Outline of thought

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to thought (thinking):

A thinking chimpanzee

Thought (also called thinking) is the mental process in which beings form psychological associations and models of the world. Thinking is manipulating information, as when we form concepts, engage in problem solving, reason and make decisions. Thought, the act of thinking, produces more thoughts. A thought may be an idea, an image, a sound or even control an emotional feeling.

Nature of thought

Thought (or thinking) can be described as all of the following:

An activity taking place in a:
- brain – organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals (only a few invertebrates such as sponges, jellyfish, adult sea squirts and starfish do not have a brain). It is the physical structure associated with the mind.
  - mind – abstract entity with the cognitive faculties of consciousness, perception, thinking, judgement, and memory. Having a mind is a characteristic of living creatures.^[1]^[2] Activities taking place in a mind are called mental processes or cognitive functions.
- computer (see § Machine thought below) – general purpose device that can be programmed to carry out a set of arithmetic or logical operations automatically. Since a sequence of operations (an algorithm) can be readily changed, the computer can solve more than one kind of problem.
An activity of intelligence – intelligence is the intellectual process of which is marked by cognition, motivation, and self-awareness.^[3] Through intelligence, living creatures possess the cognitive abilities to learn, form concepts, understand, apply logic, and reason, including the capacities to recognize patterns, comprehend ideas, plan, problem solve, make decisions, retaining, and use language to communicate. Intelligence enables living creatures to experience and think.
- A type of mental process – something that individuals can do with their minds. Mental processes include perception, memory, thinking, volition, and emotion. Sometimes the term cognitive function is used instead.
A biological adaptation mechanism^[4]
- Neural Network explanation: Thoughts are created by the summation of neural outputs and connections of which vectors form. These vectors describe the magnitude and direction of the connections and action between neurons. The graphs of these vectors can represent a network of neurons whose connections fire in different ways over time as synapses fire. These large thought vectors in the brain cause other vectors of activity. For example: An input from the environment is received by the neural network. The network changes the magnitude and outputs of individual neurons. The altered network outputs the symbols needed to make sense of the input.

Types of thoughts

Concept – Mental representation or an abstract object
- Abstract concept – Metaphysics concept covering the divide between two types of entities
- Concrete concept – Metaphysics concept covering the divide between two types of entities
Conjecture – Proposition in mathematics that is unproven
Decision (see Decision-making)
Definition – Statement that attaches a meaning to a term
Explanation – Set of statements constructed to describe a set of facts which clarifies causes
Hypothesis – Proposed explanation for an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem
Idea – Mental image or concept
Logical argument
Logical assertion
Mental image – Representation in the mind of objects, activities or events, whether they existed or not
Percept / Perception
Premise – Statement that an argument claims will induce or justify a conclusion
Proposition – Bearer of truth or falsity
Syllogism – Type of logical argument that applies deductive reasoning
Theory – Supposition or system of ideas intended to explain something
Thought experiment – Hypothetical situation

Content of thoughts

Argument – Attempt to persuade or to determine the truth of a conclusion
Belief – Psychological state of holding a proposition or premise to be true
Communication – Transmission of information
Data – Units of information
Information – Facts provided or learned about something or someone
Knowledge – Awareness of facts or being competent
Schema – Technique to encode and retrieve memories

Types of thought (thinking)

Listed below are types of thought, also known as thinking processes.

Animal thought

Human thought

Analysis – Process of understanding a complex topic or substance
Awareness – State or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns
Calculation – Arithmetical calculations using only the human brain
- Estimation – Process of finding an approximation
Categorization – Organization of things, objects, and ideas
Cognitive restructuring – Type of psychological therapy
Computational thinking
Convergent thinking
Counterfactual thinking – Concept in psychology
Critical thinking – Analysis of facts to form a judgment
Data thinking
Evaluation – A systematic determination of a subject's merit, worth and significance,
Habit – Routine of behavior that is repeated regularly and tends to occur subconsciously
Integrative thinking
Intrapersonal communication – Process of communication with oneself
Introspection – Examining one's own thoughts and feelings
Learning – Process of acquiring new knowledge and memory
Parallel thinking
Prediction – Statement about a future event
Recollection
Stochastic thinking
Strategic thinking – Cognitive activity
Training – Acquisition of knowledge, skills, and competencies as a result of teaching or practice
Visual thinking – Thinking through visual processing

