fbpx
Wikipedia

Self-esteem

January 08, 2023

For the song, see Self Esteem (song). For the musician, see Self Esteem (musician).

Self-esteem is confidence in one's own worth or abilities. Self-esteem encompasses beliefs about oneself (for example, "I am loved", "I am worthy") as well as emotional states, such as triumph, despair, pride, and shame.[1] Smith and Mackie (2007) defined it by saying "The self-concept is what we think about the self; self-esteem, is the positive or negative evaluations of the self, as in how we feel about it."[2]

Self-esteem is an attractive psychological construct because it predicts certain outcomes, such as academic achievement,[3][4] happiness,[5] satisfaction in marriage and relationships,[6] and criminal behavior.[6] Self-esteem can apply to a specific attribute or globally. Psychologists usually regard self-esteem as an enduring personality characteristic (trait self-esteem), though normal, short-term variations (state self-esteem) also exist. Synonyms or near-synonyms of self-esteem include: self-worth,[7] self-regard,[8] self-respect,[9][10] and self-integrity.

History

The concept of self-esteem has its origins in the 18th century, first expressed in the writings of the Scottish enlightenment thinker David Hume. Hume posits that it is important to value and think well of oneself because it serves a motivational function that enables people to explore their full potential.[11][12]

The identification of self-esteem as a distinct psychological construct has its origins in the work of philosopher, psychologist, geologist, and anthropologist William James (1892). James identified multiple dimensions of the self, with two levels of hierarchy: processes of knowing (called the "I-self") and the resulting knowledge about the self (the "Me-self"). The observation about the self and storage of those observations by the I-self creates three types of knowledge, which collectively account for the Me-self, according to James. These are the material self, social self, and spiritual self. The social self comes closest to self-esteem, comprising all characteristics recognized by others. The material self consists of representations of the body and possessions and the spiritual self of descriptive representations and evaluative dispositions regarding the self. This view of self-esteem as the collection of an individual's attitudes toward itself remains today.[13]

In the mid-1960s, social psychologist Morris Rosenberg defined self-esteem as a feeling of self-worth and developed the Rosenberg self-esteem scale (RSES), which became the most-widely used scale to measure self-esteem in the social sciences.[14]

In the early 20th century, the behaviorist movement minimized introspective study of mental processes, emotions, and feelings, replacing introspection with objective study through experiments on behaviors observed in relation with the environment. Behaviorism viewed the human being as an animal subject to reinforcements, and suggested placing psychology as an experimental science, similar to chemistry or biology. As a consequence, clinical trials on self-esteem were overlooked, since behaviorists considered the idea less liable to rigorous measurement.[15] In the mid-20th century, the rise of phenomenology and humanistic psychology led to renewed interest in self-esteem. Self-esteem then took a central role in personal self-actualization and in the treatment of psychic disorders. Psychologists started to consider the relationship between psychotherapy and the personal satisfaction of people with high self-esteem as useful to the field. This led to new elements being introduced to the concept of self-esteem, including the reasons why people tend to feel less worthy and why people become discouraged or unable to meet challenges by themselves.[15]

In 1992 the political scientist Francis Fukuyama associated self-esteem with what Plato called thymos – the "spiritedness" part of the Platonic soul.[16]

From 1997, the core self-evaluations approach included self-esteem as one of four dimensions that comprise one's fundamental appraisal of oneself – along with locus of control, neuroticism, and self-efficacy.[17] The concept of core self-evaluations as first examined by Judge, Locke, and Durham (1997),[17] has since proven to have the ability to predict job satisfaction and job performance.[17][18][19][20][21] Self-esteem may be essential to self-evaluation.[20]

In public policy

The importance of self-esteem gained endorsement from some government and non-government groups starting around the 1970s, such that one can speak of a self-esteem movement.[5][22] This movement can be used[by whom?] as an example of promising evidence that psychological research can have an effect on forming public policy.[citation needed] The underlying idea of the movement was that low self-esteem was the root of problems for individuals, making it the root of societal problems and dysfunctions. A leading figure of the movement, psychologist Nathaniel Branden, stated: "[I] cannot think of a single psychological problem – from anxiety and depression, to fear of intimacy or of success, to spouse battery or child molestation – that is not traced back to the problem of low self-esteem".[5]: 3 

Self-esteem was believed[by whom?] to be a cultural phenomenon of Western individualistic societies since low self-esteem was not found in collectivist countries such as Japan.[23] Concern about low self-esteem and its many presumed negative consequences led California assemblyman John Vasconcellos to work to set up and fund the Task Force on Self-Esteem and Personal and Social Responsibility, in California, in 1986. Vasconcellos argued that this task force could combat many of the state's problems – from crime and teen pregnancy to school underachievement and pollution.[5] He compared increasing self-esteem to giving out a vaccine for a disease: it could help protect people from being overwhelmed by life's challenges.

