as cross both nuclear and mitochondrial membranes.[62] Like sodium, lithium can enter and partially block (although not permeate) potassium channels and calcium channels.[62] The biological effects of lithium are many and varied but its mechanisms of action are only partially understood.[63] For instance, studies of lithium-treated patients with bipolar disorder show that, among many other effects, lithium partially reverses telomere shortening in these patients and also increases mitochondrial function, although how lithium produces these pharmacological effects is not understood.[63][64] Even the exact mechanisms involved in lithium toxicity are not fully understood.

History

 
Johan August Arfwedson is credited with the discovery of lithium in 1817

Petalite (LiAlSi4O10) was discovered in 1800 by the Brazilian chemist and statesman José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva in a mine on the island of Utö, Sweden.[65][66][67][68] However, it was not until 1817 that Johan August Arfwedson, then working in the laboratory of the chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius, detected the presence of a new element while analyzing petalite ore.[69][70][71][72] This element formed compounds similar to those of sodium and potassium, though its carbonate and hydroxide were less soluble in water and less alkaline.[73] Berzelius gave the alkaline material the name "lithion/lithina", from the Greek word λιθoς (transliterated as lithos, meaning "stone"), to reflect its discovery in a solid mineral, as opposed to potassium, which had been discovered in plant ashes, and sodium, which was known partly for its high abundance in animal blood. He named the metal inside the material "lithium".[6][67][72]

Arfwedson later showed that this same element was present in the minerals spodumene and lepidolite.[74][67] In 1818, Christian Gmelin was the first to observe that lithium salts give a bright red color to flame.[67][75] However, both Arfwedson and Gmelin tried and failed to isolate the pure element from its salts.[67][72][76] It was not isolated until 1821, when William Thomas Brande obtained it by electrolysis of lithium oxide, a process that had previously been employed by the chemist Sir Humphry Davy to isolate the alkali metals potassium and sodium.[19][76][77][78][79] Brande also described some pure salts of lithium, such as the chloride, and, estimating that lithia (lithium oxide) contained about 55% metal, estimated the atomic weight of lithium to be around 9.8 g/mol (modern value ~6.94 g/mol).[80] In 1855, larger quantities of lithium were produced through the electrolysis of lithium chloride by Robert Bunsen and Augustus Matthiessen.[67][81] The discovery of this procedure led to commercial production of lithium in 1923 by the German company Metallgesellschaft AG, which performed an electrolysis of a liquid mixture of lithium chloride and potassium chloride.[67][82][83]

Australian psychiatrist John Cade is credited with reintroducing and popularizing the use of lithium to treat mania in 1949.[84] Shortly after, throughout the mid 20th century, lithium's mood stabilizing applicability for mania and depression took off in Europe and the United States.

The production and use of lithium underwent several drastic changes in history. The first major application of lithium was in high-temperature lithium greases for aircraft engines and similar applications in World War II and shortly after. This use was supported by the fact that lithium-based soaps have a higher melting point than other alkali soaps, and are less corrosive than calcium based soaps. The small demand for lithium soaps and lubricating greases was supported by several small mining operations, mostly in the US.

The demand for lithium increased dramatically during the Cold War with the production of nuclear fusion weapons. Both lithium-6 and lithium-7 produce tritium when irradiated by neutrons, and are thus useful for the production of tritium by itself, as well as a form of solid fusion fuel used inside hydrogen bombs in the form of lithium deuteride. The US became the prime producer of lithium between the late 1950s and the mid-1980s. At the end, the stockpile of lithium was roughly 42,000 tonnes of lithium hydroxide. The stockpiled lithium was depleted in lithium-6 by 75%, which was enough to affect the measured atomic weight of lithium in many standardized chemicals, and even the atomic weight of lithium in some "natural sources" of lithium ion which had been "contaminated" by lithium salts discharged from isotope separation facilities, which had found its way into ground water.[29][85]

 
 
Satellite images of the Salar del Hombre Muerto, Argentina (left), and Uyuni, Bolivia (right), salt flats that are rich in lithium. The lithium-rich brine is concentrated by pumping it into solar evaporation ponds (visible in the left image).

Lithium is used to decrease the melting temperature of glass and to improve the melting behavior of aluminium oxide in the Hall-Héroult process.[86][87] These two uses dominated the market until the middle of the 1990s. After the end of the nuclear arms race, the demand for lithium decreased and the sale of department of energy stockpiles on the open market further reduced prices.[85] In the mid-1990s, several companies started to isolate lithium from brine which proved to be a less expensive option than underground or open-pit mining. Most of the mines closed or shifted their focus to other materials because only the ore from zoned pegmatites could be mined for a competitive price. For example, the US mines near Kings Mountain, North Carolina closed before the beginning of the 21st century.

The development of lithium ion batteries increased the demand for lithium and became the dominant use in 2007.[88] With the surge of lithium demand in batteries in the 2000s, new companies have expanded brine isolation efforts to meet the rising demand.[89][90]

It has been argued that lithium will be one of the main objects of geopolitical competition in a world running on renewable energy and dependent on batteries, but this perspective has also been criticised for underestimating the power of economic incentives for expanded production.[91]

Chemistry

Main page: Category:Lithium compounds
"Lithium salt" redirects here. For Lithium salts used in medication, see Lithium (medication).

Of lithium metal

Lithium reacts with water easily, but with noticeably less vigor than other alkali metals. The reaction forms hydrogen gas and lithium hydroxide.[6] When placed over a flame, lithium compounds give off a striking crimson color, but when the metal burns strongly, the flame becomes a brilliant silver. Lithium will ignite and burn in oxygen when exposed to water or water vapor. In moist air, lithium rapidly tarnishes to form a black coating of lithium hydroxide (LiOH and LiOH·H2O), lithium nitride (Li3N) and lithium carbonate (Li2CO3, the result of a secondary reaction between LiOH and CO2).[43] Lithium is one of the few metals that react with nitrogen gas.[92][93]

Because of its reactivity with water, and especially nitrogen, lithium metal is usually stored in a hydrocarbon sealant, often petroleum jelly. Although the heavier alkali metals can be stored under mineral oil, lithium is not dense enough to fully submerge itself in these liquids.[19]

Lithium has a diagonal relationship with magnesium, an element of similar atomic and ionic radius. Chemical resemblances between the two metals include the formation of a nitride by reaction with N2, the formation of an oxide (Li
2O) and peroxide (Li
2O
2) when burnt in O2, salts with similar solubilities, and thermal instability of the carbonates and nitrides.[43][94] The metal reacts with hydrogen gas at high temperatures to produce lithium hydride (LiH).[95]

Lithium forms a variety of binary and ternary materials by direct reaction with the main group elements. These Zintl phases, although highly covalent, can be viewed as salts of polyatomic anions such as Si44-, P73-, and Te52-. With graphite, lithium forms a variety of intercalation compounds.[94]

It dissolves in ammonia (and amines) to give [Li(NH3)4]+ and the solvated electron.[94]

Inorganic compounds

 
Hexameric structure of the n-butyllithium fragment in a crystal

Lithium forms salt-like derivatives with all halides and pseudohalides. Some examples include the halides LiF, LiCl, LiBr, LiI, as well as the pseudohalides and related anions. Lithium carbonate has been described as the most important compound of lithium.[94] This white solid is the principal product of beneficiation of lithium ores. It is a precursor to other salts including ceramics and materials for lithium batteries.

The compounds LiBH
4 and LiAlH
4 are useful reagents. These salts and many other lithium salts exhibit distinctively high solubility in ethers, in contrast with salts of heavier alkali metals.

In aqueous solution, the coordination complex [Li(H2O)4]+ predominates for many lithium salts. Related complexes are known with amines and ethers.

Organic chemistry

Main article: Organolithium reagent

Organolithium compounds are numerous and useful. They are defined by the presence of a bond between carbon and lithium. They serve as metal-stabilized carbanions, although their solution and solid-state structures are more complex than this simplistic view.[96] Thus, these are extremely powerful bases and nucleophiles. They have also been applied in asymmetric synthesis in the pharmaceutical industry. For laboratory organic synthesis, many organolithium reagents are commercially available in solution form. These reagents are highly reactive, and are sometimes pyrophoric.

Like its inorganic compounds, almost all organic compounds of lithium formally follow the duet rule (e.g., BuLi, MeLi). However, it is important to note that in the absence of coordinating solvents or ligands, organolithium compounds form dimeric, tetrameric, and hexameric clusters (e.g., BuLi is actually [BuLi]6 and MeLi is actually [MeLi]4) which feature multi-center bonding and increase the coordination number around lithium. These clusters are broken down into smaller or monomeric units in the presence of solvents like dimethoxyethane (DME) or ligands like tetramethylethylenediamine (TMEDA).[97] As an exception to the duet rule, a two-coordinate lithate complex with four electrons around lithium, [Li(thf)4]+[((Me3Si)3C)2Li]–, has been characterized crystallographically.[98]

Production

See also: List of countries by lithium production
Lithium mine production (2020), reserves and resources in tonnes according to USGS[50]
Country Production Reserves[note 1] Resources
Argentina 6,200 1,900,000 19,300,000
Australia 40,000 4,700,000 6,400,000
Austria - - 50,000
Bolivia - - 21,000,000
Brazil 1,900 95,000 470,000
Canada 0 530,000 2,900,000
Chile 18,000 9,200,000 9,600,000
China 14,000 1,500,000 5,100,000
Czech Republic - - 1,300,000
DR Congo - - 3,000,000
Finland - - 50,000
Germany - - 2,700,000
Ghana - - 90,000
Kazakhstan - - 50,000
Mali - - 700,000
Mexico - - 1,700,000
Namibia - - 50,000
Peru - - 880,000
Portugal 900 60,000 270,000
Serbia - - 1,200,000
Spain - - 300,000
United States 870[note 2] 750,000 7,900,000
Zimbabwe 1,200 220,000 500,000
World total 82,000 21,000,000 86,000,000+

Lithium production has greatly increased since the end of World War II. The main sources of lithium are brines and ores.

Lithium metal is produced through electrolysis applied to a mixture of fused 55% lithium chloride and 45% potassium chloride at about 450 °C.[99]

Reserves and occurrence

 
Scatter plots of lithium grade and tonnage for selected world deposits, as of 2017

The US Geological Survey (USGS) estimated worldwide identified lithium reserves in 2020 and 2021 to be 17 million and 21 million tonnes, respectively.[51][50] An accurate estimate of world lithium reserves is difficult.[100][101] One reason for this is that most lithium classification schemes are developed for solid ore deposits, whereas brine is a fluid that is problematic to treat with the same classification scheme due to varying concentrations and pumping effects.[102]

Following a hike in lithium price in 2015 and concern for insufficiency of lithium resource for the growing lithium-ion battery industry, a peer-reviewed analysis of USGS data in 2017 predicted that there will be no shortage of lithium and current estimates of reserves will increase along with the demand.[103] Worldwide lithium resources identified by USGS started to increase in 2017 owing to continuing exploration. Identified resources in 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019 and 2020 were 41, 47, 54, 62 and 80 million tonnes, respectively.[51]

In 2013, the world was estimated to contain about 15 million tonnes of lithium reserves, while 65 million tonnes of known resources were reasonable. 75% of lithium reserves could be found in the ten largest deposits of the world.[104] Another study noted that 83% of the geological resources of lithium are located in six brine, two pegmatite, and two sedimentary deposits.[105]

In the US, lithium is recovered from brine pools in Nevada.[17] A deposit discovered in 2013 in Wyoming's Rock Springs Uplift is estimated to contain 228,000 tons. Additional deposits in the same formation were estimated to be as much as 18 million tons.[106] Similarly in Nevada, the McDermitt Caldera hosts lithium-bearing volcanic muds that consist of the largest known deposits of lithium within the United States.[107]

Lithium triangle

The world's top four lithium-producing countries from 2019, as reported by the US Geological Survey are Australia, Chile, China and Argentina.[51]

The three countries of Chile, Bolivia, and Argentina make up a region known as the Lithium Triangle. The Lithium Triangle is known for its high-quality salt flats, which include Bolivia's Salar de Uyuni, Chile's Salar de Atacama, and Argentina's Salar de Arizaro. The Lithium Triangle is believed to contain over 75% of existing known lithium reserves.[108] Deposits are also found in South America throughout the Andes mountain chain. Chile is the leading producer, followed by Argentina. Both countries recover lithium from brine pools. According to USGS, Bolivia's Uyuni Desert has 5.4 million tonnes of lithium.[109][110] Half the world's known reserves are located in Bolivia along the central eastern slope of the Andes. The Bolivian government has invested US$900 million and in 2021 successfully produced 540 tons[111][109] The brines in the salt pans of the Lithium Triangle vary widely in lithium content.[112] Concentrations can also vary in time as brines are fluids that are changeable and mobile.[112]

Since 2018 the Democratic Republic of Congo is known to have the largest lithium spodumene hard-rock deposit in the world.[113] The deposit located in Manono, DRC, may hold up to 1.5 billion tons of lithium spodumene hard-rock. The two largest pegmatites (known as the Carriere de l'Este Pegmatite and the Roche Dure Pegmatite) are each of similar size or larger than the famous Greenbushes Pegmatite in Western Australia. Thus, the Democratic Republic of Congo is expected to be a significant supplier of lithium to the world with its high grade and low impurities.

According to a later 2011 study by Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and the University of California, Berkeley, the then-estimated reserve base of lithium should not be a limiting factor for large-scale battery production for electric vehicles because an estimated 1 billion 40 kWh Li-based batteries could be built with those reserves[114] - about 10 kg of lithium per car.[115] Another 2011 study at the University of Michigan and Ford Motor Company found enough resources to support global demand until 2100, including the lithium required for the potential widespread transportation use. The study estimated global reserves at 39 million tons, and total demand for lithium during the 90-year period annualized at 12–20 million tons, depending on the scenarios regarding economic growth and recycling rates.[116]

In 2014, The Financialist stated that demand for lithium was growing at more than 12% a year. According to Credit Suisse, this rate exceeded projected availability by 25%. The publication compared the 2014 lithium situation with oil, whereby "higher oil prices spurred investment in expensive deepwater and oil sands production techniques"; that is, the price of lithium would continue to rise until more expensive production methods that could boost total output would receive the attention of investors.[117]

On 16 July 2018 2.5 million tonnes of high-grade lithium resources and 124 million pounds of uranium resources were found in the Falchani hard rock deposit in the region Puno, Peru.[118] In 2020, Australia granted Major Project Status (MPS) to the Finniss Lithium Project for a strategically important lithium deposit: an estimated 3.45 million tonnes (Mt) of mineral resource at 1.4 percent lithium oxide.[119][120] Operational mining began in 2022.[121]

In 2019, world production of lithium from spodumene was around 80,000t per annum, primarily from the Greenbushes pegmatite and from some Chinese and Chilean sources. The Talison mine in Greenbushes is reported to be the largest and to have the highest grade of ore at 2.4% Li2O (2012 figures).[122]

Oceans are estimated to contain 230 billion tons of lithium,[123] but the concentration is 0.1-0.2ppm, making it more expensive to isolate with 2020 technology than from land based brine and rock.

Sources

Another potential source of lithium as of 2012 was identified as the leachates of geothermal wells, which are carried to the surface.[124] Recovery of this type of lithium has been demonstrated in the field; the lithium is separated by simple filtration.[125][clarification needed] Reserves are more limited than those of brine reservoirs and hard rock.[citation needed]

Pricing

 
Lithium prices

In 1998, the price of lithium metal was about 95 USD/kg (or US$43/lb).[126] After the 2007 financial crisis, major suppliers, such as Sociedad Química y Minera (SQM), dropped lithium carbonate pricing by 20%.[127] Prices rose in 2012. A 2012 Business Week article outlined an oligopoly in the lithium space: "SQM, controlled by billionaire Julio Ponce, is the second-largest, followed by Rockwood, which is backed by Henry Kravis’s KKR & Co., and Philadelphia-based FMC", with Talison mentioned as the biggest producer.[128] Global consumption may jump to 300,000 metric tons a year by 2020[failed verification] from about 150,000 tons in 2012, to match the demand for lithium batteries that has been growing at about 25% a year, outpacing the 4% to 5% overall gain in lithium production.[128][needs update]

The price information service ISE - Institute of Rare Earths Elements and Strategic Metals - gives for various lithium substances in the average of the last six months (March to August 2022) the following kilo prices stable in the course: Lithium Carbonate, purity 99.5%min, from various producers between 63 and 72 EUR/kg. Lithium Hydroxide Monohydrate LiOH 56.5%min, China, at 66 to 72 EUR/kg; Delivered South Korea - 73 EUR/kg. Lithium Metal 99.9%min, Delivered China - 42 EUR/kg.[129]

Extraction

 
Analyses of the extraction of lithium from seawater, published in 1975

Lithium and its compounds were historically isolated and extracted from hard rock but by the 1990s mineral springs, brine pools, and brine deposits had become the dominant source.[citation needed] Most of these were in Chile, Argentina and Bolivia.[50] Large lithium-clay deposits under development in the McDermitt caldera (Nevada, United States) require concentrated sulfuric acid to leach lithium from the clay ore.[130]

By early 2021, much of the lithium mined globally comes from either "spodumene, the mineral contained in hard rocks found in places such as Australia and North Carolina"[131] or from the salty brine pumped directly out of the ground, as it is in locations in Chile.[131][112] In Chile's Salar de Atacama, the lithium concentration in the brine is raised by solar evaporation in a system of ponds.[112] The enrichment by evaporation process may require up to one-and-a-half years, when the brine reaches a lithium content of 6%.[112] The final processing in this example is done near the city of Antofagasta on the coast where pure lithium carbonate, lithium hydroxide, and lithium chloride are produced from the brine.[112]

Low-cobalt cathodes for lithium batteries are expected to require lithium hydroxide rather than lithium carbonate as a feedstock, and this trend favors rock as a source.[132][133][134]

The use of electrodialysis and electrochemical intercalation has been proposed to extract lithium compounds from seawater (which contains lithium at 0.2 parts per million), but it is not yet commercially viable.[135][136][137]

Environmental issues

Further information: Environmental impacts of lithium-ion batteries

The manufacturing processes of lithium, including the solvent and mining waste, presents significant environmental and health hazards.[138][139][140] Lithium extraction can be fatal to aquatic life due to water pollution.[141] It is known to cause surface water contamination, drinking water contamination, respiratory problems, ecosystem degradation and landscape damage.[138] It also leads to unsustainable water consumption in arid regions (1.9 million liters per ton of lithium).[138] Massive byproduct generation of lithium extraction also presents unsolved problems, such as large amounts of magnesium and lime waste.[142]

In the United States, there is active competition between environmentally catastrophic open-pit mining, mountaintop removal mining and less damaging brine extraction mining in an effort to drastically expand domestic lithium mining capacity.[143] Environmental concerns include wildlife habitat degradation, potable water pollution including arsenic and antimony contamination, unsustainable water table reduction, and massive mining waste, including radioactive uranium byproduct and sulfuric acid discharge.

