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Copper

March 05, 2023

For other uses, see Copper (disambiguation).

Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from Latin: cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkish-orange color. Copper is used as a conductor of heat and electricity, as a building material, and as a constituent of various metal alloys, such as sterling silver used in jewelry, cupronickel used to make marine hardware and coins, and constantan used in strain gauges and thermocouples for temperature measurement.

Copper, 29Cu
Copper
Appearancered-orange metallic luster
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Cu)
  • 63.546±0.003
  • 63.546±0.003 (abridged)[1]
Copper in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
–
↑
Cu
↓
Ag
nickel ← copper → zinc
Atomic number (Z)29
Groupgroup 11
Periodperiod 4
Block  d-block
Electron configuration[Ar] 3d10 4s1
Electrons per shell2, 8, 18, 1
Physical properties
Phase at STPsolid
Melting point1357.77 K ​(1084.62 °C, ​1984.32 °F)
Boiling point2835 K ​(2562 °C, ​4643 °F)
Density (near r.t.)8.96 g/cm3
when liquid (at m.p.)8.02 g/cm3
Heat of fusion13.26 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization300.4 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity24.440 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K) 1509 1661 1850 2089 2404 2834
Atomic properties
Oxidation states−2, 0,[2] +1, +2, +3, +4 (a mildly basic oxide)
ElectronegativityPauling scale: 1.90
Ionization energies
  • 1st: 745.5 kJ/mol
  • 2nd: 1957.9 kJ/mol
  • 3rd: 3555 kJ/mol
  • (more)
Atomic radiusempirical: 128 pm
Covalent radius132±4 pm
Van der Waals radius140 pm
Spectral lines of copper
Other properties
Natural occurrenceprimordial
Crystal structure ​face-centered cubic (fcc)
Speed of sound thin rod(annealed)
3810 m/s (at r.t.)
Thermal expansion16.5 µm/(m⋅K) (at 25 °C)
Thermal conductivity401 W/(m⋅K)
Electrical resistivity16.78 nΩ⋅m (at 20 °C)
Magnetic orderingdiamagnetic[3]
Molar magnetic susceptibility−5.46×10−6 cm3/mol[4]
Young's modulus110–128 GPa
Shear modulus48 GPa
Bulk modulus140 GPa
Poisson ratio0.34
Mohs hardness3.0
Vickers hardness343–369 MPa
Brinell hardness235–878 MPa
CAS Number7440-50-8
History
Namingafter Cyprus, principal mining place in Roman era (Cyprium)
DiscoveryMiddle East (9000 BC)
Symbol"Cu": from Latin cuprum
Isotopes of copper
Main isotopes Decay
abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
63Cu 69.15% stable
64Cu syn 12.70 h β+ 64Ni
β− 64Zn
65Cu 30.85% stable
67Cu syn 61.83 h β− 67Zn
 Category: Copper
| references

Copper is one of the few metals that can occur in nature in a directly usable metallic form (native metals). This led to very early human use in several regions, from circa 8000 BC. Thousands of years later, it was the first metal to be smelted from sulfide ores, circa 5000 BC; the first metal to be cast into a shape in a mold, c. 4000 BC; and the first metal to be purposely alloyed with another metal, tin, to create bronze, c. 3500 BC.[5]

In the Roman era, copper was mined principally on Cyprus, the origin of the name of the metal, from aes cyprium (metal of Cyprus), later corrupted to cuprum (Latin). Coper (Old English) and copper were derived from this, the later spelling first used around 1530.[6]

Commonly encountered compounds are copper(II) salts, which often impart blue or green colors to such minerals as azurite, malachite, and turquoise, and have been used widely and historically as pigments.

Copper used in buildings, usually for roofing, oxidizes to form a green verdigris (or patina). Copper is sometimes used in decorative art, both in its elemental metal form and in compounds as pigments. Copper compounds are used as bacteriostatic agents, fungicides, and wood preservatives.

Copper is essential to all living organisms as a trace dietary mineral because it is a key constituent of the respiratory enzyme complex cytochrome c oxidase. In molluscs and crustaceans, copper is a constituent of the blood pigment hemocyanin, replaced by the iron-complexed hemoglobin in fish and other vertebrates. In humans, copper is found mainly in the liver, muscle, and bone.[7] The adult body contains between 1.4 and 2.1 mg of copper per kilogram of body weight.[8]

Characteristics

Physical

 
A copper disc (99.95% pure) made by continuous casting; etched to reveal crystallites
 
Copper just above its melting point keeps its pink luster color when enough light outshines the orange incandescence color

Copper, silver, and gold are in group 11 of the periodic table; these three metals have one s-orbital electron on top of a filled d-electron shell and are characterized by high ductility, and electrical and thermal conductivity. The filled d-shells in these elements contribute little to interatomic interactions, which are dominated by the s-electrons through metallic bonds. Unlike metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in copper are lacking a covalent character and are relatively weak. This observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of copper.[9] At the macroscopic scale, introduction of extended defects to the crystal lattice, such as grain boundaries, hinders flow of the material under applied stress, thereby increasing its hardness. For this reason, copper is usually supplied in a fine-grained polycrystalline form, which has greater strength than monocrystalline forms.[10]

The softness of copper partly explains its high electrical conductivity (59.6×106 S/m) and high thermal conductivity, second highest (second only to silver) among pure metals at room temperature.[11] This is because the resistivity to electron transport in metals at room temperature originates primarily from scattering of electrons on thermal vibrations of the lattice, which are relatively weak in a soft metal.[9] The maximum permissible current density of copper in open air is approximately 3.1×106 A/m2 of cross-sectional area, above which it begins to heat excessively.[12]

Copper is one of a few metallic elements with a natural color other than gray or silver.[13] Pure copper is orange-red and acquires a reddish tarnish when exposed to air. The is due to the low plasma frequency of the metal, which lies in the red part of the visible spectrum, causing it to absorb the higher-frequency green and blue colors.[14]

As with other metals, if copper is put in contact with another metal, galvanic corrosion will occur.[15]

Chemical

 
Unoxidized copper wire (left) and oxidized copper wire (right)
 
The East Tower of the Royal Observatory, Edinburgh, showing the contrast between the refurbished copper installed in 2010 and the green color of the original 1894 copper.

Copper does not react with water, but it does slowly react with atmospheric oxygen to form a layer of brown-black copper oxide which, unlike the rust that forms on iron in moist air, protects the underlying metal from further corrosion (passivation). A green layer of verdigris (copper carbonate) can often be seen on old copper structures, such as the roofing of many older buildings[16] and the Statue of Liberty.[17] Copper tarnishes when exposed to some sulfur compounds, with which it reacts to form various copper sulfides.[18]

Isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of copper

There are 29 isotopes of copper. 63
Cu
 and 65
Cu
 are stable, with 63
Cu
 comprising approximately 69% of naturally occurring copper; both have a spin of 3⁄2.[19] The other isotopes are radioactive, with the most stable being 67
Cu
 with a half-life of 61.83 hours.[19] Seven metastable isotopes have been characterized; 68m
Cu
 is the longest-lived with a half-life of 3.8 minutes. Isotopes with a mass number above 64 decay by β−, whereas those with a mass number below 64 decay by β+. 64
Cu
, which has a half-life of 12.7 hours, decays both ways.[20]

62
Cu
 and 64
Cu
 have significant applications. 62
Cu
 is used in 62
Cu
Cu-PTSM as a radioactive tracer for positron emission tomography.[21]

Occurrence

See also: List of copper ores
 
Native copper from the Keweenaw Peninsula, Michigan, about 2.5 inches (6.4 cm) long

Copper is produced in massive stars[22] and is present in the Earth's crust in a proportion of about 50 parts per million (ppm).[23] In nature, copper occurs in a variety of minerals, including native copper, copper sulfides such as chalcopyrite, bornite, digenite, covellite, and chalcocite, copper sulfosalts such as tetrahedite-tennantite, and enargite, copper carbonates such as azurite and malachite, and as copper(I) or copper(II) oxides such as cuprite and tenorite, respectively.[11] The largest mass of elemental copper discovered weighed 420 tonnes and was found in 1857 on the Keweenaw Peninsula in Michigan, US.[23] Native copper is a polycrystal, with the largest single crystal ever described measuring 4.4 × 3.2 × 3.2 cm.[24] Copper is the 25th most abundant element in Earth's crust, representing 50 ppm compared with 75 ppm for zinc, and 14 ppm for lead.[25]

Typical background concentrations of copper do not exceed 1 ng/m3 in the atmosphere; 150 mg/kg in soil; 30 mg/kg in vegetation; 2 μg/L in freshwater and 0.5 μg/L in seawater.[26]

Production

 
Chuquicamata, in Chile, is one of the world's largest open pit copper mines
 
World production trend
See also: List of countries by copper production

Most copper is mined or extracted as copper sulfides from large open pit mines in porphyry copper deposits that contain 0.4 to 1.0% copper. Sites include Chuquicamata, in Chile, Bingham Canyon Mine, in Utah, United States, and El Chino Mine, in New Mexico, United States. According to the British Geological Survey, in 2005, Chile was the top producer of copper with at least one-third of the world share followed by the United States, Indonesia and Peru.[11] Copper can also be recovered through the in-situ leach process. Several sites in the state of Arizona are considered prime candidates for this method.[27] The amount of copper in use is increasing and the quantity available is barely sufficient to allow all countries to reach developed world levels of usage.[28] An alternative source of copper for collection currently being researched are polymetallic nodules, which are located at the depths of the Pacific Ocean approximately 3000–6500 meters below sea level. These nodules contain other valuable metals such as cobalt and nickel.[29]

Reserves and prices

See also: Peak copper § Reserves
 
Price of Copper 1959-2022

Copper has been in use at least 10,000 years, but more than 95% of all copper ever mined and smelted has been extracted since 1900.[30] As with many natural resources, the total amount of copper on Earth is vast, with around 1014 tons in the top kilometer of Earth's crust, which is about 5 million years' worth at the current rate of extraction. However, only a tiny fraction of these reserves is economically viable with present-day prices and technologies. Estimates of copper reserves available for mining vary from 25 to 60 years, depending on core assumptions such as the growth rate.[31] Recycling is a major source of copper in the modern world.[30] Because of these and other factors, the future of copper production and supply is the subject of much debate, including the concept of peak copper, analogous to peak oil.[citation needed]

The price of copper has historically been unstable,[32] and its price increased from the 60-year low of US$0.60/lb (US$1.32/kg) in June 1999 to $3.75 per pound ($8.27/kg) in May 2006. It dropped to $2.40/lb ($5.29/kg) in February 2007, then rebounded to $3.50/lb ($7.71/kg) in April 2007.[33][better source needed] In February 2009, weakening global demand and a steep fall in commodity prices since the previous year's highs left copper prices at $1.51/lb ($3.32/kg).[34] Between September 2010 and February 2011, the price of copper rose from £5,000 a metric ton to £6,250 a metric ton.[35]

Methods

Main article: Copper extraction techniques
 
Scheme of flash smelting process

The concentration of copper in ores averages only 0.6%, and most commercial ores are sulfides, especially chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), bornite (Cu5FeS4) and, to a lesser extent, covellite (CuS) and chalcocite (Cu2S).[36] Conversely, the average concentration of copper in polymetallic nodules is estimated at 1.3%. The methods of extracting copper as well as other metals found in these nodules include sulphuric leaching, smelting and an application of the Cuprion process.[37][38] For minerals found in land ores, they are concentrated from crushed ores to the level of 10–15% copper by froth flotation or bioleaching.[39] Heating this material with silica in flash smelting removes much of the iron as slag. The process exploits the greater ease of converting iron sulfides into oxides, which in turn react with the silica to form the silicate slag that floats on top of the heated mass. The resulting copper matte, consisting of Cu2S, is roasted to convert the sulfides into oxides:[36]

2 Cu2S + 3 O2 → 2 Cu2O + 2 SO2

The cuprous oxide reacts with cuprous sulfide to converted to blister copper upon heating:

2 Cu2O + Cu2S → 6 Cu + 2 SO2

The Sudbury matte process converted only half the sulfide to oxide and then used this oxide to remove the rest of the sulfur as oxide. It was then electrolytically refined and the anode mud exploited for the platinum and gold it contained. This step exploits the relatively easy reduction of copper oxides to copper metal. Natural gas is blown across the blister to remove most of the remaining oxygen and electrorefining is performed on the resulting material to produce pure copper:[40]

Cu2+ + 2 e− → Cu
Flowchart of copper refining (Anode casting plant of Uralelektromed)
  1. Blister copper
  2. Smelting
  3. Reverberatory furnace
  4. Slag removal
  5. Copper casting of anodes
  6. Casting wheel
  7. Anodes removal machine
  8. Anodes take-off
  9. Rail cars
  10. Transportation to the tank house
 

Recycling

Like aluminium, copper is recyclable without any loss of quality, both from raw state and from manufactured products.[41] In volume, copper is the third most recycled metal after iron and aluminium.[42] An estimated 80% of all copper ever mined is still in use today.[43] According to the International Resource Panel's Metal Stocks in Society report, the global per capita stock of copper in use in society is 35–55 kg. Much of this is in more-developed countries (140–300 kg per capita) rather than less-developed countries (30–40 kg per capita).