Classifications of thought

Bloom's taxonomy – Classification system in education
Dual process theory – Psychological theory of how thought can arise in two different ways
Fluid and crystallized intelligence – Factors of general intelligence
Higher-order thinking – Concept of education reform
Theory of multiple intelligences – Theory of intelligence proposed by Howard Gardner
Three-stratum theory – Cognitive ability theory
Williams' taxonomy

Creative processes

Brainstorming – Group creativity technique
Cognitive module
Creativity – Forming something new and somehow valuable
Creative problem solving
Creative writing – Academic discipline concerned with creating literature
Creativity techniques – Methods devised to encourage creative actions
Design thinking – Processes by which design concepts are developed

Divergent thinking – A method of generating creative ideas
Imagination – Creative ability
Lateral thinking – Manner of solving problems
Noogenesis
Six Thinking Hats – 1985 book by Maltese Dr. Edward de Bono
Speech act – Utterance that serves a performative function
Speed thinking
Stream of consciousness – Metaphor describing how thoughts seem to flow through the conscious mind
Thinking outside the box – Metaphor for unconventional thinking

Decision-making

Choice – Deciding between multiple options
Cybernetics – Transdisciplinary field concerned with regulatory and purposive systems
Decision theory – Branch of applied probability theory
Executive functions – Cognitive processes necessary for control of behavior
Goals and goal setting
Judgement – Decision making; evaluation of evidence to make a decision
Planning – Regarding the activities required to achieve a desired goal
Rational choice theory – Sociological theory
Speech act – Utterance that serves a performative function
Value (personal and cultural)
Value judgment – Philosophical and ethical concept

Erroneous thinking

Black and white thinking
Catastrophization
Cognitive bias – Systematic pattern of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment
Cognitive distortion – Exaggerated or irrational thought patterns
Dysrationalia – Inability to think and behave rationally despite adequate intelligence
Emotional reasoning
Exaggeration – Statement that represents something in an excessive manner
Foolishness – Lack of social norms causing offence or similar effect
Fallacies – Argument that uses faulty reasoning (see also List of fallacies)
- Fallacies of definition
- Logical fallacy – Form of incorrect argument in natural language
Groupthink – Psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people
Irrationality – Thinking, talking, or acting without inclusion of rationality
Linguistic error – Deviation from what is corrects
Magical thinking – Belief in the connection of unrelated events
Minimisation (psychology) – Type of deception
Motivated reasoning – Using emotionally-biased reasoning to produce justifications or make decisions
Rationalization (psychology) – Psychological defense mechanism
Rhetoric – Art of discourse
Straight and Crooked Thinking (book)
Target fixation – Attentional phenomenon
Wishful thinking – Formation of beliefs based on what might be pleasing to imagine

Emotional intelligence (emotionally based thinking)

Emotional intelligence – Capability to understand one's emotions and use it to guide thinking and behavior.

Acting – Story telling by enacting a character
Affect logic
Allophilia – Positive attitude towards others who are different
Attitude (psychology) – Psychological construct, a mental and emotional entity that inheres in, or characterizes a person
Curiosity – Quality related to inquisitive thinking
Elaboration likelihood model – Dual process theory
Emotion – Conscious subjective experience of humanss and feelings
Emotion and memory – Critical factors contributing to the emotional enhancement effect on human memory
Emotional contagion – Spontaneous spread of emotions among a group
Empathy – Capacity to understand or feel what another person is experiencing
Epiphany (feeling) – Sudden understanding of something's essence
Mood (psychology) – Relatively long lasting emotional, internal and subjective state
Motivation – Psychological feature that arouses an organism to action toward a desired goal
Propositional attitude – Concept in epistemology
Rhetoric – Art of discourse
Self actualization
Self control
Self-esteem – Human emotional need
Self-determination theory – Macro theory of human motivation and personality
Social cognition – Study of cognitive processes involved in social interactions
Will (philosophy) – Faculty that selects among a being's desires
Volition (psychology) – Cognitive process by which an individual decides on and commits to a particular course of action