Human rights issues

A study of relationships between lithium extraction companies and indigenous peoples in Argentina indicated that the state may not have protected indigenous peoples' right to free prior and informed consent, and that extraction companies generally controlled community access to information and set the terms for discussion of the projects and benefit sharing.[144]

Development of the Thacker Pass lithium mine in Nevada, United States, has met with protests and lawsuits from several indigenous tribes who have said they were not provided free prior and informed consent and that the project threatens cultural and sacred sites.[145] They have also expressed concerns that development of the project will create risks to indigenous women, because resource extraction is linked to missing and murdered indigenous women.[146] Protestors have been occupying the site of the proposed mine since January, 2021.[147][143]

Applications

 
Estimates of global lithium uses in 2011 (picture) and 2019 (numbers below)[148][149]
  Ceramics and glass (18%)
  Batteries (65%)
  Lubricating greases (5%)
  Continuous casting (3%)
  Air treatment (1%)
  Polymers
  Primary aluminum production
  Pharmaceuticals
  Other (5%)

Batteries

In 2021, most lithium is used to make lithium-ion batteries for electric cars and mobile devices.

Ceramics and glass

Lithium oxide is widely used as a flux for processing silica, reducing the melting point and viscosity of the material and leading to glazes with improved physical properties including low coefficients of thermal expansion. Worldwide, this is one of the largest use for lithium compounds.[148][150] Glazes containing lithium oxides are used for ovenware. Lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) is generally used in this application because it converts to the oxide upon heating.[151]

Electrical and electronic

Late in the 20th century, lithium became an important component of battery electrolytes and electrodes, because of its high electrode potential. Because of its low atomic mass, it has a high charge- and power-to-weight ratio. A typical lithium-ion battery can generate approximately 3 volts per cell, compared with 2.1 volts for lead-acid and 1.5 volts for zinc-carbon. Lithium-ion batteries, which are rechargeable and have a high energy density, differ from lithium metal batteries, which are disposable (primary) batteries with lithium or its compounds as the anode.[152][153] Other rechargeable batteries that use lithium include the lithium-ion polymer battery, lithium iron phosphate battery, and the nanowire battery.

Over the years opinions have been differing about potential growth. A 2008 study concluded that "realistically achievable lithium carbonate production would be sufficient for only a small fraction of future PHEV and EV global market requirements", that "demand from the portable electronics sector will absorb much of the planned production increases in the next decade", and that "mass production of lithium carbonate is not environmentally sound, it will cause irreparable ecological damage to ecosystems that should be protected and that LiIon propulsion is incompatible with the notion of the 'Green Car'".[52]

Lubricating greases

Main article: Lithium grease

The third most common use of lithium is in greases. Lithium hydroxide is a strong base and, when heated with a fat, produces a soap made of lithium stearate. Lithium soap has the ability to thicken oils, and it is used to manufacture all-purpose, high-temperature lubricating greases.[17][154][155]

Metallurgy

Lithium (e.g. as lithium carbonate) is used as an additive to continuous casting mould flux slags where it increases fluidity,[156][157] a use which accounts for 5% of global lithium use (2011).[51] Lithium compounds are also used as additives (fluxes) to foundry sand for iron casting to reduce veining.[158]

Lithium (as lithium fluoride) is used as an additive to aluminium smelters (Hall–Héroult process), reducing melting temperature and increasing electrical resistance,[159] a use which accounts for 3% of production (2011).[51]

When used as a flux for welding or soldering, metallic lithium promotes the fusing of metals during the process[160] and eliminates the forming of oxides by absorbing impurities.[161] Alloys of the metal with aluminium, cadmium, copper and manganese are used to make high-performance, low density aircraft parts (see also Lithium-aluminium alloys).[162]

Silicon nano-welding

Lithium has been found effective in assisting the perfection of silicon nano-welds in electronic components for electric batteries and other devices.[163]

 
Lithium use in flares and pyrotechnics is due to its rose-red flame.[164]

Pyrotechnics

Lithium compounds are used as pyrotechnic colorants and oxidizers in red fireworks and flares.[17][165]

Air purification

Lithium chloride and lithium bromide are hygroscopic and are used as desiccants for gas streams.[17] Lithium hydroxide and lithium peroxide are the salts most used in confined areas, such as aboard spacecraft and submarines, for carbon dioxide removal and air purification. Lithium hydroxide absorbs carbon dioxide from the air by forming lithium carbonate, and is preferred over other alkaline hydroxides for its low weight.

Lithium peroxide (Li2O2) in presence of moisture not only reacts with carbon dioxide to form lithium carbonate, but also releases oxygen.[166][167] The reaction is as follows:

2 Li2O2 + 2 CO2 → 2 Li2CO3 + O2.

Some of the aforementioned compounds, as well as lithium perchlorate, are used in oxygen candles that supply submarines with oxygen. These can also include small amounts of boron, magnesium, aluminum, silicon, titanium, manganese, and iron.[168]

Optics

Lithium fluoride, artificially grown as crystal, is clear and transparent and often used in specialist optics for IR, UV and VUV (vacuum UV) applications. It has one of the lowest refractive indexes and the furthest transmission range in the deep UV of most common materials.[169] Finely divided lithium fluoride powder has been used for thermoluminescent radiation dosimetry (TLD): when a sample of such is exposed to radiation, it accumulates crystal defects which, when heated, resolve via a release of bluish light whose intensity is proportional to the absorbed dose, thus allowing this to be quantified.[170] Lithium fluoride is sometimes used in focal lenses of telescopes.[17][171]

The high non-linearity of lithium niobate also makes it useful in non-linear optics applications. It is used extensively in telecommunication products such as mobile phones and optical modulators, for such components as resonant crystals. Lithium applications are used in more than 60% of mobile phones.[172]

Organic and polymer chemistry

Organolithium compounds are widely used in the production of polymer and fine-chemicals. In the polymer industry, which is the dominant consumer of these reagents, alkyl lithium compounds are catalysts/initiators.[173] in anionic polymerization of unfunctionalized olefins.[174][175][176] For the production of fine chemicals, organolithium compounds function as strong bases and as reagents for the formation of carbon-carbon bonds. Organolithium compounds are prepared from lithium metal and alkyl halides.[177]

Many other lithium compounds are used as reagents to prepare organic compounds. Some popular compounds include lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4), lithium triethylborohydride, n-butyllithium and tert-butyllithium.

 
The launch of a torpedo using lithium as fuel

Military

Metallic lithium and its complex hydrides, such as Li[AlH4], are used as high-energy additives to rocket propellants.[19] Lithium aluminum hydride can also be used by itself as a solid fuel.[178]

The Mark 50 torpedo stored chemical energy propulsion system (SCEPS) uses a small tank of sulfur hexafluoride, which is sprayed over a block of solid lithium. The reaction generates heat, creating steam to propel the torpedo in a closed Rankine cycle.[179]

Lithium hydride containing lithium-6 is used in thermonuclear weapons, where it serves as fuel for the fusion stage of the bomb.[180]

Nuclear

Lithium-6 is valued as a source material for tritium production and as a neutron absorber in nuclear fusion. Natural lithium contains about 7.5% lithium-6 from which large amounts of lithium-6 have been produced by isotope separation for use in nuclear weapons.[181] Lithium-7 gained interest for use in nuclear reactor coolants.[182]

 
Lithium deuteride was used as fuel in the Castle Bravo nuclear device.

Lithium deuteride was the fusion fuel of choice in early versions of the hydrogen bomb. When bombarded by neutrons, both 6Li and 7Li produce tritium — this reaction, which was not fully understood when hydrogen bombs were first tested, was responsible for the runaway yield of the Castle Bravo nuclear test. Tritium fuses with deuterium in a fusion reaction that is relatively easy to achieve. Although details remain secret, lithium-6 deuteride apparently still plays a role in modern nuclear weapons as a fusion material.[183]

Lithium fluoride, when highly enriched in the lithium-7 isotope, forms the basic constituent of the fluoride salt mixture LiF-BeF2 used in liquid fluoride nuclear reactors. Lithium fluoride is exceptionally chemically stable and LiF-BeF2 mixtures have low melting points. In addition, 7Li, Be, and F are among the few nuclides with low enough thermal neutron capture cross-sections not to poison the fission reactions inside a nuclear fission reactor.[note 3][184]

In conceptualized (hypothetical) nuclear fusion power plants, lithium will be used to produce tritium in magnetically confined reactors using deuterium and tritium as the fuel. Naturally occurring tritium is extremely rare, and must be synthetically produced by surrounding the reacting plasma with a 'blanket' containing lithium where neutrons from the deuterium-tritium reaction in the plasma will fission the lithium to produce more tritium:

6Li + n → 4He + 3H.

Lithium is also used as a source for alpha particles, or helium nuclei. When 7Li is bombarded by accelerated protons 8Be is formed, which almost immediately undergoes fission to form two alpha particles. This feat, called "splitting the atom" at the time, was the first fully man-made nuclear reaction. It was produced by Cockroft and Walton in 1932.[185][186]

In 2013, the US Government Accountability Office said a shortage of lithium-7 critical to the operation of 65 out of 100 American nuclear reactors "places their ability to continue to provide electricity at some risk". Castle Bravo first used lithium-7, in the Shrimp, its first device, which weighed only 10 tons, and generated massive nuclear atmospheric contamination of Bikini Atoll. This perhaps accounts for the decline of US nuclear infrastructure.[187] The equipment needed to separate lithium-6 from lithium-7 is mostly a cold war leftover. The US shut down most of this machinery in 1963, when it had a huge surplus of separated lithium, mostly consumed during the twentieth century. The report said it would take five years and $10 million to $12 million to reestablish the ability to separate lithium-6 from lithium-7.[188]

Reactors that use lithium-7 heat water under high pressure and transfer heat through heat exchangers that are prone to corrosion. The reactors use lithium to counteract the corrosive effects of boric acid, which is added to the water to absorb excess neutrons.[188]

Medicine

Main article: Lithium (medication)

Lithium is useful in the treatment of bipolar disorder.[189] Lithium salts may also be helpful for related diagnoses, such as schizoaffective disorder and cyclic major depression. The active part of these salts is the lithium ion Li+.[189] Lithium may increase the risk of developing Ebstein's cardiac anomaly in infants born to women who take lithium during the first trimester of pregnancy.[190]

A 2022 review indicated that lithium therapy during treatment of bipolar disorder does not affect body weight.[191]

Precautions

Lithium
Hazards
GHS labelling:
  
Danger
H260, H314
P223, P231+P232, P280, P305+P351+P338, P370+P378, P422[192]
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)
3
2
2

Lithium metal is corrosive and requires special handling to avoid skin contact. Breathing lithium dust or lithium compounds (which are often alkaline) initially irritate the nose and throat, while higher exposure can cause a buildup of fluid in the lungs, leading to pulmonary edema. The metal itself is a handling hazard because contact with moisture produces the caustic lithium hydroxide. Lithium is safely stored in non-reactive compounds such as naphtha.[194]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b Appendixes 6 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine. By USGS definitions, the reserve base "may encompass those parts of the resources that have a reasonable potential for becoming economically available within planning horizons beyond those that assume proven technology and current economics. The reserve base includes those resources that are currently economic (reserves), marginally economic (marginal reserves), and some of those that are currently subeconomic (subeconomic resources)."
  2. ^ In 2013
  3. ^ Beryllium and fluorine occur only as one isotope, 9Be and 19F respectively. These two, together with 7Li, as well as 2H, 11B, 15N, 209Bi, and the stable isotopes of C, and O, are the only nuclides with low enough thermal neutron capture cross sections aside from actinides to serve as major constituents of a molten salt breeder reactor fuel.