The task force set up committees in many California counties and formed a committee of scholars to review the available literature on self-esteem. This committee found very small associations between low self-esteem and its assumed consequences, ultimately showing that low self-esteem was not the root of all societal problems and not as important as the committee had originally thought. However, the authors of the paper that summarized the review of the literature still believed that self-esteem is an independent variable that affects major social problems. The task force disbanded in 1995, and the National Council for Self-Esteem and later the National Association for Self-Esteem (NASE) was established,[by whom?] taking on the task force's mission. Vasconcellos and Jack Canfield were members of its advisory board in 2003, and members of its masters' coalition included Anthony Robbins, Bernie Siegel, and Gloria Steinem.[5]

Theories

Many early theories suggested that self-esteem is a basic human need or motivation. American psychologist Abraham Maslow included self-esteem in his hierarchy of human needs. He described two different forms of "esteem": the need for respect from others in the form of recognition, success, and admiration, and the need for self-respect in the form of self-love, self-confidence, skill, or aptitude.[24] Respect from others was believed to be more fragile and easily lost than inner self-esteem. According to Maslow, without the fulfillment of the self-esteem need, individuals will be driven to seek it and unable to grow and obtain self-actualization. Maslow also states that the healthiest expression of self-esteem "is the one which manifests in the respect we deserve for others, more than renown, fame, and flattery". Modern theories of self-esteem explore the reasons humans are motivated to maintain a high regard for themselves. Sociometer theory maintains that self-esteem evolved to check one's level of status and acceptance in one's social group. According to Terror Management Theory, self-esteem serves a protective function and reduces anxiety about life and death.[25]

Carl Rogers (1902–1987), an advocate of humanistic psychology, theorized the origin of many people's problems to be that they despise themselves and consider themselves worthless and incapable of being loved. This is why Rogers believed in the importance of giving unconditional acceptance to a client and when this was done it could improve the client's self-esteem.[15] In his therapy sessions with clients, he offered positive regard no matter what.[26] Indeed, the concept of self-esteem is approached since then in humanistic psychology as an inalienable right for every person, summarized in the following sentence:

Every human being, with no exception, for the mere fact to be it, is worthy of unconditional respect of everybody else; he deserves to esteem himself and to be esteemed.[15]

Measurement

Self-esteem is typically assessed using self-report inventories.

One of the most widely used instruments, the Rosenberg self-esteem scale (RSES)[27] is a 10-item self-esteem scale score that requires participants to indicate their level of agreement with a series of statements about themselves. An alternative measure, the Coopersmith Inventory uses a 50-question battery over a variety of topics and asks subjects whether they rate someone as similar or dissimilar to themselves.[28] If a subject's answers demonstrate solid self-regard, the scale regards them as well adjusted. If those answers reveal some inner shame, it considers them to be prone to social deviance.[29]

Implicit measures of self-esteem began to be used in the 1980s.[30] These rely on indirect measures of cognitive processing thought to be linked to implicit self-esteem, including the name letter task (or initial preference task)[31][32] and the Implicit Association Task.[33]

Such indirect measures are designed to reduce awareness of the process of assessment. When using them to assess implicit self-esteem, psychologists apply self-relevant stimuli to the participant and then measure how quickly a person identifies positive or negative stimuli.[34] For example, if a woman was given the self-relevant stimuli of female and mother, psychologists would measure how quickly she identified the negative word, evil, or the positive word, kind.