The process of recycling copper is roughly the same as is used to extract copper but requires fewer steps. High-purity scrap copper is melted in a furnace and then reduced and cast into billets and ingots; lower-purity scrap is refined by electroplating in a bath of sulfuric acid.[44]

Alloys

 
Copper alloys are widely used in the production of coinage; seen here are two examples - post-1964 American dimes, which are composed of the alloy cupronickel[45] and a pre-1968 Canadian dime, which is composed of an alloy of 80 percent silver and 20 percent copper.[46]
See also: List of copper alloys

Numerous copper alloys have been formulated, many with important uses. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. Bronze usually refers to copper-tin alloys, but can refer to any alloy of copper such as aluminium bronze. Copper is one of the most important constituents of silver and karat gold solders used in the jewelry industry, modifying the color, hardness and melting point of the resulting alloys.[47] Some lead-free solders consist of tin alloyed with a small proportion of copper and other metals.[48]

The alloy of copper and nickel, called cupronickel, is used in low-denomination coins, often for the outer cladding. The US five-cent coin (currently called a nickel) consists of 75% copper and 25% nickel in homogeneous composition. Prior to the introduction of cupronickel, which was widely adopted by countries in the latter half of the 20th century,[49] alloys of copper and silver were also used, with the United States using an alloy of 90% silver and 10% copper until 1965, when circulating silver was removed from all coins with the exception of the Half dollar - these were debased to an alloy of 40% silver and 60% copper between 1965 and 1970.[50] The alloy of 90% copper and 10% nickel, remarkable for its resistance to corrosion, is used for various objects exposed to seawater, though it is vulnerable to the sulfides sometimes found in polluted harbors and estuaries.[51] Alloys of copper with aluminium (about 7%) have a golden color and are used in decorations.[23] Shakudō is a Japanese decorative alloy of copper containing a low percentage of gold, typically 4–10%, that can be patinated to a dark blue or black color.[52]

Compounds

 
A sample of copper(I) oxide.
See also: Category:Copper compounds

Copper forms a rich variety of compounds, usually with oxidation states +1 and +2, which are often called cuprous and cupric, respectively.[53] Copper compounds, whether organic complexes or organometallics, promote or catalyse numerous chemical and biological processes.[54]

Binary compounds

As with other elements, the simplest compounds of copper are binary compounds, i.e. those containing only two elements, the principal examples being oxides, sulfides, and halides. Both cuprous and cupric oxides are known. Among the numerous copper sulfides, important examples include copper(I) sulfide and copper(II) sulfide.[citation needed]

Cuprous halides with fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine are known, as are cupric halides with fluorine, chlorine, and bromine. Attempts to prepare copper(II) iodide yield only copper(I) iodide and iodine.[53]

2 Cu2+ + 4 I− → 2 CuI + I2

Coordination chemistry

 
Copper(II) gives a deep blue coloration in the presence of ammonia ligands. The one used here is tetraamminecopper(II) sulfate.

Copper forms coordination complexes with ligands. In aqueous solution, copper(II) exists as [Cu(H
2O)
6]2+
. This complex exhibits the fastest water exchange rate (speed of water ligands attaching and detaching) for any transition metal aquo complex. Adding aqueous sodium hydroxide causes the precipitation of light blue solid copper(II) hydroxide. A simplified equation is:

 
Pourbaix diagram for copper in uncomplexed media (anions other than OH- not considered). Ion concentration 0.001 m (mol/kg water). Temperature 25 °C.
Cu2+ + 2 OH− → Cu(OH)2

Aqueous ammonia results in the same precipitate. Upon adding excess ammonia, the precipitate dissolves, forming tetraamminecopper(II):

Cu(H
2O)
4(OH)
2 + 4 NH3 → [Cu(H
2O)
2(NH
3)
4]2+
 + 2 H2O + 2 OH−

Many other oxyanions form complexes; these include copper(II) acetate, copper(II) nitrate, and copper(II) carbonate. Copper(II) sulfate forms a blue crystalline pentahydrate, the most familiar copper compound in the laboratory. It is used in a fungicide called the Bordeaux mixture.[55]

 
Ball-and-stick model of the complex [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+, illustrating the octahedral coordination geometry common for copper(II).

Polyols, compounds containing more than one alcohol functional group, generally interact with cupric salts. For example, copper salts are used to test for reducing sugars. Specifically, using Benedict's reagent and Fehling's solution the presence of the sugar is signaled by a color change from blue Cu(II) to reddish copper(I) oxide.[56] Schweizer's reagent and related complexes with ethylenediamine and other amines dissolve cellulose.[57] Amino acids such as cystine form very stable chelate complexes with copper(II)[58][59][60] including in the form of metal-organic biohybrids (MOBs). Many wet-chemical tests for copper ions exist, one involving potassium ferrocyanide, which gives a brown precipitate with copper(II) salts.[citation needed]

Organocopper chemistry

Main article: Organocopper compound

Compounds that contain a carbon-copper bond are known as organocopper compounds. They are very reactive towards oxygen to form copper(I) oxide and have many uses in chemistry. They are synthesized by treating copper(I) compounds with Grignard reagents, terminal alkynes or organolithium reagents;[61] in particular, the last reaction described produces a Gilman reagent. These can undergo substitution with alkyl halides to form coupling products; as such, they are important in the field of organic synthesis. Copper(I) acetylide is highly shock-sensitive but is an intermediate in reactions such as the Cadiot-Chodkiewicz coupling[62] and the Sonogashira coupling.[63] Conjugate addition to enones[64] and carbocupration of alkynes[65] can also be achieved with organocopper compounds. Copper(I) forms a variety of weak complexes with alkenes and carbon monoxide, especially in the presence of amine ligands.[66]

Copper(III) and copper(IV)

Copper(III) is most often found in oxides. A simple example is potassium cuprate, KCuO2, a blue-black solid.[67] The most extensively studied copper(III) compounds are the cuprate superconductors. Yttrium barium copper oxide (YBa2Cu3O7) consists of both Cu(II) and Cu(III) centres. Like oxide, fluoride is a highly basic anion[68] and is known to stabilize metal ions in high oxidation states. Both copper(III) and even copper(IV) fluorides are known, K3CuF6 and Cs2CuF6, respectively.[53]

Some copper proteins form oxo complexes, which also feature copper(III).[69] With tetrapeptides, purple-colored copper(III) complexes are stabilized by the deprotonated amide ligands.[70]

Complexes of copper(III) are also found as intermediates in reactions of organocopper compounds.[71] For example, in the Kharasch–Sosnovsky reaction.[citation needed]

History

A timeline of copper illustrates how this metal has advanced human civilization for the past 11,000 years.[72]

Prehistoric

Copper Age

Main article: Copper Age
 
A corroded copper ingot from Zakros, Crete, shaped in the form of an animal skin (oxhide) typical in that era.
 
Many tools during the Chalcolithic Era included copper, such as the blade of this replica of Ötzi's axe
 
Copper ore (chrysocolla) in Cambrian sandstone from Chalcolithic mines in the Timna Valley, southern Israel.

Copper occurs naturally as native metallic copper and was known to some of the oldest civilizations on record. The history of copper use dates to 9000 BC in the Middle East;[73] a copper pendant was found in northern Iraq that dates to 8700 BC.[74] Evidence suggests that gold and meteoric iron (but not smelted iron) were the only metals used by humans before copper.[75] The history of copper metallurgy is thought to follow this sequence: First, cold working of native copper, then annealing, smelting, and, finally, lost-wax casting. In southeastern Anatolia, all four of these techniques appear more or less simultaneously at the beginning of the Neolithic c. 7500 BC.[76]

Copper smelting was independently invented in different places. It was probably discovered in China before 2800 BC, in Central America around 600 AD, and in West Africa about the 9th or 10th century AD.[77] Investment casting was invented in 4500–4000 BC in Southeast Asia[73] and carbon dating has established mining at Alderley Edge in Cheshire, UK, at 2280 to 1890 BC.[78] Ötzi the Iceman, a male dated from 3300 to 3200 BC, was found with an axe with a copper head 99.7% pure; high levels of arsenic in his hair suggest an involvement in copper smelting.[79] Experience with copper has assisted the development of other metals; in particular, copper smelting led to the discovery of iron smelting.[79] Production in the Old Copper Complex in Michigan and Wisconsin is dated between 6000 and 3000 BC[80].[81][82] Natural bronze, a type of copper made from ores rich in silicon, arsenic, and (rarely) tin, came into general use in the Balkans around 5500 BC.[83]

Bronze Age

Main article: Bronze Age

Alloying copper with tin to make bronze was first practiced about 4000 years after the discovery of copper smelting, and about 2000 years after "natural bronze" had come into general use.[84] Bronze artifacts from the Vinča culture date to 4500 BC.[85] Sumerian and Egyptian artifacts of copper and bronze alloys date to 3000 BC.[86] The Bronze Age began in Southeastern Europe around 3700–3300 BC, in Northwestern Europe about 2500 BC. It ended with the beginning of the Iron Age, 2000–1000 BC in the Near East, and 600 BC in Northern Europe. The transition between the Neolithic period and the Bronze Age was formerly termed the Chalcolithic period (copper-stone), when copper tools were used with stone tools. The term has gradually fallen out of favor because in some parts of the world, the Chalcolithic and Neolithic are coterminous at both ends. Brass, an alloy of copper and zinc, is of much more recent origin. It was known to the Greeks, but became a significant supplement to bronze during the Roman Empire.[86]

Ancient and post-classical

 
In alchemy the symbol for copper was also the symbol for the goddess and planet Venus.
 
Chalcolithic copper mine in Timna Valley, Negev Desert, Israel.