References

  1. ^ "Standard Atomic Weights: Lithium". CIAAW. 2009.
  2. ^ Li(0) atoms have been observed in various small lithium-chloride clusters; see Milovanović, Milan; Veličković, Suzana; Veljkovićb, Filip; Jerosimić, Stanka (30 October 2017). "Structure and stability of small lithium-chloride LinClm(0,1+) (n ≥ m, n = 1–6, m = 1–3) clusters". Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics (45). doi:10.1039/C7CP04181K.
  3. ^ Weast, Robert (1984). CRC, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Boca Raton, Florida: Chemical Rubber Company Publishing. pp. E110. ISBN 0-8493-0464-4.
  4. ^ a b Numerical data from: Lodders, Katharina (10 July 2003). (PDF). The Astrophysical Journal. The American Astronomical Society. 591 (2): 1220–1247. Bibcode:2003ApJ...591.1220L. doi:10.1086/375492. S2CID 42498829. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 November 2015. Retrieved 1 September 2015. Graphed at File:SolarSystemAbundances.jpg
  5. ^ . Federation of American Scientists (21 October 1998). fas.org
  6. ^ a b c d e f g Krebs, Robert E. (2006). The History and Use of Our Earth's Chemical Elements: A Reference Guide. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-33438-2.
  7. ^ Huang, Chuanfu; Kresin, Vitaly V. (June 2016). "Note: Contamination-free loading of lithium metal into a nozzle source". Review of Scientific Instruments. 87 (6): 066105. Bibcode:2016RScI...87f6105H. doi:10.1063/1.4953918. ISSN 0034-6748. PMID 27370506.
  8. ^ Addison, C. C. (1984). The chemistry of the liquid alkali metals. Chichester [West Sussex]: Wiley. ISBN 978-0471905080. OCLC 10751785.
  9. ^ a b "PubChem Element Summary for AtomicNumber 3, Lithium". National Center for Biotechnology Information. 2021. Retrieved 10 September 2021.
  10. ^ "It's Elemental - The Element Lithium". education.jlab.org. from the original on 5 October 2019. Retrieved 9 October 2019.
  11. ^ "Nitrogen, N2, Physical properties, safety, MSDS, enthalpy, material compatibility, gas liquid equilibrium, density, viscosity, inflammability, transport properties". Encyclopedia.airliquide.com. from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 29 September 2010.
  12. ^ . Engineering Toolbox. Archived from the original on 30 November 2012. Retrieved 9 January 2011.
  13. ^ Tuoriniemi, Juha; Juntunen-Nurmilaukas, Kirsi; Uusvuori, Johanna; Pentti, Elias; Salmela, Anssi; Sebedash, Alexander (2007). "Superconductivity in lithium below 0.4 millikelvin at ambient pressure". Nature. 447 (7141): 187–9. Bibcode:2007Natur.447..187T. doi:10.1038/nature05820. PMID 17495921. S2CID 4430500. from the original on 25 June 2019. Retrieved 20 April 2018.
  14. ^ Struzhkin, V. V.; Eremets, M. I.; Gan, W; Mao, H. K.; Hemley, R. J. (2002). "Superconductivity in dense lithium". Science. 298 (5596): 1213–5. Bibcode:2002Sci...298.1213S. doi:10.1126/science.1078535. PMID 12386338. S2CID 21030510.
  15. ^ Overhauser, A. W. (1984). "Crystal Structure of Lithium at 4.2 K". Physical Review Letters. 53 (1): 64–65. Bibcode:1984PhRvL..53...64O. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.53.64.
  16. ^ Schwarz, Ulrich (2004). "Metallic high-pressure modifications of main group elements". Zeitschrift für Kristallographie. 219 (6–2004): 376–390. Bibcode:2004ZK....219..376S. doi:10.1524/zkri.219.6.376.34637. S2CID 56006683.
  17. ^ a b c d e f g Hammond, C. R. (2000). The Elements, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (81st ed.). CRC press. ISBN 978-0-8493-0481-1.[page needed]
  18. ^ . bradley.edu
  19. ^ a b c d e f g Emsley, John (2001). Nature's Building Blocks. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-850341-5.
  20. ^ . Berkeley National Laboratory, The Isotopes Project. Archived from the original on 13 May 2008. Retrieved 21 April 2008.
  21. ^ File:Binding energy curve - common isotopes.svg shows binding energies of stable nuclides graphically; the source of the data-set is given in the figure background.
  22. ^ Sonzogni, Alejandro. "Interactive Chart of Nuclides". National Nuclear Data Center: Brookhaven National Laboratory. from the original on 23 July 2007. Retrieved 6 June 2008.
  23. ^ Various (2002). Lide, David R. (ed.). (88th ed.). CRC. ISBN 978-0-8493-0486-6. OCLC 179976746. Archived from the original on 24 July 2017. Retrieved 23 May 2008.
  24. ^ Asplund, M.; et al. (2006). "Lithium Isotopic Abundances in Metal-poor Halo Stars". The Astrophysical Journal. 644 (1): 229–259. arXiv:astro-ph/0510636. Bibcode:2006ApJ...644..229A. doi:10.1086/503538. S2CID 394822.
  25. ^ Denissenkov, P. A.; Weiss, A. (2000). "Episodic lithium production by extra-mixing in red giants". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 358: L49–L52. arXiv:astro-ph/0005356. Bibcode:2000A&A...358L..49D.
  26. ^ Chaussidon, M.; Robert, F.; McKeegan, K. D. (2006). (PDF). Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 70 (1): 224–245. Bibcode:2006GeCoA..70..224C. doi:10.1016/j.gca.2005.08.016. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 July 2010.
  27. ^ Seitz, H. M.; Brey, G. P.; Lahaye, Y.; Durali, S.; Weyer, S. (2004). "Lithium isotopic signatures of peridotite xenoliths and isotopic fractionation at high temperature between olivine and pyroxenes". Chemical Geology. 212 (1–2): 163–177. Bibcode:2004ChGeo.212..163S. doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2004.08.009.
  28. ^ Duarte, F. J (2009). Tunable Laser Applications. CRC Press. p. 330. ISBN 978-1-4200-6009-6.
  29. ^ a b Coplen, T. B.; Bohlke, J. K.; De Bievre, P.; Ding, T.; Holden, N. E.; Hopple, J. A.; Krouse, H. R.; Lamberty, A.; Peiser, H. S.; et al. (2002). "Isotope-abundance variations of selected elements (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 74 (10): 1987. doi:10.1351/pac200274101987.
  30. ^ Truscott, Andrew G.; Strecker, Kevin E.; McAlexander, William I.; Partridge, Guthrie B.; Hulet, Randall G. (30 March 2001). "Observation of Fermi Pressure in a Gas of Trapped Atoms". Science. 291 (5513): 2570–2572. Bibcode:2001Sci...291.2570T. doi:10.1126/science.1059318. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 11283362. S2CID 31126288. from the original on 13 March 2021. Retrieved 11 January 2020.
  31. ^ (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 September 2006. Retrieved 17 November 2009.
  32. ^ Boesgaard, A. M.; Steigman, G. (1985). "Big bang nucleosynthesis – Theories and observations". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. Palo Alto, CA. 23: 319–378. Bibcode:1985ARA&A..23..319B. doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.23.090185.001535. A86-14507 04–90.
  33. ^ Woo, Marcus (21 February 2017). "The Cosmic Explosions That Made the Universe". earth. BBC. from the original on 21 February 2017. Retrieved 21 February 2017. A mysterious cosmic factory is producing lithium. Scientists are now getting closer at finding out where it comes from
  34. ^ Cain, Fraser (16 August 2006). "Why Old Stars Seem to Lack Lithium". from the original on 4 June 2016.
  35. ^ "First Detection of Lithium from an Exploding Star". from the original on 1 August 2015. Retrieved 29 July 2015.
  36. ^ Cain, Fraser. . Universe Today. Archived from the original on 25 February 2011. Retrieved 17 November 2009.
  37. ^ Reid, Neill (10 March 2002). "L Dwarf Classification". Archived from the original on 21 May 2013. Retrieved 6 March 2013.
  38. ^ Arizona State University (1 June 2020). "Class of stellar explosions found to be galactic producers of lithium". EurekAlert!. from the original on 3 June 2020. Retrieved 2 June 2020.
  39. ^ Starrfield, Sumner; et al. (27 May 2020). "Carbon–Oxygen Classical Novae Are Galactic 7Li Producers as well as Potential Supernova Ia Progenitors". The Astrophysical Journal. 895 (1): 70. arXiv:1910.00575. Bibcode:2020ApJ...895...70S. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab8d23. S2CID 203610207.
  40. ^ . Institute of Ocean Energy, Saga University, Japan. Archived from the original on 2 May 2009. Retrieved 13 March 2009.
  41. ^ a b c d "Some Facts about Lithium". ENC Labs. from the original on 10 July 2011. Retrieved 15 October 2010.
  42. ^ Schwochau, Klaus (1984). "Extraction of metals from sea water". Inorganic Chemistry. Topics in Current Chemistry. Vol. 124. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 91–133. doi:10.1007/3-540-13534-0_3. ISBN 978-3-540-13534-0. S2CID 93866412.
  43. ^ a b c d Kamienski, Conrad W.; McDonald, Daniel P.; Stark, Marshall W.; Papcun, John R. (2004). "Lithium and lithium compounds". Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. doi:10.1002/0471238961.1209200811011309.a01.pub2. ISBN 978-0471238966.
  44. ^ "lithium". Britannica encyclopedia. from the original on 5 August 2020. Retrieved 4 August 2020.
  45. ^ Atkins, Peter (2010). Shriver & Atkins' Inorganic Chemistry (5th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman and Company. p. 296. ISBN 978-0199236176.
  46. ^ "Mindat.org - Mines, Minerals and More". www.mindat.org. from the original on 22 April 2011. Retrieved 4 August 2019.
  47. ^ Moores, S. (June 2007). "Between a rock and a salt lake". Industrial Minerals. 477: 58.
  48. ^ Taylor, S. R.; McLennan, S. M.; The continental crust: Its composition and evolution, Blackwell Sci. Publ., Oxford, 330 pp. (1985). Cited in Abundances of the elements (data page)
  49. ^ Garrett, Donald (2004) Handbook of Lithium and Natural Calcium, Academic Press, cited in The Trouble with Lithium 2 14 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Meridian International Research (2008)
  50. ^ a b c d e "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2021" (PDF). U.S. Geological Survey. February 2021. Retrieved 17 March 2021.
  51. ^ a b c d e f Lithium Statistics and Information, U.S. Geological Survey, 2018, from the original on 3 March 2016, retrieved 25 July 2002
  52. ^ a b (PDF). Meridian International Research. 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 July 2011. Retrieved 29 September 2010.
  53. ^ Czech Geological Survey (October 2015). Mineral Commodity Summaries of the Czech Republic 2015 (PDF). Prague: Czech Geological Survey. p. 373. ISBN 978-80-7075-904-2. (PDF) from the original on 6 January 2017.
  54. ^ "Ore Reserve grows its Finland lithium deposit by 50%". 2019. from the original on 10 December 2019. Retrieved 10 December 2019.
  55. ^ Risen, James (13 June 2010). "U.S. Identifies Vast Riches of Minerals in Afghanistan". The New York Times. from the original on 17 June 2010. Retrieved 13 June 2010.
  56. ^ Page, Jeremy; Evans, Michael (15 June 2010). "Taleban zones mineral riches may rival Saudi Arabia says Pentagon". The Times. London. from the original on 14 May 2011.
  57. ^ Hosp, Gerald. "Afghanistan: die konfliktreichen Bodenschätze". Neue Zürcher Zeitung (in German). Retrieved 1 September 2021.
  58. ^ Bliss, Dominic (28 May 2021). "National Geographic". In Cornwall, ruinous tin and copper mines are yielding battery-grade lithium. Here's what that means. Retrieved 13 June 2021.
  59. ^ "Cornwall lithium deposits 'globally significant'". BBC. 17 September 2020. Retrieved 13 June 2021.
  60. ^ Chassard-Bouchaud, C.; Galle, P.; Escaig, F.; Miyawaki, M. (1984). "Bioaccumulation of lithium by marine organisms in European, American, and Asian coastal zones: microanalytic study using secondary ion emission". Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, Série III. 299 (18): 719–24. PMID 6440674.
  61. ^ a b c d Bach, Ricardo O.; Gallicchio, Vincent S., eds. (1990). Lithium and Cell Physiology. New York, NY: Springer New York. pp. 25–46. doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-3324-4. ISBN 978-1-4612-7967-9. S2CID 44374126.
  62. ^ a b c d e Jakobsson, Eric; Argüello-Miranda, Orlando; Chiu, See-Wing; Fazal, Zeeshan; Kruczek, James; Nunez-Corrales, Santiago; Pandit, Sagar; Pritchet, Laura (10 November 2017). "Towards a Unified Understanding of Lithium Action in Basic Biology and its Significance for Applied Biology". The Journal of Membrane Biology. Springer Science and Business Media LLC. 250 (6): 587–604. doi:10.1007/s00232-017-9998-2. ISSN 0022-2631. PMC 5696506. PMID 29127487.
  63. ^ a b Alda, M (17 February 2015). "Lithium in the treatment of bipolar disorder: pharmacology and pharmacogenetics". Molecular Psychiatry. Nature Publishing Group. 20 (6): 661–670. doi:10.1038/mp.2015.4. ISSN 1359-4184. PMC 5125816. PMID 25687772.
  64. ^ Martinsson, L; Wei, Y; Xu, D; Melas, P A; Mathé, A A; Schalling, M; Lavebratt, C; Backlund, L (2013). "Long-term lithium treatment in bipolar disorder is associated with longer leukocyte telomeres". Translational Psychiatry. Nature Publishing Group. 3 (5): e261–. doi:10.1038/tp.2013.37. ISSN 2158-3188. PMC 3669924. PMID 23695236.
  65. ^ D'Andraba (1800). "Des caractères et des propriétés de plusieurs nouveaux minérauxde Suède et de Norwège, avec quelques observations chimiques faites sur ces substances". Journal de Physique, de Chimie, d'Histoire Naturelle, et des Arts. 51: 239. from the original on 13 July 2015.
  66. ^ "Petalite Mineral Information". Mindat.org. from the original on 16 February 2009. Retrieved 10 August 2009.
  67. ^ a b c d e f g "Lithium:Historical information". from the original on 16 October 2009. Retrieved 10 August 2009.
  68. ^ Weeks, Mary (2003). Discovery of the Elements. Whitefish, Montana, United States: Kessinger Publishing. p. 124. ISBN 978-0-7661-3872-8. Retrieved 10 August 2009.
  69. ^ Berzelius (1817). "Ein neues mineralisches Alkali und ein neues Metall" [A new mineral alkali and a new metal]. Journal für Chemie und Physik. 21: 44–48. from the original on 3 December 2016. From p. 45: "Herr August Arfwedson, ein junger sehr verdienstvoller Chemiker, der seit einem Jahre in meinem Laboratorie arbeitet, fand bei einer Analyse des Petalits von Uto's Eisengrube, einen alkalischen Bestandtheil, … Wir haben es Lithion genannt, um dadurch auf seine erste Entdeckung im Mineralreich anzuspielen, da die beiden anderen erst in der organischen Natur entdeckt wurden. Sein Radical wird dann Lithium genannt werden." (Mr. August Arfwedson, a young, very meritorious chemist, who has worked in my laboratory for a year, found during an analysis of petalite from Uto's iron mine, an alkaline component … We've named it lithion, in order to allude thereby to its first discovery in the mineral realm, since the two others were first discovered in organic nature. Its radical will then be named "lithium".)
  70. ^ . Periodic Table Live!. Archived from the original on 7 October 2010. Retrieved 10 August 2009.
  71. ^ . Archived from the original on 5 June 2008. Retrieved 10 August 2009.
  72. ^ a b c van der Krogt, Peter. . Elementymology & Elements Multidict. Archived from the original on 16 June 2011. Retrieved 5 October 2010.
  73. ^ Clark, Jim (2005). . Archived from the original on 11 March 2009. Retrieved 10 August 2009.
  74. ^ See:
    • Arwedson, Aug. (1818) "Undersökning af några vid Utö Jernmalmsbrott förekommende Fossilier, och af ett deri funnet eget Eldfast Alkali" 25 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Afhandlingar i Fysik, Kemi och Mineralogi, 6 : 145–172. (in Swedish)
    • Arwedson, Aug. (1818) "Untersuchung einiger bei der Eisen-Grube von Utö vorkommenden Fossilien und von einem darin gefundenen neuen feuerfesten Alkali" 13 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine (Investigation of some minerals occurring at the iron mines of Utö and of a new refractory alkali found therein), Journal für Chemie und Physik, 22 (1) : 93–117. (in German)
  75. ^ Gmelin, C. G. (1818). "Von dem Lithon" [On lithium]. Annalen der Physik. 59 (7): 238–241. Bibcode:1818AnP....59..229G. doi:10.1002/andp.18180590702. from the original on 9 November 2015. p. 238 Es löste sich in diesem ein Salz auf, das an der Luft zerfloss, und nach Art der Strontiansalze den Alkohol mit einer purpurrothen Flamme brennen machte. (There dissolved in this [solvent; namely, absolute alcohol] a salt that deliquesced in air, and in the manner of strontium salts, caused the alcohol to burn with a purple-red flame.)
  76. ^ a b Enghag, Per (2004). Encyclopedia of the Elements: Technical Data – History –Processing – Applications. Wiley. pp. 287–300. ISBN 978-3-527-30666-4.
  77. ^ Brande, William Thomas (1821) A Manual of Chemistry, 2nd ed. London, England: John Murray, vol. 2, pp. 57-58. 22 November 2015 at the Wayback Machine
  78. ^ "The Quarterly journal of science and the arts". The Quarterly Journal of Science and the Arts. Royal Institution of Great Britain. 5: 338. 1818. from the original on 13 March 2021. Retrieved 5 October 2010.
  79. ^ . DiracDelta Science & Engineering Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 5 December 2008. Retrieved 18 September 2008.
  80. ^ Brande, William Thomas; MacNeven, William James (1821). A manual of chemistry. Long. p. 191. Retrieved 8 October 2010.
  81. ^ Bunsen, R. (1855). "Darstellung des Lithiums" [Preparation of lithium]. Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie. 94: 107–111. doi:10.1002/jlac.18550940112. from the original on 6 November 2018. Retrieved 13 August 2015.
  82. ^ Green, Thomas (11 June 2006). "Analysis of the Element Lithium". echeat. from the original on 21 April 2012.
  83. ^ Garrett, Donald E. (5 April 2004). Handbook of Lithium and Natural Calcium Chloride. p. 99. ISBN 9780080472904. from the original on 3 December 2016.
  84. ^ Shorter, Edward (June 2009). "The history of lithium therapy". Bipolar Disorders. 11 (Suppl 2): 4–9. doi:10.1111/j.1399-5618.2009.00706.x. ISSN 1398-5647. PMC 3712976. PMID 19538681.
  85. ^ a b Ober, Joyce A. (1994). "Commodity Report 1994: Lithium" (PDF). United States Geological Survey. (PDF) from the original on 9 June 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2010.
  86. ^ Deberitz, Jürgen; Boche, Gernot (2003). "Lithium und seine Verbindungen - Industrielle, medizinische und wissenschaftliche Bedeutung". Chemie in unserer Zeit. 37 (4): 258–266. doi:10.1002/ciuz.200300264.
  87. ^ Bauer, Richard (1985). "Lithium - wie es nicht im Lehrbuch steht". Chemie in unserer Zeit. 19 (5): 167–173. doi:10.1002/ciuz.19850190505.
  88. ^ Ober, Joyce A. (1994). "Minerals Yearbook 2007 : Lithium" (PDF). United States Geological Survey. (PDF) from the original on 17 July 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2010.
  89. ^ Kogel, Jessica Elzea (2006). "Lithium". Industrial minerals & rocks: commodities, markets, and uses. Littleton, Colo.: Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. p. 599. ISBN 978-0-87335-233-8. from the original on 7 November 2020. Retrieved 6 November 2020.
  90. ^ McKetta, John J. (18 July 2007). Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design: Volume 28 – Lactic Acid to Magnesium Supply-Demand Relationships. M. Dekker. ISBN 978-0-8247-2478-8. from the original on 28 May 2013.
  91. ^ Overland, Indra (1 March 2019). "The geopolitics of renewable energy: Debunking four emerging myths" (PDF). Energy Research & Social Science. 49: 36–40. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2018.10.018. ISSN 2214-6296. (PDF) from the original on 13 March 2021. Retrieved 25 August 2019.
  92. ^ Krebs, Robert E. (2006). The history and use of our earth's chemical elements: a reference guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-313-33438-2. from the original on 4 August 2016.
