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Oganesson

January 08, 2024

Oganesson is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol Og and atomic number 118. It was first synthesized in 2002 at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) in Dubna, near Moscow, Russia, by a joint team of Russian and American scientists. In December 2015, it was recognized as one of four new elements by the Joint Working Party of the international scientific bodies IUPAC and IUPAP. It was formally named on 28 November 2016.[15][16] The name honors the nuclear physicist Yuri Oganessian, who played a leading role in the discovery of the heaviest elements in the periodic table. It is one of only two elements named after a person who was alive at the time of naming, the other being seaborgium, and the only element whose eponym is alive as of 2024.[17][a]

Oganesson, 118Og
Oganesson
Pronunciation
Appearancemetallic (predicted)
Mass number[294]
Oganesson in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
Rn
↑
Og
↓
(Usb)
tennessine ← oganesson → ununennium
Atomic number (Z)118
Groupgroup 18 (noble gases)
Periodperiod 7
Block  p-block
Electron configuration[Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p6 (predicted)[3][4]
Electrons per shell2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 8 (predicted)
Physical properties
Phase at STPsolid (predicted)[5]
Melting point325 ± 15 K ​(52 ± 15 °C, ​125 ± 27 °F) (predicted)[5]
Boiling point450 ± 10 K ​(177 ± 10 °C, ​350 ± 18 °F) (predicted)[5]
Density (near r.t.)7.2 g/cm3 (solid, 319 K, calculated)[5]
when liquid (at m.p.)6.6 g/cm3 (liquid, 327 K, calculated)[5]
Atomic properties
Oxidation states(−1),[4] (0), (+1),[6] (+2),[7] (+4),[7] (+6)[4] (predicted)
Ionization energies
  • 1st: 860 kJ/mol (calculated)[8]
  • 2nd: 1560 kJ/mol (calculated)[8]
Atomic radiusempirical: 152 pm (predicted)[9]
Covalent radius157 pm (predicted)[10]
Other properties
Natural occurrencesynthetic
Crystal structure ​face-centered cubic (fcc)

(extrapolated)[11]
CAS Number54144-19-3
History
Namingafter Yuri Oganessian
PredictionHans Peter Jørgen Julius Thomsen (1895)
DiscoveryJoint Institute for Nuclear Research and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (2002)
Isotopes of oganesson
Main isotopes[12] Decay
abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
294Og synth 0.7 ms[13][14] α 290Lv
SF –
 Category: Oganesson
| references

Oganesson has the highest atomic number and highest atomic mass of all known elements as of 2024. On the periodic table of the elements it is a p-block element, a member of group 18 and the last member of period 7. Its only known isotope, oganesson-294, is highly radioactive, with a half-life of 0.7 ms and, as of 2020, only five atoms have been successfully produced.[19] This has so far prevented any experimental studies of its chemistry. Because of relativistic effects, theoretical studies predict that it would be a solid at room temperature, and significantly reactive,[19][3] unlike the other members of group 18 (the noble gases).

Introduction edit

This section is an excerpt from Superheavy element § Introduction.[edit]

Synthesis of superheavy nuclei edit

 
A graphic depiction of a nuclear fusion reaction. Two nuclei fuse into one, emitting a neutron. Reactions that created new elements to this moment were similar, with the only possible difference that several singular neutrons sometimes were released, or none at all.

A superheavy[b] atomic nucleus is created in a nuclear reaction that combines two other nuclei of unequal size[c] into one; roughly, the more unequal the two nuclei in terms of mass, the greater the possibility that the two react.[25] The material made of the heavier nuclei is made into a target, which is then bombarded by the beam of lighter nuclei. Two nuclei can only fuse into one if they approach each other closely enough; normally, nuclei (all positively charged) repel each other due to electrostatic repulsion. The strong interaction can overcome this repulsion but only within a very short distance from a nucleus; beam nuclei are thus greatly accelerated in order to make such repulsion insignificant compared to the velocity of the beam nucleus.[26] The energy applied to the beam nuclei to accelerate them can cause them to reach speeds as high as one-tenth of the speed of light. However, if too much energy is applied, the beam nucleus can fall apart.[26]

Coming close enough alone is not enough for two nuclei to fuse: when two nuclei approach each other, they usually remain together for approximately 10−20 seconds and then part ways (not necessarily in the same composition as before the reaction) rather than form a single nucleus.[26][27] This happens because during the attempted formation of a single nucleus, electrostatic repulsion tears apart the nucleus that is being formed.[26] Each pair of a target and a beam is characterized by its cross section—the probability that fusion will occur if two nuclei approach one another expressed in terms of the transverse area that the incident particle must hit in order for the fusion to occur.[d] This fusion may occur as a result of the quantum effect in which nuclei can tunnel through electrostatic repulsion. If the two nuclei can stay close for past that phase, multiple nuclear interactions result in redistribution of energy and an energy equilibrium.[26]

External videos
  Visualization of unsuccessful nuclear fusion, based on calculations from the Australian National University[29]

The resulting merger is an excited state[30]—termed a compound nucleus—and thus it is very unstable.[26] To reach a more stable state, the temporary merger may fission without formation of a more stable nucleus.[31] Alternatively, the compound nucleus may eject a few neutrons, which would carry away the excitation energy; if the latter is not sufficient for a neutron expulsion, the merger would produce a gamma ray. This happens in approximately 10−16 seconds after the initial nuclear collision and results in creation of a more stable nucleus.[31] The definition by the IUPAC/IUPAP Joint Working Party (JWP) states that a chemical element can only be recognized as discovered if a nucleus of it has not decayed within 10−14 seconds. This value was chosen as an estimate of how long it takes a nucleus to acquire its outer electrons and thus display its chemical properties.[32][e]

Decay and detection edit

The beam passes through the target and reaches the next chamber, the separator; if a new nucleus is produced, it is carried with this beam.[34] In the separator, the newly produced nucleus is separated from other nuclides (that of the original beam and any other reaction products)[f] and transferred to a surface-barrier detector, which stops the nucleus. The exact location of the upcoming impact on the detector is marked; also marked are its energy and the time of the arrival.[34] The transfer takes about 10−6 seconds; in order to be detected, the nucleus must survive this long.[37] The nucleus is recorded again once its decay is registered, and the location, the energy, and the time of the decay are measured.[34]

Stability of a nucleus is provided by the strong interaction. However, its range is very short; as nuclei become larger, its influence on the outermost nucleons (protons and neutrons) weakens. At the same time, the nucleus is torn apart by electrostatic repulsion between protons, and its range is not limited.[38] Total binding energy provided by the strong interaction increases linearly with the number of nucleons, whereas electrostatic repulsion increases with the square of the atomic number, i.e. the latter grows faster and becomes increasingly important for heavy and superheavy nuclei.[39][40] Superheavy nuclei are thus theoretically predicted[41] and have so far been observed[42] to predominantly decay via decay modes that are caused by such repulsion: alpha decay and spontaneous fission.[g] Almost all alpha emitters have over 210 nucleons,[44] and the lightest nuclide primarily undergoing spontaneous fission has 238.[45] In both decay modes, nuclei are inhibited from decaying by corresponding energy barriers for each mode, but they can be tunnelled through.[39][40]

 
Scheme of an apparatus for creation of superheavy elements, based on the Dubna Gas-Filled Recoil Separator set up in the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions in JINR. The trajectory within the detector and the beam focusing apparatus changes because of a dipole magnet in the former and quadrupole magnets in the latter.[46]

Alpha particles are commonly produced in radioactive decays because mass of an alpha particle per nucleon is small enough to leave some energy for the alpha particle to be used as kinetic energy to leave the nucleus.[47] Spontaneous fission is caused by electrostatic repulsion tearing the nucleus apart and produces various nuclei in different instances of identical nuclei fissioning.[40] As the atomic number increases, spontaneous fission rapidly becomes more important: spontaneous fission partial half-lives decrease by 23 orders of magnitude from uranium (element 92) to nobelium (element 102),[48] and by 30 orders of magnitude from thorium (element 90) to fermium (element 100).[49] The earlier liquid drop model thus suggested that spontaneous fission would occur nearly instantly due to disappearance of the fission barrier for nuclei with about 280 nucleons.[40][50] The later nuclear shell model suggested that nuclei with about 300 nucleons would form an island of stability in which nuclei will be more resistant to spontaneous fission and will primarily undergo alpha decay with longer half-lives.[40][50] Subsequent discoveries suggested that the predicted island might be further than originally anticipated; they also showed that nuclei intermediate between the long-lived actinides and the predicted island are deformed, and gain additional stability from shell effects.[51] Experiments on lighter superheavy nuclei,[52] as well as those closer to the expected island,[48] have shown greater than previously anticipated stability against spontaneous fission, showing the importance of shell effects on nuclei.[h]

Alpha decays are registered by the emitted alpha particles, and the decay products are easy to determine before the actual decay; if such a decay or a series of consecutive decays produces a known nucleus, the original product of a reaction can be easily determined.[i] (That all decays within a decay chain were indeed related to each other is established by the location of these decays, which must be in the same place.)[34] The known nucleus can be recognized by the specific characteristics of decay it undergoes such as decay energy (or more specifically, the kinetic energy of the emitted particle).[j] Spontaneous fission, however, produces various nuclei as products, so the original nuclide cannot be determined from its daughters.[k]

The information available to physicists aiming to synthesize a superheavy element is thus the information collected at the detectors: location, energy, and time of arrival of a particle to the detector, and those of its decay. The physicists analyze this data and seek to conclude that it was indeed caused by a new element and could not have been caused by a different nuclide than the one claimed. Often, provided data is insufficient for a conclusion that a new element was definitely created and there is no other explanation for the observed effects; errors in interpreting data have been made.[l]

History edit

See also: Timeline of chemical element discoveries

Early speculation edit

The possibility of a seventh noble gas, after helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon, was considered almost as soon as the noble gas group was discovered. Danish chemist Hans Peter Jørgen Julius Thomsen predicted in April 1895, the year after the discovery of argon, that there was a whole series of chemically inert gases similar to argon that would bridge the halogen and alkali metal groups: he expected that the seventh of this series would end a 32-element period which contained thorium and uranium and have an atomic weight of 292, close to the 294 now known for the first and only confirmed isotope of oganesson.[63] Danish physicist Niels Bohr noted in 1922 that this seventh noble gas should have atomic number 118 and predicted its electronic structure as 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 8, matching modern predictions.[64] Following this, German chemist Aristid von Grosse wrote an article in 1965 predicting the likely properties of element 118.[11] It was 107 years from Thomsen's prediction before oganesson was successfully synthesized, although its chemical properties have not been investigated to determine if it behaves as the heavier congener of radon.[65] In a 1975 article, American chemist Kenneth Pitzer suggested that element 118 should be a gas or volatile liquid due to relativistic effects.[66]

Unconfirmed discovery claims edit

In late 1998, Polish physicist Robert Smolańczuk published calculations on the fusion of atomic nuclei towards the synthesis of superheavy atoms, including oganesson.[67] His calculations suggested that it might be possible to make element 118 by fusing lead with krypton under carefully controlled conditions, and that the fusion probability (cross section) of that reaction would be close to the lead–chromium reaction that had produced element 106, seaborgium. This contradicted predictions that the cross sections for reactions with lead or bismuth targets would go down exponentially as the atomic number of the resulting elements increased.[67]

In 1999, researchers at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory made use of these predictions and announced the discovery of elements 118 and 116, in a paper published in Physical Review Letters,[68] and very soon after the results were reported in Science.[69] The researchers reported that they had performed the reaction

208
82Pb
 + 86
36Kr
 → 293
118Og
 +
n
.