In Greece, copper was known by the name chalkos (χαλκός). It was an important resource for the Romans, Greeks and other ancient peoples. In Roman times, it was known as aes Cyprium, aes being the generic Latin term for copper alloys and Cyprium from Cyprus, where much copper was mined. The phrase was simplified to cuprum, hence the English copper. Aphrodite (Venus in Rome) represented copper in mythology and alchemy because of its lustrous beauty and its ancient use in producing mirrors; Cyprus, the source of copper, was sacred to the goddess. The seven heavenly bodies known to the ancients were associated with the seven metals known in antiquity, and Venus was assigned to copper, both because of the connection to the goddess and because Venus was the brightest heavenly body after the Sun and Moon and so corresponded to the most lustrous and desirable metal after gold and silver.[87]

Copper was first mined in ancient Britain as early as 2100 BC. Mining at the largest of these mines, the Great Orme, continued into the late Bronze Age. Mining seems to have been largely restricted to supergene ores, which were easier to smelt. The rich copper deposits of Cornwall seem to have been largely untouched, in spite of extensive tin mining in the region, for reasons likely social and political rather than technological.[88]

In North America, copper mining began with marginal workings by Native Americans. Native copper is known to have been extracted from sites on Isle Royale with primitive stone tools between 800 and 1600.[89] Copper metallurgy was flourishing in South America, particularly in Peru around 1000 AD. Copper burial ornamentals from the 15th century have been uncovered, but the metal's commercial production did not start until the early 20th century.[citation needed]

The cultural role of copper has been important, particularly in currency. Romans in the 6th through 3rd centuries BC used copper lumps as money. At first, the copper itself was valued, but gradually the shape and look of the copper became more important. Julius Caesar had his own coins made from brass, while Octavianus Augustus Caesar's coins were made from Cu-Pb-Sn alloys. With an estimated annual output of around 15,000 t, Roman copper mining and smelting activities reached a scale unsurpassed until the time of the Industrial Revolution; the provinces most intensely mined were those of Hispania, Cyprus and in Central Europe.[90][91]

The gates of the Temple of Jerusalem used Corinthian bronze treated with depletion gilding.[clarification needed][citation needed] The process was most prevalent in Alexandria, where alchemy is thought to have begun.[92] In ancient India, copper was used in the holistic medical science Ayurveda for surgical instruments and other medical equipment. Ancient Egyptians (~2400 BC) used copper for sterilizing wounds and drinking water, and later to treat headaches, burns, and itching.[citation needed]

 
Copper Ornaments

Modern

 
Acid mine drainage affecting the stream running from the disused Parys Mountain copper mines
 
18th-century copper kettle from Norway made from Swedish copper

The Great Copper Mountain was a mine in Falun, Sweden, that operated from the 10th century to 1992. It satisfied two-thirds of Europe's copper consumption in the 17th century and helped fund many of Sweden's wars during that time.[93] It was referred to as the nation's treasury; Sweden had a copper backed currency.[94]

 
Chalcography of the city of Vyborg at the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries. The year 1709 carved on the printing plate.

Copper is used in roofing,[16] currency, and for photographic technology known as the daguerreotype. Copper was used in Renaissance sculpture, and was used to construct the Statue of Liberty; copper continues to be used in construction of various types. Copper plating and copper sheathing were widely used to protect the under-water hulls of ships, a technique pioneered by the British Admiralty in the 18th century.[95] The Norddeutsche Affinerie in Hamburg was the first modern electroplating plant, starting its production in 1876.[96] The German scientist Gottfried Osann invented powder metallurgy in 1830 while determining the metal's atomic mass; around then it was discovered that the amount and type of alloying element (e.g., tin) to copper would affect bell tones.[citation needed]

During the rise in demand for copper for the Age of Electricity, from the 1880s until the Great Depression of the 1930s, the United States produced one third to half the world's newly mined copper.[97] Major districts included the Keweenaw district of northern Michigan, primarily native copper deposits, which was eclipsed by the vast sulphide deposits of Butte, Montana in the late 1880s, which itself was eclipsed by porphyry deposits of the Souhwest United States, especially at Bingham Canyon, Utah and Morenci, Arizona. Introduction of open pit steam shovel mining and innovations in smelting, refining, flotation concentration and other processing steps led to mass production. Early in the twentieth century, Arizona ranked first, followed by Montana, then Utah and Michigan.[98]

Flash smelting was developed by Outokumpu in Finland and first applied at Harjavalta in 1949; the energy-efficient process accounts for 50% of the world's primary copper production.[99]

The Intergovernmental Council of Copper Exporting Countries, formed in 1967 by Chile, Peru, Zaire and Zambia, operated in the copper market as OPEC does in oil, though it never achieved the same influence, particularly because the second-largest producer, the United States, was never a member; it was dissolved in 1988.[100]

Applications

See also: Copper in renewable energy
 
Copper fittings for soldered plumbing joints

The major applications of copper are electrical wire (60%), roofing and plumbing (20%), and industrial machinery (15%). Copper is used mostly as a pure metal, but when greater hardness is required, it is put into such alloys as brass and bronze (5% of total use).[23] For more than two centuries, copper paint has been used on boat hulls to control the growth of plants and shellfish.[101] A small part of the copper supply is used for nutritional supplements and fungicides in agriculture.[55][102] Machining of copper is possible, although alloys are preferred for good machinability in creating intricate parts.

Wire and cable

Main article: Copper wire and cable

Despite competition from other materials, copper remains the preferred electrical conductor in nearly all categories of electrical wiring except overhead electric power transmission where aluminium is often preferred.[103][104] Copper wire is used in power generation, power transmission, power distribution, telecommunications, electronics circuitry, and countless types of electrical equipment.[105] Electrical wiring is the most important market for the copper industry.[106] This includes structural power wiring, power distribution cable, appliance wire, communications cable, automotive wire and cable, and magnet wire. Roughly half of all copper mined is used for electrical wire and cable conductors.[107] Many electrical devices rely on copper wiring because of its multitude of inherent beneficial properties, such as its high electrical conductivity, tensile strength, ductility, creep (deformation) resistance, corrosion resistance, low thermal expansion, high thermal conductivity, ease of soldering, malleability, and ease of installation.

For a short period from the late 1960s to the late 1970s, copper wiring was replaced by aluminium wiring in many housing construction projects in America. The new wiring was implicated in a number of house fires and the industry returned to copper.[108]

Electronics and related devices

 
Copper electrical busbars distributing power to a large building

Integrated circuits and printed circuit boards increasingly feature copper in place of aluminium because of its superior electrical conductivity; heat sinks and heat exchangers use copper because of its superior heat dissipation properties. Electromagnets, vacuum tubes, cathode ray tubes, and magnetrons in microwave ovens use copper, as do waveguides for microwave radiation.[109]

Electric motors

Copper's superior conductivity enhances the efficiency of electrical motors.[110] This is important because motors and motor-driven systems account for 43%–46% of all global electricity consumption and 69% of all electricity used by industry.[111] Increasing the mass and cross section of copper in a coil increases the efficiency of the motor. Copper motor rotors, a new technology designed for motor applications where energy savings are prime design objectives,[112][113] are enabling general-purpose induction motors to meet and exceed National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) premium efficiency standards.[114]

Renewable energy production

This section is an excerpt from Copper in renewable energy.[edit]

Renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, tidal, hydro, biomass, and geothermal have become significant sectors of the energy market.[115][116] The rapid growth of these sources in the 21st century has been prompted by increasing costs of fossil fuels as well as their environmental impact issues that significantly lowered their use.

Copper plays an important role in these renewable energy systems.[117][118][119][120][121] Copper usage averages up to five times more in renewable energy systems than in traditional power generation, such as fossil fuel and nuclear power plants.[122] Since copper is an excellent thermal and electrical conductor among engineering metals (second only to silver),[123] electrical systems that utilize copper generate and transmit energy with high efficiency and with minimum environmental impacts.

When choosing electrical conductors, facility planners and engineers factor capital investment costs of materials against operational savings due to their electrical energy efficiencies over their useful lives, plus maintenance costs. Copper often fares well in these calculations. A factor called "copper usage intensity,” is a measure of the quantity of copper necessary to install one megawatt of new power-generating capacity.

 
Copper wires for recycling

When planning for a new renewable power facility, engineers and product specifiers seek to avoid supply shortages of selected materials. According to the United States Geological Survey, in-ground copper reserves have increased more than 700% since 1950, from almost 100 million tonnes to 720 million tonnes in 2017, despite the fact that world refined usage has more than tripled in the last 50 years.[124] Copper resources are estimated to exceed 5,000 million tonnes.[125][126]

Bolstering the supply from copper extraction is the fact that more than 30 percent of copper installed during the last decade came from recycled sources.[127] Its recycling rate is higher than any other metal.[128]

This article discusses the role of copper in various renewable energy generation systems.

Architecture

Main article: Copper in architecture
 
Copper roof on the Minneapolis City Hall, coated with patina
 
Old copper utensils in a Jerusalem restaurant
 
Large copper bowl. Dhankar Gompa.

Copper has been used since ancient times as a durable, corrosion resistant, and weatherproof architectural material.[129][130][131][132] Roofs, flashings, rain gutters, downspouts, domes, spires, vaults, and doors have been made from copper for hundreds or thousands of years. Copper's architectural use has been expanded in modern times to include interior and exterior wall cladding, building expansion joints, radio frequency shielding, and antimicrobial and decorative indoor products such as attractive handrails, bathroom fixtures, and counter tops. Some of copper's other important benefits as an architectural material include low thermal movement, light weight, lightning protection, and recyclability

The metal's distinctive natural green patina has long been coveted by architects and designers. The final patina is a particularly durable layer that is highly resistant to atmospheric corrosion, thereby protecting the underlying metal against further weathering.[133][134][135] It can be a mixture of carbonate and sulfate compounds in various amounts, depending upon environmental conditions such as sulfur-containing acid rain.[136][137][138][139] Architectural copper and its alloys can also be 'finished' to take on a particular look, feel, or color. Finishes include mechanical surface treatments, chemical coloring, and coatings.[140]

Copper has excellent brazing and soldering properties and can be welded; the best results are obtained with gas metal arc welding.[141]

Antibiofouling

Main articles: Copper alloys in aquaculture and Copper sheathing

Copper is biostatic, meaning bacteria and many other forms of life will not grow on it. For this reason it has long been used to line parts of ships to protect against barnacles and mussels. It was originally used pure, but has since been superseded by Muntz metal and copper-based paint. Similarly, as discussed in copper alloys in aquaculture, copper alloys have become important netting materials in the aquaculture industry because they are antimicrobial and prevent biofouling, even in extreme conditions[142] and have strong structural and corrosion-resistant[143] properties in marine environments.

Antimicrobial

Main articles: Antimicrobial properties of copper and Antimicrobial copper-alloy touch surfaces

Copper-alloy touch surfaces have natural properties that destroy a wide range of microorganisms (e.g., E. coli O157:H7, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Staphylococcus, Clostridium difficile, influenza A virus, adenovirus, SARS-Cov-2, and fungi).[144][145] Indians have been using copper vessels since ancient times for storing water, even before modern science realized its antimicrobial properties.[146] Some copper alloys were proven to kill more than 99.9% of disease-causing bacteria within just two hours when cleaned regularly.[147] The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has approved the registrations of these copper alloys as "antimicrobial materials with public health benefits";[147] that approval allows manufacturers to make legal claims to the public health benefits of products made of registered alloys. In addition, the EPA has approved a long list of antimicrobial copper products made from these alloys, such as bedrails, handrails, over-bed tables, sinks, faucets, door knobs, toilet hardware, computer keyboards, health club equipment, and shopping cart handles (for a comprehensive list, see: Antimicrobial copper-alloy touch surfaces#Approved products). Copper doorknobs are used by hospitals to reduce the transfer of disease, and Legionnaires' disease is suppressed by copper tubing in plumbing systems.[148] Antimicrobial copper alloy products are now being installed in healthcare facilities in the U.K., Ireland, Japan, Korea, France, Denmark, and Brazil, as well as being called for in the US,[149] and in the subway transit system in Santiago, Chile, where copper-zinc alloy handrails were installed in some 30 stations between 2011 and 2014.[150][151][152] Textile fibers can be blended with copper to create antimicrobial protective fabrics.[153][unreliable source?]