  93. ^ Institute, American Geological; Union, American Geophysical; Society, Geochemical (1 January 1994). "Geochemistry international". 31 (1–4): 115. from the original on 4 June 2016. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  94. ^ a b c d Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1984). Chemistry of the Elements. Oxford: Pergamon Press. pp. 97–99. ISBN 978-0-08-022057-4.
  95. ^ Beckford, Floyd. . Archived from the original on 4 November 2005. Retrieved 27 July 2008. definitions:Slides 8–10 (Chapter 14)
  96. ^ Sapse, Anne-Marie & von R. Schleyer, Paul (1995). Lithium chemistry: a theoretical and experimental overview. Wiley-IEEE. pp. 3–40. ISBN 978-0-471-54930-7. from the original on 31 July 2016.
  97. ^ Nichols, Michael A.; Williard, Paul G. (1 February 1993). "Solid-state structures of n-butyllithium-TMEDA, -THF, and -DME complexes". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 115 (4): 1568–1572. doi:10.1021/ja00057a050. ISSN 0002-7863.
  98. ^ C., Mehrotra, R. (2009). Organometallic chemistry : a unified approach. [Place of publication not identified]: New Age International Pvt. ISBN 978-8122412581. OCLC 946063142.
  99. ^ Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 73. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8.
  100. ^ Tarascon, J. M. (2010). "Is lithium the new gold?". Nature Chemistry. 2 (6): 510. Bibcode:2010NatCh...2..510T. doi:10.1038/nchem.680. PMID 20489722.
  101. ^ Woody, Todd (19 October 2011). "Lithium: The New California Gold Rush". Forbes. from the original on 19 December 2014.
  102. ^ Houston, J.; Butcher, A.; Ehren, P.; Evans, K.; Godfrey, L. (2011). "The Evaluation of Brine Prospects and the Requirement for Modifications to Filing Standards" (PDF). Economic Geology. 106 (7): 1225–1239. doi:10.2113/econgeo.106.7.1225. (PDF) from the original on 20 July 2018. Retrieved 28 June 2019.
  103. ^ Eftekhari, A. (2019). "Lithium Batteries for Electric Vehicles: From Economy to Research Strategy". ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 7 (6): 5602–5613. doi:10.1021/acssuschemeng.8b01494. S2CID 104468150.
  104. ^ Vikström, H.; Davidsson, S.; Höök, M. (2013). "Lithium availability and future production outlooks". Applied Energy. 110 (10): 252–266. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2013.04.005. from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017.
  105. ^ Grosjean, P.W.; Medina, P.A.; Keoleian, G.A.; Kesler, S.E.; Everson, M.P; Wallington, T.J. (2011). "Global Lithium Availability: A Constraint for Electric Vehicles?". Journal of Industrial Ecology. 15 (5): 760–775. doi:10.1111/j.1530-9290.2011.00359.x. hdl:2027.42/87046. S2CID 4734596.
  106. ^ Money Game Contributors (26 April 2013). "New Wyoming Lithium Deposit". Business Insider. from the original on 3 May 2013. {{cite web}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  107. ^ Benson, Tom (16 August 2016). "Lithium enrichment in intracontinental rhyolite magmas leads to Li deposits in caldera basins". Nature Communications. 8 (1): 270. doi:10.1038/s41467-017-00234-y. PMC 5559592. PMID 28814716.
  108. ^ Halpern, Abel (30 January 2014). . Latin Trade. Archived from the original on 10 June 2018.
  109. ^ a b Romero, Simon (2 February 2009). "In Bolivia, a Tight Grip on the Next Big Resource". The New York Times. from the original on 1 July 2017.
  110. ^ "USGS Mineral Commodities Summaries 2009" (PDF). USGS. (PDF) from the original on 14 June 2010.
  111. ^ Dube, Ryan (11 August 2022). "The Place With the Most Lithium Is Blowing the Electric-Car Revolution". The Wall Street Journal. Vol. CCLXXX, no. 35. pp. A1, A8. ISSN 1042-9840. Retrieved 11 August 2022.
  112. ^ a b c d e f Cabello, J (2022). "Reserves, resources and lithium exploration in the salt flats of northern Chile". Andean Geology. 49 (2): 297–306. doi:10.5027/andgeoV49n2-3444] (inactive 31 December 2022).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of December 2022 (link)
  113. ^ "This Congo project could supply the world with lithium". MiningDotCom. 10 December 2018. Retrieved 26 March 2021.
  114. ^ Wadia, Cyrus; Albertus, Paul; Srinivasan, Venkat (2011). "Resource constraints on the battery energy storage potential for grid and transportation applications". Journal of Power Sources. 196 (3): 1593–8. Bibcode:2011JPS...196.1593W. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.08.056. from the original on 13 March 2021. Retrieved 28 June 2019.
  115. ^ Gaines, LL.; Nelson, P. (2010). . Argonne National Laboratory. Archived from the original on 3 August 2016. Retrieved 11 June 2016.
  116. ^ "University of Michigan and Ford researchers see plentiful lithium resources for electric vehicles". Green Car Congress. 3 August 2011. from the original on 16 September 2011.
  117. ^ . The Financialist. Credit Suisse. 9 June 2014. Archived from the original on 23 February 2016. Retrieved 19 June 2014.
  118. ^ "Plateau Energy Metals Peru unit finds large lithium resources". Reuters. 16 July 2018. from the original on 26 July 2018.
  119. ^ Matthis, Simon (17 March 2021). "Australia grants MPS for Core Lithium's Finniss lithium project". MiningMetalNews. Retrieved 13 October 2022.
  120. ^ CORE Lithium : Finnis Lithium, retrieved 13 October 2022
  121. ^ "Finniss Lithium Project, Northern Territory, Australia". Mining Technology. 13 January 2022. Retrieved 13 October 2022.
  122. ^ "Greenbushes Lithium Mine". Golden Dragon Capital. from the original on 19 January 2019. Retrieved 18 January 2019.
  123. ^ Sixie Yang; Fan Zhang; Huaiping Ding; Ping He (19 September 2018). "Lithium Metal Extraction from Seawater". Joule. Elsevier. 2 (9): 1648–1651. doi:10.1016/j.joule.2018.07.006.
  124. ^ Parker, Ann. Mining Geothermal Resources 17 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
  125. ^ Patel, P. (16 November 2011) Startup to Capture Lithium from Geothermal Plants. technologyreview.com
  126. ^ Ober, Joyce A. "Lithium" (PDF). United States Geological Survey. pp. 77–78. (PDF) from the original on 11 July 2007. Retrieved 19 August 2007.
  127. ^ "SQM Announces New Lithium Prices – SANTIAGO, Chile". PR Newswire. 30 September 2009. from the original on 30 May 2013.
  128. ^ a b Riseborough, Jesse. . Bloomberg BusinessWeek. Archived from the original on 22 June 2012. Retrieved 1 May 2013.
  129. ^ "ISE Metal-qoutes"..access-date=29 September 2022.
  130. ^ Thacker Pass Lithium Mine Project Final Environmental Impact Statement (PDF) (Technical report). Bureau of Land Management and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 4 December 2020. DOI-BLM-NV-W010-2020-0012-EIS. Retrieved 16 March 2021.
  131. ^ a b Patterson, Scott; Ramkumar, Amrith (9 March 2021). "America's Battery-Powered Car Hopes Ride on Lithium. One Producer Paves the Way". Wall Street Journal. from the original on 12 March 2021. Retrieved 13 March 2021.
  132. ^ Cafariello, Joseph (10 March 2014). "Lithium: A Long-Term Investment Buy Lithium!". wealthdaily.com. from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 24 April 2015.
  133. ^ Kaskey, Jack (16 July 2014). "Largest Lithium Deal Triggered by Smartphones and Teslas". Bloomberg. from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 24 April 2015.
  134. ^ Marcelo Azevedo, Nicolò Campagnol, Toralf Hagenbruch, Ken Hoffman, Ajay Lala, Oliver Ramsbottom (June 2018). "Lithium and cobalt – a tale of two commodities". McKinsey. p. 9. from the original on 11 December 2019. Retrieved 29 January 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  135. ^ Chong Liu, Yanbin Li, Dingchang Lin, Po-Chun Hsu, Bofei Liu, Gangbin Yan, Tong Wu Yi Cui & Steven Chu (2020). "Lithium Extraction from Seawater through Pulsed Electrochemical Intercalation". Joule. 4 (7): 1459–1469. doi:10.1016/j.joule.2020.05.017. S2CID 225527170. from the original on 13 March 2021. Retrieved 26 December 2020.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
  136. ^ Tsuyoshi Hoshino (2015). "Innovative lithium recovery technique from seawater by using world-first dialysis with a lithium ionic superconductor". Desalination. 359: 59–63. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2014.12.018.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
  137. ^ Robert F. Service (13 July 2020). "Seawater could provide nearly unlimited amounts of critical battery material". Science. from the original on 13 January 2021. Retrieved 26 December 2020.
  138. ^ a b c Amui, Rachid (February 2020). "Commodities At a Glance: Special issue on strategic battery raw materials" (PDF). United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. 13 (UNCTAD/DITC/COM/2019/5). Retrieved 10 February 2021.
  139. ^ Application of Life-Cycle Assessment to Nanoscale Technology: Lithium-ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles (Report). Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2013. EPA 744-R-12-001.
  140. ^ . Environmental Leader. 30 May 2013. Archived from the original on 21 August 2016. Retrieved 3 June 2013.
  141. ^ Katwala, Amit. "The spiralling environmental cost of our lithium battery addiction". Wired. Condé Nast Publications. Retrieved 10 February 2021.
  142. ^ Draper, Robert. "This metal is powering today's technology—at what price?". National Geographic. No. February 2019. National Geographic Partners. Retrieved 10 February 2021.
  143. ^ a b "The Lithium Gold Rush: Inside the Race to Power Electric Vehicles". The New York Times. 6 May 2021. Retrieved 6 May 2021.
  144. ^ Marchegiani, Morgera, and Parks (21 November 2019). "Indigenous peoples'rights to natural resources in Argentina: the challenges of impact assessment, consent and fair andequitable benefit-sharing in cases of lithium mining". The International Journal of Human Rights.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  145. ^ Price, Austin (Summer 2021). "The Rush for White Gold". Earth Island Journal.
  146. ^ Chadwell, Jeri (21 July 2021). "Judge to decide on injunction request to halt work on Thacker Pass lithium mine". This is Reno. Retrieved 12 October 2021.
  147. ^ "Thacker Pass Lithium mine approval draws around-the-clock protest". Sierra Nevada Ally. 19 January 2021. Retrieved 16 March 2021.
  148. ^ a b "Lithium" (PDF). 2016. (PDF) from the original on 30 November 2016. Retrieved 29 November 2016 – via US Geological Survey (USGS).
  149. ^ "Lithium" (PDF). USGS. USGS. (PDF) from the original on 1 November 2020. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
  150. ^ (PDF). www.fmclithium.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 September 2014.
  151. ^ Clark, Jim (2005). . chemguide.co.uk. Archived from the original on 27 June 2013. Retrieved 8 August 2013.
  152. ^ "Disposable Batteries - Choosing between Alkaline and Lithium Disposable Batteries". Batteryreview.org. from the original on 6 January 2014. Retrieved 10 October 2013.
  153. ^ "Battery Anodes > Batteries & Fuel Cells > Research > The Energy Materials Center at Cornell". Emc2.cornell.edu. from the original on 22 December 2013. Retrieved 10 October 2013.
  154. ^ Totten, George E.; Westbrook, Steven R. & Shah, Rajesh J. (2003). Fuels and lubricants handbook: technology, properties, performance, and testing. Vol. 1. ASTM International. p. 559. ISBN 978-0-8031-2096-9. from the original on 23 July 2016.
  155. ^ Rand, Salvatore J. (2003). Significance of tests for petroleum products. ASTM International. pp. 150–152. ISBN 978-0-8031-2097-6. from the original on 31 July 2016.
  156. ^ The Theory and Practice of Mold Fluxes Used in Continuous Casting: A Compilation of Papers on Continuous Casting Fluxes Given at the 61st and 62nd Steelmaking Conference, Iron and Steel Society
  157. ^ Lu, Y. Q.; Zhang, G. D.; Jiang, M. F.; Liu, H. X.; Li, T. (2011). "Effects of Li2CO3 on Properties of Mould Flux for High Speed Continuous Casting". Materials Science Forum. 675–677: 877–880. doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/MSF.675-677.877. S2CID 136666669.
  158. ^ , Modern Casting, July 2014, archived from the original on 2 April 2015, retrieved 15 March 2015
  159. ^ Haupin, W. (1987), Mamantov, Gleb; Marassi, Roberto (eds.), "Chemical and Physical Properties of the Hall-Héroult Electrolyte", Molten Salt Chemistry: An Introduction and Selected Applications, Springer, p. 449
  160. ^ Garrett, Donald E. (5 April 2004). Handbook of Lithium and Natural Calcium Chloride. Academic Press. p. 200. ISBN 9780080472904. from the original on 3 December 2016.
  161. ^ Prasad, N. Eswara; Gokhale, Amol; Wanhill, R. J. H. (20 September 2013). Aluminum-Lithium Alloys: Processing, Properties, and Applications. Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 9780124016798. from the original on 1 January 2021. Retrieved 6 November 2020.
  162. ^ Davis, Joseph R. ASM International. Handbook Committee (1993). Aluminum and aluminum alloys. ASM International. pp. 121–. ISBN 978-0-87170-496-2. from the original on 28 May 2013. Retrieved 16 May 2011.
  163. ^ Karki, Khim; Epstein, Eric; Cho, Jeong-Hyun; Jia, Zheng; Li, Teng; Picraux, S. Tom; Wang, Chunsheng; Cumings, John (2012). "Lithium-Assisted Electrochemical Welding in Silicon Nanowire Battery Electrodes" (PDF). Nano Letters. 12 (3): 1392–7. Bibcode:2012NanoL..12.1392K. doi:10.1021/nl204063u. PMID 22339576. (PDF) from the original on 10 August 2017.
  164. ^ Koch, Ernst-Christian (2004). "Special Materials in Pyrotechnics: III. Application of Lithium and its Compounds in Energetic Systems". Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics. 29 (2): 67–80. doi:10.1002/prep.200400032.
  165. ^ Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils and Holleman, Arnold Frederick (2001) Inorganic chemistry 18 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-352651-5, p. 1089
  166. ^ Mulloth, L.M. & Finn, J.E. (2005). "Air Quality Systems for Related Enclosed Spaces: Spacecraft Air". The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry. Vol. 4H. pp. 383–404. doi:10.1007/b107253. ISBN 978-3-540-25019-7.
  167. ^ . Lithium Corporation of America & Aerospace Medical Research Laboratories. 1965. Archived from the original on 7 October 2012.
  168. ^ Markowitz, M. M.; Boryta, D. A.; Stewart, Harvey (1964). "Lithium Perchlorate Oxygen Candle. Pyrochemical Source of Pure Oxygen". Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Product Research and Development. 3 (4): 321–30. doi:10.1021/i360012a016.
  169. ^ Hobbs, Philip C. D. (2009). Building Electro-Optical Systems: Making It All Work. John Wiley and Sons. p. 149. ISBN 978-0-470-40229-0. from the original on 23 June 2016.
  170. ^ Point Defects in Lithium Fluoride Films Induced by Gamma Irradiation. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Advanced Technology & Particle Physics: (ICATPP-7): Villa Olmo, Como, Italy. Vol. 2001. World Scientific. 2002. p. 819. ISBN 978-981-238-180-4. from the original on 6 June 2016.
  171. ^ Sinton, William M. (1962). "Infrared Spectroscopy of Planets and Stars". Applied Optics. 1 (2): 105. Bibcode:1962ApOpt...1..105S. doi:10.1364/AO.1.000105.
  172. ^ "You've got the power: the evolution of batteries and the future of fuel cells" (PDF). Toshiba. (PDF) from the original on 17 July 2011. Retrieved 17 May 2009.
  173. ^ "Organometallics". IHS Chemicals. February 2012. Archived from the original on 7 July 2012. Retrieved 2 January 2012.
  174. ^ Yurkovetskii, A. V.; Kofman, V. L.; Makovetskii, K. L. (2005). "Polymerization of 1,2-dimethylenecyclobutane by organolithium initiators". Russian Chemical Bulletin. 37 (9): 1782–1784. doi:10.1007/BF00962487. S2CID 94017312.
  175. ^ Quirk, Roderic P.; Cheng, Pao Luo (1986). "Functionalization of polymeric organolithium compounds. Amination of poly(styryl)lithium". Macromolecules. 19 (5): 1291–1294. Bibcode:1986MaMol..19.1291Q. doi:10.1021/ma00159a001.
  176. ^ Stone, F. G. A.; West, Robert (1980). Advances in organometallic chemistry. Academic Press. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-12-031118-7. from the original on 13 March 2021. Retrieved 6 November 2020.
  177. ^ Bansal, Raj K. (1996). Synthetic approaches in organic chemistry. p. 192. ISBN 978-0-7637-0665-4. from the original on 18 June 2016.
  178. ^ (PDF). 28 June 2003 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 June 2003. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  179. ^ Hughes, T.G.; Smith, R.B. & Kiely, D.H. (1983). "Stored Chemical Energy Propulsion System for Underwater Applications". Journal of Energy. 7 (2): 128–133. Bibcode:1983JEner...7..128H. doi:10.2514/3.62644.
  180. ^ Emsley, John (2011). Nature's Building Blocks.
  181. ^ Makhijani, Arjun & Yih, Katherine (2000). Nuclear Wastelands: A Global Guide to Nuclear Weapons Production and Its Health and Environmental Effects. MIT Press. pp. 59–60. ISBN 978-0-262-63204-1. from the original on 13 June 2016.
  182. ^ National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Separations Technology and Transmutation Systems (1996). Nuclear wastes: technologies for separations and transmutation. National Academies Press. p. 278. ISBN 978-0-309-05226-9. from the original on 13 June 2016.
  183. ^ Barnaby, Frank (1993). How nuclear weapons spread: nuclear-weapon proliferation in the 1990s. Routledge. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-415-07674-6. from the original on 9 June 2016.
  184. ^ Baesjr, C. (1974). "The chemistry and thermodynamics of molten salt reactor fuels". Journal of Nuclear Materials. 51 (1): 149–162. Bibcode:1974JNuM...51..149B. doi:10.1016/0022-3115(74)90124-X. OSTI 4470742. from the original on 13 March 2021. Retrieved 28 June 2019.
  185. ^ Agarwal, Arun (2008). Nobel Prize Winners in Physics. APH Publishing. p. 139. ISBN 978-81-7648-743-6. from the original on 29 June 2016.
  186. ^ "'Splitting the Atom': Cockcroft and Walton, 1932: 9. Rays or Particles?" 2 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine Department of Physics, University of Cambridge
  187. ^ Elements, American. . American Elements. Archived from the original on 18 August 2019.
  188. ^ a b Wald, Matthew L. (8 October 2013). "Report Says a Shortage of Nuclear Ingredient Looms". The New York Times. from the original on 1 July 2017.
  189. ^ a b Kean, Sam (2011). The Disappearing Spoon.
  190. ^ Yacobi S; Ornoy A (2008). "Is lithium a real teratogen? What can we conclude from the prospective versus retrospective studies? A review". Isr J Psychiatry Relat Sci. 45 (2): 95–106. PMID 18982835.
  191. ^ Gomes-da-Costa, Susana; Marx, Wolfgang; Corponi, Filippo; et al. (2022). "Lithium therapy and weight change in people with bipolar disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 134: 104266. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.07.011. ISSN 0149-7634. PMID 34265322. S2CID 235802599.
  192. ^ "Lithium 265969". Sigma-Aldrich. from the original on 13 March 2021. Retrieved 1 October 2018.
  193. ^ Technical data for Lithium 23 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine. periodictable.com
  194. ^ Furr, A. K. (2000). CRC handbook of laboratory safety. Boca Raton: CRC Press. pp. 244–246. ISBN 978-0-8493-2523-6. from the original on 13 March 2021. Retrieved 6 November 2020.