Development across lifespan

Experiences in a person's life are a major source of how self-esteem develops.[5] In the early years of a child's life, parents have a significant influence on self-esteem and can be considered the main source of positive and negative experiences a child will have.[35] Unconditional love from parents helps a child develop a stable sense of being cared for and respected. These feelings translate into later effects on self-esteem as the child grows older.[36] Students in elementary school who have high self-esteem tend to have authoritative parents who are caring, supportive adults who set clear standards for their child and allow them to voice their opinion in decision making.

Although studies thus far have reported only a correlation of warm, supportive parenting styles (mainly authoritative and permissive) with children having high self-esteem, these parenting styles could easily be thought of as having some causal effect in self-esteem development.[35][37][38][39] Childhood experiences that contribute to healthy self-esteem include being listened to, being spoken to respectfully, receiving appropriate attention and affection and having accomplishments recognized and mistakes or failures acknowledged and accepted. Experiences that contribute to low self-esteem include being harshly criticized, being physically, sexually or emotionally abused, being ignored, ridiculed or teased or being expected to be "perfect" all the time.[40]

During school-aged years, academic achievement is a significant contributor to self-esteem development.[5] Consistently achieving success or consistently failing will have a strong effect on students' individual self-esteem.[41] However, students can also experience low self-esteem while in school. For example, they may not have academic achievements, or they live in a troubled environment outside of school. Issues like the ones previously stated, can cause adolescents to doubt themselves. Social experiences are another important contributor to self-esteem. As children go through school, they begin to understand and recognize differences between themselves and their classmates. Using social comparisons, children assess whether they did better or worse than classmates in different activities. These comparisons play an important role in shaping the child's self-esteem and influence the positive or negative feelings they have about themselves.[42][43] As children go through adolescence, peer influence becomes much more important. Adolescents make appraisals of themselves based on their relationships with close friends.[44] Successful relationships among friends are very important to the development of high self-esteem for children. Social acceptance brings about confidence and produces high self-esteem, whereas rejection from peers and loneliness brings about self-doubts and produces low self-esteem.[45]

Adolescence shows an increase in self-esteem that continues to increase in young adulthood and middle age.[6] A decrease is seen from middle age to old age with varying findings on whether it is a small or large decrease.[6] Reasons for the variability could be because of differences in health, cognitive ability, and socioeconomic status in old age.[6] No differences have been found between males and females in their development of self-esteem.[6] Multiple cohort studies show that there is not a difference in the life-span trajectory of self-esteem between generations due to societal changes such as grade inflation in education or the presence of social media.[6]

High levels of mastery, low risk taking, and better health are ways to predict higher self-esteem. In terms of personality, emotionally stable, extroverted, and conscientious individuals experience higher self-esteem.[6] These predictors have shown us that self-esteem has trait-like qualities by remaining stable over time like personality and intelligence.[6] However, this does not mean it can not be changed.[6] Hispanic adolescents have a slightly lower self-esteem than their black and white peers, but then slightly higher levels by age 30.[46][47] African Americans have a sharper increase in self-esteem in adolescence and young adulthood compared to Whites. However, during old age, they experience a more rapid decline in self-esteem.[6]

Shame

Shame can be a contributor to those with problems of low self-esteem.[48] Feelings of shame usually occur because of a situation where the social self is devalued, such as a socially evaluated poor performance. A poor performance leads to higher responses of psychological states that indicate a threat to the social self namely a decrease in social self-esteem and an increase in shame.[49] This increase in shame can be helped with self-compassion.[50][51]

Real self, ideal self, and dreaded self

There are three levels of self-evaluation development in relation to the real self, ideal self, and the dreaded self. The real, ideal, and dreaded selves develop in children in a sequential pattern on cognitive levels.[52]

  • Moral judgment stages: Individuals describe their real, ideal, and dreaded selves with stereotypical labels, such as "nice" or "bad". Individuals describe their ideal and real selves in terms of disposition for actions or as behavioral habits. The dreaded self is often described as being unsuccessful or as having bad habits.
  • Ego development stages: Individuals describe their ideal and real selves in terms of traits that are based on attitudes as well as actions. The dreaded self is often described as having failed to meet social expectations or as self-centered.
  • Self-understanding stages: Individuals describe their ideal and real selves as having unified identities or characters. Descriptions of the dreaded self focus on a failure to live up to one's ideals or role expectations often because of real world problems.