In 2001, they published a retraction after researchers at other laboratories were unable to duplicate the results and the Berkeley lab could not duplicate them either.[70] In June 2002, the director of the lab announced that the original claim of the discovery of these two elements had been based on data fabricated by principal author Victor Ninov.[71][72] Newer experimental results and theoretical predictions have confirmed the exponential decrease in cross sections with lead and bismuth targets as the atomic number of the resulting nuclide increases.[73]

Discovery reports edit

 
Radioactive decay pathway of the isotope oganesson-294.[13] The decay energy and average half-life are given for the parent isotope and each daughter isotope. The fraction of atoms undergoing spontaneous fission (SF) is given in green.

The first genuine decay of atoms of oganesson was observed in 2002 at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) in Dubna, Russia, by a joint team of Russian and American scientists. Headed by Yuri Oganessian, a Russian nuclear physicist of Armenian ethnicity, the team included American scientists from the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California.[74] The discovery was not announced immediately, because the decay energy of 294Og matched that of 212mPo, a common impurity produced in fusion reactions aimed at producing superheavy elements, and thus announcement was delayed until after a 2005 confirmatory experiment aimed at producing more oganesson atoms.[75] The 2005 experiment used a different beam energy (251 MeV instead of 245 MeV) and target thickness (0.34 mg/cm2 instead of 0.23 mg/cm2).[13] On 9 October 2006, the researchers announced[13] that they had indirectly detected a total of three (possibly four) nuclei of oganesson-294 (one or two in 2002[76] and two more in 2005) produced via collisions of californium-249 atoms and calcium-48 ions.[77][78][79][80][81]

249
98Cf
 + 48
20Ca
 → 294
118Og
 + 3
n
.

In 2011, IUPAC evaluated the 2006 results of the Dubna–Livermore collaboration and concluded: "The three events reported for the Z = 118 isotope have very good internal redundancy but with no anchor to known nuclei do not satisfy the criteria for discovery".[82]

Because of the very small fusion reaction probability (the fusion cross section is ~0.3–0.6 pb or (3–6)×10−41 m2) the experiment took four months and involved a beam dose of 2.5×1019 calcium ions that had to be shot at the californium target to produce the first recorded event believed to be the synthesis of oganesson.[83] Nevertheless, researchers were highly confident that the results were not a false positive, since the chance that the detections were random events was estimated to be less than one part in 100000.[84]

In the experiments, the alpha-decay of three atoms of oganesson was observed. A fourth decay by direct spontaneous fission was also proposed. A half-life of 0.89 ms was calculated: 294
Og decays into 290
Lv by alpha decay. Since there were only three nuclei, the half-life derived from observed lifetimes has a large uncertainty: 0.89+1.07
−0.31 ms.[13]

294
118Og
 → 290
116Lv
 + 4
2He

The identification of the 294
Og nuclei was verified by separately creating the putative daughter nucleus 290
Lv directly by means of a bombardment of 245
Cm with 48
Ca ions,

245
96Cm
 + 48
20Ca
 → 290
116Lv
 + 3
n
,

and checking that the 290
Lv decay matched the decay chain of the 294
Og nuclei.[13] The daughter nucleus 290
Lv is very unstable, decaying with a lifetime of 14 milliseconds into 286
Fl, which may experience either spontaneous fission or alpha decay into 282
Cn, which will undergo spontaneous fission.[13]

Confirmation edit

In December 2015, the Joint Working Party of international scientific bodies International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) and International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) recognized the element's discovery and assigned the priority of the discovery to the Dubna–Livermore collaboration.[85] This was on account of two 2009 and 2010 confirmations of the properties of the granddaughter of 294Og, 286Fl, at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, as well as the observation of another consistent decay chain of 294Og by the Dubna group in 2012. The goal of that experiment had been the synthesis of 294Ts via the reaction 249Bk(48Ca,3n), but the short half-life of 249Bk resulted in a significant quantity of the target having decayed to 249Cf, resulting in the synthesis of oganesson instead of tennessine.[86]

From 1 October 2015 to 6 April 2016, the Dubna team performed a similar experiment with 48Ca projectiles aimed at a mixed-isotope californium target containing 249Cf, 250Cf, and 251Cf, with the aim of producing the heavier oganesson isotopes 295Og and 296Og. Two beam energies at 252 MeV and 258 MeV were used. Only one atom was seen at the lower beam energy, whose decay chain fitted the previously known one of 294Og (terminating with spontaneous fission of 286Fl), and none were seen at the higher beam energy. The experiment was then halted, as the glue from the sector frames covered the target and blocked evaporation residues from escaping to the detectors.[87] The production of 293Og and its daughter 289Lv, as well as the even heavier isotope 297Og, is also possible using this reaction. The isotopes 295Og and 296Og may also be produced in the fusion of 248Cm with 50Ti projectiles.[87][88][89] A search beginning in summer 2016 at RIKEN for 295Og in the 3n channel of this reaction was unsuccessful, though the study is planned to resume; a detailed analysis and cross section limit were not provided. These heavier and likely more stable isotopes may be useful in probing the chemistry of oganesson.[90][91]

Naming edit

 
Element 118 was named after Yuri Oganessian, a pioneer in the discovery of synthetic elements, with the name oganesson (Og). Oganessian and the decay chain of oganesson-294 were pictured on a stamp of Armenia issued on 28 December 2017.

Using Mendeleev's nomenclature for unnamed and undiscovered elements, oganesson is sometimes known as eka-radon (until the 1960s as eka-emanation, emanation being the old name for radon).[11] In 1979, IUPAC assigned the systematic placeholder name ununoctium to the undiscovered element, with the corresponding symbol of Uuo,[92] and recommended that it be used until after confirmed discovery of the element.[93] Although widely used in the chemical community on all levels, from chemistry classrooms to advanced textbooks, the recommendations were mostly ignored among scientists in the field, who called it "element 118", with the symbol of E118, (118), or even simply 118.[4]

Before the retraction in 2001, the researchers from Berkeley had intended to name the element ghiorsium (Gh), after Albert Ghiorso (a leading member of the research team).[94]

The Russian discoverers reported their synthesis in 2006. According to IUPAC recommendations, the discoverers of a new element have the right to suggest a name.[95] In 2007, the head of the Russian institute stated the team were considering two names for the new element: flyorium, in honor of Georgy Flyorov, the founder of the research laboratory in Dubna; and moskovium, in recognition of the Moscow Oblast where Dubna is located.[96] He also stated that although the element was discovered as an American collaboration, who provided the californium target, the element should rightly be named in honor of Russia since the Flyorov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions at JINR was the only facility in the world which could achieve this result.[97] These names were later suggested for element 114 (flerovium) and element 116 (moscovium).[98] Flerovium became the name of element 114; the final name proposed for element 116 was instead livermorium,[99] with moscovium later being proposed and accepted for element 115 instead.[17]

Traditionally, the names of all noble gases end in "-on", with the exception of helium, which was not known to be a noble gas when discovered. The IUPAC guidelines valid at the moment of the discovery approval however required all new elements be named with the ending "-ium", even if they turned out to be halogens (traditionally ending in "-ine") or noble gases (traditionally ending in "-on").[100] While the provisional name ununoctium followed this convention, a new IUPAC recommendation published in 2016 recommended using the "-on" ending for new group 18 elements, regardless of whether they turn out to have the chemical properties of a noble gas.[101]

The scientists involved in the discovery of element 118, as well as those of 117 and 115, held a conference call on 23 March 2016 to decide their names. Element 118 was the last to be decided upon; after Oganessian was asked to leave the call, the remaining scientists unanimously decided to have the element "oganesson" after him. Oganessian was a pioneer in superheavy element research for sixty years reaching back to the field's foundation: his team and his proposed techniques had led directly to the synthesis of elements 107 through 118. Mark Stoyer, a nuclear chemist at the LLNL, later recalled, "We had intended to propose that name from Livermore, and things kind of got proposed at the same time from multiple places. I don't know if we can claim that we actually proposed the name, but we had intended it."[102]

In internal discussions, IUPAC asked the JINR if they wanted the element to be spelled "oganeson" to match the Russian spelling more closely. Oganessian and the JINR refused this offer, citing the Soviet-era practice of transliterating names into the Latin alphabet under the rules of the French language ("Oganessian" is such a transliteration) and arguing that "oganesson" would be easier to link to the person.[103][m] In June 2016, IUPAC announced that the discoverers planned to give the element the name oganesson (symbol: Og). The name became official on 28 November 2016.[17] In 2017, Oganessian commented on the naming:[104]

For me, it is an honour. The discovery of element 118 was by scientists at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Russia and at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in the US, and it was my colleagues who proposed the name oganesson. My children and grandchildren have been living in the US for decades, but my daughter wrote to me to say that she did not sleep the night she heard because she was crying.[104]

— Yuri Oganessian

The naming ceremony for moscovium, tennessine, and oganesson was held on 2 March 2017 at the Russian Academy of Sciences in Moscow.[105]

In a 2019 interview, when asked what it was like to see his name in the periodic table next to Einstein, Mendeleev, the Curies, and Rutherford, Oganessian responded:[103]

Not like much! You see, not like much. It is customary in science to name something new after its discoverer. It's just that there are few elements, and this happens rarely. But look at how many equations and theorems in mathematics are named after somebody. And in medicine? Alzheimer, Parkinson. There's nothing special about it.