External links

  • McKinsey review of 2018
  • Lithium at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
  • USGS: Lithium Statistics and Information
  • Lithium Supply & Markets 2009 IM Conference 2009 Sustainable lithium supplies through 2020 in the face of sustainable market growth
  • Lithium preserves by Country at investingnews.com

January 06, 2023
lithium, this, article, about, chemical, element, lithium, medication, medication, other, uses, disambiguation, from, greek, λίθος, romanized, lithos, stone, chemical, element, with, symbol, atomic, number, soft, silvery, white, alkali, metal, under, standard,. This article is about the chemical element For the use of lithium as a medication see Lithium medication For other uses see Lithium disambiguation Lithium from Greek li8os romanized lithos lit stone is a chemical element with the symbol Li and atomic number 3 It is a soft silvery white alkali metal Under standard conditions it is the least dense metal and the least dense solid element Like all alkali metals lithium is highly reactive and flammable and must be stored in vacuum inert atmosphere or inert liquid such as purified kerosene or mineral oil When cut it exhibits a metallic luster but moist air corrodes it quickly to a dull silvery gray then black tarnish It never occurs freely in nature but only in usually ionic compounds such as pegmatitic minerals which were once the main source of lithium Due to its solubility as an ion it is present in ocean water and is commonly obtained from brines Lithium metal is isolated electrolytically from a mixture of lithium chloride and potassium chloride Lithium 3LiLithium floating in oilLithiumPronunciation ˈ l ɪ 8 i e m wbr LITH ee em Appearancesilvery whiteStandard atomic weightAr Li 6 938 6 997 6 94 0 06 abridged 1 Lithium in the periodic tableHydrogen HeliumLithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine NeonSodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine ArgonPotassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine KryptonRubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine XenonCaesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury element Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine RadonFrancium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson H Li Nahelium lithium berylliumAtomic number Z 3Groupgroup 1 hydrogen and alkali metalsPeriodperiod 2Block s blockElectron configuration He 2s1Electrons per shell2 1Physical propertiesPhase at STPsolidMelting point453 65 K 180 50 C 356 90 F Boiling point1603 K 1330 C 2426 F Density near r t 0 534 g cm3when liquid at m p 0 512 g cm3Critical point3220 K 67 MPa extrapolated Heat of fusion3 00 kJ molHeat of vaporization136 kJ molMolar heat capacity24 860 J mol K Vapor pressureP Pa 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 kat T K 797 885 995 1144 1337 1610Atomic propertiesOxidation states0 2 1 a strongly basic oxide ElectronegativityPauling scale 0 98Ionization energies1st 520 2 kJ mol2nd 7298 1 kJ mol3rd 11815 0 kJ molAtomic radiusempirical 152 pmCovalent radius128 7 pmVan der Waals radius182 pmSpectral lines of lithiumOther propertiesNatural occurrenceprimordialCrystal structure body centered cubic bcc Speed of sound thin rod6000 m s at 20 C Thermal expansion46 µm m K at 25 C Thermal conductivity84 8 W m K Electrical resistivity92 8 nW m at 20 C Magnetic orderingparamagneticMolar magnetic susceptibility 14 2 10 6 cm3 mol 298 K 3 Young s modulus4 9 GPaShear modulus4 2 GPaBulk modulus11 GPaMohs hardness0 6Brinell hardness5 MPaCAS Number7439 93 2HistoryDiscoveryJohan August Arfwedson 1817 First isolationWilliam Thomas Brande 1821 Main isotopes of lithiumAbun dance Half life t1 2 Decay mode Pro duct6Li 5 stable7Li 95 stable Category Lithiumviewtalkedit referencesThe nucleus of the lithium atom verges on instability since the two stable lithium isotopes found in nature have among the lowest binding energies per nucleon of all stable nuclides Because of its relative nuclear instability lithium is less common in the solar system than 25 of the first 32 chemical elements even though its nuclei are very light it is an exception to the trend that heavier nuclei are less common 4 For related reasons lithium has important uses in nuclear physics The transmutation of lithium atoms to helium in 1932 was the first fully man made nuclear reaction and lithium deuteride serves as a fusion fuel in staged thermonuclear weapons 5 Lithium and its compounds have several industrial applications including heat resistant glass and ceramics lithium grease lubricants flux additives for iron steel and aluminium production lithium metal batteries and lithium ion batteries These uses consume more than three quarters of lithium production Lithium is present in biological systems in trace amounts its functions are uncertain Lithium salts have proven to be useful as a mood stabilizer and antidepressant in the treatment of mental illness such as bipolar disorder Contents 1 Properties 1 1 Atomic and physical 1 2 Isotopes 2 Occurrence 2 1 Astronomical 2 2 Terrestrial 2 3 Biological 3 History 4 Chemistry 4 1 Of lithium metal 4 2 Inorganic compounds 4 3 Organic chemistry 5 Production 5 1 Reserves and occurrence 5 1 1 Lithium triangle 5 2 Sources 5 3 Pricing 5 4 Extraction 5 5 Environmental issues 5 6 Human rights issues 6 Applications 6 1 Batteries 6 2 Ceramics and glass 6 3 Electrical and electronic 6 4 Lubricating greases 6 5 Metallurgy 6 6 Silicon nano welding 6 7 Pyrotechnics 6 8 Air purification 6 9 Optics 6 10 Organic and polymer chemistry 6 11 Military 6 12 Nuclear 6 13 Medicine 7 Precautions 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 External linksPropertiesAtomic and physical Lithium ingots with a thin layer of black nitride tarnish The alkali metals are also called the lithium family after its leading element Like the other alkali metals which are sodium Na potassium K rubidium Rb caesium Cs and francium Fr lithium has a single valence electron that is easily given up to form a cation 6 Because of this lithium is a good conductor of heat and electricity as well as a highly reactive element though it is the least reactive of the alkali metals Lithium s low reactivity is due to the proximity of its valence electron to its nucleus the remaining two electrons are in the 1s orbital much lower in energy and do not participate in chemical bonds 6 Molten lithium is significantly more reactive than its solid form 7 8 Lithium metal is soft enough to be cut with a knife When cut it possesses a silvery white color that quickly changes to gray as it oxidizes to lithium oxide 6 Its melting point of 180 50 C 453 65 K 356 90 F 9 and its boiling point of 1 342 C 1 615 K 2 448 F 9 are each the highest of all the alkali metals while its density of 0 534 g cm3 is the lowest Lithium has a very low density 0 534 g cm3 comparable with pine wood 10 It is the least dense of all elements that are solids at room temperature the next lightest solid element potassium at 0 862 g cm3 is more than 60 denser Apart from helium and hydrogen as a solid it is less dense than any other element as a liquid being only two thirds as dense as liquid nitrogen 0 808 g cm3 11 Lithium can float on the lightest hydrocarbon oils and is one of only three metals that can float on water the other two being sodium and potassium Lithium floating in oil Lithium s coefficient of thermal expansion is twice that of aluminium and almost four times that of iron 12 Lithium is superconductive below 400 mK at standard pressure 13 and at higher temperatures more than 9 K at very high pressures gt 20 GPa 14 At temperatures below 70 K lithium like sodium undergoes diffusionless phase change transformations At 4 2 K it has a rhombohedral crystal system with a nine layer repeat spacing at higher temperatures it transforms to face centered cubic and then body centered cubic At liquid helium temperatures 4 K the rhombohedral structure is prevalent 15 Multiple allotropic forms have been identified for lithium at high pressures 16 Lithium has a mass specific heat capacity of 3 58 kilojoules per kilogram kelvin the highest of all solids 17 18 Because of this lithium metal is often used in coolants for heat transfer applications 17 Isotopes Main article Isotopes of lithium Naturally occurring lithium is composed of two stable isotopes 6Li and 7Li the latter being the more abundant 92 5 natural abundance 6 19 20 Both natural isotopes have anomalously low nuclear binding energy per nucleon compared to the neighboring elements on the periodic table helium and beryllium lithium is the only low numbered element that can produce net energy through nuclear fission The two lithium nuclei have lower binding energies per nucleon than any other stable nuclides other than hydrogen 1 deuterium and helium 3 21 As a result of this though very light in atomic weight lithium is less common in the Solar System than 25 of the first 32 chemical elements 4 Seven radioisotopes have been characterized the most stable being 8Li with a half life of 838 ms and 9Li with a half life of 178 ms All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half lives that are shorter than 8 6 ms The shortest lived isotope of lithium is 4Li which decays through proton emission and has a half life of 7 6 10 23 s 22 The 6Li isotope is one of only five stable nuclides to have both an odd number of protons and an odd number of neutrons the other four stable odd odd nuclides being hydrogen 2 boron 10 nitrogen 14 and tantalum 180m 23 7Li is one of the primordial elements or more properly primordial nuclides produced in Big Bang nucleosynthesis A small amount of both 6Li and 7Li are produced in stars during stellar nucleosynthesis but it is further burned as fast as produced 24 7Li can also be generated in carbon stars 25 Additional small amounts of both 6Li and 7Li may be generated from solar wind cosmic rays hitting heavier atoms and from early solar system 7Be and 10Be radioactive decay 26 Lithium isotopes fractionate substantially during a wide variety of natural processes 27 including mineral formation chemical precipitation metabolism and ion exchange Lithium ions substitute for magnesium and iron in octahedral sites in clay minerals where 6Li is preferred to 7Li resulting in enrichment of the light isotope in processes of hyperfiltration and rock alteration The exotic 11Li is known to exhibit a neutron halo with 2 neutrons orbiting around its nucleus of 3 protons and 6 neutrons The process known as laser isotope separation can be used to separate lithium isotopes in particular 7Li from 6Li 28 Nuclear weapons manufacture and other nuclear physics applications are a major source of artificial lithium fractionation with the light isotope 6Li being retained by industry and military stockpiles to such an extent that it has caused slight but measurable change in the 6Li to 7Li ratios in natural sources such as rivers This has led to unusual uncertainty in the standardized atomic weight of lithium since this quantity depends on the natural abundance ratios of these naturally occurring stable lithium isotopes as they are available in commercial lithium mineral sources 29 Both stable isotopes of lithium can be laser cooled and were used to produce the first quantum degenerate Bose Fermi mixture 30 Occurrence Lithium is about as common as chlorine in the Earth s upper continental crust on a per atom basis Astronomical Main articles Nucleosynthesis Stellar nucleosynthesis and Lithium burning Although it was synthesized in the Big Bang lithium together with beryllium and boron is markedly less abundant in the universe than other elements This is a result of the comparatively low stellar temperatures necessary to destroy lithium along with a lack of common processes to produce it 31 According to modern cosmological theory lithium in both stable isotopes lithium 6 and lithium 7 was one of the three elements synthesized in the Big Bang 32 Though the amount of lithium generated in Big Bang nucleosynthesis is dependent upon the number of photons per baryon for accepted values the lithium abundance can be calculated and there is a cosmological lithium discrepancy in the universe older stars seem to have less lithium than they should and some younger stars have much more 33 The lack of lithium in older stars is apparently caused by the mixing of lithium into the interior of stars where it is destroyed 34 while lithium is produced in younger stars Although it transmutes into two atoms of helium due to collision with a proton at temperatures above 2 4 million degrees Celsius most stars easily attain this temperature in their interiors lithium is more abundant than computations would predict in later generation stars 19 Nova Centauri 2013 is the first in which evidence of lithium has been found 35 Lithium is also found in brown dwarf substellar objects and certain anomalous orange stars Because lithium is present in cooler less massive brown dwarfs but is destroyed in hotter red dwarf stars its presence in the stars spectra can be used in the lithium test to differentiate the two as both are smaller than the Sun 19 36 37 Certain orange stars can also contain a high concentration of lithium Those orange stars found to have a higher than usual concentration of lithium such as Centaurus X 4 orbit massive objects neutron stars or black holes whose gravity evidently pulls heavier lithium to the surface of a hydrogen helium star causing more lithium to be observed 19 On 27 May 2020 astronomers reported that classical nova explosions are galactic producers of lithium 7 38 39 Terrestrial See also Lithium compounds and Lithium minerals Although lithium is widely distributed on Earth it does not naturally occur in elemental form due to its high reactivity 6 The total lithium content of seawater is very large and is estimated as 230 billion tonnes where the element exists at a relatively constant concentration of 0 14 to 0 25 parts per million ppm 40 41 or 25 micromolar 42 higher concentrations approaching 7 ppm are found near hydrothermal vents 41 Estimates for the Earth s crustal content range from 20 to 70 ppm by weight 43 Lithium constitutes about 0 002 percent of Earth s crust 44 In keeping with its name lithium forms a minor part of igneous rocks with the largest concentrations in granites Granitic pegmatites also provide the greatest abundance of lithium containing minerals with spodumene and petalite being the most commercially viable sources 43 Another significant mineral of lithium is lepidolite which is now an obsolete name for a series formed by polylithionite and trilithionite 45 46 A newer source for lithium is hectorite clay the only active development of which is through the Western Lithium Corporation in the United States 47 At 20 mg lithium per kg of Earth s crust 48 lithium is the 25th most abundant element According to the Handbook of Lithium and Natural Calcium Lithium is a comparatively rare element although it is found in many rocks and some brines but always in very low concentrations There are a fairly large number of both lithium mineral and brine deposits but only comparatively few of them are of actual or potential commercial value Many are very small others are too low in grade 49 Chile is estimated 2020 to have the largest reserves by far 9 2 million tonnes 50 and Australia the highest annual production 40 000 tonnes 50 One of the largest reserve bases note 1 of lithium is in the Salar de Uyuni area of Bolivia which has 5 4 million tonnes Other major suppliers include Australia Argentina and China 51 52 As of 2015 the Czech Geological Survey considered the entire Ore Mountains in the Czech Republic as lithium province Five deposits are registered one near Cinovec cs is considered as a potentially economical deposit with 160 000 tonnes of lithium 53 In December 2019 Finnish mining company Keliber Oy reported its Rapasaari lithium deposit has estimated proven and probable ore reserves of 5 280 million tonnes 54 In June 2010 The New York Times reported that American geologists were conducting ground surveys on dry salt lakes in western Afghanistan believing that large deposits of lithium are located there 55 These estimates are based principally on old data which was gathered mainly by the Soviets during their occupation of Afghanistan from 1979 1989 56 The Department of Defense estimated the lithium reserves in Afghanistan to amount to the ones in Bolivia and dubbed it as a potential Saudi Arabia of lithium 57 In Cornwall England the presence of brine rich in lithium was well known due to the region s historic mining industry and private investors have conducted tests to investigate potential lithium extraction in this area 58 59 Biological See also Potassium in biology Sodium in biology and Soil salinity Lithium is found in trace amount in numerous plants plankton and invertebrates at concentrations of 69 to 5 760 parts per billion ppb In vertebrates the concentration is slightly lower and nearly all vertebrate tissue and body fluids contain lithium ranging from 21 to 763 ppb 41 Marine organisms tend to bioaccumulate lithium more than terrestrial organisms 60 Whether lithium has a physiological role in any of these organisms is unknown 41 Studies of lithium concentrations in mineral rich soil give ranges between around 0 1 and 50 100 ppm with some concentrations as high as 100 400 ppm although it is unlikely that all of it is available for uptake by plants 61 Lithium concentration in plant tissue is typically around 1 ppm with some plant families bioaccumulating more lithium than others lithium accumulation does not appear to affect the essential nutrient composition of plants 61 Tolerance to lithium varies by plant species and typically parallels sodium tolerance maize and Rhodes grass for example are highly tolerant to lithium injury while avocado and soybean are very sensitive 61 Similarly lithium at concentrations of 5 ppm reduces seed germination in some species e g Asian rice and chickpea but not in others e g barley and wheat 61 Many of lithium s major biological effects can be explained by its competition with other ions 62 The monovalent lithium ion Li competes with other ions such as sodium immediately below lithium on the periodic table which like lithium is also a monovalent alkali metal Lithium also competes with bivalent magnesium ions whose ionic radius 86 pm is approximately that of the lithium ion 62 90 pm Mechanisms that transport sodium across cellular membranes also transport lithium For instance sodium channels both voltage gated and epithelial are particularly major pathways of entry for lithium 62 Lithium ions can also permeate through ligand gated ion channels as well as cross both nuclear and mitochondrial membranes 62 Like sodium lithium can enter and partially block although not permeate potassium channels and calcium channels 62 The biological effects of lithium are many and varied but its mechanisms of action are only partially understood 63 For instance studies of lithium treated patients with bipolar disorder show that among many other effects lithium partially reverses telomere shortening in these patients and also increases mitochondrial function although how lithium produces these pharmacological effects is not understood 63 64 Even the exact mechanisms involved in lithium toxicity are not fully understood History Johan August Arfwedson is credited with the discovery of lithium in 1817 Petalite LiAlSi4O10 was discovered in 1800 by the Brazilian chemist and statesman Jose Bonifacio de Andrada e Silva in a mine on the island of Uto Sweden 65 66 67 68 However it was not until 1817 that Johan August Arfwedson then working in the laboratory of the chemist Jons Jakob Berzelius detected the presence of a new element while analyzing petalite ore 69 70 71 72 This element formed compounds similar to those of sodium and potassium though its carbonate and hydroxide were less soluble in water and less alkaline 73 Berzelius gave the alkaline material the name lithion lithina from the Greek word li8os transliterated as lithos meaning stone to reflect its discovery in a solid mineral as opposed to potassium which had been discovered in plant ashes and sodium which was known partly for its high abundance in animal blood He named the metal inside the material lithium 6 67 72 Arfwedson later showed that this same element was present in the minerals spodumene and lepidolite 74 67 In 1818 Christian Gmelin was the first to observe that lithium salts give a bright red color to flame 67 75 However both Arfwedson and Gmelin tried and failed to isolate the pure element from its salts 67 72 76 It was not isolated until 1821 when William Thomas Brande obtained it by electrolysis of lithium oxide a process that had previously been employed by the chemist Sir Humphry Davy to isolate the alkali metals potassium and sodium 19 76 77 78 79 Brande also described some pure salts of lithium such as the chloride and estimating that lithia lithium oxide contained about 55 metal estimated the atomic weight of lithium to be around 9 8 g mol modern value 6 94 g mol 80 In 1855 larger quantities of lithium were produced through the electrolysis of lithium chloride by Robert Bunsen and Augustus Matthiessen 67 81 The discovery of this procedure led to commercial production of lithium in 1923 by the German company Metallgesellschaft AG which performed an electrolysis of a liquid mixture of lithium chloride and potassium chloride 67 82 83 Australian psychiatrist John Cade is credited with reintroducing and popularizing the use of lithium to treat mania in 1949 84 Shortly after throughout the mid 20th century lithium s mood stabilizing applicability for mania and depression took off in Europe and the United States The production and use of lithium underwent several drastic changes in history The first major application of lithium was in high temperature lithium greases for aircraft engines and similar applications in World War II and shortly after This use was supported by the fact that lithium based soaps have a higher melting point than other alkali soaps and are less corrosive than calcium based soaps The small demand for lithium soaps and lubricating greases was supported by several small mining operations mostly in the US The demand for lithium increased dramatically during the Cold War with the production of nuclear fusion weapons Both lithium 6 and lithium 7 produce tritium