Speculative investing

Copper may be used as a speculative investment due to the predicted increase in use from worldwide infrastructure growth, and the important role it has in producing wind turbines, solar panels, and other renewable energy sources.[154][155] Another reason predicted demand increases is the fact that electric cars contain an average of 3.6 times as much copper as conventional cars, although the effect of electric cars on copper demand is debated.[156][157] Some people invest in copper through copper mining stocks, ETFs, and futures. Others store physical copper in the form of copper bars or rounds although these tend to carry a higher premium in comparison to precious metals.[158] Those who want to avoid the premiums of copper bullion alternatively store old copper wire, copper tubing or American pennies made before 1982.[159]

Folk medicine

Copper is commonly used in jewelry, and according to some folklore, copper bracelets relieve arthritis symptoms.[160] In one trial for osteoarthritis and one trial for rheumatoid arthritis, no differences were found between copper bracelet and control (non-copper) bracelet.[161][162] No evidence shows that copper can be absorbed through the skin. If it were, it might lead to copper poisoning.[163]

Compression clothing

Recently, some compression clothing with inter-woven copper has been marketed with health claims similar to the folk medicine claims. Because compression clothing is a valid treatment for some ailments, the clothing may have that benefit, but the added copper may have no benefit beyond a placebo effect.[164]

Degradation

Chromobacterium violaceum and Pseudomonas fluorescens can both mobilize solid copper as a cyanide compound.[165] The ericoid mycorrhizal fungi associated with Calluna, Erica and Vaccinium can grow in metalliferous soils containing copper.[165] The ectomycorrhizal fungus Suillus luteus protects young pine trees from copper toxicity. A sample of the fungus Aspergillus niger was found growing from gold mining solution and was found to contain cyano complexes of such metals as gold, silver, copper, iron, and zinc. The fungus also plays a role in the solubilization of heavy metal sulfides.[166]

Biological role

Main article: Copper in health
 
Rich sources of copper include oysters, beef and lamb liver, Brazil nuts, blackstrap molasses, cocoa, and black pepper. Good sources include lobster, nuts and sunflower seeds, green olives, avocados, and wheat bran.

Biochemistry

Copper proteins have diverse roles in biological electron transport and oxygen transportation, processes that exploit the easy interconversion of Cu(I) and Cu(II).[167] Copper is essential in the aerobic respiration of all eukaryotes. In mitochondria, it is found in cytochrome c oxidase, which is the last protein in oxidative phosphorylation. Cytochrome c oxidase is the protein that binds the O2 between a copper and an iron; the protein transfers 8 electrons to the O2 molecule to reduce it to two molecules of water. Copper is also found in many superoxide dismutases, proteins that catalyze the decomposition of superoxides by converting it (by disproportionation) to oxygen and hydrogen peroxide:

  • Cu2+-SOD + O2− → Cu+-SOD + O2 (reduction of copper; oxidation of superoxide)
  • Cu+-SOD + O2− + 2H+ → Cu2+-SOD + H2O2 (oxidation of copper; reduction of superoxide)

The protein hemocyanin is the oxygen carrier in most mollusks and some arthropods such as the horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus).[168] Because hemocyanin is blue, these organisms have blue blood rather than the red blood of iron-based hemoglobin. Structurally related to hemocyanin are the laccases and tyrosinases. Instead of reversibly binding oxygen, these proteins hydroxylate substrates, illustrated by their role in the formation of lacquers.[169] The biological role for copper commenced with the appearance of oxygen in earth's atmosphere.[170] Several copper proteins, such as the "blue copper proteins", do not interact directly with substrates; hence they are not enzymes. These proteins relay electrons by the process called electron transfer.[169]

 
Photosynthesis functions by an elaborate electron transport chain within the thylakoid membrane. A central link in this chain is plastocyanin, a blue copper protein.

A unique tetranuclear copper center has been found in nitrous-oxide reductase.[171]

Chemical compounds which were developed for treatment of Wilson's disease have been investigated for use in cancer therapy.[172]

Nutrition

Copper is an essential trace element in plants and animals, but not all microorganisms. The human body contains copper at a level of about 1.4 to 2.1 mg per kg of body mass.[173]

Absorption

Copper is absorbed in the gut, then transported to the liver bound to albumin.[174] After processing in the liver, copper is distributed to other tissues in a second phase, which involves the protein ceruloplasmin, carrying the majority of copper in blood. Ceruloplasmin also carries the copper that is excreted in milk, and is particularly well-absorbed as a copper source.[175] Copper in the body normally undergoes enterohepatic circulation (about 5 mg a day, vs. about 1 mg per day absorbed in the diet and excreted from the body), and the body is able to excrete some excess copper, if needed, via bile, which carries some copper out of the liver that is not then reabsorbed by the intestine.[176][177]

Dietary recommendations

The U.S. Institute of Medicine (IOM) updated the estimated average requirements (EARs) and recommended dietary allowances (RDAs) for copper in 2001. If there is not sufficient information to establish EARs and RDAs, an estimate designated Adequate Intake (AI) is used instead. The AIs for copper are: 200 μg of copper for 0–6-month-old males and females, and 220 μg of copper for 7–12-month-old males and females. For both sexes, the RDAs for copper are: 340 μg of copper for 1–3 years old, 440 μg of copper for 4–8 years old, 700 μg of copper for 9–13 years old, 890 μg of copper for 14–18 years old and 900 μg of copper for ages 19 years and older. For pregnancy, 1,000 μg. For lactation, 1,300 μg.[178] As for safety, the IOM also sets tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) for vitamins and minerals when evidence is sufficient. In the case of copper the UL is set at 10 mg/day. Collectively the EARs, RDAs, AIs and ULs are referred to as Dietary Reference Intakes.[179]

The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) refers to the collective set of information as Dietary Reference Values, with Population Reference Intake (PRI) instead of RDA, and Average Requirement instead of EAR. AI and UL defined the same as in United States. For women and men ages 18 and older the AIs are set at 1.3 and 1.6 mg/day, respectively. AIs for pregnancy and lactation is 1.5 mg/day. For children ages 1–17 years the AIs increase with age from 0.7 to 1.3 mg/day. These AIs are higher than the U.S. RDAs.[180] The European Food Safety Authority reviewed the same safety question and set its UL at 5 mg/day, which is half the U.S. value.[181]

For U.S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value (%DV). For copper labeling purposes 100% of the Daily Value was 2.0 mg, but as of May 27, 2016 it was revised to 0.9 mg to bring it into agreement with the RDA.[182][183] A table of the old and new adult daily values is provided at Reference Daily Intake.

Deficiency

Because of its role in facilitating iron uptake, copper deficiency can produce anemia-like symptoms, neutropenia, bone abnormalities, hypopigmentation, impaired growth, increased incidence of infections, osteoporosis, hyperthyroidism, and abnormalities in glucose and cholesterol metabolism. Conversely, Wilson's disease causes an accumulation of copper in body tissues.

Severe deficiency can be found by testing for low plasma or serum copper levels, low ceruloplasmin, and low red blood cell superoxide dismutase levels; these are not sensitive to marginal copper status. The "cytochrome c oxidase activity of leucocytes and platelets" has been stated as another factor in deficiency, but the results have not been confirmed by replication.[184]

Toxicity

Main article: Copper toxicity

Gram quantities of various copper salts have been taken in suicide attempts and produced acute copper toxicity in humans, possibly due to redox cycling and the generation of reactive oxygen species that damage DNA.[185][186] Corresponding amounts of copper salts (30 mg/kg) are toxic in animals.[187] A minimum dietary value for healthy growth in rabbits has been reported to be at least 3 ppm in the diet.[188] However, higher concentrations of copper (100 ppm, 200 ppm, or 500 ppm) in the diet of rabbits may favorably influence feed conversion efficiency, growth rates, and carcass dressing percentages.[189]

Chronic copper toxicity does not normally occur in humans because of transport systems that regulate absorption and excretion. Autosomal recessive mutations in copper transport proteins can disable these systems, leading to Wilson's disease with copper accumulation and cirrhosis of the liver in persons who have inherited two defective genes.[173]

Elevated copper levels have also been linked to worsening symptoms of Alzheimer's disease.[190][191]

Human exposure

In the US, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has designated a permissible exposure limit (PEL) for copper dust and fumes in the workplace as a time-weighted average (TWA) of 1 mg/m3.[192] The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 1 mg/m3, time-weighted average. The IDLH (immediately dangerous to life and health) value is 100 mg/m3.[193]

Copper is a constituent of tobacco smoke.[194][195] The tobacco plant readily absorbs and accumulates heavy metals, such as copper from the surrounding soil into its leaves. These are readily absorbed into the user's body following smoke inhalation.[196] The health implications are not clear.[197]

See also

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Notes

Pourbaix diagrams for copper
 
 
 
 
in pure water, or acidic or alkali conditions. Copper in neutral water is more noble than hydrogen. in water containing sulfide in 10 M ammonia solution in a chloride solution

Further reading

  • Massaro, Edward J., ed. (2002). Handbook of Copper Pharmacology and Toxicology. Humana Press. ISBN 978-0-89603-943-8.
  • "Copper: Technology & Competitiveness (Summary) Chapter 6: Copper Production Technology" (PDF). Office of Technology Assessment. 2005.
  • Current Medicinal Chemistry, Volume 12, Number 10, May 2005, pp. 1161–1208(48) Metals, Toxicity and Oxidative Stress
  • William D. Callister (2003). Materials Science and Engineering: an Introduction (6th ed.). Wiley, New York. Table 6.1, p. 137. ISBN 978-0-471-73696-7.
  • Material: Copper (Cu), bulk, MEMS and Nanotechnology Clearinghouse.
  • Kim BE; Nevitt T; Thiele DJ (2008). "Mechanisms for copper acquisition, distribution and regulation". Nat. Chem. Biol. 4 (3): 176–85. doi:10.1038/nchembio.72. PMID 18277979.

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Copper
  • Copper at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
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  • Price history of copper, according to the IMF