Characteristics edit

Other than nuclear properties, no properties of oganesson or its compounds have been measured; this is due to its extremely limited and expensive production[106] and the fact that it decays very quickly. Thus only predictions are available.

Nuclear stability and isotopes edit

Main article: Isotopes of oganesson
 
Oganesson (row 118) is slightly above the "island of stability" (white ellipse) and thus its nuclei are slightly more stable than otherwise predicted.

The stability of nuclei quickly decreases with the increase in atomic number after curium, element 96, whose most stable isotope, 247Cm, has a half-life four orders of magnitude longer than that of any subsequent element. All nuclides with an atomic number above 101 undergo radioactive decay with half-lives shorter than 30 hours. No elements with atomic numbers above 82 (after lead) have stable isotopes.[107] This is because of the ever-increasing Coulomb repulsion of protons, so that the strong nuclear force cannot hold the nucleus together against spontaneous fission for long. Calculations suggest that in the absence of other stabilizing factors, elements with more than 104 protons should not exist.[108] However, researchers in the 1960s suggested that the closed nuclear shells around 114 protons and 184 neutrons should counteract this instability, creating an island of stability in which nuclides could have half-lives reaching thousands or millions of years. While scientists have still not reached the island, the mere existence of the superheavy elements (including oganesson) confirms that this stabilizing effect is real, and in general the known superheavy nuclides become exponentially longer-lived as they approach the predicted location of the island.[109][110] Oganesson is radioactive, decaying via alpha decay and spontaneous fission,[111][112] with a half-life that appears to be less than a millisecond. Nonetheless, this is still longer than some predicted values.[113][114]

Calculations using a quantum-tunneling model predict the existence of several heavier isotopes of oganesson with alpha-decay half-lives close to 1 ms.[115][116]

Theoretical calculations done on the synthetic pathways for, and the half-life of, other isotopes have shown that some could be slightly more stable than the synthesized isotope 294Og, most likely 293Og, 295Og, 296Og, 297Og, 298Og, 300Og and 302Og (the last reaching the N = 184 shell closure).[113][117] Of these, 297Og might provide the best chances for obtaining longer-lived nuclei,[113][117] and thus might become the focus of future work with this element. Some isotopes with many more neutrons, such as some located around 313Og, could also provide longer-lived nuclei.[118]

In a quantum-tunneling model, the alpha decay half-life of 294
Og was predicted to be 0.66+0.23
−0.18 ms[113] with the experimental Q-value published in 2004.[119] Calculation with theoretical Q-values from the macroscopic-microscopic model of Muntian–Hofman–Patyk–Sobiczewski gives somewhat lower but comparable results.[120]

Calculated atomic and physical properties edit

Oganesson is a member of group 18, the zero-valence elements. The members of this group are usually inert to most common chemical reactions (for example, combustion) because the outer valence shell is completely filled with eight electrons. This produces a stable, minimum energy configuration in which the outer electrons are tightly bound.[121] It is thought that similarly, oganesson has a closed outer valence shell in which its valence electrons are arranged in a 7s27p6 configuration.[3]

Consequently, some expect oganesson to have similar physical and chemical properties to other members of its group, most closely resembling the noble gas above it in the periodic table, radon.[122] Following the periodic trend, oganesson would be expected to be slightly more reactive than radon. However, theoretical calculations have shown that it could be significantly more reactive.[7] In addition to being far more reactive than radon, oganesson may be even more reactive than the elements flerovium and copernicium, which are heavier homologs of the more chemically active elements lead and mercury respectively.[3] The reason for the possible enhancement of the chemical activity of oganesson relative to radon is an energetic destabilization and a radial expansion of the last occupied 7p-subshell.[3] More precisely, considerable spin–orbit interactions between the 7p electrons and the inert 7s electrons effectively lead to a second valence shell closing at flerovium, and a significant decrease in stabilization of the closed shell of oganesson.[3] It has also been calculated that oganesson, unlike the other noble gases, binds an electron with release of energy, or in other words, it exhibits positive electron affinity,[123][124] due to the relativistically stabilized 8s energy level and the destabilized 7p3/2 level,[125] whereas copernicium and flerovium are predicted to have no electron affinity.[126][127] Nevertheless, quantum electrodynamic corrections have been shown to be quite significant in reducing this affinity by decreasing the binding in the anion Og− by 9%, thus confirming the importance of these corrections in superheavy elements.[123] 2022 calculations expect the electron affinity of oganesson to be 0.080(6) eV.[8]

Monte Carlo simulations of oganesson's molecular dynamics predict it has a melting point of 325±15 K and a boiling point of 450±10 K due to relativistic effects (if these effects are ignored, oganesson would melt at ≈220 K). Thus oganesson would probably be a solid rather than a gas under standard conditions, though still with a rather low melting point.[5][19]

Oganesson is expected to have an extremely broad polarizability, almost double that of radon.[3] Because of its tremendous polarizability, oganesson is expected to have an anomalously low first ionization energy of about 860 kJ/mol, similar to that of cadmium and less than those of iridium, platinum, and gold. This is significantly smaller than the values predicted for darmstadtium, roentgenium, and copernicium, although it is greater than that predicted for flerovium.[128] Its second ionization energy should be around 1560 kJ/mol.[8] Even the shell structure in the nucleus and electron cloud of oganesson is strongly impacted by relativistic effects: the valence and core electron subshells in oganesson are expected to be "smeared out" in a homogeneous Fermi gas of electrons, unlike those of the "less relativistic" radon and xenon (although there is some incipient delocalisation in radon), due to the very strong spin–orbit splitting of the 7p orbital in oganesson.[129] A similar effect for nucleons, particularly neutrons, is incipient in the closed-neutron-shell nucleus 302Og and is strongly in force at the hypothetical superheavy closed-shell nucleus 472164, with 164 protons and 308 neutrons.[129] Studies have also predicted that due to increasing electrostatic forces, oganesson may have a semibubble structure in proton density, having few protons at the center of its nucleus.[130][131] Moreover, spin–orbit effects may cause bulk oganesson to be a semiconductor, with a band gap of 1.5±0.6 eV predicted. All the lighter noble gases are insulators instead: for example, the band gap of bulk radon is expected to be 7.1±0.5 eV.[132]

Predicted compounds edit

 
XeF
4 has a square planar molecular geometry.
 
OgF
4 is predicted to have a tetrahedral molecular geometry.

The only confirmed isotope of oganesson, 294Og, has much too short a half-life to be chemically investigated experimentally. Therefore, no compounds of oganesson have been synthesized yet.[75] Nevertheless, calculations on theoretical compounds have been performed since 1964.[11] It is expected that if the ionization energy of the element is high enough, it will be difficult to oxidize and therefore, the most common oxidation state would be 0 (as for the noble gases);[133] nevertheless, this appears not to be the case.[65]

Calculations on the diatomic molecule Og
2 showed a bonding interaction roughly equivalent to that calculated for Hg
2, and a dissociation energy of 6 kJ/mol, roughly 4 times of that of Rn
2.[3] Most strikingly, it was calculated to have a bond length shorter than in Rn
2 by 0.16 Å, which would be indicative of a significant bonding interaction.[3] On the other hand, the compound OgH+ exhibits a dissociation energy (in other words proton affinity of oganesson) that is smaller than that of RnH+.[3]

The bonding between oganesson and hydrogen in OgH is predicted to be very weak and can be regarded as a pure van der Waals interaction rather than a true chemical bond.[6] On the other hand, with highly electronegative elements, oganesson seems to form more stable compounds than for example copernicium or flerovium.[6] The stable oxidation states +2 and +4 have been predicted to exist in the fluorides OgF
2 and OgF
4.[134] The +6 state would be less stable due to the strong binding of the 7p1/2 subshell.[65] This is a result of the same spin–orbit interactions that make oganesson unusually reactive. For example, it was shown that the reaction of oganesson with F
2 to form the compound OgF
2 would release an energy of 106 kcal/mol of which about 46 kcal/mol come from these interactions.[6] For comparison, the spin–orbit interaction for the similar molecule RnF
2 is about 10 kcal/mol out of a formation energy of 49 kcal/mol.[6] The same interaction stabilizes the tetrahedral Td configuration for OgF
4, as distinct from the square planar D4h one of XeF
4, which RnF
4 is also expected to have;[134] this is because OgF4 is expected to have two inert electron pairs (7s and 7p1/2). As such, OgF6 is expected to be unbound, continuing an expected trend in the destabilisation of the +6 oxidation state (RnF6 is likewise expected to be much less stable than XeF6).[135][136] The Og–F bond will most probably be ionic rather than covalent, rendering the oganesson fluorides non-volatile.[7][137] OgF2 is predicted to be partially ionic due to oganesson's high electropositivity.[138] Oganesson is predicted to be sufficiently electropositive[138] to form an Og–Cl bond with chlorine.[7]

A compound of oganesson and tennessine, OgTs4, has been predicted to be potentially stable chemically.[139]