Problem solving

Problem solving – Approaches to problem solving

Problem solving steps
- Problem finding – Problem discovery
- Problem shaping
Process of elimination – Logical method to identify an entity of interest among several ones by excluding all other entities
Systems thinking – Examining complex systems as a whole
- Critical systems thinking
Problem-solving strategy – steps one would use to find the problem(s) that are in the way to getting to one’s own goal. Some would refer to this as the ‘problem-solving cycle’ (Bransford & Stein, 1993). In this cycle one will recognize the problem, define the problem, develop a strategy to fix the problem, organize the knowledge of the problem cycle, figure-out the resources at the user's disposal, monitor one's progress, and evaluate the solution for accuracy.
- Abstraction – Process of generalisation – solving the problem in a model of the system before applying it to the real system
- Analogy – Cognitive process of transferring information or meaning from a particular subject to another – using a solution that solves an analogous problem
- Brainstorming – Group creativity technique – (especially among groups of people) suggesting a large number of solutions or ideas and combining and developing them until an optimum solution is found
- Divide and conquer – Process of understanding a complex topic or substance – breaking down a large, complex problem into smaller, solvable problems
- Hypothesis testing – assuming a possible explanation to the problem and trying to prove (or, in some contexts, disprove) the assumption
- Lateral thinking – Manner of solving problems – approaching solutions indirectly and creatively

- - Oblique Strategies – Set of cards intended to promote creativity
  - Parallel thinking
  - Provocative operation
  - Six Thinking Hats – 1985 book by Maltese Dr. Edward de Bono
- Means-ends analysis – choosing an action at each step to move closer to the goal
- Morphological analysis – Exploration of possible solutions – assessing the output and interactions of an entire system
- Proof – try to prove that the problem cannot be solved. The point where the proof fails will be the starting point for solving it
- Reduction – transforming the problem into another problem for which solutions exist
- Research – Systematic study undertaken to increase knowledge – employing existing ideas or adapting existing solutions to similar problems
- Root cause analysis – Method of identifying the fundamental causes of faults or problems – identifying the cause of a problem
- Thinking outside the box – Metaphor for unconventional thinking
- Trial-and-error – testing possible solutions until the right one is found
- Troubleshooting – Form of problem solving, often applied to repair failed products or processes –
Problem-solving methodology
- 5 Whys
- Decision cycle – Sequence of steps for decision-making
- Eight Disciplines Problem Solving
- GROW model
- How to Solve It
- Learning cycle – How people learn from experience
- OODA loop – Observe–orient–decide–act cycle (observe, orient, decide, and act)
- PDCA – Iterative design and management method used in business (plan–do–check–act)
- Problem structuring methods
- RPR Problem Diagnosis (rapid problem resolution)
- TRIZ – Problem-solving tools (in Russian: Teoriya Resheniya Izobretatelskikh Zadatch, "theory of solving inventor's problems")
- Vertical thinking – Thinking technique that involves an analytical approach to problem solving