March 05, 2023
copper, other, uses, disambiguation, chemical, element, with, symbol, from, latin, cuprum, atomic, number, soft, malleable, ductile, metal, with, very, high, thermal, electrical, conductivity, freshly, exposed, surface, pure, copper, pinkish, orange, color, us. For other uses see Copper disambiguation Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu from Latin cuprum and atomic number 29 It is a soft malleable and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkish orange color Copper is used as a conductor of heat and electricity as a building material and as a constituent of various metal alloys such as sterling silver used in jewelry cupronickel used to make marine hardware and coins and constantan used in strain gauges and thermocouples for temperature measurement Copper 29CuCopperAppearancered orange metallic lusterStandard atomic weight Ar Cu 63 546 0 00363 546 0 003 abridged 1 Copper in the periodic tableHydrogen HeliumLithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine NeonSodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine ArgonPotassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine KryptonRubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine XenonCaesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury element Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine RadonFrancium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson Cu Agnickel copper zincAtomic number Z 29Groupgroup 11Periodperiod 4Block d blockElectron configuration Ar 3d10 4s1Electrons per shell2 8 18 1Physical propertiesPhase at STPsolidMelting point1357 77 K 1084 62 C 1984 32 F Boiling point2835 K 2562 C 4643 F Density near r t 8 96 g cm3when liquid at m p 8 02 g cm3Heat of fusion13 26 kJ molHeat of vaporization300 4 kJ molMolar heat capacity24 440 J mol K Vapor pressureP Pa 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 kat T K 1509 1661 1850 2089 2404 2834Atomic propertiesOxidation states 2 0 2 1 2 3 4 a mildly basic oxide ElectronegativityPauling scale 1 90Ionization energies1st 745 5 kJ mol2nd 1957 9 kJ mol3rd 3555 kJ mol more Atomic radiusempirical 128 pmCovalent radius132 4 pmVan der Waals radius140 pmSpectral lines of copperOther propertiesNatural occurrenceprimordialCrystal structure face centered cubic fcc Speed of sound thin rod annealed 3810 m s at r t Thermal expansion16 5 µm m K at 25 C Thermal conductivity401 W m K Electrical resistivity16 78 nW m at 20 C Magnetic orderingdiamagnetic 3 Molar magnetic susceptibility 5 46 10 6 cm3 mol 4 Young s modulus110 128 GPaShear modulus48 GPaBulk modulus140 GPaPoisson ratio0 34Mohs hardness3 0Vickers hardness343 369 MPaBrinell hardness235 878 MPaCAS Number7440 50 8HistoryNamingafter Cyprus principal mining place in Roman era Cyprium DiscoveryMiddle East 9000 BC Symbol Cu from Latin cuprumIsotopes of copperveMain isotopes Decayabun dance half life t1 2 mode pro duct63Cu 69 15 stable64Cu syn 12 70 h b 64Nib 64Zn65Cu 30 85 stable67Cu syn 61 83 h b 67Zn Category Copperviewtalkedit referencesCopper is one of the few metals that can occur in nature in a directly usable metallic form native metals This led to very early human use in several regions from circa 8000 BC Thousands of years later it was the first metal to be smelted from sulfide ores circa 5000 BC the first metal to be cast into a shape in a mold c 4000 BC and the first metal to be purposely alloyed with another metal tin to create bronze c 3500 BC 5 In the Roman era copper was mined principally on Cyprus the origin of the name of the metal from aes cyprium metal of Cyprus later corrupted to cuprum Latin Coper Old English and copper were derived from this the later spelling first used around 1530 6 Commonly encountered compounds are copper II salts which often impart blue or green colors to such minerals as azurite malachite and turquoise and have been used widely and historically as pigments Copper used in buildings usually for roofing oxidizes to form a green verdigris or patina Copper is sometimes used in decorative art both in its elemental metal form and in compounds as pigments Copper compounds are used as bacteriostatic agents fungicides and wood preservatives Copper is essential to all living organisms as a trace dietary mineral because it is a key constituent of the respiratory enzyme complex cytochrome c oxidase In molluscs and crustaceans copper is a constituent of the blood pigment hemocyanin replaced by the iron complexed hemoglobin in fish and other vertebrates In humans copper is found mainly in the liver muscle and bone 7 The adult body contains between 1 4 and 2 1 mg of copper per kilogram of body weight 8 Contents 1 Characteristics 1 1 Physical 1 2 Chemical 1 3 Isotopes 1 4 Occurrence 2 Production 2 1 Reserves and prices 2 2 Methods 2 3 Recycling 3 Alloys 4 Compounds 4 1 Binary compounds 4 2 Coordination chemistry 4 3 Organocopper chemistry 4 4 Copper III and copper IV 5 History 5 1 Prehistoric 5 1 1 Copper Age 5 1 2 Bronze Age 5 2 Ancient and post classical 5 3 Modern 6 Applications 6 1 Wire and cable 6 2 Electronics and related devices 6 3 Electric motors 6 4 Renewable energy production 6 5 Architecture 6 6 Antibiofouling 6 7 Antimicrobial 6 8 Speculative investing 6 9 Folk medicine 6 9 1 Compression clothing 7 Degradation 8 Biological role 8 1 Biochemistry 8 2 Nutrition 8 2 1 Absorption 8 2 2 Dietary recommendations 8 3 Deficiency 8 4 Toxicity 8 5 Human exposure 9 See also 10 References 11 Notes 12 Further reading 13 External linksCharacteristicsPhysical A copper disc 99 95 pure made by continuous casting etched to reveal crystallites Copper just above its melting point keeps its pink luster color when enough light outshines the orange incandescence color Copper silver and gold are in group 11 of the periodic table these three metals have one s orbital electron on top of a filled d electron shell and are characterized by high ductility and electrical and thermal conductivity The filled d shells in these elements contribute little to interatomic interactions which are dominated by the s electrons through metallic bonds Unlike metals with incomplete d shells metallic bonds in copper are lacking a covalent character and are relatively weak This observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of copper 9 At the macroscopic scale introduction of extended defects to the crystal lattice such as grain boundaries hinders flow of the material under applied stress thereby increasing its hardness For this reason copper is usually supplied in a fine grained polycrystalline form which has greater strength than monocrystalline forms 10 The softness of copper partly explains its high electrical conductivity 59 6 106 S m and high thermal conductivity second highest second only to silver among pure metals at room temperature 11 This is because the resistivity to electron transport in metals at room temperature originates primarily from scattering of electrons on thermal vibrations of the lattice which are relatively weak in a soft metal 9 The maximum permissible current density of copper in open air is approximately 3 1 106 A m2 of cross sectional area above which it begins to heat excessively 12 Copper is one of a few metallic elements with a natural color other than gray or silver 13 Pure copper is orange red and acquires a reddish tarnish when exposed to air The is due to the low plasma frequency of the metal which lies in the red part of the visible spectrum causing it to absorb the higher frequency green and blue colors 14 As with other metals if copper is put in contact with another metal galvanic corrosion will occur 15 Chemical Unoxidized copper wire left and oxidized copper wire right The East Tower of the Royal Observatory Edinburgh showing the contrast between the refurbished copper installed in 2010 and the green color of the original 1894 copper Copper does not react with water but it does slowly react with atmospheric oxygen to form a layer of brown black copper oxide which unlike the rust that forms on iron in moist air protects the underlying metal from further corrosion passivation A green layer of verdigris copper carbonate can often be seen on old copper structures such as the roofing of many older buildings 16 and the Statue of Liberty 17 Copper tarnishes when exposed to some sulfur compounds with which it reacts to form various copper sulfides 18 Isotopes Main article Isotopes of copper There are 29 isotopes of copper 63 Cu and 65 Cu are stable with 63 Cu comprising approximately 69 of naturally occurring copper both have a spin of 3 2 19 The other isotopes are radioactive with the most stable being 67 Cu with a half life of 61 83 hours 19 Seven metastable isotopes have been characterized 68m Cu is the longest lived with a half life of 3 8 minutes Isotopes with a mass number above 64 decay by b whereas those with a mass number below 64 decay by b 64 Cu which has a half life of 12 7 hours decays both ways 20 62 Cu and 64 Cu have significant applications 62 Cu is used in 62 Cu Cu PTSM as a radioactive tracer for positron emission tomography 21 Occurrence See also List of copper ores Native copper from the Keweenaw Peninsula Michigan about 2 5 inches 6 4 cm long Copper is produced in massive stars 22 and is present in the Earth s crust in a proportion of about 50 parts per million ppm 23 In nature copper occurs in a variety of minerals including native copper copper sulfides such as chalcopyrite bornite digenite covellite and chalcocite copper sulfosalts such as tetrahedite tennantite and enargite copper carbonates such as azurite and malachite and as copper I or copper II oxides such as cuprite and tenorite respectively 11 The largest mass of elemental copper discovered weighed 420 tonnes and was found in 1857 on the Keweenaw Peninsula in Michigan US 23 Native copper is a polycrystal with the largest single crystal ever described measuring 4 4 3 2 3 2 cm 24 Copper is the 25th most abundant element in Earth s crust representing 50 ppm compared with 75 ppm for zinc and 14 ppm for lead 25 Typical background concentrations of copper do not exceed 1 ng m3 in the atmosphere 150 mg kg in soil 30 mg kg in vegetation 2 mg L in freshwater and 0 5 mg L in seawater 26 Production Chuquicamata in Chile is one of the world s largest open pit copper mines World production trend See also List of countries by copper production Most copper is mined or extracted as copper sulfides from large open pit mines in porphyry copper deposits that contain 0 4 to 1 0 copper Sites include Chuquicamata in Chile Bingham Canyon Mine in Utah United States and El Chino Mine in New Mexico United States According to the British Geological Survey in 2005 Chile was the top producer of copper with at least one third of the world share followed by the United States Indonesia and Peru 11 Copper can also be recovered through the in situ leach process Several sites in the state of Arizona are considered prime candidates for this method 27 The amount of copper in use is increasing and the quantity available is barely sufficient to allow all countries to reach developed world levels of usage 28 An alternative source of copper for collection currently being researched are polymetallic nodules which are located at the depths of the Pacific Ocean approximately 3000 6500 meters below sea level These nodules contain other valuable metals such as cobalt and nickel 29 Reserves and prices See also Peak copper Reserves Price of Copper 1959 2022 Copper has been in use at least 10 000 years but more than 95 of all copper ever mined and smelted has been extracted since 1900 30 As with many natural resources the total amount of copper on Earth is vast with around 1014 tons in the top kilometer of Earth s crust which is about 5 million years worth at the current rate of extraction However only a tiny fraction of these reserves is economically viable with present day prices and technologies Estimates of copper reserves available for mining vary from 25 to 60 years depending on core assumptions such as the growth rate 31 Recycling is a major source of copper in the modern world 30 Because of these and other factors the future of copper production and supply is the subject of much debate including the concept of peak copper analogous to peak oil citation needed The price of copper has historically been unstable 32 and its price increased from the 60 year low of US 0 60 lb US 1 32 kg in June 1999 to 3 75 per pound 8 27 kg in May 2006 It dropped to 2 40 lb 5 29 kg in February 2007 then rebounded to 3 50 lb 7 71 kg in April 2007 33 better source needed In February 2009 weakening global demand and a steep fall in commodity prices since the previous year s highs left copper prices at 1 51 lb 3 32 kg 34 Between September 2010 and February 2011 the price of copper rose from 5 000 a metric ton to 6 250 a metric ton 35 Methods Main article Copper extraction techniques Scheme of flash smelting process The concentration of copper in ores averages only 0 6 and most commercial ores are sulfides especially chalcopyrite CuFeS2 bornite Cu5FeS4 and to a lesser extent covellite CuS and chalcocite Cu2S 36 Conversely the average concentration of copper in polymetallic nodules is estimated at 1 3 The methods of extracting copper as well as other metals found in these nodules include sulphuric leaching smelting and an application of the Cuprion process 37 38 For minerals found in land ores they are concentrated from crushed ores to the level of 10 15 copper by froth flotation or bioleaching 39 Heating this material with silica in flash smelting removes much of the iron as slag The process exploits the greater ease of converting iron sulfides into oxides which in turn react with the silica to form the silicate slag that floats on top of the heated mass The resulting copper matte consisting of Cu2S is roasted to convert the sulfides into oxides 36 2 Cu2S 3 O2 2 Cu2O 2 SO2The cuprous oxide reacts with cuprous sulfide to converted to blister copper upon heating 2 Cu2O Cu2S 6 Cu 2 SO2The Sudbury matte process converted only half the sulfide to oxide and then used this oxide to remove the rest of the sulfur as oxide It was then electrolytically refined and the anode mud