See also edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ The names einsteinium and fermium for elements 99 and 100 were proposed when their namesakes (Albert Einstein and Enrico Fermi respectively) were still alive, but were not made official until Einstein and Fermi had died.[18]
  2. ^ In nuclear physics, an element is called heavy if its atomic number is high; lead (element 82) is one example of such a heavy element. The term "superheavy elements" typically refers to elements with atomic number greater than 103 (although there are other definitions, such as atomic number greater than 100[20] or 112;[21] sometimes, the term is presented an equivalent to the term "transactinide", which puts an upper limit before the beginning of the hypothetical superactinide series).[22] Terms "heavy isotopes" (of a given element) and "heavy nuclei" mean what could be understood in the common language—isotopes of high mass (for the given element) and nuclei of high mass, respectively.
  3. ^ In 2009, a team at the JINR led by Oganessian published results of their attempt to create hassium in a symmetric 136Xe + 136Xe reaction. They failed to observe a single atom in such a reaction, putting the upper limit on the cross section, the measure of probability of a nuclear reaction, as 2.5 pb.[23] In comparison, the reaction that resulted in hassium discovery, 208Pb + 58Fe, had a cross section of ~20 pb (more specifically, 19+19
    -11     pb), as estimated by the discoverers.[24]
  4. ^ The amount of energy applied to the beam particle to accelerate it can also influence the value of cross section. For example, in the 28
    14    Si
     + 1
    0    n
     → 28
    13    Al
     + 1
    1    p
     reaction, cross section changes smoothly from 370 mb at 12.3 MeV to 160 mb at 18.3 MeV, with a broad peak at 13.5 MeV with the maximum value of 380 mb.[28]
  5. ^ This figure also marks the generally accepted upper limit for lifetime of a compound nucleus.[33]
  6. ^ This separation is based on that the resulting nuclei move past the target more slowly then the unreacted beam nuclei. The separator contains electric and magnetic fields whose effects on a moving particle cancel out for a specific velocity of a particle.[35] Such separation can also be aided by a time-of-flight measurement and a recoil energy measurement; a combination of the two may allow to estimate the mass of a nucleus.[36]
  7. ^ Not all decay modes are caused by electrostatic repulsion. For example, beta decay is caused by the weak interaction.[43]
  8. ^ It was already known by the 1960s that ground states of nuclei differed in energy and shape as well as that certain magic numbers of nucleons corresponded to greater stability of a nucleus. However, it was assumed that there was no nuclear structure in superheavy nuclei as they were too deformed to form one.[48]
  9. ^ Since mass of a nucleus is not measured directly but is rather calculated from that of another nucleus, such measurement is called indirect. Direct measurements are also possible, but for the most part they have remained unavailable for superheavy nuclei.[53] The first direct measurement of mass of a superheavy nucleus was reported in 2018 at LBNL.[54] Mass was determined from the location of a nucleus after the transfer (the location helps determine its trajectory, which is linked to the mass-to-charge ratio of the nucleus, since the transfer was done in presence of a magnet).[55]
  10. ^ If the decay occurred in a vacuum, then since total momentum of an isolated system before and after the decay must be preserved, the daughter nucleus would also receive a small velocity. The ratio of the two velocities, and accordingly the ratio of the kinetic energies, would thus be inverse to the ratio of the two masses. The decay energy equals the sum of the known kinetic energy of the alpha particle and that of the daughter nucleus (an exact fraction of the former).[44] The calculations hold for an experiment as well, but the difference is that the nucleus does not move after the decay because it is tied to the detector.
  11. ^ Spontaneous fission was discovered by Soviet physicist Georgy Flerov,[56] a leading scientist at JINR, and thus it was a "hobbyhorse" for the facility.[57] In contrast, the LBL scientists believed fission information was not sufficient for a claim of synthesis of an element. They believed spontaneous fission had not been studied enough to use it for identification of a new element, since there was a difficulty of establishing that a compound nucleus had only ejected neutrons and not charged particles like protons or alpha particles.[33] They thus preferred to link new isotopes to the already known ones by successive alpha decays.[56]
  12. ^ For instance, element 102 was mistakenly identified in 1957 at the Nobel Institute of Physics in Stockholm, Stockholm County, Sweden.[58] There were no earlier definitive claims of creation of this element, and the element was assigned a name by its Swedish, American, and British discoverers, nobelium. It was later shown that the identification was incorrect.[59] The following year, RL was unable to reproduce the Swedish results and announced instead their synthesis of the element; that claim was also disproved later.[59] JINR insisted that they were the first to create the element and suggested a name of their own for the new element, joliotium;[60] the Soviet name was also not accepted (JINR later referred to the naming of the element 102 as "hasty").[61] This name was proposed to IUPAC in a written response to their ruling on priority of discovery claims of elements, signed 29 September 1992.[61] The name "nobelium" remained unchanged on account of its widespread usage.[62]
  13. ^ In Russian, Oganessian's name is spelled Оганесян [ˈɐgənʲɪˈsʲan]; the transliteration in accordance with the rules of the English language would be Oganesyan, with one s. Similarly, the Russian name for the element is оганесон, letter-for-letter oganeson. Oganessian is the Russified version of the Armenian last name Hovhannisyan (Armenian: Հովհաննիսյան [hɔvhɑnnisˈjɑn]). It means "son of Hovhannes", i.e., "son of John". It is the most common surname in Armenia.

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Bibliography edit

Further reading edit

  • Scerri, Eric (2007). The Periodic Table, Its Story and Its Significance. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530573-9.

External links edit

  • 5 ways the heaviest element on the periodic table is really bizarre, ScienceNews.org
  • , archive of discoverers' official web page
  • Element 118, Heaviest Ever, Reported for 1,000th of a Second, The New York Times.
  • It's Elemental: Oganesson
  • Oganesson at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
  • On the Claims for Discovery of Elements 110, 111, 112, 114, 116, and 118 (IUPAC Technical Report)
  • WebElements: Oganesson

]