Reasoning

Abstract thinking – Process of generalisation
Adaptive reasoning
Analogical reasoning – Cognitive process of transferring information or meaning from a particular subject to another
Analytic reasoning
Case-based reasoning – Process of solving new problems based on the solutions of similar past problems
Critical thinking – Analysis of facts to form a judgment
Defeasible reasoning – Reasoning that is rationally compelling, though not deductively valid – from authority: if p then (defeasibly) q
Diagrammatic reasoning – reasoning by means of visual representations. Visualizing concepts and ideas with of diagrams and imagery instead of by linguistic or algebraic means
Emotional reasoning (erroneous) – a cognitive distortion in which emotion overpowers reason, to the point the subject is unwilling or unable to accept the reality of a situation because of it.
Fallacious reasoning (erroneous) – logical errors
Heuristic – Problem-solving method that is sufficient for immediate solutions or approximationss
Historical thinking
Intuitive reasoning
Lateral thinking – Manner of solving problems
Logic – Study of correct reasoning / Logical reasoning
- Abductive reasoning – Form of logical inference which seeks the simplest and most likely explanation – from data and theory: p and q are correlated, and q is sufficient for p; hence, if p then (abducibly) q as cause
- Deductive reasoning – Form of reasoning – from meaning postulate, axiom, or contingent assertion: if p then q (i.e., q or not-p)
- Inductive reasoning – Method of logical reasoning – theory formation; from data, coherence, simplicity, and confirmation: (inducibly) "if p then q"; hence, if p then (deducibly-but-revisably) q
- Inference – Act or process of deriving logical conclusions from premises known or assumed to be true
Moral reasoning – Study in psychology that overlaps with moral philosophy – process in which an individual tries to determine the difference between what is right and what is wrong in a personal situation by using logic.^[5] This is an important and often daily process that people use in an attempt to do the right thing. Every day for instance, people are faced with the dilemma of whether or not to lie in a given situation. People make this decision by reasoning the morality of the action and weighing that against its consequences.
Probabilistic reasoning – from combinatorics and indifference: if p then (probably) q
Proportional reasoning – using "the concept of proportions when analyzing and solving a mathematical situation."^[6]
Rational thinking
Semiosis
Statistical reasoning – from data and presumption: the frequency of qs among ps is high (or inference from a model fit to data); hence, (in the right context) if p then (probably) q
Strategic thinking – Cognitive activity
Synthetic reasoning
Verbal reasoning – understanding and reasoning using concepts framed in words
Visual reasoning – process of manipulating one's mental image of an object in order to reach a certain conclusion – for example, mentally constructing a piece of machinery to experiment with different mechanisms

Machine thought

Artificial creativity
Automated reasoning
- Commonsense reasoning
- Model-based reasoning
- Opportunistic reasoning
- Qualitative reasoning – automated reasoning about continuous aspects of the physical world, such as space, time, and quantity, for the purpose of problem solving and planning using qualitative rather than quantitative information
- Spatial–temporal reasoning
- Textual case based reasoning
Computer program (recorded machine thought instructions)
Human-based computation

Organizational thought

Organizational thought (thinking by organizations)

Management information system – Information system used for decision-making
Organizational communication – Field of study in communication studies
Organizational planning
- Strategic planning – Organizational decision making process
Strategic thinking – Cognitive activity
Systems theory – Interdisciplinary study of systems

Aspects of the thinker

Aspects of the thinker which may affect (help or hamper) his or her thinking:

Ability – Ability to influence the behavior of others
Aptitude – Ability; competence to do a certain kind of work at a certain level
Attitude – Psychological construct, a mental and emotional entity that inheres in, or characterizes a person
Behavior – Actions by entities within a system
Cognitive style – Concept in cognitive psychology
Common sense – Sound practical judgement in everyday matters
Experience – Conscious event, perception or practical knowledge
Instinct – Behaviour due to innate biological factors
Intelligence – Ability to perceive, infer, retain or apply information
Metacognition – Thinking about thinking, higher-order thinking skills
Mental image – Representation in the mind of objects, activities or events, whether they existed or not
Mindset – Term in decision theory and general systems theory
Preference – To like one thing more than another
Rationality – Quality of being agreeable to reason
Skill – Ability to carry out a task
Wisdom – Ability to think and act using knowledge, experience, understanding, common sense and insight
- Sapience

Properties of thought

Accuracy and precision – Characterization of measurement error
Cogency
Dogma – Belief(s) accepted by members of a group without question
Effectiveness – Capability of producing the desired result
Efficacy – Ablility to finish a task satisfactorily
Efficiency – Degree to which a process minimizes waste of resources
Freethought – Position that beliefs should be formed only on the basis of logic, reason, and empiricism
Frugality – Being frugal in the consumption of consumable resources
Meaning
Prudence – The ability of a person to regulate themselves with the use of reason
Rights – Legal, social, or ethical principles
Skepticism – Doubtful attitude toward knowledge claims
Soundness – Logical term meaning that an argument is valid and its premises are true
Validity – Argument whose conclusion must be true if its premises are
Value theory – Concept in sociology and philosophy
Wrongdoing – Act that is illegal or immoral