when irradiated by neutrons and are thus useful for the production of tritium by itself as well as a form of solid fusion fuel used inside hydrogen bombs in the form of lithium deuteride The US became the prime producer of lithium between the late 1950s and the mid 1980s At the end the stockpile of lithium was roughly 42 000 tonnes of lithium hydroxide The stockpiled lithium was depleted in lithium 6 by 75 which was enough to affect the measured atomic weight of lithium in many standardized chemicals and even the atomic weight of lithium in some natural sources of lithium ion which had been contaminated by lithium salts discharged from isotope separation facilities which had found its way into ground water 29 85 Satellite images of the Salar del Hombre Muerto Argentina left and Uyuni Bolivia right salt flats that are rich in lithium The lithium rich brine is concentrated by pumping it into solar evaporation ponds visible in the left image Lithium is used to decrease the melting temperature of glass and to improve the melting behavior of aluminium oxide in the Hall Heroult process 86 87 These two uses dominated the market until the middle of the 1990s After the end of the nuclear arms race the demand for lithium decreased and the sale of department of energy stockpiles on the open market further reduced prices 85 In the mid 1990s several companies started to isolate lithium from brine which proved to be a less expensive option than underground or open pit mining Most of the mines closed or shifted their focus to other materials because only the ore from zoned pegmatites could be mined for a competitive price For example the US mines near Kings Mountain North Carolina closed before the beginning of the 21st century The development of lithium ion batteries increased the demand for lithium and became the dominant use in 2007 88 With the surge of lithium demand in batteries in the 2000s new companies have expanded brine isolation efforts to meet the rising demand 89 90 It has been argued that lithium will be one of the main objects of geopolitical competition in a world running on renewable energy and dependent on batteries but this perspective has also been criticised for underestimating the power of economic incentives for expanded production 91 ChemistryMain page Category Lithium compounds Lithium salt redirects here For Lithium salts used in medication see Lithium medication Of lithium metal Lithium reacts with water easily but with noticeably less vigor than other alkali metals The reaction forms hydrogen gas and lithium hydroxide 6 When placed over a flame lithium compounds give off a striking crimson color but when the metal burns strongly the flame becomes a brilliant silver Lithium will ignite and burn in oxygen when exposed to water or water vapor In moist air lithium rapidly tarnishes to form a black coating of lithium hydroxide LiOH and LiOH H2O lithium nitride Li3N and lithium carbonate Li2CO3 the result of a secondary reaction between LiOH and CO2 43 Lithium is one of the few metals that react with nitrogen gas 92 93 Because of its reactivity with water and especially nitrogen lithium metal is usually stored in a hydrocarbon sealant often petroleum jelly Although the heavier alkali metals can be stored under mineral oil lithium is not dense enough to fully submerge itself in these liquids 19 Lithium has a diagonal relationship with magnesium an element of similar atomic and ionic radius Chemical resemblances between the two metals include the formation of a nitride by reaction with N2 the formation of an oxide Li2 O and peroxide Li2 O2 when burnt in O2 salts with similar solubilities and thermal instability of the carbonates and nitrides 43 94 The metal reacts with hydrogen gas at high temperatures to produce lithium hydride LiH 95 Lithium forms a variety of binary and ternary materials by direct reaction with the main group elements These Zintl phases although highly covalent can be viewed as salts of polyatomic anions such as Si44 P73 and Te52 With graphite lithium forms a variety of intercalation compounds 94 It dissolves in ammonia and amines to give Li NH3 4 and the solvated electron 94 Inorganic compounds Hexameric structure of the n butyllithium fragment in a crystal Lithium forms salt like derivatives with all halides and pseudohalides Some examples include the halides LiF LiCl LiBr LiI as well as the pseudohalides and related anions Lithium carbonate has been described as the most important compound of lithium 94 This white solid is the principal product of beneficiation of lithium ores It is a precursor to other salts including ceramics and materials for lithium batteries The compounds LiBH4 and LiAlH4 are useful reagents These salts and many other lithium salts exhibit distinctively high solubility in ethers in contrast with salts of heavier alkali metals In aqueous solution the coordination complex Li H2O 4 predominates for many lithium salts Related complexes are known with amines and ethers Organic chemistry Main article Organolithium reagent Organolithium compounds are numerous and useful They are defined by the presence of a bond between carbon and lithium They serve as metal stabilized carbanions although their solution and solid state structures are more complex than this simplistic view 96 Thus these are extremely powerful bases and nucleophiles They have also been applied in asymmetric synthesis in the pharmaceutical industry For laboratory organic synthesis many organolithium reagents are commercially available in solution form These reagents are highly reactive and are sometimes pyrophoric Like its inorganic compounds almost all organic compounds of lithium formally follow the duet rule e g BuLi MeLi However it is important to note that in the absence of coordinating solvents or ligands organolithium compounds form dimeric tetrameric and hexameric clusters e g BuLi is actually BuLi 6 and MeLi is actually MeLi 4 which feature multi center bonding and increase the coordination number around lithium These clusters are broken down into smaller or monomeric units in the presence of solvents like dimethoxyethane DME or ligands like tetramethylethylenediamine TMEDA 97 As an exception to the duet rule a two coordinate lithate complex with four electrons around lithium Li thf 4 Me3Si 3C 2Li has been characterized crystallographically 98 ProductionSee also List of countries by lithium production Lithium mine production 2020 reserves and resources in tonnes according to USGS 50 Country Production Reserves note 1 ResourcesArgentina 6 200 1 900 000 19 300 000Australia 40 000 4 700 000 6 400 000Austria 50 000Bolivia 21 000 000Brazil 1 900 95 000 470 000Canada 0 530 000 2 900 000Chile 18 000 9 200 000 9 600 000China 14 000 1 500 000 5 100 000Czech Republic 1 300 000DR Congo 3 000 000Finland 50 000Germany 2 700 000Ghana 90 000Kazakhstan 50 000Mali 700 000Mexico 1 700 000Namibia 50 000Peru 880 000Portugal 900 60 000 270 000Serbia 1 200 000Spain 300 000United States 870 note 2 750 000 7 900 000Zimbabwe 1 200 220 000 500 000World total 82 000 21 000 000 86 000 000 Lithium production has greatly increased since the end of World War II The main sources of lithium are brines and ores Lithium metal is produced through electrolysis applied to a mixture of fused 55 lithium chloride and 45 potassium chloride at about 450 C 99 Reserves and occurrence Scatter plots of lithium grade and tonnage for selected world deposits as of 2017 The US Geological Survey USGS estimated worldwide identified lithium reserves in 2020 and 2021 to be 17 million and 21 million tonnes respectively 51 50 An accurate estimate of world lithium reserves is difficult 100 101 One reason for this is that most lithium classification schemes are developed for solid ore deposits whereas brine is a fluid that is problematic to treat with the same classification scheme due to varying concentrations and pumping effects 102 Following a hike in lithium price in 2015 and concern for insufficiency of lithium resource for the growing lithium ion battery industry a peer reviewed analysis of USGS data in 2017 predicted that there will be no shortage of lithium and current estimates of reserves will increase along with the demand 103 Worldwide lithium resources identified by USGS started to increase in 2017 owing to continuing exploration Identified resources in 2016 2017 2018 2019 and 2020 were 41 47 54 62 and 80 million tonnes respectively 51 In 2013 the world was estimated to contain about 15 million tonnes of lithium reserves while 65 million tonnes of known resources were reasonable 75 of lithium reserves could be found in the ten largest deposits of the world 104 Another study noted that 83 of the geological resources of lithium are located in six brine two pegmatite and two sedimentary deposits 105 In the US lithium is recovered from brine pools in Nevada 17 A deposit discovered in 2013 in Wyoming s Rock Springs Uplift is estimated to contain 228 000 tons Additional deposits in the same formation were estimated to be as much as 18 million tons 106 Similarly in Nevada the McDermitt Caldera hosts lithium bearing volcanic muds that consist of the largest known deposits of lithium within the United States 107 Lithium triangle The world s top four lithium producing countries from 2019 as reported by the US Geological Survey are Australia Chile China and Argentina 51 The three countries of Chile Bolivia and Argentina make up a region known as the Lithium Triangle The Lithium Triangle is known for its high quality salt flats which include Bolivia s Salar de Uyuni Chile s Salar de Atacama and Argentina s Salar de Arizaro The Lithium Triangle is believed to contain over 75 of existing known lithium reserves 108 Deposits are also found in South America throughout the Andes mountain chain Chile is the leading producer followed by Argentina Both countries recover lithium from brine pools According to USGS Bolivia s Uyuni Desert has 5 4 million tonnes of lithium 109 110 Half the world s known reserves are located in Bolivia along the central eastern slope of the Andes The Bolivian government has invested US 900 million and in 2021 successfully produced 540 tons 111 109 The brines in the salt pans of the Lithium Triangle vary widely in lithium content 112 Concentrations can also vary in time as brines are fluids that are changeable and mobile 112 Since 2018 the Democratic Republic of Congo is known to have the largest lithium spodumene hard rock deposit in the world 113 The deposit located in Manono DRC may hold up to 1 5 billion tons of lithium spodumene hard rock The two largest pegmatites known as the Carriere de l Este Pegmatite and the Roche Dure Pegmatite are each of similar size or larger than the famous Greenbushes Pegmatite in Western Australia Thus the Democratic Republic of Congo is expected to be a significant supplier of lithium to the world with its high grade and low impurities According to a later 2011 study by Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and the University of California Berkeley the then estimated reserve base of lithium should not be a limiting factor for large scale battery production for electric vehicles because an estimated 1 billion 40 kWh Li based batteries could be built with those reserves 114 about 10 kg of lithium per car 115 Another 2011 study at the University of Michigan and Ford Motor Company found enough resources to support global demand until 2100 including the lithium required for the potential widespread transportation use The study estimated global reserves at 39 million tons and total demand for lithium during the 90 year period annualized at 12 20 million tons depending on the scenarios regarding economic growth and recycling rates 116 In 2014 The Financialist stated that demand for lithium was growing at more than 12 a year According to Credit Suisse this rate exceeded projected availability by 25 The publication compared the 2014 lithium situation with oil whereby higher oil prices spurred investment in expensive deepwater and oil sands production techniques that is the price of lithium would continue to rise until more expensive production methods that could boost total output would receive the attention of investors 117 On 16 July 2018 2 5 million tonnes of high grade lithium resources and 124 million pounds of uranium resources were found in the Falchani hard rock deposit in the region Puno Peru 118 In 2020 Australia granted Major Project Status MPS to the Finniss Lithium Project for a strategically important lithium deposit an estimated 3 45 million tonnes Mt of mineral resource at 1 4 percent lithium oxide 119 120 Operational mining began in 2022 121 In 2019 world production of lithium from spodumene was around 80 000t per annum primarily from the Greenbushes pegmatite and from some Chinese and Chilean sources The Talison mine in Greenbushes is reported to be the largest and to have the highest grade of ore at 2 4 Li2O 2012 figures 122 Oceans are estimated to contain 230 billion tons of lithium 123 but the concentration is 0 1 0 2ppm making it more expensive to isolate with 2020 technology than from land based brine and rock Sources Another potential source of lithium as of 2012 update was identified as the leachates of geothermal wells which are carried to the surface 124 Recovery of this type of lithium has been demonstrated in the field the lithium is separated by simple filtration 125 clarification needed Reserves are more limited than those of brine reservoirs and hard rock citation needed Pricing Lithium prices In 1998 the price of lithium metal was about 95 USD kg or US 43 lb 126 After the 2007 financial crisis major suppliers such as Sociedad Quimica y Minera SQM dropped lithium carbonate pricing by 20 127 Prices rose in 2012 A 2012 Business Week article outlined an oligopoly in the lithium space SQM controlled by billionaire Julio Ponce is the second largest followed by Rockwood which is backed by Henry Kravis s KKR amp Co and Philadelphia based FMC with Talison mentioned as the biggest producer 128 Global consumption may jump to 300 000 metric tons a year by 2020 failed verification from about 150 000 tons in 2012 to match the demand for lithium batteries that has been growing at about 25 a year outpacing the 4 to 5 overall gain in lithium production 128 needs update The price information service ISE Institute of Rare Earths Elements and Strategic Metals gives for various lithium substances in the average of the last six months March to August 2022 the following kilo prices stable in the course Lithium Carbonate purity 99 5 min from various producers between 63 and 72 EUR kg Lithium Hydroxide Monohydrate LiOH 56 5 min China at 66 to 72 EUR kg Delivered South Korea 73 EUR kg Lithium Metal 99 9 min Delivered China 42 EUR kg 129 Extraction Analyses of the extraction of lithium from seawater published in 1975 Lithium and its compounds were historically isolated and extracted from hard rock but by the 1990s mineral springs brine pools and brine deposits had become the dominant source citation needed Most of these were in Chile Argentina and Bolivia 50 Large lithium clay deposits under development in the McDermitt caldera Nevada United States require concentrated sulfuric acid to leach lithium from the clay ore 130 By early 2021 much of the lithium mined globally comes from either spodumene the mineral contained in hard rocks found in places such as Australia and North Carolina 131 or from the salty brine pumped directly out of the ground as it is in locations in Chile 131 112 In Chile s Salar de Atacama the lithium concentration in the brine is raised by solar evaporation in a system of ponds 112 The enrichment by evaporation process may require up to one and a half years when the brine reaches a lithium content of 6 112 The final processing in this example is done near the city of Antofagasta on the coast where pure lithium carbonate lithium hydroxide and lithium chloride are produced from the brine 112 Low cobalt cathodes for lithium batteries are expected to require lithium hydroxide rather than lithium carbonate as a feedstock and this trend favors rock as a source 132 133 134 The use of electrodialysis and electrochemical intercalation has been proposed to extract lithium compounds from seawater which contains lithium at 0 2 parts per million but it is not yet commercially viable 135 136 137 Environmental issues Further information Environmental impacts of lithium ion batteries The manufacturing processes of lithium including the solvent and mining waste presents significant environmental and health hazards 138 139 140 Lithium extraction can be fatal to aquatic life due to water pollution 141 It is known to cause surface water contamination drinking water contamination respiratory problems ecosystem degradation and landscape damage 138 It also leads to unsustainable water consumption in arid regions 1 9 million liters per ton of lithium 138 Massive byproduct generation of lithium extraction also presents unsolved problems such as large amounts of magnesium and lime waste 142 In the United States there is active competition between environmentally catastrophic open pit mining mountaintop removal mining and less damaging brine extraction mining in an effort to drastically expand domestic lithium mining capacity 143 Environmental concerns include wildlife habitat degradation potable water pollution including arsenic and antimony contamination unsustainable water table reduction and massive mining waste including radioactive uranium byproduct and sulfuric acid discharge Human rights issues A study of relationships between lithium extraction companies and indigenous peoples in Argentina indicated that the state may not have protected indigenous peoples right to free prior and informed consent and that extraction companies generally controlled community access to information and set the terms for discussion of the projects and benefit sharing 144 Development of the Thacker Pass lithium mine in Nevada United States has met with protests and lawsuits from several indigenous tribes who have said they were not provided free prior and informed consent and that the project threatens cultural and sacred sites 145 They have also expressed concerns that development of the project will create risks to indigenous women because resource extraction is linked to missing and murdered indigenous women 146 Protestors have been occupying the site of the proposed mine since January 2021 147 143 Applications Estimates of global lithium uses in 2011 picture and 2019 numbers below 148 149 Ceramics and glass 18 Batteries 65 Lubricating greases 5 Continuous casting 3 Air treatment 1 Polymers Primary aluminum production Pharmaceuticals Other 5 Batteries In 2021 most lithium is used to make lithium ion batteries for electric cars and mobile devices Ceramics and glass Lithium oxide is widely used as a flux for processing silica reducing the melting point and viscosity of the material and leading to glazes with improved physical properties including low coefficients of thermal expansion Worldwide this is one of the largest use for lithium compounds 148 150 Glazes containing lithium oxides are used for ovenware Lithium carbonate Li2CO3 is generally used in this application because it converts to the oxide upon heating 151 Electrical and electronic This section needs expansion with beyond concerns about only lithium carbonate in the second paragraph Lithium carbonate is simply not close to the most economically interesting lithium battery chemistry by late in the 2010s You can help by adding to it March 2021 Late in the 20th century lithium became an important component of battery electrolytes and electrodes because of its high electrode potential Because of its low atomic mass it has a high charge and power to weight ratio A typical lithium ion battery can generate approximately 3 volts per cell compared with 2 1 volts for lead acid and 1 5 volts for zinc carbon Lithium ion batteries which are rechargeable and have a high energy density differ from lithium metal batteries which are disposable primary batteries with lithium or its compounds as the anode 152 153 Other rechargeable batteries that use lithium include the lithium ion polymer battery lithium iron phosphate battery and the nanowire battery Over the years opinions have been differing about potential growth A 2008 study concluded that realistically achievable lithium carbonate production would be sufficient for only a small fraction of future PHEV and EV global market requirements that demand from the portable electronics sector will absorb much of the planned production increases in the next decade and that mass production of lithium carbonate is not environmentally sound it will cause irreparable ecological damage to ecosystems that should be protected and that LiIon propulsion is incompatible with the notion of the Green Car 52 Lubricating greases Main article Lithium grease The third most common use of lithium is in greases Lithium hydroxide is a strong base and when heated with a fat produces a soap made of lithium stearate Lithium soap has the ability to thicken oils and it is used to manufacture all purpose high temperature lubricating greases 17 154 155 Metallurgy Lithium e g as lithium carbonate is used as an additive to continuous casting mould flux slags where it increases fluidity 156 157 a use which accounts for 5 of global lithium use 2011 51 Lithium compounds are also used as additives fluxes to foundry sand for iron casting to reduce veining 158 Lithium as lithium fluoride is used as an additive to aluminium smelters Hall Heroult process reducing melting temperature and increasing electrical resistance 159 a use which accounts for 3 of production 2011 51 When used as a flux for welding or soldering metallic lithium promotes the fusing of metals during the process 160 and eliminates the forming of oxides by absorbing impurities 161 Alloys of the metal with aluminium cadmium copper and manganese are used to make high performance low density aircraft parts see also Lithium aluminium alloys 162 Silicon nano welding Lithium has been found effective in assisting the perfection of silicon nano welds in electronic components for electric batteries and other devices 163 Lithium use in flares and pyrotechnics is due to its rose red flame 164 Pyrotechnics Lithium compounds are used as pyrotechnic colorants and oxidizers in red fireworks and