January 08, 2024
oganesson, synthetic, chemical, element, symbol, atomic, number, first, synthesized, 2002, joint, institute, nuclear, research, jinr, dubna, near, moscow, russia, joint, team, russian, american, scientists, december, 2015, recognized, four, elements, joint, wo. Oganesson is a synthetic chemical element it has symbol Og and atomic number 118 It was first synthesized in 2002 at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research JINR in Dubna near Moscow Russia by a joint team of Russian and American scientists In December 2015 it was recognized as one of four new elements by the Joint Working Party of the international scientific bodies IUPAC and IUPAP It was formally named on 28 November 2016 15 16 The name honors the nuclear physicist Yuri Oganessian who played a leading role in the discovery of the heaviest elements in the periodic table It is one of only two elements named after a person who was alive at the time of naming the other being seaborgium and the only element whose eponym is alive as of 2024 update 17 a Oganesson 118OgOganessonPronunciation ˌ ɒ ɡ e ˈ n ɛ s ɒ n 1 OG e NESS on ˌ oʊ ɡ e ˈ n ɛ s en 2 OH ge NESS en Appearancemetallic predicted Mass number 294 Oganesson in the periodic tableHydrogen HeliumLithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine NeonSodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine ArgonPotassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine KryptonRubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine XenonCaesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury element Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine RadonFrancium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson Rn Og Usb tennessine oganesson ununenniumAtomic number Z 118Groupgroup 18 noble gases Periodperiod 7Block p blockElectron configuration Rn 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p6 predicted 3 4 Electrons per shell2 8 18 32 32 18 8 predicted Physical propertiesPhase at STPsolid predicted 5 Melting point325 15 K 52 15 C 125 27 F predicted 5 Boiling point450 10 K 177 10 C 350 18 F predicted 5 Density near r t 7 2 g cm3 solid 319 K calculated 5 when liquid at m p 6 6 g cm3 liquid 327 K calculated 5 Atomic propertiesOxidation states 1 4 0 1 6 2 7 4 7 6 4 predicted Ionization energies1st 860 kJ mol calculated 8 2nd 1560 kJ mol calculated 8 Atomic radiusempirical 152 pm predicted 9 Covalent radius157 pm predicted 10 Other propertiesNatural occurrencesyntheticCrystal structure face centered cubic fcc extrapolated 11 CAS Number54144 19 3HistoryNamingafter Yuri OganessianPredictionHans Peter Jorgen Julius Thomsen 1895 DiscoveryJoint Institute for Nuclear Research and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 2002 Isotopes of oganessonveMain isotopes 12 Decayabun dance half life t1 2 mode pro duct294Og synth 0 7 ms 13 14 a 290LvSF Category Oganessonviewtalkedit referencesOganesson has the highest atomic number and highest atomic mass of all known elements as of 2024 update On the periodic table of the elements it is a p block element a member of group 18 and the last member of period 7 Its only known isotope oganesson 294 is highly radioactive with a half life of 0 7 ms and as of 2020 update only five atoms have been successfully produced 19 This has so far prevented any experimental studies of its chemistry Because of relativistic effects theoretical studies predict that it would be a solid at room temperature and significantly reactive 19 3 unlike the other members of group 18 the noble gases Contents 1 Introduction 1 1 Synthesis of superheavy nuclei 1 2 Decay and detection 2 History 2 1 Early speculation 2 2 Unconfirmed discovery claims 2 3 Discovery reports 2 4 Confirmation 2 5 Naming 3 Characteristics 3 1 Nuclear stability and isotopes 3 2 Calculated atomic and physical properties 3 3 Predicted compounds 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Bibliography 8 Further reading 9 External linksIntroduction editThis section is an excerpt from Superheavy element Introduction edit Synthesis of superheavy nuclei edit nbsp A graphic depiction of a nuclear fusion reaction Two nuclei fuse into one emitting a neutron Reactions that created new elements to this moment were similar with the only possible difference that several singular neutrons sometimes were released or none at all A superheavy b atomic nucleus is created in a nuclear reaction that combines two other nuclei of unequal size c into one roughly the more unequal the two nuclei in terms of mass the greater the possibility that the two react 25 The material made of the heavier nuclei is made into a target which is then bombarded by the beam of lighter nuclei Two nuclei can only fuse into one if they approach each other closely enough normally nuclei all positively charged repel each other due to electrostatic repulsion The strong interaction can overcome this repulsion but only within a very short distance from a nucleus beam nuclei are thus greatly accelerated in order to make such repulsion insignificant compared to the velocity of the beam nucleus 26 The energy applied to the beam nuclei to accelerate them can cause them to reach speeds as high as one tenth of the speed of light However if too much energy is applied the beam nucleus can fall apart 26 Coming close enough alone is not enough for two nuclei to fuse when two nuclei approach each other they usually remain together for approximately 10 20 seconds and then part ways not necessarily in the same composition as before the reaction rather than form a single nucleus 26 27 This happens because during the attempted formation of a single nucleus electrostatic repulsion tears apart the nucleus that is being formed 26 Each pair of a target and a beam is characterized by its cross section the probability that fusion will occur if two nuclei approach one another expressed in terms of the transverse area that the incident particle must hit in order for the fusion to occur d This fusion may occur as a result of the quantum effect in which nuclei can tunnel through electrostatic repulsion If the two nuclei can stay close for past that phase multiple nuclear interactions result in redistribution of energy and an energy equilibrium 26 External videos nbsp Visualization of unsuccessful nuclear fusion based on calculations from the Australian National University 29 The resulting merger is an excited state 30 termed a compound nucleus and thus it is very unstable 26 To reach a more stable state the temporary merger may fission without formation of a more stable nucleus 31 Alternatively the compound nucleus may eject a few neutrons which would carry away the excitation energy if the latter is not sufficient for a neutron expulsion the merger would produce a gamma ray This happens in approximately 10 16 seconds after the initial nuclear collision and results in creation of a more stable nucleus 31 The definition by the IUPAC IUPAP Joint Working Party JWP states that a chemical element can only be recognized as discovered if a nucleus of it has not decayed within 10 14 seconds This value was chosen as an estimate of how long it takes a nucleus to acquire its outer electrons and thus display its chemical properties 32 e Decay and detection edit The beam passes through the target and reaches the next chamber the separator if a new nucleus is produced it is carried with this beam 34 In the separator the newly produced nucleus is separated from other nuclides that of the original beam and any other reaction products f and transferred to a surface barrier detector which stops the nucleus The exact location of the upcoming impact on the detector is marked also marked are its energy and the time of the arrival 34 The transfer takes about 10 6 seconds in order to be detected the nucleus must survive this long 37 The nucleus is recorded again once its decay is registered and the location the energy and the time of the decay are measured 34 Stability of a nucleus is provided by the strong interaction However its range is very short as nuclei become larger its influence on the outermost nucleons protons and neutrons weakens At the same time the nucleus is torn apart by electrostatic repulsion between protons and its range is not limited 38 Total binding energy provided by the strong interaction increases linearly with the number of nucleons whereas electrostatic repulsion increases with the square of the atomic number i e the latter grows faster and becomes increasingly important for heavy and superheavy nuclei 39 40 Superheavy nuclei are thus theoretically predicted 41 and have so far been observed 42 to predominantly decay via decay modes that are caused by such repulsion alpha decay and spontaneous fission g Almost all alpha emitters have over 210 nucleons 44 and the lightest nuclide primarily undergoing spontaneous fission has 238 45 In both decay modes nuclei are inhibited from decaying by corresponding energy barriers for each mode but they can be tunnelled through 39 40 nbsp Scheme of an apparatus for creation of superheavy elements based on the Dubna Gas Filled Recoil Separator set up in the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions in JINR The trajectory within the detector and the beam focusing apparatus changes because of a dipole magnet in the former and quadrupole magnets in the latter 46 Alpha particles are commonly produced in radioactive decays because mass of an alpha particle per nucleon is small enough to leave some energy for the alpha particle to be used as kinetic energy to leave the nucleus 47 Spontaneous fission is caused by electrostatic repulsion tearing the nucleus apart and produces various nuclei in different instances of identical nuclei fissioning 40 As the atomic number increases spontaneous fission rapidly becomes more important spontaneous fission partial half lives decrease by 23 orders of magnitude from uranium element 92 to nobelium element 102 48 and by 30 orders of magnitude from thorium element 90 to fermium element 100 49 The earlier liquid drop model thus suggested that spontaneous fission would occur nearly instantly due to disappearance of the fission barrier for nuclei with about 280 nucleons 40 50 The later nuclear shell model suggested that nuclei with about 300 nucleons would form an island of stability in which nuclei will be more resistant to spontaneous fission and will primarily undergo alpha decay with longer half lives 40 50 Subsequent discoveries suggested that the predicted island might be further than originally anticipated they also showed that nuclei intermediate between the long lived actinides and the predicted island are deformed and gain additional stability from shell effects 51 Experiments on lighter superheavy nuclei 52 as well as those closer to the expected island 48 have shown greater than previously anticipated stability against spontaneous fission showing the importance of shell effects on nuclei h Alpha decays are registered by the emitted alpha particles and the decay products are easy to determine before the actual decay if such a decay or a series of consecutive decays produces a known nucleus the original product of a reaction can be easily determined i That all decays within a decay chain were indeed related to each other is established by the location of these decays which must be in the same place 34 The known nucleus can be recognized by the specific characteristics of decay it undergoes such as decay energy or more specifically the kinetic energy of the emitted particle j Spontaneous fission however produces various nuclei as products so the original nuclide cannot be determined from its daughters k The information available to physicists aiming to synthesize a superheavy element is thus the information collected at the detectors location energy and time of arrival of a particle to the detector and those of its decay The physicists analyze this data and seek to conclude that it was indeed caused by a new element and could not have been caused by a different nuclide than the one claimed Often provided data is insufficient for a conclusion that a new element was definitely created and there is no other explanation for the observed effects errors in interpreting data have been made l History editSee also Timeline of chemical element discoveries Early speculation edit The possibility of a seventh noble gas after helium neon argon krypton xenon and radon was considered almost as soon as the noble gas group was discovered Danish chemist Hans Peter Jorgen Julius Thomsen predicted in April 1895 the year after the discovery of argon that there was a whole series of chemically inert gases similar to argon that would bridge the halogen and alkali metal groups he expected that the seventh of this series would end a 32 element period which contained thorium and uranium and have an atomic weight of 292 close to the 294 now known for the first and only confirmed isotope of oganesson 63 Danish physicist Niels Bohr noted in 1922 that this seventh noble gas should have atomic number 118 and predicted its electronic structure as 2 8 18 32 32 18 8 matching modern predictions 64 Following this German chemist