exploited for the platinum and gold it contained This step exploits the relatively easy reduction of copper oxides to copper metal Natural gas is blown across the blister to remove most of the remaining oxygen and electrorefining is performed on the resulting material to produce pure copper 40 Cu2 2 e CuFlowchart of copper refining Anode casting plant of Uralelektromed Blister copper Smelting Reverberatory furnace Slag removal Copper casting of anodes Casting wheel Anodes removal machine Anodes take off Rail cars Transportation to the tank house Recycling Like aluminium copper is recyclable without any loss of quality both from raw state and from manufactured products 41 In volume copper is the third most recycled metal after iron and aluminium 42 An estimated 80 of all copper ever mined is still in use today 43 According to the International Resource Panel s Metal Stocks in Society report the global per capita stock of copper in use in society is 35 55 kg Much of this is in more developed countries 140 300 kg per capita rather than less developed countries 30 40 kg per capita The process of recycling copper is roughly the same as is used to extract copper but requires fewer steps High purity scrap copper is melted in a furnace and then reduced and cast into billets and ingots lower purity scrap is refined by electroplating in a bath of sulfuric acid 44 Alloys Copper alloys are widely used in the production of coinage seen here are two examples post 1964 American dimes which are composed of the alloy cupronickel 45 and a pre 1968 Canadian dime which is composed of an alloy of 80 percent silver and 20 percent copper 46 See also List of copper alloys Numerous copper alloys have been formulated many with important uses Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc Bronze usually refers to copper tin alloys but can refer to any alloy of copper such as aluminium bronze Copper is one of the most important constituents of silver and karat gold solders used in the jewelry industry modifying the color hardness and melting point of the resulting alloys 47 Some lead free solders consist of tin alloyed with a small proportion of copper and other metals 48 The alloy of copper and nickel called cupronickel is used in low denomination coins often for the outer cladding The US five cent coin currently called a nickel consists of 75 copper and 25 nickel in homogeneous composition Prior to the introduction of cupronickel which was widely adopted by countries in the latter half of the 20th century 49 alloys of copper and silver were also used with the United States using an alloy of 90 silver and 10 copper until 1965 when circulating silver was removed from all coins with the exception of the Half dollar these were debased to an alloy of 40 silver and 60 copper between 1965 and 1970 50 The alloy of 90 copper and 10 nickel remarkable for its resistance to corrosion is used for various objects exposed to seawater though it is vulnerable to the sulfides sometimes found in polluted harbors and estuaries 51 Alloys of copper with aluminium about 7 have a golden color and are used in decorations 23 Shakudō is a Japanese decorative alloy of copper containing a low percentage of gold typically 4 10 that can be patinated to a dark blue or black color 52 Compounds A sample of copper I oxide See also Category Copper compounds Copper forms a rich variety of compounds usually with oxidation states 1 and 2 which are often called cuprous and cupric respectively 53 Copper compounds whether organic complexes or organometallics promote or catalyse numerous chemical and biological processes 54 Binary compounds As with other elements the simplest compounds of copper are binary compounds i e those containing only two elements the principal examples being oxides sulfides and halides Both cuprous and cupric oxides are known Among the numerous copper sulfides important examples include copper I sulfide and copper II sulfide citation needed Cuprous halides with fluorine chlorine bromine and iodine are known as are cupric halides with fluorine chlorine and bromine Attempts to prepare copper II iodide yield only copper I iodide and iodine 53 2 Cu2 4 I 2 CuI I2Coordination chemistry Copper II gives a deep blue coloration in the presence of ammonia ligands The one used here is tetraamminecopper II sulfate Copper forms coordination complexes with ligands In aqueous solution copper II exists as Cu H2 O 6 2 This complex exhibits the fastest water exchange rate speed of water ligands attaching and detaching for any transition metal aquo complex Adding aqueous sodium hydroxide causes the precipitation of light blue solid copper II hydroxide A simplified equation is Pourbaix diagram for copper in uncomplexed media anions other than OH not considered Ion concentration 0 001 m mol kg water Temperature 25 C Cu2 2 OH Cu OH 2Aqueous ammonia results in the same precipitate Upon adding excess ammonia the precipitate dissolves forming tetraamminecopper II Cu H2 O 4 OH 2 4 NH3 Cu H2 O 2 NH3 4 2 2 H2O 2 OH Many other oxyanions form complexes these include copper II acetate copper II nitrate and copper II carbonate Copper II sulfate forms a blue crystalline pentahydrate the most familiar copper compound in the laboratory It is used in a fungicide called the Bordeaux mixture 55 Ball and stick model of the complex Cu NH3 4 H2O 2 2 illustrating the octahedral coordination geometry common for copper II Polyols compounds containing more than one alcohol functional group generally interact with cupric salts For example copper salts are used to test for reducing sugars Specifically using Benedict s reagent and Fehling s solution the presence of the sugar is signaled by a color change from blue Cu II to reddish copper I oxide 56 Schweizer s reagent and related complexes with ethylenediamine and other amines dissolve cellulose 57 Amino acids such as cystine form very stable chelate complexes with copper II 58 59 60 including in the form of metal organic biohybrids MOBs Many wet chemical tests for copper ions exist one involving potassium ferrocyanide which gives a brown precipitate with copper II salts citation needed Organocopper chemistry Main article Organocopper compound Compounds that contain a carbon copper bond are known as organocopper compounds They are very reactive towards oxygen to form copper I oxide and have many uses in chemistry They are synthesized by treating copper I compounds with Grignard reagents terminal alkynes or organolithium reagents 61 in particular the last reaction described produces a Gilman reagent These can undergo substitution with alkyl halides to form coupling products as such they are important in the field of organic synthesis Copper I acetylide is highly shock sensitive but is an intermediate in reactions such as the Cadiot Chodkiewicz coupling 62 and the Sonogashira coupling 63 Conjugate addition to enones 64 and carbocupration of alkynes 65 can also be achieved with organocopper compounds Copper I forms a variety of weak complexes with alkenes and carbon monoxide especially in the presence of amine ligands 66 Copper III and copper IV Copper III is most often found in oxides A simple example is potassium cuprate KCuO2 a blue black solid 67 The most extensively studied copper III compounds are the cuprate superconductors Yttrium barium copper oxide YBa2Cu3O7 consists of both Cu II and Cu III centres Like oxide fluoride is a highly basic anion 68 and is known to stabilize metal ions in high oxidation states Both copper III and even copper IV fluorides are known K3CuF6 and Cs2CuF6 respectively 53 Some copper proteins form oxo complexes which also feature copper III 69 With tetrapeptides purple colored copper III complexes are stabilized by the deprotonated amide ligands 70 Complexes of copper III are also found as intermediates in reactions of organocopper compounds 71 For example in the Kharasch Sosnovsky reaction citation needed HistoryA timeline of copper illustrates how this metal has advanced human civilization for the past 11 000 years 72 Prehistoric Copper Age Main article Copper Age A corroded copper ingot from Zakros Crete shaped in the form of an animal skin oxhide typical in that era Many tools during the Chalcolithic Era included copper such as the blade of this replica of Otzi s axe Copper ore chrysocolla in Cambrian sandstone from Chalcolithic mines in the Timna Valley southern Israel Copper occurs naturally as native metallic copper and was known to some of the oldest civilizations on record The history of copper use dates to 9000 BC in the Middle East 73 a copper pendant was found in northern Iraq that dates to 8700 BC 74 Evidence suggests that gold and meteoric iron but not smelted iron were the only metals used by humans before copper 75 The history of copper metallurgy is thought to follow this sequence First cold working of native copper then annealing smelting and finally lost wax casting In southeastern Anatolia all four of these techniques appear more or less simultaneously at the beginning of the Neolithic c 7500 BC 76 Copper smelting was independently invented in different places It was probably discovered in China before 2800 BC in Central America around 600 AD and in West Africa about the 9th or 10th century AD 77 Investment casting was invented in 4500 4000 BC in Southeast Asia 73 and carbon dating has established mining at Alderley Edge in Cheshire UK at 2280 to 1890 BC 78 Otzi the Iceman a male dated from 3300 to 3200 BC was found with an axe with a copper head 99 7 pure high levels of arsenic in his hair suggest an involvement in copper smelting 79 Experience with copper has assisted the development of other metals in particular copper smelting led to the discovery of iron smelting 79 Production in the Old Copper Complex in Michigan and Wisconsin is dated between 6000 and 3000 BC 80 81 82 Natural bronze a type of copper made from ores rich in silicon arsenic and rarely tin came into general use in the Balkans around 5500 BC 83 Bronze Age Main article Bronze Age Alloying copper with tin to make bronze was first practiced about 4000 years after the discovery of copper smelting and about 2000 years after natural bronze had come into general use 84 Bronze artifacts from the Vinca culture date to 4500 BC 85 Sumerian and Egyptian artifacts of copper and bronze alloys date to 3000 BC 86 The Bronze Age began in Southeastern Europe around 3700 3300 BC in Northwestern Europe about 2500 BC It ended with the beginning of the Iron Age 2000 1000 BC in the Near East and 600 BC in Northern Europe The transition between the Neolithic period and the Bronze Age was formerly termed the Chalcolithic period copper stone when copper tools were used with stone tools The term has gradually fallen out of favor because in some parts of the world the Chalcolithic and Neolithic are coterminous at both ends Brass an alloy of copper and zinc is of much more recent origin It was known to the Greeks but became a significant supplement to bronze during the Roman Empire 86 Ancient and post classical In alchemy the symbol for copper was also the symbol for the goddess and planet Venus Chalcolithic copper mine in Timna Valley Negev Desert Israel In Greece copper was known by the name chalkos xalkos It was an important resource for the Romans Greeks and other ancient peoples In Roman times it was known as aes Cyprium aes being the generic Latin term for copper alloys and Cyprium from Cyprus where much copper was mined The phrase was simplified to cuprum hence the English copper Aphrodite Venus in Rome represented copper in mythology and alchemy because of its lustrous beauty and its ancient use in producing mirrors Cyprus the source of copper was sacred to the goddess The seven heavenly bodies known to the ancients were associated with the seven metals known in antiquity and Venus was assigned to copper both because of the connection to the goddess and because Venus was the brightest heavenly body after the Sun and Moon and so corresponded to the most lustrous and desirable metal after gold and silver 87 Copper was first mined in ancient Britain as early as 2100 BC Mining at the largest of these mines the Great Orme continued into the late Bronze Age Mining seems to have been largely restricted to supergene ores which were easier to smelt The rich copper deposits of Cornwall seem to have been largely untouched in spite of extensive tin mining in the region for reasons likely social and political rather than technological 88 In North America copper mining began with marginal workings by Native Americans Native copper is known to have been extracted from sites on Isle Royale with primitive stone tools between 800 and 1600 89 Copper metallurgy was flourishing in South America particularly in Peru around 1000 AD Copper burial ornamentals from the 15th century have been uncovered but the metal s commercial production did not start until the early 20th century citation needed The cultural role of copper has been important particularly in currency Romans in the 6th through 3rd centuries BC used copper lumps as money At first the copper itself was valued but gradually the shape and look of the copper became more important Julius Caesar had his own coins made from brass while Octavianus Augustus Caesar s coins were made from Cu Pb Sn alloys With an estimated annual output of around 15 000 t Roman copper mining and smelting activities reached a scale unsurpassed until the time of the Industrial Revolution the provinces most intensely mined were those of Hispania Cyprus and in Central Europe 90 91 The gates of the Temple of Jerusalem used Corinthian bronze treated with depletion gilding clarification needed citation needed The process was most prevalent in Alexandria where alchemy is thought to have begun 92 In ancient India copper was used in the holistic medical science Ayurveda for surgical instruments and other medical equipment Ancient Egyptians 2400 BC used copper for sterilizing wounds and drinking water and later to treat headaches burns and itching citation needed Copper Ornaments Modern Acid mine drainage affecting the stream running from the disused Parys Mountain copper mines 18th century copper kettle