Fields that study thought

Linguistics – Science of human language
Philosophy – Study of general and fundamental questions
- Logic – Study of correct reasoning
- Philosophy of mind – Branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of the mind
Neuroscience – Scientific study of the nervous system
- Cognitive science – Interdisciplinary scientific study of the mind, the gut and its processes
- Psychology – Study of mental functions and behaviours
  - Cognitive psychology – Subdiscipline of psychology
  - Social psychology – Study of social effects on people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
- Psychiatry – Branch of medicine devoted to mental disorders
Mathematics – Area of knowledge
Operations research – Discipline concerning the application of advanced analytical methods

Thought tools and thought research

Cognitive model
Design tool
Diagram – Symbolic representation of information using visualization techniques
- Argument map – Visual representation of the structure of an argument
- Concept map – Diagram showing relationships among concepts
- Mind map – Diagram to visually organize information
DSRP – Theory and method of thinking
Intelligence amplification – Use of information technology to augment human intelligence
Language – Structured system of communication
Meditation – Mental practice of focus on a particular topic
Six Thinking Hats – 1985 book by Maltese Dr. Edward de Bono
Synectics

History of thinking

History of reasoning

History of artificial intelligence – Overview of the history of artificial intelligence
History of cognitive science
History of the concept of creativity
History of ideas
History of logic – Study of the history of the science of valid inference
History of psychometrics

Nootropics (cognitive enhancers and smart drugs)

Nootropic – Drug, supplement, or other substance that improves cognitive function

Substances that improve mental performance:

5-Hydroxytryptophan, also known as 5-HTP
Adrafinil – Wakefulness promoting drug (Olmifon)
Aniracetam – Medication
Withania somnifera, also known as Ashwagandha – Species of plant
Bacopa monnieri – Species of aquatic plant (Brahmi)
Caffeine – Central nervous system stimulant
Acetylcarnitine, also known as Acetyl-L-carnitine – Form of L-carnitine (ALCAR)
Meclofenoxate, also known as Centrophenoxine – Chemical compound
Choline – Chemical compound and essential nutrient
Cholinergic – Agent which mimics choline
Chromium
Coenzyme Q10 – Chemical compound
Coffee – Brewed beverage made from coffee beans
Creatine – Chemical compound
Dimethylethanolamine (DMAE)
Ergoloid mesylates – Chemical compound (Hydergine)
Huperzine A – Chemical compound
Idebenone
Inositol – Carbocyclic sugar
L-DOPA – Chemical compound
Lecithin – Generic term for amphiphilic substances of plant and animal origin
Lemon balm – Species of plant (Melissa Officinalis)
Lipoic acid
Methylphenidate – Central nervous system stimulant (Ritalin)
Modafinil – Atypical stimulant medication that is used to treat excessive somnolence (Provigil)
Oxiracetam – Chemical compound
Phenibut – Chemical compound
Phenylalanine – Type of α-amino acid
Piracetam – Cerebral activators (Nootropil)
Pramiracetam – Chemical compound
Pyritinol – Chemical compound (Enerbol)
Rhodiola rosea – Species of flowering plant in the stonecrop family Crassulaceae
Selegiline (Deprenyl) – Monoamine oxidase inhibitor
Eleutherococcus senticosus, also known as Siberian ginseng – Species of flowering plant
Hypericum perforatum, also known as St John's Wort – Flowering plant in the St John's wort family Hypericaceae
Sutherlandia frutescens – Species of legume
Tea – Hot drink made from water and tea leaves
Theanine – Chemical compound
Theophylline – Drug used to treat respiratory diseases
Tryptophan
Tyrosine – Amino acid
Vasopressin – Mammalian hormone released from the pituitary gland
Vinpocetine
Vitamin B₃, also known as Nicotinic acid – Class of chemically related vitamers
Vitamin B₅
Vitamin B₆ – Class of chemically related vitamins
Vitamin B₁₂ – Vitamin used in animal cells' metabolism
Vitamin C – Essential nutrient found in citrus fruits and other foods
Pausinystalia johimbe, also known as Yohimbe