Aristid von Grosse wrote an article in 1965 predicting the likely properties of element 118 11 It was 107 years from Thomsen s prediction before oganesson was successfully synthesized although its chemical properties have not been investigated to determine if it behaves as the heavier congener of radon 65 In a 1975 article American chemist Kenneth Pitzer suggested that element 118 should be a gas or volatile liquid due to relativistic effects 66 Unconfirmed discovery claims edit In late 1998 Polish physicist Robert Smolanczuk published calculations on the fusion of atomic nuclei towards the synthesis of superheavy atoms including oganesson 67 His calculations suggested that it might be possible to make element 118 by fusing lead with krypton under carefully controlled conditions and that the fusion probability cross section of that reaction would be close to the lead chromium reaction that had produced element 106 seaborgium This contradicted predictions that the cross sections for reactions with lead or bismuth targets would go down exponentially as the atomic number of the resulting elements increased 67 In 1999 researchers at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory made use of these predictions and announced the discovery of elements 118 and 116 in a paper published in Physical Review Letters 68 and very soon after the results were reported in Science 69 The researchers reported that they had performed the reaction 20882 Pb 8636 Kr 293118 Og n In 2001 they published a retraction after researchers at other laboratories were unable to duplicate the results and the Berkeley lab could not duplicate them either 70 In June 2002 the director of the lab announced that the original claim of the discovery of these two elements had been based on data fabricated by principal author Victor Ninov 71 72 Newer experimental results and theoretical predictions have confirmed the exponential decrease in cross sections with lead and bismuth targets as the atomic number of the resulting nuclide increases 73 Discovery reports edit nbsp Radioactive decay pathway of the isotope oganesson 294 13 The decay energy and average half life are given for the parent isotope and each daughter isotope The fraction of atoms undergoing spontaneous fission SF is given in green The first genuine decay of atoms of oganesson was observed in 2002 at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research JINR in Dubna Russia by a joint team of Russian and American scientists Headed by Yuri Oganessian a Russian nuclear physicist of Armenian ethnicity the team included American scientists from the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California 74 The discovery was not announced immediately because the decay energy of 294Og matched that of 212mPo a common impurity produced in fusion reactions aimed at producing superheavy elements and thus announcement was delayed until after a 2005 confirmatory experiment aimed at producing more oganesson atoms 75 The 2005 experiment used a different beam energy 251 MeV instead of 245 MeV and target thickness 0 34 mg cm2 instead of 0 23 mg cm2 13 On 9 October 2006 the researchers announced 13 that they had indirectly detected a total of three possibly four nuclei of oganesson 294 one or two in 2002 76 and two more in 2005 produced via collisions of californium 249 atoms and calcium 48 ions 77 78 79 80 81 24998 Cf 4820 Ca 294118 Og 3 n In 2011 IUPAC evaluated the 2006 results of the Dubna Livermore collaboration and concluded The three events reported for the Z 118 isotope have very good internal redundancy but with no anchor to known nuclei do not satisfy the criteria for discovery 82 Because of the very small fusion reaction probability the fusion cross section is 0 3 0 6 pb or 3 6 10 41 m2 the experiment took four months and involved a beam dose of 2 5 1019 calcium ions that had to be shot at the californium target to produce the first recorded event believed to be the synthesis of oganesson 83 Nevertheless researchers were highly confident that the results were not a false positive since the chance that the detections were random events was estimated to be less than one part in 100000 84 In the experiments the alpha decay of three atoms of oganesson was observed A fourth decay by direct spontaneous fission was also proposed A half life of 0 89 ms was calculated 294 Og decays into 290 Lv by alpha decay Since there were only three nuclei the half life derived from observed lifetimes has a large uncertainty 0 89 1 07 0 31 ms 13 294118 Og 290116 Lv 42 HeThe identification of the 294 Og nuclei was verified by separately creating the putative daughter nucleus 290 Lv directly by means of a bombardment of 245 Cm with 48 Ca ions 24596 Cm 4820 Ca 290116 Lv 3 n and checking that the 290 Lv decay matched the decay chain of the 294 Og nuclei 13 The daughter nucleus 290 Lv is very unstable decaying with a lifetime of 14 milliseconds into 286 Fl which may experience either spontaneous fission or alpha decay into 282 Cn which will undergo spontaneous fission 13 Confirmation edit In December 2015 the Joint Working Party of international scientific bodies International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry IUPAC and International Union of Pure and Applied Physics IUPAP recognized the element s discovery and assigned the priority of the discovery to the Dubna Livermore collaboration 85 This was on account of two 2009 and 2010 confirmations of the properties of the granddaughter of 294Og 286Fl at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory as well as the observation of another consistent decay chain of 294Og by the Dubna group in 2012 The goal of that experiment had been the synthesis of 294Ts via the reaction 249Bk 48Ca 3n but the short half life of 249Bk resulted in a significant quantity of the target having decayed to 249Cf resulting in the synthesis of oganesson instead of tennessine 86 From 1 October 2015 to 6 April 2016 the Dubna team performed a similar experiment with 48Ca projectiles aimed at a mixed isotope californium target containing 249Cf 250Cf and 251Cf with the aim of producing the heavier oganesson isotopes 295Og and 296Og Two beam energies at 252 MeV and 258 MeV were used Only one atom was seen at the lower beam energy whose decay chain fitted the previously known one of 294Og terminating with spontaneous fission of 286Fl and none were seen at the higher beam energy The experiment was then halted as the glue from the sector frames covered the target and blocked evaporation residues from escaping to the detectors 87 The production of 293Og and its daughter 289Lv as well as the even heavier isotope 297Og is also possible using this reaction The isotopes 295Og and 296Og may also be produced in the fusion of 248Cm with 50Ti projectiles 87 88 89 A search beginning in summer 2016 at RIKEN for 295Og in the 3n channel of this reaction was unsuccessful though the study is planned to resume a detailed analysis and cross section limit were not provided These heavier and likely more stable isotopes may be useful in probing the chemistry of oganesson 90 91 Naming edit nbsp Element 118 was named after Yuri Oganessian a pioneer in the discovery of synthetic elements with the name oganesson Og Oganessian and the decay chain of oganesson 294 were pictured on a stamp of Armenia issued on 28 December 2017 Using Mendeleev s nomenclature for unnamed and undiscovered elements oganesson is sometimes known as eka radon until the 1960s as eka emanation emanation being the old name for radon 11 In 1979 IUPAC assigned the systematic placeholder name ununoctium to the undiscovered element with the corresponding symbol of Uuo 92 and recommended that it be used until after confirmed discovery of the element 93 Although widely used in the chemical community on all levels from chemistry classrooms to advanced textbooks the recommendations were mostly ignored among scientists in the field who called it element 118 with the symbol of E118 118 or even simply 118 4 Before the retraction in 2001 the researchers from Berkeley had intended to name the element ghiorsium Gh after Albert Ghiorso a leading member of the research team 94 The Russian discoverers reported their synthesis in 2006 According to IUPAC recommendations the discoverers of a new element have the right to suggest a name 95 In 2007 the head of the Russian institute stated the team were considering two names for the new element flyorium in honor of Georgy Flyorov the founder of the research laboratory in Dubna and moskovium in recognition of the Moscow Oblast where Dubna is located 96 He also stated that although the element was discovered as an American collaboration who provided the californium target the element should rightly be named in honor of Russia since the Flyorov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions at JINR was the only facility in the world which could achieve this result 97 These names were later suggested for element 114 flerovium and element 116 moscovium 98 Flerovium became the name of element 114 the final name proposed for element 116 was instead livermorium 99 with moscovium later being proposed and accepted for element 115 instead 17 Traditionally the names of all noble gases end in on with the exception of helium which was not known to be a noble gas when discovered The IUPAC guidelines valid at the moment of the discovery approval however required all new elements be named with the ending ium even if they turned out to be halogens traditionally ending in ine or noble gases traditionally ending in on 100 While the provisional name ununoctium followed this convention a new IUPAC recommendation published in 2016 recommended using the on ending for new group 18 elements regardless of whether they turn out to have the chemical properties of a noble gas 101 The scientists involved in the discovery of element 118 as well as those of 117 and 115 held a conference call on 23 March 2016 to decide their names Element 118 was the last to be decided upon after Oganessian was asked to leave the call the remaining scientists unanimously decided to have the element oganesson after him Oganessian was a pioneer in superheavy element research for sixty years reaching back to the field s foundation his team and his proposed techniques had led directly to the synthesis of elements 107 through 118 Mark Stoyer a nuclear chemist at the LLNL later recalled We had intended to propose that name from Livermore and things kind of got proposed at the same time from multiple places I don t know if we can claim that we actually proposed the name but we had intended it 102 In internal discussions IUPAC asked the JINR if they wanted the element to be spelled oganeson to match the Russian spelling more closely Oganessian and the JINR refused this offer citing the Soviet era practice of transliterating names into the Latin alphabet under the rules of the French language Oganessian is such a transliteration and arguing that oganesson would be easier to link to the person 103 m In June 2016 IUPAC announced that the discoverers planned to give the element the name oganesson symbol Og The name became official on 28 November 2016 17 In 2017 Oganessian commented on the naming 104 For me it is an honour The discovery of element 118 was by scientists at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Russia and at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in the US and it was my colleagues who proposed the name oganesson My children and grandchildren have been living in the US for decades but my daughter wrote to me to say that she did not sleep the night she heard because she was crying 104 Yuri Oganessian The naming ceremony for moscovium tennessine and oganesson was held on 2 March 2017 at the Russian Academy of Sciences in Moscow 105 In a 2019 interview when asked what it was like to see his name in the periodic table next to Einstein Mendeleev the Curies and Rutherford Oganessian responded 103 Not like much You see not like much It is customary in science to name something new after its discoverer It s just that there are few elements and this happens rarely But look at how many equations and theorems in mathematics are named after somebody And in medicine Alzheimer Parkinson There s nothing special about it Characteristics editOther than nuclear properties no properties of oganesson or its compounds have been measured this is due to its extremely limited and expensive production 106 and the fact that it decays very quickly Thus only predictions are available Nuclear stability and isotopes edit Main article Isotopes of oganesson nbsp Oganesson row 118 is slightly above the island of stability white ellipse and thus its nuclei are slightly more stable than otherwise predicted The stability of nuclei quickly decreases with the increase in atomic number after curium element 96 whose most stable isotope 247Cm has a half life four orders of magnitude longer than that of any subsequent element All nuclides with an atomic number above 101 undergo radioactive decay with half lives shorter than 30 hours No elements with atomic numbers above 82 after lead have stable isotopes 