from Norway made from Swedish copper The Great Copper Mountain was a mine in Falun Sweden that operated from the 10th century to 1992 It satisfied two thirds of Europe s copper consumption in the 17th century and helped fund many of Sweden s wars during that time 93 It was referred to as the nation s treasury Sweden had a copper backed currency 94 Chalcography of the city of Vyborg at the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries The year 1709 carved on the printing plate Copper is used in roofing 16 currency and for photographic technology known as the daguerreotype Copper was used in Renaissance sculpture and was used to construct the Statue of Liberty copper continues to be used in construction of various types Copper plating and copper sheathing were widely used to protect the under water hulls of ships a technique pioneered by the British Admiralty in the 18th century 95 The Norddeutsche Affinerie in Hamburg was the first modern electroplating plant starting its production in 1876 96 The German scientist Gottfried Osann invented powder metallurgy in 1830 while determining the metal s atomic mass around then it was discovered that the amount and type of alloying element e g tin to copper would affect bell tones citation needed During the rise in demand for copper for the Age of Electricity from the 1880s until the Great Depression of the 1930s the United States produced one third to half the world s newly mined copper 97 Major districts included the Keweenaw district of northern Michigan primarily native copper deposits which was eclipsed by the vast sulphide deposits of Butte Montana in the late 1880s which itself was eclipsed by porphyry deposits of the Souhwest United States especially at Bingham Canyon Utah and Morenci Arizona Introduction of open pit steam shovel mining and innovations in smelting refining flotation concentration and other processing steps led to mass production Early in the twentieth century Arizona ranked first followed by Montana then Utah and Michigan 98 Flash smelting was developed by Outokumpu in Finland and first applied at Harjavalta in 1949 the energy efficient process accounts for 50 of the world s primary copper production 99 The Intergovernmental Council of Copper Exporting Countries formed in 1967 by Chile Peru Zaire and Zambia operated in the copper market as OPEC does in oil though it never achieved the same influence particularly because the second largest producer the United States was never a member it was dissolved in 1988 100 ApplicationsSee also Copper in renewable energy Copper fittings for soldered plumbing joints The major applications of copper are electrical wire 60 roofing and plumbing 20 and industrial machinery 15 Copper is used mostly as a pure metal but when greater hardness is required it is put into such alloys as brass and bronze 5 of total use 23 For more than two centuries copper paint has been used on boat hulls to control the growth of plants and shellfish 101 A small part of the copper supply is used for nutritional supplements and fungicides in agriculture 55 102 Machining of copper is possible although alloys are preferred for good machinability in creating intricate parts Wire and cable Main article Copper wire and cable Despite competition from other materials copper remains the preferred electrical conductor in nearly all categories of electrical wiring except overhead electric power transmission where aluminium is often preferred 103 104 Copper wire is used in power generation power transmission power distribution telecommunications electronics circuitry and countless types of electrical equipment 105 Electrical wiring is the most important market for the copper industry 106 This includes structural power wiring power distribution cable appliance wire communications cable automotive wire and cable and magnet wire Roughly half of all copper mined is used for electrical wire and cable conductors 107 Many electrical devices rely on copper wiring because of its multitude of inherent beneficial properties such as its high electrical conductivity tensile strength ductility creep deformation resistance corrosion resistance low thermal expansion high thermal conductivity ease of soldering malleability and ease of installation For a short period from the late 1960s to the late 1970s copper wiring was replaced by aluminium wiring in many housing construction projects in America The new wiring was implicated in a number of house fires and the industry returned to copper 108 Electronics and related devices Copper electrical busbars distributing power to a large building Integrated circuits and printed circuit boards increasingly feature copper in place of aluminium because of its superior electrical conductivity heat sinks and heat exchangers use copper because of its superior heat dissipation properties Electromagnets vacuum tubes cathode ray tubes and magnetrons in microwave ovens use copper as do waveguides for microwave radiation 109 Electric motors Copper s superior conductivity enhances the efficiency of electrical motors 110 This is important because motors and motor driven systems account for 43 46 of all global electricity consumption and 69 of all electricity used by industry 111 Increasing the mass and cross section of copper in a coil increases the efficiency of the motor Copper motor rotors a new technology designed for motor applications where energy savings are prime design objectives 112 113 are enabling general purpose induction motors to meet and exceed National Electrical Manufacturers Association NEMA premium efficiency standards 114 Renewable energy production This section is an excerpt from Copper in renewable energy edit Renewable energy sources such as solar wind tidal hydro biomass and geothermal have become significant sectors of the energy market 115 116 The rapid growth of these sources in the 21st century has been prompted by increasing costs of fossil fuels as well as their environmental impact issues that significantly lowered their use Copper plays an important role in these renewable energy systems 117 118 119 120 121 Copper usage averages up to five times more in renewable energy systems than in traditional power generation such as fossil fuel and nuclear power plants 122 Since copper is an excellent thermal and electrical conductor among engineering metals second only to silver 123 electrical systems that utilize copper generate and transmit energy with high efficiency and with minimum environmental impacts When choosing electrical conductors facility planners and engineers factor capital investment costs of materials against operational savings due to their electrical energy efficiencies over their useful lives plus maintenance costs Copper often fares well in these calculations A factor called copper usage intensity is a measure of the quantity of copper necessary to install one megawatt of new power generating capacity Copper wires for recycling When planning for a new renewable power facility engineers and product specifiers seek to avoid supply shortages of selected materials According to the United States Geological Survey in ground copper reserves have increased more than 700 since 1950 from almost 100 million tonnes to 720 million tonnes in 2017 despite the fact that world refined usage has more than tripled in the last 50 years 124 Copper resources are estimated to exceed 5 000 million tonnes 125 126 Bolstering the supply from copper extraction is the fact that more than 30 percent of copper installed during the last decade came from recycled sources 127 Its recycling rate is higher than any other metal 128 This article discusses the role of copper in various renewable energy generation systems Architecture Main article Copper in architecture Copper roof on the Minneapolis City Hall coated with patina Old copper utensils in a Jerusalem restaurant Large copper bowl Dhankar Gompa Copper has been used since ancient times as a durable corrosion resistant and weatherproof architectural material 129 130 131 132 Roofs flashings rain gutters downspouts domes spires vaults and doors have been made from copper for hundreds or thousands of years Copper s architectural use has been expanded in modern times to include interior and exterior wall cladding building expansion joints radio frequency shielding and antimicrobial and decorative indoor products such as attractive handrails bathroom fixtures and counter tops Some of copper s other important benefits as an architectural material include low thermal movement light weight lightning protection and recyclabilityThe metal s distinctive natural green patina has long been coveted by architects and designers The final patina is a particularly durable layer that is highly resistant to atmospheric corrosion thereby protecting the underlying metal against further weathering 133 134 135 It can be a mixture of carbonate and sulfate compounds in various amounts depending upon environmental conditions such as sulfur containing acid rain 136 137 138 139 Architectural copper and its alloys can also be finished to take on a particular look feel or color Finishes include mechanical surface treatments chemical coloring and coatings 140 Copper has excellent brazing and soldering properties and can be welded the best results are obtained with gas metal arc welding 141 Antibiofouling Main articles Copper alloys in aquaculture and Copper sheathing Copper is biostatic meaning bacteria and many other forms of life will not grow on it For this reason it has long been used to line parts of ships to protect against barnacles and mussels It was originally used pure but has since been superseded by Muntz metal and copper based paint Similarly as discussed in copper alloys in aquaculture copper alloys have become important netting materials in the aquaculture industry because they are antimicrobial and prevent biofouling even in extreme conditions 142 and have strong structural and corrosion resistant 143 properties in marine environments Antimicrobial Main articles Antimicrobial properties of copper and Antimicrobial copper alloy touch surfaces Copper alloy touch surfaces have natural properties that destroy a wide range of microorganisms e g E coli O157 H7 methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus MRSA Staphylococcus Clostridium difficile influenza A virus adenovirus SARS Cov 2 and fungi 144 145 Indians have been using copper vessels since ancient times for storing water even before modern science realized its antimicrobial properties 146 Some copper alloys were proven to kill more than 99 9 of disease causing bacteria within just two hours when cleaned regularly 147 The United States Environmental Protection Agency EPA has approved the registrations of these copper alloys as antimicrobial materials with public health benefits 147 that approval allows manufacturers to make legal claims to the public health benefits of products made of registered alloys In addition the EPA has approved a long list of antimicrobial copper products made from these alloys such as bedrails handrails over bed tables sinks faucets door knobs toilet hardware computer keyboards health club equipment and shopping cart handles for a comprehensive list see Antimicrobial copper alloy touch surfaces Approved products Copper doorknobs are used by hospitals to reduce the transfer of disease and Legionnaires disease is suppressed by copper tubing in plumbing systems 148 Antimicrobial copper alloy products are now being installed in healthcare facilities in the U K Ireland Japan Korea France Denmark and Brazil as well as being called for in the US 149 and in the subway transit system in Santiago Chile where copper zinc alloy handrails were installed in some 30 stations between 2011 and 2014 150 151 152 Textile fibers can be blended with copper to create antimicrobial protective fabrics 153 unreliable source Speculative investing Copper may be used as a speculative investment due to the predicted increase in use from worldwide infrastructure growth and the important role it has in producing wind turbines solar panels and other renewable energy sources 154 155 Another reason predicted demand increases is the fact that electric cars contain an average of 3 6 times as much copper as conventional cars although the effect of electric cars on copper demand is debated 156 157 Some people invest in copper through copper mining stocks ETFs and futures Others store physical copper in the form of copper bars or rounds although these tend to carry a higher premium in comparison to precious metals 158 Those who want to avoid the premiums of copper bullion alternatively store old copper wire copper tubing or American pennies made before 1982 159 Folk medicine Copper is commonly used in jewelry and according to some folklore copper bracelets relieve arthritis symptoms 160 In one trial for osteoarthritis and one trial for rheumatoid arthritis no differences were found between copper bracelet and control non copper bracelet 161 162 No evidence shows that copper can be absorbed through the skin If it were it might lead to copper poisoning 163 Compression clothing Recently some compression clothing with inter woven copper has been marketed with health claims similar to the folk medicine claims Because compression clothing is a valid treatment for some ailments the clothing may have that benefit but the added copper may have no benefit beyond a placebo effect 164 DegradationChromobacterium violaceum and Pseudomonas fluorescens can both mobilize solid copper as a cyanide compound 165 The ericoid mycorrhizal fungi associated with Calluna Erica and Vaccinium can grow in metalliferous soils containing copper 165 The ectomycorrhizal fungus Suillus luteus protects young pine trees from copper toxicity A sample of the fungus Aspergillus niger was found growing from gold mining solution and was found to contain cyano complexes of such metals as gold silver copper iron and zinc The fungus also plays a role in the solubilization of heavy metal sulfides 166 Biological roleMain article Copper in health Rich sources of copper include oysters beef and lamb liver Brazil nuts blackstrap molasses