Organizational thinking concepts

Attribution theory
Communication – Transmission of information
Concept testing
Evaporating Cloud
Fifth discipline
Groupthink – Psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people
Collective intelligence, also known as Group synergy – Group intelligence that emerges from collective efforts
Ideas bank – Resource for the posting, exchange, discussion, and polishing of new ideas
Language interpretation – Facilitating of oral or sign-language communication between users of different languages
Learning organization – Type of company
Metaplan
Operations research – Discipline concerning the application of advanced analytical methods
Organization development – Study and implementation of practices, systems, and techniques that affect organizational change
Organizational communication – Field of study in communication studies
Organizational culture – Customary behaviours in an organization
Organizational ethics
Organizational learning – Academic discipline; examines how goal-driven social entities add and create knowledge
Rhetoric – Art of discourse
Smart mob – Digital-communication coordinated group
Theory of constraints – Management paradigm
Think tank – Organization that performs policy research and advocacy
Wisdom of crowds – 2004 book by James Surowiecki

Teaching methods and skills

Active learning – Educational technique
Classical conditioning – Aspect of learning procedure
Directed listening and thinking activity
Discipline – Action or inaction that is regulated to be by a particular system of governance
Learning theory (education) – Theory that describes how students receive, process, and retain knowledge during learning
Mentorship – Guidance relationship
Operant conditioning – Type of associative learning process for behavioral modification
Problem-based learning – Learner centric pedagogy
Punishment – Imposition of an undesirable or unpleasant outcome
Reinforcement – Consequence affecting an organism's future behavior

Awards related to thinking

Awards for acts of genius

Nobel Prize – Prizes established by Alfred Nobel in 1895
Pulitzer Prize – Award for achievements in journalism, literature, and musical composition within the United States
MacArthur Fellows Program – Annual prize by the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation

Organizations

Associations pertaining to thought
High IQ societies
- Mega Society – High IQ society
- Mensa – Largest and oldest high-IQ society in the world
Mind Sports Organisations
- World Mind Sports Games – Multi-sport event
Think tank – Organization that performs policy research and advocacys

Media

Publications

Books

Handbook of Automated Reasoning

Periodicals

Television programs

Thinkabout (U.S. TV series)

Persons associated with thinking

Related concepts

Awareness and perception

Learning and memory

References

^ Dictionary.com, "mind": "1. (in a human or other conscious being) the element, part, substance, or process that reasons, thinks, feels, wills, perceives, judges, etc.: the processes of the mind. 2. Psychology. the totality of conscious and unconscious mental processes and activities. 3. intellect or understanding, as distinguished from the faculties of feeling and willing; intelligence."
^ Google definition, "mind": "The element of a person that enables them to be aware of the world and their experiences, to think, and to feel; the faculty of consciousness." [1]
^ Tirri, Nokelainen (January 2012). Measuring Multiple Intelligences and Moral Sensitivities in Education. Springer. ISBN 978-94-6091-758-5.
^ Danko Nikolić (2014). "Practopoiesis: Or how life fosters a mind. arXiv:1402.5332 [q-bio.NC]".
^ "Definition of: Moral Reasoning". Retrieved 21 July 2011.
^ "Dictionary Search › proportional reasoning - Quizlet".
^ . National Association of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapists. Archived from the original on November 26, 2010. Retrieved March 8, 2011.

External links

The Psychology of Emotions, Feelings and Thoughts, Free Online Book

[dict-1] Dictionary.com, "mind": "1. (in a human or other conscious being) the element, part, substance, or process that reasons, thinks, feels, wills, perceives, judges, etc.: the processes of the mind. 2. Psychology. the totality of conscious and unconscious mental processes and activities. 3. intellect or understanding, as distinguished from the faculties of feeling and willing; intelligence."

[2] Google definition, "mind": "The element of a person that enables them to be aware of the world and their experiences, to think, and to feel; the faculty of consciousness." [1]

[3] Tirri, Nokelainen (January 2012). Measuring Multiple Intelligences and Moral Sensitivities in Education. Springer. ISBN 978-94-6091-758-5.

[Nikolic2014-4] Danko Nikolić (2014). "Practopoiesis: Or how life fosters a mind. arXiv:1402.5332 [q-bio.NC]".

[5] "Definition of: Moral Reasoning". Retrieved 21 July 2011.

[6] "Dictionary Search › proportional reasoning - Quizlet".

[nacbt-7] . National Association of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapists. Archived from the original on November 26, 2010. Retrieved March 8, 2011.

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