flares 17 165 Air purification Lithium chloride and lithium bromide are hygroscopic and are used as desiccants for gas streams 17 Lithium hydroxide and lithium peroxide are the salts most used in confined areas such as aboard spacecraft and submarines for carbon dioxide removal and air purification Lithium hydroxide absorbs carbon dioxide from the air by forming lithium carbonate and is preferred over other alkaline hydroxides for its low weight Lithium peroxide Li2O2 in presence of moisture not only reacts with carbon dioxide to form lithium carbonate but also releases oxygen 166 167 The reaction is as follows 2 Li2O2 2 CO2 2 Li2CO3 O2 Some of the aforementioned compounds as well as lithium perchlorate are used in oxygen candles that supply submarines with oxygen These can also include small amounts of boron magnesium aluminum silicon titanium manganese and iron 168 Optics Lithium fluoride artificially grown as crystal is clear and transparent and often used in specialist optics for IR UV and VUV vacuum UV applications It has one of the lowest refractive indexes and the furthest transmission range in the deep UV of most common materials 169 Finely divided lithium fluoride powder has been used for thermoluminescent radiation dosimetry TLD when a sample of such is exposed to radiation it accumulates crystal defects which when heated resolve via a release of bluish light whose intensity is proportional to the absorbed dose thus allowing this to be quantified 170 Lithium fluoride is sometimes used in focal lenses of telescopes 17 171 The high non linearity of lithium niobate also makes it useful in non linear optics applications It is used extensively in telecommunication products such as mobile phones and optical modulators for such components as resonant crystals Lithium applications are used in more than 60 of mobile phones 172 Organic and polymer chemistry Organolithium compounds are widely used in the production of polymer and fine chemicals In the polymer industry which is the dominant consumer of these reagents alkyl lithium compounds are catalysts initiators 173 in anionic polymerization of unfunctionalized olefins 174 175 176 For the production of fine chemicals organolithium compounds function as strong bases and as reagents for the formation of carbon carbon bonds Organolithium compounds are prepared from lithium metal and alkyl halides 177 Many other lithium compounds are used as reagents to prepare organic compounds Some popular compounds include lithium aluminium hydride LiAlH4 lithium triethylborohydride n butyllithium and tert butyllithium The launch of a torpedo using lithium as fuel Military Metallic lithium and its complex hydrides such as Li AlH4 are used as high energy additives to rocket propellants 19 Lithium aluminum hydride can also be used by itself as a solid fuel 178 The Mark 50 torpedo stored chemical energy propulsion system SCEPS uses a small tank of sulfur hexafluoride which is sprayed over a block of solid lithium The reaction generates heat creating steam to propel the torpedo in a closed Rankine cycle 179 Lithium hydride containing lithium 6 is used in thermonuclear weapons where it serves as fuel for the fusion stage of the bomb 180 Nuclear Lithium 6 is valued as a source material for tritium production and as a neutron absorber in nuclear fusion Natural lithium contains about 7 5 lithium 6 from which large amounts of lithium 6 have been produced by isotope separation for use in nuclear weapons 181 Lithium 7 gained interest for use in nuclear reactor coolants 182 Lithium deuteride was used as fuel in the Castle Bravo nuclear device Lithium deuteride was the fusion fuel of choice in early versions of the hydrogen bomb When bombarded by neutrons both 6Li and 7Li produce tritium this reaction which was not fully understood when hydrogen bombs were first tested was responsible for the runaway yield of the Castle Bravo nuclear test Tritium fuses with deuterium in a fusion reaction that is relatively easy to achieve Although details remain secret lithium 6 deuteride apparently still plays a role in modern nuclear weapons as a fusion material 183 Lithium fluoride when highly enriched in the lithium 7 isotope forms the basic constituent of the fluoride salt mixture LiF BeF2 used in liquid fluoride nuclear reactors Lithium fluoride is exceptionally chemically stable and LiF BeF2 mixtures have low melting points In addition 7Li Be and F are among the few nuclides with low enough thermal neutron capture cross sections not to poison the fission reactions inside a nuclear fission reactor note 3 184 In conceptualized hypothetical nuclear fusion power plants lithium will be used to produce tritium in magnetically confined reactors using deuterium and tritium as the fuel Naturally occurring tritium is extremely rare and must be synthetically produced by surrounding the reacting plasma with a blanket containing lithium where neutrons from the deuterium tritium reaction in the plasma will fission the lithium to produce more tritium 6Li n 4He 3H Lithium is also used as a source for alpha particles or helium nuclei When 7Li is bombarded by accelerated protons 8Be is formed which almost immediately undergoes fission to form two alpha particles This feat called splitting the atom at the time was the first fully man made nuclear reaction It was produced by Cockroft and Walton in 1932 185 186 In 2013 the US Government Accountability Office said a shortage of lithium 7 critical to the operation of 65 out of 100 American nuclear reactors places their ability to continue to provide electricity at some risk Castle Bravo first used lithium 7 in the Shrimp its first device which weighed only 10 tons and generated massive nuclear atmospheric contamination of Bikini Atoll This perhaps accounts for the decline of US nuclear infrastructure 187 The equipment needed to separate lithium 6 from lithium 7 is mostly a cold war leftover The US shut down most of this machinery in 1963 when it had a huge surplus of separated lithium mostly consumed during the twentieth century The report said it would take five years and 10 million to 12 million to reestablish the ability to separate lithium 6 from lithium 7 188 Reactors that use lithium 7 heat water under high pressure and transfer heat through heat exchangers that are prone to corrosion The reactors use lithium to counteract the corrosive effects of boric acid which is added to the water to absorb excess neutrons 188 Medicine Main article Lithium medication Lithium is useful in the treatment of bipolar disorder 189 Lithium salts may also be helpful for related diagnoses such as schizoaffective disorder and cyclic major depression The active part of these salts is the lithium ion Li 189 Lithium may increase the risk of developing Ebstein s cardiac anomaly in infants born to women who take lithium during the first trimester of pregnancy 190 A 2022 review indicated that lithium therapy during treatment of bipolar disorder does not affect body weight 191 PrecautionsLithium HazardsGHS labelling Pictograms Signal word DangerHazard statements H260 H314Precautionary statements P223 P231 P232 P280 P305 P351 P338 P370 P378 P422 192 NFPA 704 fire diamond 193 322W Lithium metal is corrosive and requires special handling to avoid skin contact Breathing lithium dust or lithium compounds which are often alkaline initially irritate the nose and throat while higher exposure can cause a buildup of fluid in the lungs leading to pulmonary edema The metal itself is a handling hazard because contact with moisture produces the caustic lithium hydroxide Lithium is safely stored in non reactive compounds such as naphtha 194 See alsoCosmological lithium problem Dilithium Halo nucleus Isotopes of lithium List of countries by lithium production Lithia water Lithium air battery Lithium burning Lithium compounds category Lithium ion battery Lithium Tokamak ExperimentNotes a b Appendixes Archived 6 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine By USGS definitions the reserve base may encompass those parts of the resources that have a reasonable potential for becoming economically available within planning horizons beyond those that assume proven technology and current economics The reserve base includes those resources that are currently economic reserves marginally economic marginal reserves and some of those that are currently subeconomic subeconomic resources In 2013 Beryllium and fluorine occur only as one isotope 9Be and 19F respectively These two together with 7Li as well as 2H 11B 15N 209Bi and the stable isotopes of C and O are the only nuclides with low enough thermal neutron capture cross sections aside from actinides to serve as major constituents of a molten salt breeder reactor fuel References Standard Atomic Weights Lithium CIAAW 2009 Li 0 atoms have been observed in various small lithium chloride clusters see Milovanovic Milan Velickovic Suzana Veljkovicb Filip Jerosimic Stanka 30 October 2017 Structure and stability of small lithium chloride LinClm 0 1 n m n 1 6 m 1 3 clusters Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 45 doi 10 1039 C7CP04181K Weast Robert 1984 CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics Boca Raton Florida Chemical Rubber Company Publishing pp E110 ISBN 0 8493 0464 4 a b Numerical data from Lodders Katharina 10 July 2003 Solar System Abundances and Condensation Temperatures of the Elements PDF The Astrophysical Journal The American Astronomical Society 591 2 1220 1247 Bibcode 2003ApJ 591 1220L doi 10 1086 375492 S2CID 42498829 Archived from the original PDF on 7 November 2015 Retrieved 1 September 2015 Graphed at File SolarSystemAbundances jpg Nuclear Weapon Design Federation of American Scientists 21 October 1998 fas org a b c d e f g Krebs Robert E 2006 The History and Use of Our Earth s Chemical Elements A Reference Guide Westport Conn Greenwood Press ISBN 978 0 313 33438 2 Huang Chuanfu Kresin Vitaly V June 2016 Note Contamination free loading of lithium metal into a nozzle source Review of Scientific Instruments 87 6 066105 Bibcode 2016RScI 87f6105H doi 10 1063 1 4953918 ISSN 0034 6748 PMID 27370506 Addison C C 1984 The chemistry of the liquid alkali metals Chichester West Sussex Wiley ISBN 978 0471905080 OCLC 10751785 a b PubChem Element Summary for AtomicNumber 3 Lithium National Center for Biotechnology Information 2021 Retrieved 10 September 2021 It s Elemental The Element Lithium education jlab org Archived from the original on 5 October 2019 Retrieved 9 October 2019 Nitrogen N2 Physical properties safety MSDS enthalpy material compatibility gas liquid equilibrium density viscosity inflammability transport properties Encyclopedia airliquide com Archived from the original on 21 July 2011 Retrieved 29 September 2010 Coefficients of Linear Expansion Engineering Toolbox Archived from the original on 30 November 2012 Retrieved 9 January 2011 Tuoriniemi Juha Juntunen Nurmilaukas Kirsi Uusvuori Johanna Pentti Elias Salmela Anssi Sebedash Alexander 2007 Superconductivity in lithium below 0 4 millikelvin at ambient pressure Nature 447 7141 187 9 Bibcode 2007Natur 447 187T doi 10 1038 nature05820 PMID 17495921 S2CID 4430500 Archived from the original on 25 June 2019 Retrieved 20 April 2018 Struzhkin V V Eremets M I Gan W Mao H K Hemley R J 2002 Superconductivity in dense lithium Science 298 5596 1213 5 Bibcode 2002Sci 298 1213S doi 10 1126 science 1078535 PMID 12386338 S2CID 21030510 Overhauser A W 1984 Crystal Structure of Lithium at 4 2 K Physical Review Letters 53 1 64 65 Bibcode 1984PhRvL 53 64O doi 10 1103 PhysRevLett 53 64 Schwarz Ulrich 2004 Metallic high pressure modifications of main group elements Zeitschrift fur Kristallographie 219 6 2004 376 390 Bibcode 2004ZK 219 376S doi 10 1524 zkri 219 6 376 34637 S2CID 56006683 a b c d e f g Hammond C R 2000 The Elements in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st ed CRC press ISBN 978 0 8493 0481 1 page needed SPECIFIC HEAT OF SOLIDS bradley edu a b c d e f g Emsley John 2001 Nature s Building Blocks Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 850341 5 Isotopes of Lithium Berkeley National Laboratory The Isotopes Project Archived from the original on 13 May 2008 Retrieved 21 April 2008 File Binding energy curve common isotopes svg shows binding energies of stable nuclides graphically the source of the data set is given in the figure background Sonzogni Alejandro Interactive Chart of Nuclides National Nuclear Data Center Brookhaven National Laboratory Archived from the original on 23 July 2007 Retrieved 6 June 2008 Various 2002 Lide David R ed Handbook of Chemistry amp Physics 88th ed CRC ISBN 978 0 8493 0486 6 OCLC 179976746 Archived from the original on 24 July 2017 Retrieved 23 May 2008 Asplund M et al 2006 Lithium Isotopic Abundances in Metal poor Halo Stars The Astrophysical Journal 644 1 229 259 arXiv astro ph 0510636 Bibcode 2006ApJ 644 229A doi 10 1086 503538 S2CID 394822 Denissenkov P A Weiss A 2000 Episodic lithium production by extra mixing in red giants Astronomy and Astrophysics 358 L49 L52 arXiv astro ph 0005356 Bibcode 2000A amp A 358L 49D Chaussidon M Robert F McKeegan K D 2006 Li and B isotopic variations in an Allende CAI Evidence for the in situ decay of short lived 10Be and for the possible presence of the short lived nuclide 7Be in the early solar system PDF Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 70 1 224 245 Bibcode 2006GeCoA 70 224C doi 10 1016 j gca 2005 08 016 Archived from the original PDF on 18 July 2010 Seitz H M Brey G P Lahaye Y Durali S Weyer S 2004 Lithium isotopic signatures of peridotite xenoliths and isotopic fractionation at high temperature between olivine and pyroxenes Chemical Geology 212 1 2 163 177 Bibcode 2004ChGeo 212 163S doi 10 1016 j chemgeo 2004 08 009 Duarte F J 2009 Tunable Laser Applications CRC Press p 330 ISBN 978 1 4200 6009 6 a b Coplen T B Bohlke J K De Bievre P Ding T Holden N E Hopple J A Krouse H R Lamberty A Peiser H S et al 2002 Isotope abundance variations of selected elements IUPAC Technical Report Pure and Applied Chemistry 74 10 1987 doi 10 1351 pac200274101987 Truscott Andrew G Strecker Kevin E McAlexander William I Partridge Guthrie B Hulet Randall G 30 March 2001 Observation of Fermi Pressure in a Gas of Trapped Atoms Science 291 5513 2570 2572 Bibcode 2001Sci 291 2570T doi 10 1126 science 1059318 ISSN 0036 8075 PMID 11283362 S2CID 31126288 Archived from the original on 13 March 2021 Retrieved 11 January 2020 Element Abundances PDF Archived from the original PDF on 1 September 2006 Retrieved 17 November 2009 Boesgaard A M Steigman G 1985 Big bang nucleosynthesis Theories and observations Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics Palo Alto CA 23 319 378 Bibcode 1985ARA amp A 23 319B doi 10 1146 annurev aa 23 090185 001535 A86 14507 04 90 Woo Marcus 21 February 2017 The Cosmic Explosions That Made the Universe earth BBC Archived from the original on 21 February 2017 Retrieved 21 February 2017 A mysterious cosmic factory is producing lithium Scientists are now getting closer at finding out where it comes from Cain Fraser 16 August 2006 Why Old Stars Seem to Lack Lithium Archived from the original on 4 June 2016 First Detection of Lithium from an Exploding Star Archived from the original on 1 August 2015 Retrieved 29 July 2015 Cain Fraser Brown Dwarf Universe Today Archived from the original on 25 February 2011 Retrieved 17 November 2009 Reid Neill 10 March 2002 L Dwarf Classification Archived from the original on 21 May 2013 Retrieved 6 March 2013 Arizona State University 1 June 2020 Class of stellar explosions found to be galactic producers of lithium EurekAlert Archived from the original on 3 June 2020 Retrieved 2 June 2020 Starrfield Sumner et al 27 May 2020 Carbon Oxygen Classical Novae Are Galactic 7Li Producers as well as Potential Supernova Ia Progenitors The Astrophysical Journal 895 1 70 arXiv 1910 00575 Bibcode 2020ApJ 895 70S doi 10 3847 1538 4357 ab8d23 S2CID 203610207 Lithium Occurrence Institute of Ocean Energy Saga University Japan Archived from the original on 2 May 2009 Retrieved 13 March 2009 a b c d Some Facts about Lithium ENC Labs Archived from the original on 10 July 2011 Retrieved 15 October 2010 Schwochau Klaus 1984 Extraction of metals from sea water Inorganic Chemistry Topics in Current Chemistry Vol 124 Springer Berlin Heidelberg pp 91 133 doi 10 1007 3 540 13534 0 3 ISBN 978 3 540 13534 0 S2CID 93866412 a b c d Kamienski Conrad W McDonald Daniel P Stark Marshall W Papcun John R 2004 Lithium and lithium compounds Kirk Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology John Wiley amp Sons Inc doi 10 1002 0471238961 1209200811011309 a01 pub2 ISBN 978 0471238966 lithium Britannica encyclopedia Archived from the original on 5 August 2020 Retrieved 4 August 2020 Atkins Peter 2010 Shriver amp Atkins Inorganic Chemistry 5th ed New York W H Freeman and Company p 296 ISBN 978 0199236176 Mindat org Mines Minerals and More www mindat org Archived from the original on 22 April 2011 Retrieved 4 August 2019 Moores S June 2007 Between a rock and a salt lake Industrial Minerals 477 58 Taylor S R McLennan S M The continental crust Its composition and evolution Blackwell Sci Publ Oxford 330 pp 1985 Cited in Abundances of the elements data page Garrett Donald 2004 Handbook of Lithium and Natural Calcium Academic Press cited in The Trouble with Lithium 2 Archived 14 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine Meridian International Research 2008 a b c d e Mineral Commodity Summaries 2021 PDF U S Geological Survey February 2021 Retrieved 17 March 2021 a b c d e f Lithium Statistics and Information U S Geological Survey 2018 archived from the original on 3 March 2016 retrieved 25 July 2002 a b The Trouble with Lithium 2 PDF Meridian International Research 2008 Archived from the original PDF on 14 July 2011 Retrieved 29 September 2010 Czech Geological Survey October 2015 Mineral Commodity Summaries of the Czech Republic 2015 PDF Prague Czech Geological Survey p 373 ISBN 978 80 7075 904 2 Archived PDF from the original on 6 January 2017 Ore Reserve grows its Finland lithium deposit by 50 2019 Archived from the original on 10 December 2019 Retrieved 10 December 2019 Risen James 13 June 2010 U S Identifies Vast Riches of Minerals in Afghanistan The New York Times Archived from the original on 17 June 2010 Retrieved 13 June 2010 Page Jeremy Evans Michael 15 June 2010 Taleban zones mineral riches may rival Saudi Arabia says Pentagon The Times London Archived from the original on 14 May 2011 Hosp Gerald Afghanistan die konfliktreichen Bodenschatze Neue Zurcher Zeitung in German Retrieved 1 September 2021 Bliss Dominic 28 May 2021 National Geographic In Cornwall ruinous tin and copper mines are yielding battery grade lithium Here s what that means Retrieved 13 June 2021 Cornwall lithium deposits globally significant BBC 17 September 2020 Retrieved 13 June 2021 Chassard Bouchaud C Galle P Escaig F Miyawaki M 1984 Bioaccumulation of lithium by marine organisms in European American and Asian coastal zones microanalytic study using secondary ion emission Comptes Rendus de l Academie des Sciences Serie III 299 18 719 24 PMID 6440674 a b c d Bach Ricardo O Gallicchio Vincent S eds 1990 Lithium and Cell Physiology New York NY Springer New York pp 25 46 doi 10 1007 978 1 4612 3324 4 ISBN 978 1 4612 7967 9 S2CID 44374126 a b c d e Jakobsson Eric Arguello Miranda Orlando Chiu See Wing Fazal Zeeshan Kruczek James Nunez Corrales Santiago Pandit Sagar Pritchet Laura 10 November 2017 Towards a Unified Understanding of Lithium Action in Basic Biology and its Significance for Applied Biology The Journal of Membrane Biology Springer Science and Business Media LLC 250 6 587 604 doi 10 1007 s00232 017 9998 2 ISSN 0022 2631 PMC 5696506 PMID 29127487 a b Alda M 17 February 2015 Lithium in the treatment of bipolar disorder pharmacology and pharmacogenetics Molecular Psychiatry Nature Publishing Group 20 6 661 670 doi 10 1038 mp 2015 4 ISSN 1359 4184 PMC 5125816 PMID 25687772 Martinsson L Wei Y Xu D Melas P A Mathe A A Schalling M Lavebratt C Backlund L 2013 Long term lithium treatment in bipolar disorder is associated with longer leukocyte telomeres Translational Psychiatry Nature Publishing Group 3 5 e261 doi 10 1038 tp 2013 37 ISSN 2158 3188 PMC 3669924 PMID 23695236 D Andraba 1800 Des caracteres et des proprietes de plusieurs nouveaux minerauxde Suede et de Norwege avec quelques observations chimiques faites sur ces substances Journal de Physique de Chimie d Histoire Naturelle et des Arts 51 239 Archived from the original on 13 July 2015 Petalite Mineral Information Mindat org Archived from the original on 16 February 2009 Retrieved 10 August 2009 a b c d e f g Lithium Historical information Archived from the original on 16 October 2009 Retrieved 10 August 2009 Weeks Mary 2003 Discovery of the Elements Whitefish Montana United States Kessinger Publishing p 124 ISBN 978 0 7661 3872 8 Retrieved 10 August 2009 Berzelius 1817 Ein neues mineralisches Alkali und ein neues Metall A new mineral alkali and a new metal Journal fur Chemie und Physik 21 44 48 Archived from the original on 3 December 2016 From p 45 HerrAugust Arfwedson ein junger sehr verdienstvoller Chemiker der seit einem Jahre in meinem Laboratorie arbeitet fand bei einer Analyse des Petalits von Uto s Eisengrube einen alkalischen Bestandtheil Wir haben esLithiongenannt um dadurch auf seine erste Entdeckung im Mineralreich anzuspielen da die beiden anderen erst in der organischen Natur entdeckt wurden Sein Radical wird dann Lithium genannt werden Mr August Arfwedson a young very meritorious chemist who has worked in my laboratory for a year found during an analysis of petalite from Uto s iron mine an alkaline component We ve named it lithion in order to allude thereby to its first discovery in the mineral realm since the two others were first discovered in organic nature Its radical will then be named lithium Johan August Arfwedson Periodic Table Live Archived from the original on 7 October 2010 Retrieved 10 August 2009 Johan Arfwedson Archived from the original on 5 June 2008 Retrieved 10 August 2009 a b c van der Krogt Peter Lithium Elementymology amp Elements Multidict Archived from the original on 16 June 2011 Retrieved 5 October 2010 Clark Jim 2005 Compounds of the Group 1 Elements Archived from the original on 11 March 2009 Retrieved 10 August 2009 See Arwedson Aug 1818 Undersokning af nagra vid Uto