107 This is because of the ever increasing Coulomb repulsion of protons so that the strong nuclear force cannot hold the nucleus together against spontaneous fission for long Calculations suggest that in the absence of other stabilizing factors elements with more than 104 protons should not exist 108 However researchers in the 1960s suggested that the closed nuclear shells around 114 protons and 184 neutrons should counteract this instability creating an island of stability in which nuclides could have half lives reaching thousands or millions of years While scientists have still not reached the island the mere existence of the superheavy elements including oganesson confirms that this stabilizing effect is real and in general the known superheavy nuclides become exponentially longer lived as they approach the predicted location of the island 109 110 Oganesson is radioactive decaying via alpha decay and spontaneous fission 111 112 with a half life that appears to be less than a millisecond Nonetheless this is still longer than some predicted values 113 114 Calculations using a quantum tunneling model predict the existence of several heavier isotopes of oganesson with alpha decay half lives close to 1 ms 115 116 Theoretical calculations done on the synthetic pathways for and the half life of other isotopes have shown that some could be slightly more stable than the synthesized isotope 294Og most likely 293Og 295Og 296Og 297Og 298Og 300Og and 302Og the last reaching the N 184 shell closure 113 117 Of these 297Og might provide the best chances for obtaining longer lived nuclei 113 117 and thus might become the focus of future work with this element Some isotopes with many more neutrons such as some located around 313Og could also provide longer lived nuclei 118 In a quantum tunneling model the alpha decay half life of 294 Og was predicted to be 0 66 0 23 0 18 ms 113 with the experimental Q value published in 2004 119 Calculation with theoretical Q values from the macroscopic microscopic model of Muntian Hofman Patyk Sobiczewski gives somewhat lower but comparable results 120 Calculated atomic and physical properties edit Oganesson is a member of group 18 the zero valence elements The members of this group are usually inert to most common chemical reactions for example combustion because the outer valence shell is completely filled with eight electrons This produces a stable minimum energy configuration in which the outer electrons are tightly bound 121 It is thought that similarly oganesson has a closed outer valence shell in which its valence electrons are arranged in a 7s27p6 configuration 3 Consequently some expect oganesson to have similar physical and chemical properties to other members of its group most closely resembling the noble gas above it in the periodic table radon 122 Following the periodic trend oganesson would be expected to be slightly more reactive than radon However theoretical calculations have shown that it could be significantly more reactive 7 In addition to being far more reactive than radon oganesson may be even more reactive than the elements flerovium and copernicium which are heavier homologs of the more chemically active elements lead and mercury respectively 3 The reason for the possible enhancement of the chemical activity of oganesson relative to radon is an energetic destabilization and a radial expansion of the last occupied 7p subshell 3 More precisely considerable spin orbit interactions between the 7p electrons and the inert 7s electrons effectively lead to a second valence shell closing at flerovium and a significant decrease in stabilization of the closed shell of oganesson 3 It has also been calculated that oganesson unlike the other noble gases binds an electron with release of energy or in other words it exhibits positive electron affinity 123 124 due to the relativistically stabilized 8s energy level and the destabilized 7p3 2 level 125 whereas copernicium and flerovium are predicted to have no electron affinity 126 127 Nevertheless quantum electrodynamic corrections have been shown to be quite significant in reducing this affinity by decreasing the binding in the anion Og by 9 thus confirming the importance of these corrections in superheavy elements 123 2022 calculations expect the electron affinity of oganesson to be 0 080 6 eV 8 Monte Carlo simulations of oganesson s molecular dynamics predict it has a melting point of 325 15 K and a boiling point of 450 10 K due to relativistic effects if these effects are ignored oganesson would melt at 220 K Thus oganesson would probably be a solid rather than a gas under standard conditions though still with a rather low melting point 5 19 Oganesson is expected to have an extremely broad polarizability almost double that of radon 3 Because of its tremendous polarizability oganesson is expected to have an anomalously low first ionization energy of about 860 kJ mol similar to that of cadmium and less than those of iridium platinum and gold This is significantly smaller than the values predicted for darmstadtium roentgenium and copernicium although it is greater than that predicted for flerovium 128 Its second ionization energy should be around 1560 kJ mol 8 Even the shell structure in the nucleus and electron cloud of oganesson is strongly impacted by relativistic effects the valence and core electron subshells in oganesson are expected to be smeared out in a homogeneous Fermi gas of electrons unlike those of the less relativistic radon and xenon although there is some incipient delocalisation in radon due to the very strong spin orbit splitting of the 7p orbital in oganesson 129 A similar effect for nucleons particularly neutrons is incipient in the closed neutron shell nucleus 302Og and is strongly in force at the hypothetical superheavy closed shell nucleus 472164 with 164 protons and 308 neutrons 129 Studies have also predicted that due to increasing electrostatic forces oganesson may have a semibubble structure in proton density having few protons at the center of its nucleus 130 131 Moreover spin orbit effects may cause bulk oganesson to be a semiconductor with a band gap of 1 5 0 6 eV predicted All the lighter noble gases are insulators instead for example the band gap of bulk radon is expected to be 7 1 0 5 eV 132 Predicted compounds edit nbsp XeF4 has a square planar molecular geometry nbsp OgF4 is predicted to have a tetrahedral molecular geometry The only confirmed isotope of oganesson 294Og has much too short a half life to be chemically investigated experimentally Therefore no compounds of oganesson have been synthesized yet 75 Nevertheless calculations on theoretical compounds have been performed since 1964 11 It is expected that if the ionization energy of the element is high enough it will be difficult to oxidize and therefore the most common oxidation state would be 0 as for the noble gases 133 nevertheless this appears not to be the case 65 Calculations on the diatomic molecule Og2 showed a bonding interaction roughly equivalent to that calculated for Hg2 and a dissociation energy of 6 kJ mol roughly 4 times of that of Rn2 3 Most strikingly it was calculated to have a bond length shorter than in Rn2 by 0 16 A which would be indicative of a significant bonding interaction 3 On the other hand the compound OgH exhibits a dissociation energy in other words proton affinity of oganesson that is smaller than that of RnH 3 The bonding between oganesson and hydrogen in OgH is predicted to be very weak and can be regarded as a pure van der Waals interaction rather than a true chemical bond 6 On the other hand with highly electronegative elements oganesson seems to form more stable compounds than for example copernicium or flerovium 6 The stable oxidation states 2 and 4 have been predicted to exist in the fluorides OgF2 and OgF4 134 The 6 state would be less stable due to the strong binding of the 7p1 2 subshell 65 This is a result of the same spin orbit interactions that make oganesson unusually reactive For example it was shown that the reaction of oganesson with F2 to form the compound OgF2 would release an energy of 106 kcal mol of which about 46 kcal mol come from these interactions 6 For comparison the spin orbit interaction for the similar molecule RnF2 is about 10 kcal mol out of a formation energy of 49 kcal mol 6 The same interaction stabilizes the tetrahedral Td configuration for OgF4 as distinct from the square planar D4h one of XeF4 which RnF4 is also expected to have 134 this is because OgF4 is expected to have two inert electron pairs 7s and 7p1 2 As such OgF6 is expected to be unbound continuing an expected trend in the destabilisation of the 6 oxidation state RnF6 is likewise expected to be much less stable than XeF6 135 136 The Og F bond will most probably be ionic rather than covalent rendering the oganesson fluorides non volatile 7 137 OgF2 is predicted to be partially ionic due to oganesson s high electropositivity 138 Oganesson is predicted to be sufficiently electropositive 138 to form an Og Cl bond with chlorine 7 A compound of oganesson and tennessine OgTs4 has been predicted to be potentially stable chemically 139 See also editIsland of stability Superheavy element Transuranium elementNotes edit The names einsteinium and fermium for elements 99 and 100 were proposed when their namesakes Albert Einstein and Enrico Fermi respectively were still alive but were not made official until Einstein and Fermi had died 18 In nuclear physics an element is called heavy if its atomic number is high lead element 82 is one example of such a heavy element The term superheavy elements typically refers to elements with atomic number greater than 103 although there are other definitions such as atomic number greater than 100 20 or 112 21 sometimes the term is presented an equivalent to the term transactinide which puts an upper limit before the beginning of the hypothetical superactinide series 22 Terms heavy isotopes of a given element and heavy nuclei mean what could be understood in the common language isotopes of high mass for the given element and nuclei of high mass respectively In 2009 a team at the JINR led by Oganessian published results of their attempt to create hassium in a symmetric 136Xe 136Xe reaction They failed to observe a single atom in such a reaction putting the upper limit on the cross section the measure of probability of a nuclear reaction as 2 5 pb 23 In comparison the reaction that resulted in hassium discovery 208Pb 58Fe had a cross section of 20 pb more specifically 19 19 11 pb as estimated by the discoverers 24 The amount of energy applied to the beam particle to accelerate it can also influence the value of cross section For example in the 2814 Si 10 n 2813 Al 11 p reaction cross section changes smoothly from 370 mb at 12 3 MeV to 160 mb at 18 3 MeV with a broad peak at 13 5 MeV with the maximum value of 380 mb 28 This figure also marks the generally accepted upper limit for lifetime of a compound nucleus 33 This separation is based on that the resulting nuclei move past the target more slowly then the unreacted beam nuclei The separator contains electric and magnetic fields whose effects on a moving particle cancel out for a specific velocity of a particle 35 Such separation can also be aided by a time of flight measurement and a recoil energy measurement a combination of the two may allow to estimate the mass of a nucleus 36 Not all decay modes are caused by electrostatic repulsion For example beta decay is caused by the weak interaction 43 It was already known by the 1960s that ground states of nuclei differed in energy and shape as well as that certain magic numbers of nucleons corresponded to greater stability of a nucleus However it was assumed that there was no nuclear structure in superheavy nuclei as they were too deformed to form one 48 Since mass of a nucleus is not measured directly but is rather calculated from that of another nucleus such measurement is called indirect Direct measurements are also possible but for the most part they have remained unavailable for superheavy nuclei 53 The first direct measurement of mass of a superheavy nucleus was reported in 2018 at LBNL 54 Mass was determined from the location of a nucleus after the transfer the location helps determine its trajectory which is linked to the mass to charge ratio of the nucleus since the transfer was done in presence of a magnet 55 If the decay occurred in a vacuum then since total momentum of an isolated system before and after the decay must be preserved the daughter nucleus would also receive a small velocity The ratio of the two velocities and accordingly the ratio of the kinetic energies would thus be inverse to the ratio of the two masses The decay energy equals the sum of the known kinetic energy of the alpha particle and that of the daughter nucleus an exact fraction of the former 44 The calculations hold for an experiment as well but the difference is that the nucleus does not move after the decay because it is tied to the detector Spontaneous fission was discovered by Soviet physicist Georgy Flerov 56 a leading scientist at JINR and thus it was a hobbyhorse for the