cocoa and black pepper Good sources include lobster nuts and sunflower seeds green olives avocados and wheat bran Biochemistry Copper proteins have diverse roles in biological electron transport and oxygen transportation processes that exploit the easy interconversion of Cu I and Cu II 167 Copper is essential in the aerobic respiration of all eukaryotes In mitochondria it is found in cytochrome c oxidase which is the last protein in oxidative phosphorylation Cytochrome c oxidase is the protein that binds the O2 between a copper and an iron the protein transfers 8 electrons to the O2 molecule to reduce it to two molecules of water Copper is also found in many superoxide dismutases proteins that catalyze the decomposition of superoxides by converting it by disproportionation to oxygen and hydrogen peroxide Cu2 SOD O2 Cu SOD O2 reduction of copper oxidation of superoxide Cu SOD O2 2H Cu2 SOD H2O2 oxidation of copper reduction of superoxide The protein hemocyanin is the oxygen carrier in most mollusks and some arthropods such as the horseshoe crab Limulus polyphemus 168 Because hemocyanin is blue these organisms have blue blood rather than the red blood of iron based hemoglobin Structurally related to hemocyanin are the laccases and tyrosinases Instead of reversibly binding oxygen these proteins hydroxylate substrates illustrated by their role in the formation of lacquers 169 The biological role for copper commenced with the appearance of oxygen in earth s atmosphere 170 Several copper proteins such as the blue copper proteins do not interact directly with substrates hence they are not enzymes These proteins relay electrons by the process called electron transfer 169 Photosynthesis functions by an elaborate electron transport chain within the thylakoid membrane A central link in this chain is plastocyanin a blue copper protein A unique tetranuclear copper center has been found in nitrous oxide reductase 171 Chemical compounds which were developed for treatment of Wilson s disease have been investigated for use in cancer therapy 172 Nutrition Copper is an essential trace element in plants and animals but not all microorganisms The human body contains copper at a level of about 1 4 to 2 1 mg per kg of body mass 173 Absorption Copper is absorbed in the gut then transported to the liver bound to albumin 174 After processing in the liver copper is distributed to other tissues in a second phase which involves the protein ceruloplasmin carrying the majority of copper in blood Ceruloplasmin also carries the copper that is excreted in milk and is particularly well absorbed as a copper source 175 Copper in the body normally undergoes enterohepatic circulation about 5 mg a day vs about 1 mg per day absorbed in the diet and excreted from the body and the body is able to excrete some excess copper if needed via bile which carries some copper out of the liver that is not then reabsorbed by the intestine 176 177 Dietary recommendations The U S Institute of Medicine IOM updated the estimated average requirements EARs and recommended dietary allowances RDAs for copper in 2001 If there is not sufficient information to establish EARs and RDAs an estimate designated Adequate Intake AI is used instead The AIs for copper are 200 mg of copper for 0 6 month old males and females and 220 mg of copper for 7 12 month old males and females For both sexes the RDAs for copper are 340 mg of copper for 1 3 years old 440 mg of copper for 4 8 years old 700 mg of copper for 9 13 years old 890 mg of copper for 14 18 years old and 900 mg of copper for ages 19 years and older For pregnancy 1 000 mg For lactation 1 300 mg 178 As for safety the IOM also sets tolerable upper intake levels ULs for vitamins and minerals when evidence is sufficient In the case of copper the UL is set at 10 mg day Collectively the EARs RDAs AIs and ULs are referred to as Dietary Reference Intakes 179 The European Food Safety Authority EFSA refers to the collective set of information as Dietary Reference Values with Population Reference Intake PRI instead of RDA and Average Requirement instead of EAR AI and UL defined the same as in United States For women and men ages 18 and older the AIs are set at 1 3 and 1 6 mg day respectively AIs for pregnancy and lactation is 1 5 mg day For children ages 1 17 years the AIs increase with age from 0 7 to 1 3 mg day These AIs are higher than the U S RDAs 180 The European Food Safety Authority reviewed the same safety question and set its UL at 5 mg day which is half the U S value 181 For U S food and dietary supplement labeling purposes the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value DV For copper labeling purposes 100 of the Daily Value was 2 0 mg but as of May 27 2016 update it was revised to 0 9 mg to bring it into agreement with the RDA 182 183 A table of the old and new adult daily values is provided at Reference Daily Intake Deficiency Because of its role in facilitating iron uptake copper deficiency can produce anemia like symptoms neutropenia bone abnormalities hypopigmentation impaired growth increased incidence of infections osteoporosis hyperthyroidism and abnormalities in glucose and cholesterol metabolism Conversely Wilson s disease causes an accumulation of copper in body tissues Severe deficiency can be found by testing for low plasma or serum copper levels low ceruloplasmin and low red blood cell superoxide dismutase levels these are not sensitive to marginal copper status The cytochrome c oxidase activity of leucocytes and platelets has been stated as another factor in deficiency but the results have not been confirmed by replication 184 Toxicity Main article Copper toxicity Gram quantities of various copper salts have been taken in suicide attempts and produced acute copper toxicity in humans possibly due to redox cycling and the generation of reactive oxygen species that damage DNA 185 186 Corresponding amounts of copper salts 30 mg kg are toxic in animals 187 A minimum dietary value for healthy growth in rabbits has been reported to be at least 3 ppm in the diet 188 However higher concentrations of copper 100 ppm 200 ppm or 500 ppm in the diet of rabbits may favorably influence feed conversion efficiency growth rates and carcass dressing percentages 189 Chronic copper toxicity does not normally occur in humans because of transport systems that regulate absorption and excretion Autosomal recessive mutations in copper transport proteins can disable these systems leading to Wilson s disease with copper accumulation and cirrhosis of the liver in persons who have inherited two defective genes 173 Elevated copper levels have also been linked to worsening symptoms of Alzheimer s disease 190 191 Human exposure In the US the Occupational Safety and Health Administration OSHA has designated a permissible exposure limit PEL for copper dust and fumes in the workplace as a time weighted average TWA of 1 mg m3 192 The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health NIOSH has set a recommended exposure limit REL of 1 mg m3 time weighted average The IDLH immediately dangerous to life and health value is 100 mg m3 193 Copper is a constituent of tobacco smoke 194 195 The tobacco plant readily absorbs and accumulates heavy metals such as copper from the surrounding soil into its leaves These are readily absorbed into the user s body following smoke inhalation 196 The health implications are not clear 197 See alsoCopper in renewable energy Copper nanoparticle Erosion corrosion of copper water tubes Cold water pitting of copper tube List of countries by copper production Metal theft Operation TremorAnaconda Copper Antofagasta PLC Codelco El Boleo mine Grasberg mineReferences Standard Atomic Weights Copper CIAAW 1969 Moret Marc Etienne Zhang Limei Peters Jonas C 2013 A Polar Copper Boron One Electron s Bond J Am Chem Soc 135 10 3792 3795 doi 10 1021 ja4006578 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Association Inc Copper org Architecture Design Handbook Finishes Archived from the original on 16 October 2012 Retrieved 12 September 2012 Davis Joseph R 2001 Copper and Copper Alloys ASM International pp 3 6 266 ISBN 978 0 87170 726 0 Edding Mario E Flores Hector and Miranda Claudio 1995 Experimental Usage of Copper Nickel Alloy Mesh in Mariculture Part 1 Feasibility of usage in a temperate zone Part 2 Demonstration of usage in a cold zone Final report to the International Copper Association Ltd Corrosion Behaviour of Copper Alloys used in Marine Aquaculture Archived 24 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine PDF copper org Retrieved on 8 November 2011 Copper Touch Surfaces Archived 23 July 2012 at the Wayback Machine Copper Touch Surfaces Retrieved on 8 November 2011 EPA Registers Copper Surfaces for Residual Use Against Coronavirus United States Environmental Protection Agency 10 February 2021 Retrieved 11 October 2021 Montero David A Arellano Carolina Pardo Mirka Vera Rosa Galvez 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September 2020 Chilean subway protected with Antimicrobial Copper Rail News from Archived 24 July 2012 at the Wayback Machine rail co Retrieved on 8 November 2011 Codelco to provide antimicrobial copper for new metro lines Chile dead link Construpages com ve Retrieved on 8 November 2011 PR 811 Chilean Subway Installs Antimicrobial Copper Archived 23 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine PDF antimicrobialcopper com Retrieved on 8 November 2011 Copper and Cupron Cupron Global copper market under supplied demand on the rise report Mining com 6 January 2019 Retrieved 13 January 2019 Will the Transition to Renewable Energy Be Paved in Copper www renewableenergyworld com 15 January 2015 Archived from the original on 22 June 2018 Retrieved 13 January 2019 Copper and cars Boom goes beyond electric vehicles MINING com 18 June 2018 Retrieved 13 January 2019 Impact of electric cars in medium term copper demand overrated experts say MINING com 12 April 2018 Retrieved 13 January 2019 Why are Premiums for Copper Bullion So High Provident Metals 20 August 2012 Retrieved 23 January 2019 Chace Zoe Penny Hoarders Hope for the Day The Penny Dies NPR org NPR Retrieved 23 January 2019 Walker W R Keats D M 1976 An investigation of the therapeutic value of the copper bracelet dermal assimilation of copper in arthritic rheumatoid conditions Agents and Actions 6 4 454 459 PMID 961545 Richmond SJ Gunadasa S Bland M Macpherson H 2013 Copper bracelets and magnetic wrist straps for rheumatoid arthritis analgesic and anti inflammatory effects a randomised double blind placebo controlled crossover trial PLOS ONE 8 9 e71529 Bibcode 2013PLoSO 871529R doi 10 1371 journal pone 0071529 PMC 3774818 PMID 24066023 Richmond Stewart J Brown Sally R Campion Peter D Porter Amanda J L Moffett Jennifer A Klaber Jackson David A Featherstone Valerie A Taylor Andrew J 2009 Therapeutic effects of magnetic and copper bracelets in osteoarthritis A randomised placebo controlled crossover trial Complementary 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Charles E amp William W Carlton 1965 Cardiovascular Lesions Associated with Experimental Copper Deficiency in the Rabbit Journal of Nutrition 87 4 385 394 doi 10 1093 jn 87 4 385 PMID 5841854 Ayyat M S Marai I F M Alazab A M 1995 Copper Protein Nutrition of New Zealand White Rabbits under Egyptian Conditions World Rabbit Science 3 3 113 118 doi 10 4995 wrs 1995 249 Brewer GJ March 2012 Copper excess zinc deficiency and cognition loss in Alzheimer s disease BioFactors Review 38 2 107 113 doi 10 1002 biof 1005 hdl 2027 42 90519 PMID 22438177 S2CID 16989047 Copper Alzheimer s Disease Examine com Retrieved 21 June 2015 NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards 0151 National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health NIOSH NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards 0150 National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health NIOSH OEHHA Copper Talhout Reinskje Schulz Thomas Florek Ewa Van Benthem Jan Wester Piet Opperhuizen Antoon 2011 Hazardous Compounds in Tobacco Smoke International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 8 12 613 628 doi 10 3390 ijerph8020613 ISSN 1660 4601 PMC 3084482 PMID 21556207 Pourkhabbaz A Pourkhabbaz H 2012 Investigation of Toxic Metals in the Tobacco of Different Iranian Cigarette Brands and Related Health Issues Iranian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences 15 1 636 644 PMC 3586865 PMID 23493960 Bernhard David Rossmann Andrea Wick Georg 2005 Metals in cigarette smoke IUBMB Life 57 12 805 809 doi 10 1080 15216540500459667 PMID 16393783 S2CID 35694266 NotesPourbaix diagrams for copper in pure water or acidic or alkali conditions Copper in neutral water is more noble than hydrogen in water containing sulfide in 10 M ammonia solution in a chloride solutionFurther readingMassaro Edward J ed 2002 Handbook of Copper Pharmacology and Toxicology Humana Press ISBN 978 0 89603 943 8 Copper Technology amp Competitiveness Summary Chapter 6 Copper Production Technology PDF Office of Technology Assessment 2005 Current Medicinal Chemistry Volume 12 Number 10 May 2005 pp 1161 1208 48 Metals Toxicity and Oxidative Stress William D Callister 2003 Materials Science and Engineering an Introduction 6th ed Wiley New York Table 6 1 p 137 ISBN 978 0 471 73696 7 Material Copper Cu bulk MEMS and Nanotechnology Clearinghouse Kim BE Nevitt T Thiele DJ 2008 Mechanisms for copper acquisition distribution and regulation Nat Chem Biol 4 3 176 85 doi 10 1038 nchembio 72 PMID 18277979 External links Wikiquote has quotations related to Copper Wikimedia Commons has media related to Copper Look up copper in Wiktionary the free dictionary Wikisource has original text related to this article Copper Copper at The Periodic Table of Videos University of Nottingham Copper and compounds fact sheet from the National Pollutant Inventory of Australia Copper org official website of the Copper Development Association with an extensive site of properties and uses of copper Price history of copper according to the IMF Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php 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