Jernmalmsbrott forekommende Fossilier och af ett deri funnet eget Eldfast Alkali Archived 25 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine Afhandlingar i Fysik Kemi och Mineralogi 6 145 172 in Swedish Arwedson Aug 1818 Untersuchung einiger bei der Eisen Grube von Uto vorkommenden Fossilien und von einem darin gefundenen neuen feuerfesten Alkali Archived 13 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine Investigation of some minerals occurring at the iron mines of Uto and of a new refractory alkali found therein Journal fur Chemie und Physik 22 1 93 117 in German Gmelin C G 1818 Von dem Lithon On lithium Annalen der Physik 59 7 238 241 Bibcode 1818AnP 59 229G doi 10 1002 andp 18180590702 Archived from the original on 9 November 2015 p 238 Es loste sich in diesem ein Salz auf das an der Luft zerfloss und nach Art der Strontiansalze den Alkohol mit einer purpurrothen Flamme brennen machte There dissolved in this solvent namely absolute alcohol a salt that deliquesced in air and in the manner of strontium salts caused the alcohol to burn with a purple red flame a b Enghag Per 2004 Encyclopedia of the Elements Technical Data History Processing Applications Wiley pp 287 300 ISBN 978 3 527 30666 4 Brande William Thomas 1821 A Manual of Chemistry 2nd ed London England John Murray vol 2 pp 57 58 Archived 22 November 2015 at the Wayback Machine The Quarterly journal of science and the arts The Quarterly Journal of Science and the Arts Royal Institution of Great Britain 5 338 1818 Archived from the original on 13 March 2021 Retrieved 5 October 2010 Timeline science and engineering DiracDelta Science amp Engineering Encyclopedia Archived from the original on 5 December 2008 Retrieved 18 September 2008 Brande William Thomas MacNeven William James 1821 A manual of chemistry Long p 191 Retrieved 8 October 2010 Bunsen R 1855 Darstellung des Lithiums Preparation of lithium Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie 94 107 111 doi 10 1002 jlac 18550940112 Archived from the original on 6 November 2018 Retrieved 13 August 2015 Green Thomas 11 June 2006 Analysis of the Element Lithium echeat Archived from the original on 21 April 2012 Garrett Donald E 5 April 2004 Handbook of Lithium and Natural Calcium Chloride p 99 ISBN 9780080472904 Archived from the original on 3 December 2016 Shorter Edward June 2009 The history of lithium therapy Bipolar Disorders 11 Suppl 2 4 9 doi 10 1111 j 1399 5618 2009 00706 x ISSN 1398 5647 PMC 3712976 PMID 19538681 a b Ober Joyce A 1994 Commodity Report 1994 Lithium PDF United States Geological Survey Archived PDF from the original on 9 June 2010 Retrieved 3 November 2010 Deberitz Jurgen Boche Gernot 2003 Lithium und seine Verbindungen Industrielle medizinische und wissenschaftliche Bedeutung Chemie in unserer Zeit 37 4 258 266 doi 10 1002 ciuz 200300264 Bauer Richard 1985 Lithium wie es nicht im Lehrbuch steht Chemie in unserer Zeit 19 5 167 173 doi 10 1002 ciuz 19850190505 Ober Joyce A 1994 Minerals Yearbook 2007 Lithium PDF United States Geological Survey Archived PDF from the original on 17 July 2010 Retrieved 3 November 2010 Kogel Jessica Elzea 2006 Lithium Industrial minerals amp rocks commodities markets and uses Littleton Colo Society for Mining Metallurgy and Exploration p 599 ISBN 978 0 87335 233 8 Archived from the original on 7 November 2020 Retrieved 6 November 2020 McKetta John J 18 July 2007 Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design Volume 28 Lactic Acid to Magnesium Supply Demand Relationships M Dekker ISBN 978 0 8247 2478 8 Archived from the original on 28 May 2013 Overland Indra 1 March 2019 The geopolitics of renewable energy Debunking four emerging myths PDF Energy Research amp Social Science 49 36 40 doi 10 1016 j erss 2018 10 018 ISSN 2214 6296 Archived PDF from the original on 13 March 2021 Retrieved 25 August 2019 Krebs Robert E 2006 The history and use of our earth s chemical elements a reference guide Greenwood Publishing Group p 47 ISBN 978 0 313 33438 2 Archived from the original on 4 August 2016 Institute American Geological Union American Geophysical Society Geochemical 1 January 1994 Geochemistry international 31 1 4 115 Archived from the original on 4 June 2016 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help a b c d Greenwood Norman N Earnshaw Alan 1984 Chemistry of the Elements Oxford Pergamon Press pp 97 99 ISBN 978 0 08 022057 4 Beckford Floyd University of Lyon course online powerpoint slideshow Archived from the original on 4 November 2005 Retrieved 27 July 2008 definitions Slides 8 10 Chapter 14 Sapse Anne Marie amp von R Schleyer Paul 1995 Lithium chemistry a theoretical and experimental overview Wiley IEEE pp 3 40 ISBN 978 0 471 54930 7 Archived from the original on 31 July 2016 Nichols Michael A Williard Paul G 1 February 1993 Solid state structures of n butyllithium TMEDA THF and DME complexes Journal of the American Chemical Society 115 4 1568 1572 doi 10 1021 ja00057a050 ISSN 0002 7863 C Mehrotra R 2009 Organometallic chemistry a unified approach Place of publication not identified New Age International Pvt ISBN 978 8122412581 OCLC 946063142 Greenwood Norman N Earnshaw Alan 1997 Chemistry of the Elements 2nd ed Butterworth Heinemann p 73 ISBN 978 0 08 037941 8 Tarascon J M 2010 Is lithium the new gold Nature Chemistry 2 6 510 Bibcode 2010NatCh 2 510T doi 10 1038 nchem 680 PMID 20489722 Woody Todd 19 October 2011 Lithium The New California Gold Rush Forbes Archived from the original on 19 December 2014 Houston J Butcher A Ehren P Evans K Godfrey L 2011 The Evaluation of Brine Prospects and the Requirement for Modifications to Filing Standards PDF Economic Geology 106 7 1225 1239 doi 10 2113 econgeo 106 7 1225 Archived PDF from the original on 20 July 2018 Retrieved 28 June 2019 Eftekhari A 2019 Lithium Batteries for Electric Vehicles From Economy to Research Strategy ACS Sustainable Chem Eng 7 6 5602 5613 doi 10 1021 acssuschemeng 8b01494 S2CID 104468150 Vikstrom H Davidsson S Hook M 2013 Lithium availability and future production outlooks Applied Energy 110 10 252 266 doi 10 1016 j apenergy 2013 04 005 Archived from the original on 11 October 2017 Retrieved 11 October 2017 Grosjean P W Medina P A Keoleian G A Kesler S E Everson M P Wallington T J 2011 Global Lithium Availability A Constraint for Electric Vehicles Journal of Industrial Ecology 15 5 760 775 doi 10 1111 j 1530 9290 2011 00359 x hdl 2027 42 87046 S2CID 4734596 Money Game Contributors 26 April 2013 New Wyoming Lithium Deposit Business Insider Archived from the original on 3 May 2013 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a author has generic name help Benson Tom 16 August 2016 Lithium enrichment in intracontinental rhyolite magmas leads to Li deposits in caldera basins Nature Communications 8 1 270 doi 10 1038 s41467 017 00234 y PMC 5559592 PMID 28814716 Halpern Abel 30 January 2014 The Lithium Triangle Latin Trade Archived from the original on 10 June 2018 a b Romero Simon 2 February 2009 In Bolivia a Tight Grip on the Next Big Resource The New York Times Archived from the original on 1 July 2017 USGS Mineral Commodities Summaries 2009 PDF USGS Archived PDF from the original on 14 June 2010 Dube Ryan 11 August 2022 The Place With the Most Lithium Is Blowing the Electric Car Revolution The Wall Street Journal Vol CCLXXX no 35 pp A1 A8 ISSN 1042 9840 Retrieved 11 August 2022 a b c d e f Cabello J 2022 Reserves resources and lithium exploration in the salt flats of northern Chile Andean Geology 49 2 297 306 doi 10 5027 andgeoV49n2 3444 inactive 31 December 2022 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint DOI inactive as of December 2022 link This Congo project could supply the world with lithium MiningDotCom 10 December 2018 Retrieved 26 March 2021 Wadia Cyrus Albertus Paul Srinivasan Venkat 2011 Resource constraints on the battery energy storage potential for grid and transportation applications Journal of Power Sources 196 3 1593 8 Bibcode 2011JPS 196 1593W doi 10 1016 j jpowsour 2010 08 056 Archived from the original on 13 March 2021 Retrieved 28 June 2019 Gaines LL Nelson P 2010 Lithium Ion Batteries Examining Material Demand and Recycling Issues Argonne National Laboratory Archived from the original on 3 August 2016 Retrieved 11 June 2016 University of Michigan and Ford researchers see plentiful lithium resources for electric vehicles Green Car Congress 3 August 2011 Archived from the original on 16 September 2011 The Precious Mobile Metal The Financialist Credit Suisse 9 June 2014 Archived from the original on 23 February 2016 Retrieved 19 June 2014 Plateau Energy Metals Peru unit finds large lithium resources Reuters 16 July 2018 Archived from the original on 26 July 2018 Matthis Simon 17 March 2021 Australia grants MPS for Core Lithium s Finniss lithium project MiningMetalNews Retrieved 13 October 2022 CORE Lithium Finnis Lithium retrieved 13 October 2022 Finniss Lithium Project Northern Territory Australia Mining Technology 13 January 2022 Retrieved 13 October 2022 Greenbushes Lithium Mine Golden Dragon Capital Archived from the original on 19 January 2019 Retrieved 18 January 2019 Sixie Yang Fan Zhang Huaiping Ding Ping He 19 September 2018 Lithium Metal Extraction from Seawater Joule Elsevier 2 9 1648 1651 doi 10 1016 j joule 2018 07 006 Parker Ann Mining Geothermal Resources Archived 17 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Patel P 16 November 2011 Startup to Capture Lithium from Geothermal Plants technologyreview com Ober Joyce A Lithium PDF United States Geological Survey pp 77 78 Archived PDF from the original on 11 July 2007 Retrieved 19 August 2007 SQM Announces New Lithium Prices SANTIAGO Chile PR Newswire 30 September 2009 Archived from the original on 30 May 2013 a b Riseborough Jesse IPad Boom Strains Lithium Supplies After Prices Triple Bloomberg BusinessWeek Archived from the original on 22 June 2012 Retrieved 1 May 2013 ISE Metal qoutes access date 29 September 2022 Thacker Pass Lithium Mine Project Final Environmental Impact Statement PDF Technical report Bureau of Land Management and the U S Fish and Wildlife Service 4 December 2020 DOI BLM NV W010 2020 0012 EIS Retrieved 16 March 2021 a b Patterson Scott Ramkumar Amrith 9 March 2021 America s Battery Powered Car Hopes Ride on Lithium One Producer Paves the Way Wall Street Journal Archived from the original on 12 March 2021 Retrieved 13 March 2021 Cafariello Joseph 10 March 2014 Lithium A Long Term Investment Buy Lithium wealthdaily com Archived from the original on 12 June 2018 Retrieved 24 April 2015 Kaskey Jack 16 July 2014 Largest Lithium Deal Triggered by Smartphones and Teslas Bloomberg Archived from the original on 12 June 2018 Retrieved 24 April 2015 Marcelo Azevedo Nicolo Campagnol Toralf Hagenbruch Ken Hoffman Ajay Lala Oliver Ramsbottom June 2018 Lithium and cobalt a tale of two commodities McKinsey p 9 Archived from the original on 11 December 2019 Retrieved 29 January 2020 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Chong Liu Yanbin Li Dingchang Lin Po Chun Hsu Bofei Liu Gangbin Yan Tong Wu Yi Cui amp Steven Chu 2020 Lithium Extraction from Seawater through Pulsed Electrochemical Intercalation Joule 4 7 1459 1469 doi 10 1016 j joule 2020 05 017 S2CID 225527170 Archived from the original on 13 March 2021 Retrieved 26 December 2020 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint uses authors parameter link Tsuyoshi Hoshino 2015 Innovative lithium recovery technique from seawater by using world first dialysis with a lithium ionic superconductor Desalination 359 59 63 doi 10 1016 j desal 2014 12 018 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint uses authors parameter link Robert F Service 13 July 2020 Seawater could provide nearly unlimited amounts of critical battery material Science Archived from the original on 13 January 2021 Retrieved 26 December 2020 a b c Amui Rachid February 2020 Commodities At a Glance Special issue on strategic battery raw materials PDF United Nations Conference on Trade and Development 13 UNCTAD DITC COM 2019 5 Retrieved 10 February 2021 Application of Life Cycle Assessment to Nanoscale Technology Lithium ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles Report Washington DC U S Environmental Protection Agency EPA 2013 EPA 744 R 12 001 Can Nanotech Improve Li ion Battery Performance Environmental Leader 30 May 2013 Archived from the original on 21 August 2016 Retrieved 3 June 2013 Katwala Amit The spiralling environmental cost of our lithium battery addiction Wired Conde Nast Publications Retrieved 10 February 2021 Draper Robert This metal is powering today s technology at what price National Geographic No February 2019 National Geographic Partners Retrieved 10 February 2021 a b The Lithium Gold Rush Inside the Race to Power Electric Vehicles The New York Times 6 May 2021 Retrieved 6 May 2021 Marchegiani Morgera and Parks 21 November 2019 Indigenous peoples rights to natural resources in Argentina the challenges of impact assessment consent and fair andequitable benefit sharing in cases of lithium mining The International Journal of Human Rights a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Price Austin Summer 2021 The Rush for White Gold Earth Island Journal Chadwell Jeri 21 July 2021 Judge to decide on injunction request to halt work on Thacker Pass lithium mine This is Reno Retrieved 12 October 2021 Thacker Pass Lithium mine approval draws around the clock protest Sierra Nevada Ally 19 January 2021 Retrieved 16 March 2021 a b Lithium PDF 2016 Archived PDF from the original on 30 November 2016 Retrieved 29 November 2016 via US Geological Survey USGS Lithium PDF USGS USGS Archived PDF from the original on 1 November 2020 Retrieved 15 November 2020 Fmclithium com PDF www fmclithium com Archived from the original PDF on 7 September 2014 Clark Jim 2005 Some Compounds of the Group 1 Elements chemguide co uk Archived from the original on 27 June 2013 Retrieved 8 August 2013 Disposable Batteries Choosing between Alkaline and Lithium Disposable Batteries Batteryreview org Archived from the original on 6 January 2014 Retrieved 10 October 2013 Battery Anodes gt Batteries amp Fuel Cells gt Research gt The Energy Materials Center at Cornell Emc2 cornell edu Archived from the original on 22 December 2013 Retrieved 10 October 2013 Totten George E Westbrook Steven R amp Shah Rajesh J 2003 Fuels and lubricants handbook technology properties performance and testing Vol 1 ASTM International p 559 ISBN 978 0 8031 2096 9 Archived from the original on 23 July 2016 Rand Salvatore J 2003 Significance of tests for petroleum products ASTM International pp 150 152 ISBN 978 0 8031 2097 6 Archived from the original on 31 July 2016 The Theory and Practice of Mold Fluxes Used in Continuous Casting A Compilation of Papers on Continuous Casting Fluxes Given at the 61st and 62nd Steelmaking Conference Iron and Steel Society Lu Y Q Zhang G D Jiang M F Liu H X Li T 2011 Effects of Li2CO3 on Properties of Mould Flux for High Speed Continuous Casting Materials Science Forum 675 677 877 880 doi 10 4028 www scientific net MSF 675 677 877 S2CID 136666669 Testing 1 2 3 Eliminating Veining Defects Modern Casting July 2014 archived from the original on 2 April 2015 retrieved 15 March 2015 Haupin W 1987 Mamantov Gleb Marassi Roberto eds Chemical and Physical Properties of the Hall Heroult Electrolyte Molten Salt Chemistry An Introduction and Selected Applications Springer p 449 Garrett Donald E 5 April 2004 Handbook of Lithium and Natural Calcium Chloride Academic Press p 200 ISBN 9780080472904 Archived from the original on 3 December 2016 Prasad N Eswara Gokhale Amol Wanhill R J H 20 September 2013 Aluminum Lithium Alloys Processing Properties and Applications Butterworth Heinemann ISBN 9780124016798 Archived from the original on 1 January 2021 Retrieved 6 November 2020 Davis Joseph R ASM International Handbook Committee 1993 Aluminum and aluminum alloys ASM International pp 121 ISBN 978 0 87170 496 2 Archived from the original on 28 May 2013 Retrieved 16 May 2011 Karki Khim Epstein Eric Cho Jeong Hyun Jia Zheng Li Teng Picraux S Tom Wang Chunsheng Cumings John 2012 Lithium Assisted Electrochemical Welding in Silicon Nanowire Battery Electrodes PDF Nano Letters 12 3 1392 7 Bibcode 2012NanoL 12 1392K doi 10 1021 nl204063u PMID 22339576 Archived PDF from the original on 10 August 2017 Koch Ernst Christian 2004 Special Materials in Pyrotechnics III Application of Lithium and its Compounds in Energetic Systems Propellants Explosives Pyrotechnics 29 2 67 80 doi 10 1002 prep 200400032 Wiberg Egon Wiberg Nils and Holleman Arnold Frederick 2001 Inorganic chemistry Archived 18 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine Academic Press ISBN 0 12 352651 5 p 1089 Mulloth L M amp Finn J E 2005 Air Quality Systems for Related Enclosed Spaces Spacecraft Air The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry Vol 4H pp 383 404 doi 10 1007 b107253 ISBN 978 3 540 25019 7 Application of lithium chemicals for air regeneration of manned spacecraft Lithium Corporation of America amp Aerospace Medical Research Laboratories 1965 Archived from the original on 7 October 2012 Markowitz M M Boryta D A Stewart Harvey 1964 Lithium Perchlorate Oxygen Candle Pyrochemical Source of Pure Oxygen Industrial amp Engineering Chemistry Product Research and Development 3 4 321 30 doi 10 1021 i360012a016 Hobbs Philip C D 2009 Building Electro Optical Systems Making It All Work John Wiley and Sons p 149 ISBN 978 0 470 40229 0 Archived from the original on 23 June 2016 Point Defects in Lithium Fluoride Films Induced by Gamma Irradiation Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Advanced Technology amp Particle Physics ICATPP 7 Villa Olmo Como Italy Vol 2001 World Scientific 2002 p 819 ISBN 978 981 238 180 4 Archived from the original on 6 June 2016 Sinton William M 1962 Infrared Spectroscopy of Planets and Stars Applied Optics 1 2 105 Bibcode 1962ApOpt 1 105S doi 10 1364 AO 1 000105 You ve got the power the evolution of batteries and the future of fuel cells PDF Toshiba Archived PDF from the original on 17 July 2011 Retrieved 17 May 2009 Organometallics IHS Chemicals February 2012 Archived from the original on 7 July 2012 Retrieved 2 January 2012 Yurkovetskii A V Kofman V L Makovetskii K L 2005 Polymerization of 1 2 dimethylenecyclobutane by organolithium initiators Russian Chemical Bulletin 37 9 1782 1784 doi 10 1007 BF00962487 S2CID 94017312 Quirk Roderic P Cheng Pao Luo 1986 Functionalization of polymeric organolithium compounds Amination of poly styryl lithium Macromolecules 19 5 1291 1294 Bibcode 1986MaMol 19 1291Q doi 10 1021 ma00159a001 Stone F G A West Robert 1980 Advances in organometallic chemistry Academic Press p 55 ISBN 978 0 12 031118 7 Archived from the original on 13 March 2021 Retrieved 6 November 2020 Bansal Raj K 1996 Synthetic approaches in organic chemistry p 192 ISBN 978 0 7637 0665 4 Archived from the original on 18 June 2016 PDF 28 June 2003 https web archive org web 20030628230627 http media armadilloaerospace com misc LiAl Hydride pdf Archived from the original PDF on 28 June 2003 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a Missing or empty title help Hughes T G Smith R B amp Kiely D H 1983 Stored Chemical Energy Propulsion System for Underwater Applications Journal of Energy 7 2 128 133 Bibcode 1983JEner 7 128H doi 10 2514 3 62644 Emsley John 2011 Nature s Building Blocks Makhijani Arjun amp Yih Katherine 2000 Nuclear Wastelands A Global Guide to Nuclear Weapons Production and Its Health and Environmental Effects MIT Press pp 59 60 ISBN 978 0 262 63204 1 Archived from the original on 13 June 2016 National Research Council U S Committee on Separations Technology and Transmutation Systems 1996 Nuclear wastes technologies for separations and transmutation National Academies Press p 278 ISBN 978 0 309 05226 9 Archived from the original on 13 June 2016 Barnaby Frank 1993 How nuclear weapons spread nuclear weapon proliferation in the 1990s Routledge p 39 ISBN 978 0 415 07674 6 Archived from the original on 9 June 2016 Baesjr C 1974 The chemistry and thermodynamics of molten salt reactor fuels Journal of Nuclear Materials 51 1 149 162 Bibcode 1974JNuM 51 149B doi 10 1016 0022 3115 74 90124 X OSTI 4470742 Archived from the original on 13 March 2021 Retrieved 28 June 2019 Agarwal Arun 2008 Nobel Prize Winners in Physics APH Publishing p 139 ISBN 978 81 7648 743 6 Archived from the original on 29 June 2016 Splitting the Atom Cockcroft and Walton 1932 9 Rays or Particles Archived 2 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine Department of Physics University of Cambridge Elements American Lithium 7 Metal Isotope American Elements Archived from the original on 18 August 2019 a b Wald Matthew L 8 October 2013 Report Says a Shortage of Nuclear Ingredient Looms The New York Times Archived from the original on 1 July 2017 a b Kean Sam 2011 The Disappearing Spoon Yacobi S Ornoy A 2008 Is lithium a real teratogen What can we conclude from the prospective versus retrospective studies A review Isr J Psychiatry Relat Sci 45 2 95 106 PMID 18982835 Gomes da Costa Susana Marx Wolfgang Corponi Filippo et al 2022 Lithium therapy and weight change in people with bipolar disorder A systematic review and meta analysis Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 134 104266 doi 10 1016 j neubiorev 2021 07 011 ISSN 0149 7634 PMID 34265322 S2CID 235802599 Lithium 265969 Sigma Aldrich Archived from the original on 13 March 2021 Retrieved 1 October 2018 Technical data for Lithium Archived 23 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine periodictable com Furr A K 2000 CRC handbook of laboratory safety Boca Raton CRC Press pp 244 246 ISBN 978 0 8493 2523 6 Archived from the original on 13 March 2021 Retrieved 6 November 2020 External linksMcKinsey review of 2018 Lithium at The Periodic Table of Videos University of Nottingham International Lithium Alliance USGS Lithium Statistics and Information Lithium Supply amp Markets 2009 IM Conference 2009 Sustainable lithium supplies through 2020 in the face of sustainable market growth University of Southampton Mountbatten Centre for International Studies Nuclear History Working Paper No5 Lithium preserves by Country at investingnews com Portals Chemistry ScienceLithium at Wikipedia s sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Lithium amp oldid 1130881966, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.