facility 57 In contrast the LBL scientists believed fission information was not sufficient for a claim of synthesis of an element They believed spontaneous fission had not been studied enough to use it for identification of a new element since there was a difficulty of establishing that a compound nucleus had only ejected neutrons and not charged particles like protons or alpha particles 33 They thus preferred to link new isotopes to the already known ones by successive alpha decays 56 For instance element 102 was mistakenly identified in 1957 at the Nobel Institute of Physics in Stockholm Stockholm County Sweden 58 There were no earlier definitive claims of creation of this element and the element was assigned a name by its Swedish American and British discoverers nobelium It was later shown that the identification was incorrect 59 The following year RL was unable to reproduce the Swedish results and announced instead their synthesis of the element that claim was also disproved later 59 JINR insisted that they were the first to create the element and suggested a name of their own for the new element joliotium 60 the Soviet name was also not accepted JINR later referred to the naming of the element 102 as hasty 61 This name was proposed to IUPAC in a written response to their ruling on priority of discovery claims of elements signed 29 September 1992 61 The name nobelium remained unchanged on account of its widespread usage 62 In Russian Oganessian s name is spelled Oganesyan ˈɐgenʲɪˈsʲan the transliteration in accordance with the rules of the English language would be Oganesyan with one s Similarly the Russian name for the element is oganeson letter for letter oganeson Oganessian is the Russified version of the Armenian last name Hovhannisyan Armenian Հովհաննիսյան hɔvhɑnnisˈjɑn It means son of Hovhannes i e son of John It is the most common surname in Armenia References edit Oganesson The Periodic Table of Videos University of Nottingham 15 December 2016 Ritter Malcolm 9 June 2016 Periodic table elements named for Moscow Japan Tennessee Associated Press Retrieved 19 December 2017 a b c d e f g h i j Nash Clinton S 2005 Atomic and Molecular Properties of Elements 112 114 and 118 Journal of Physical Chemistry A 109 15 3493 3500 Bibcode 2005JPCA 109 3493N doi 10 1021 jp050736o PMID 16833687 a b c d Hoffman Darleane C Lee Diana M Pershina Valeria 2006 Transactinides and the future elements In Morss Edelstein Norman M Fuger Jean eds The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements 3rd ed Dordrecht The Netherlands Springer Science Business Media ISBN 978 1 4020 3555 5 a b c d e f Smits Odile Mewes Jan Michael Jerabek Paul Schwerdtfeger Peter 2020 Oganesson A Noble Gas Element That Is Neither Noble Nor a Gas Angew Chem Int Ed 59 52 23636 23640 doi 10 1002 anie 202011976 PMC 7814676 PMID 32959952 a b c d e Han Young Kyu Bae Cheolbeom Son Sang Kil Lee Yoon Sup 2000 Spin orbit effects on the transactinide p block element monohydrides MH M element 113 118 Journal of Chemical Physics 112 6 2684 Bibcode 2000JChPh 112 2684H doi 10 1063 1 480842 a b c d e Kaldor Uzi Wilson Stephen 2003 Theoretical Chemistry and Physics of Heavy and Superheavy Elements Springer p 105 ISBN 978 1402013713 Retrieved 18 January 2008 a b c d Guo Yangyang Pasteka Lukas F Eliav Ephraim Borschevsky Anastasia 2021 Chapter 5 Ionization potentials and electron affinity of oganesson with relativistic coupled cluster method In Musial Monika Hoggan Philip E eds Advances in Quantum Chemistry Vol 83 pp 107 123 ISBN 978 0 12 823546 1 Oganesson American Elements Oganesson Element information properties and uses Royal Chemical Society a b c d Grosse A V 1965 Some physical and chemical properties of element 118 Eka Em and element 86 Em Journal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry Elsevier Science Ltd 27 3 509 19 doi 10 1016 0022 1902 65 80255 X Kondev F G Wang M Huang W J Naimi S Audi G 2021 The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties PDF Chinese Physics C 45 3 030001 doi 10 1088 1674 1137 abddae a b c d e f g Oganessian Yu Ts Utyonkov V K Lobanov Yu V Abdullin F Sh Polyakov A N Sagaidak R N 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Peter 2020 Oganesson A Noble Gas Element That Is Neither Noble Nor a Gas PDF Angewandte Chemie International Edition 59 52 23636 23640 doi 10 1002 anie 202011976 PMC 7814676 Retrieved 23 October 2023 Kramer K 2016 Explainer superheavy elements Chemistry World Retrieved 15 March 2020 Discovery of Elements 113 and 115 Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Archived from the original on 11 September 2015 Retrieved 15 March 2020 Eliav E Kaldor U Borschevsky A 2018 Electronic Structure of the Transactinide Atoms In Scott R A ed Encyclopedia of Inorganic and Bioinorganic Chemistry John Wiley amp Sons pp 1 16 doi 10 1002 9781119951438 eibc2632 ISBN 978 1 119 95143 8 S2CID 127060181 Oganessian Yu Ts Dmitriev S N Yeremin A V et al 2009 Attempt to produce the isotopes of element 108 in the fusion reaction 136Xe 136Xe Physical Review C 79 2 024608 doi 10 1103 PhysRevC 79 024608 ISSN 0556 2813 Munzenberg G Armbruster P Folger H et al 1984 The identification of element 108 PDF Zeitschrift fur 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1885 148847 ISSN 2100 014X Nuclear Reactions PDF pp 7 8 Retrieved 27 January 2020 Published as Loveland W D Morrissey D J Seaborg G T 2005 Nuclear Reactions Modern Nuclear Chemistry John Wiley amp Sons Inc pp 249 297 doi 10 1002 0471768626 ch10 ISBN 978 0 471 76862 3 a b Krasa A 2010 Neutron Sources for ADS Faculty of Nuclear Sciences and Physical Engineering Czech Technical University in Prague 4 8 S2CID 28796927 Wapstra A H 1991 Criteria that must be satisfied for the discovery of a new chemical element to be recognized PDF Pure and Applied Chemistry 63 6 883 doi 10 1351 pac199163060879 ISSN 1365 3075 S2CID 95737691 a b Hyde E K Hoffman D C Keller O L 1987 A History and Analysis of the Discovery of Elements 104 and 105 Radiochimica Acta 42 2 67 68 doi 10 1524 ract 1987 42 2 57 ISSN 2193 3405 S2CID 99193729 a b c d Chemistry World 2016 How to Make Superheavy Elements and Finish the Periodic Table Video Scientific American Retrieved 27 January 2020 Hoffman Ghiorso amp Seaborg 2000 p 334 Hoffman Ghiorso amp Seaborg 2000 p 335 Zagrebaev Karpov amp Greiner 2013 p 3 Beiser 2003 p 432 a b Pauli N 2019 Alpha decay PDF Introductory Nuclear Atomic and Molecular Physics Nuclear Physics Part Universite libre de Bruxelles Retrieved 16 February 2020 a b c d e Pauli N 2019 Nuclear fission PDF Introductory Nuclear Atomic and Molecular Physics Nuclear Physics Part Universite libre de Bruxelles Retrieved 16 February 2020 Staszczak A Baran A Nazarewicz W 2013 Spontaneous fission modes and lifetimes of superheavy elements in the nuclear density functional theory Physical Review C 87 2 024320 1 arXiv 1208 1215 Bibcode 2013PhRvC 87b4320S doi 10 1103 physrevc 87 024320 ISSN 0556 2813 Audi et al 2017 pp 030001 129 030001 138 Beiser 2003 p 439 a b Beiser 2003 p 433 Audi et al 2017 p 030001 125 Aksenov N V Steinegger P Abdullin F Sh et al 2017 On the volatility of nihonium Nh Z 113 The European Physical Journal A 53 7 158 Bibcode 2017EPJA 53 158A doi 10 1140 epja i2017 12348 8 ISSN 1434 6001 S2CID 125849923 Beiser 2003 p 432 433 a b c Oganessian Yu 2012 Nuclei in the Island of Stability of Superheavy Elements Journal of Physics Conference Series 337 1 012005 1 012005 6 Bibcode 2012JPhCS 337a2005O doi 10 1088 1742 6596 337 1 012005 ISSN 1742 6596 Moller P Nix J R 1994 Fission properties of the heaviest elements PDF Dai 2 Kai Hadoron Tataikei no Simulation Symposium Tokai mura Ibaraki Japan University of North Texas Retrieved 16 February 2020 a b Oganessian Yu Ts 2004 Superheavy elements Physics World 17 7 25 29 doi 10 1088 2058 7058 17 7 31 Retrieved 16 February 2020 Schadel M 2015 Chemistry of the superheavy elements Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences 373 2037 20140191 Bibcode 2015RSPTA 37340191S doi 10 1098 rsta 2014 0191 ISSN 1364 503X PMID 25666065 Hulet E K 1989 Biomodal spontaneous fission 50th Anniversary of Nuclear Fission Leningrad USSR Bibcode 1989nufi rept 16H Oganessian Yu Ts Rykaczewski K P 2015 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Chemistry Retrieved 1 March 2020 a b Kragh 2018 pp 38 39 Kragh 2018 p 40 a b Ghiorso A Seaborg G T Oganessian Yu Ts et al 1993 Responses on the report Discovery of the Transfermium elements followed by reply to the responses by Transfermium Working Group PDF Pure and Applied Chemistry 65 8 1815 1824 doi 10 1351 pac199365081815 S2CID 95069384 Archived PDF from the original on 25 November 2013 Retrieved 7 September 2016 Commission on Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry 1997 Names and symbols of transfermium elements IUPAC Recommendations 1997 PDF Pure and Applied Chemistry 69 12 2471 2474 doi 10 1351 pac199769122471 Kragh 2018 p 6 Leach Mark R The INTERNET Database of Periodic Tables Retrieved 8 July 2016 a b c Fricke Burkhard 1975 Superheavy elements a prediction of their chemical and physical properties Recent Impact of Physics on Inorganic Chemistry Structure and Bonding 21 89 144 doi 10 1007 BFb0116498 ISBN 978 3 540 07109 9 Retrieved 4 October 2013 Pitzer Kenneth 1975 Are elements 112 114 and 118 relatively inert gases The Journal of Chemical Physics 2 63 1032 1033 doi 10 1063 1 431398 a b Smolanczuk R 1999 Production mechanism of superheavy nuclei in cold fusion reactions Physical Review C 59 5 2634 2639 Bibcode 1999PhRvC 59 2634S doi 10 1103 PhysRevC 59 2634 Ninov Viktor 1999 Observation of Superheavy Nuclei Produced in the Reaction of 86Kr with 208Pb Physical Review Letters 83 6 1104 1107 Bibcode 1999PhRvL 83 1104N doi 10 1103 PhysRevLett 83 1104 Retracted see doi 10 1103 PhysRevLett 89 039901 Service R F 1999 Berkeley Crew Bags Element 118 Science 284 5421 1751 doi 10 1126 science 284 5421 1751 S2CID 220094113 Public Affairs Department Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory 21 July 2001 Results of element 118 experiment retracted Archived from the original on 29 January 2008 Retrieved 18 January 2008 Dalton R 2002 Misconduct The stars who fell to Earth Nature 420 6917 728 729 Bibcode 2002Natur 420 728D doi 10 1038 420728a PMID 12490902 S2CID 4398009 Element 118 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F4 Journal of Physical Chemistry A 103 8 1104 1108 Bibcode 1999JPCA 103 1104H doi 10 1021 jp983665k Liebman Joel F 1975 Conceptual Problems in Noble Gas and Fluorine Chemistry II The Nonexistence of Radon Tetrafluoride Inorg Nucl Chem Lett 11 10 683 685 doi 10 1016 0020 1650 75 80185 1 Seppelt Konrad 2015 Molecular Hexafluorides Chemical Reviews 115 2 1296 1306 doi 10 1021 cr5001783 PMID 25418862 Pitzer Kenneth S 1975 Fluorides of radon and element 118 PDF Journal of the Chemical Society Chemical Communications 18 760 761 doi 10 1039 C3975000760b a b Seaborg Glenn Theodore c 2006 transuranium element chemical element Britannica Online Retrieved 16 March 2010 Loveland Walter 1 June 2021 Relativistic effects for the superheavy reaction Og 2Ts2 OgTs4 Td or D4h dramatic relativistic effects for atomization energy of superheavy Oganesson tetratennesside OgTs4 and prediction of the existence of tetrahedral OgTs4 Theoretical Chemistry Accounts 140 75 doi 10 1007 s00214 021 02777 2 S2CID 235259897 Retrieved 30 June 2021 Bibliography editAudi G Kondev F G Wang M et al 2017 The NUBASE2016 evaluation of nuclear properties Chinese Physics C 41 3 030001 Bibcode 2017ChPhC 41c0001A doi 10 1088 1674 1137 41 3 030001 Beiser A 2003 Concepts of modern physics 6th ed McGraw Hill ISBN 978 0 07 244848 1 OCLC 48965418 Hoffman D C Ghiorso A Seaborg G T 2000 The Transuranium People The Inside Story World Scientific ISBN 978 1 78 326244 1 Kragh H 2018 From Transuranic to Superheavy Elements A Story of Dispute and Creation Springer ISBN 978 3 319 75813 8 Zagrebaev V Karpov A Greiner W 2013 Future of superheavy element research Which nuclei could be synthesized within the next few years Journal of Physics Conference Series 420 1 012001 arXiv 1207 5700 Bibcode 2013JPhCS 420a2001Z doi 10 1088 1742 6596 420 1 012001 ISSN 1742 6588 S2CID 55434734 Further reading editScerri Eric 2007 The Periodic Table Its Story and Its Significance New York Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 530573 9 External links edit5 ways the heaviest element on the periodic table is really bizarre ScienceNews org Element 118 Experiments on discovery archive of discoverers official web page Element 118 Heaviest Ever Reported for 1 000th of a Second The New York Times It s Elemental Oganesson Oganesson at The Periodic Table of Videos University of Nottingham On the Claims for Discovery of Elements 110 111 112 114 116 and 118 IUPAC Technical Report WebElements Oganesson Portals nbsp Chemistry nbsp Physics nbsp Russia nbsp United StatesOganesson at Wikipedia s sister projects nbsp Definitions from Wiktionary nbsp Media from Commons nbsp News from Wikinews Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Oganesson amp oldid 1194177492, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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