This development brings with it increasingly complicated and encompassing moral demands. This level is where individuals' self-esteems can suffer because they do not feel as though they are living up to certain expectations. This feeling will moderately affect one's self-esteem with an even larger effect seen when individuals believe they are becoming their dreaded selves.[52]

Types

High

People with a healthy level of self-esteem:[53]

  • Firmly believe in certain values and principles, and are ready to defend them even when finding opposition, feeling secure enough to modify them in light of experience.[15]
  • Are able to act according to what they think to be the best choice, trusting their own judgment, and not feeling guilty when others do not like their choice.[15]
  • Do not lose time worrying excessively about what happened in the past, nor about what could happen in the future. They learn from the past and plan for the future, but live in the present intensely.[15]
  • Fully trust in their capacity to solve problems, not hesitating after failures and difficulties. They ask others for help when they need it.[15]
  • Consider themselves equal in dignity to others, rather than inferior or superior, while accepting differences in certain talents, personal prestige or financial standing.[15]
  • Understand how they are an interesting and valuable person for others, at least for those with whom they have a friendship.[15]
  • Resist manipulation, collaborate with others only if it seems appropriate and convenient.[15]
  • Admit and accept different internal feelings and drives, either positive or negative, revealing those drives to others only when they choose.[15]
  • Are able to enjoy a great variety of activities.[15]
  • Are sensitive to feelings and needs of others; respect generally accepted social rules, and claim no right or desire to prosper at others' expense.[15]
  • Can work toward finding solutions and voice discontent without belittling themselves or others when challenges arise.[54]

Secure vs. defensive

A person can have high self-esteem and hold it confidently where they do not need reassurance from others to maintain their positive self-view, whereas others with defensive high self-esteem may still report positive self-evaluations on the Rosenberg Scale, as all high self-esteem individuals do; however, their positive self-views are fragile and vulnerable to criticism. Defensive high self-esteem individuals internalize subconscious self-doubts and insecurities, causing them to react very negatively to any criticism they may receive. There is a need for constant positive feedback from others for these individuals to maintain their feelings of self-worth. The necessity of repeated praise can be associated with boastful, arrogant behavior or sometimes even aggressive and hostile feelings toward anyone who questions the individual's self-worth, an example of threatened egotism.[55][56]

The Journal of Educational Psychology conducted a study in which they used a sample of 383 Malaysian undergraduates participating in work integrated learning (WIL) programs across five public universities to test the relationship between self-esteem and other psychological attributes such as self-efficacy and self-confidence. The results demonstrated that self-esteem has a positive and significant relationship with self-confidence and self-efficacy since students with higher self-esteem had better performances at university than those with lower self-esteem. It was concluded that higher education institutions and employers should emphasize the importance of undergraduates' self-esteem development.[57]

Implicit and explicit

Implicit self-esteem refers to a person's disposition to evaluate themselves positively or negatively in a spontaneous, automatic, or unconscious manner. It contrasts with explicit self-esteem, which entails more conscious and reflective self-evaluation. Both explicit self-esteem and implicit self-esteem are theoretically subtypes of self-esteem proper.

However, the validity of implicit self-esteem as a construct is highly questionable, given not only its weak or nonexistent correlation with explicit self-esteem and informant ratings of self-esteem,[11][16] but also the failure of multiple measures of implicit self-esteem to correlate with each other.[24]

As present, there is little scientific evidence that self-esteem can be reliably or validly measured through implicit means.[25]

Narcissism and threatened egotism

Narcissism is a disposition people may have that represents an excessive love for one's self. It is characterized by an inflated view of self-worth. Individuals who score high on narcissism measures, Robert Raskin's Narcissistic Personality Inventory, would likely select true to such statements as "If I ruled the world, it would be a much better place."[58] There is only a moderate correlation between narcissism and self-esteem;[59] that is to say that an individual can have high self-esteem but low narcissism or can be a conceited, obnoxious person and score high self-esteem and high narcissism.[60] However, when correlation analysis is restricted to the sense of superiority or self-admiration aspects of narcissism, correlations between narcissism and self-esteem become strong (usually at or around r = .50, but sometimes up to β = .86).[8][7][9] Moreover, self-esteem is positively correlated with a sense of superiority even when controlling for overall narcissism.[1][3]

In addition to exaggerated regard for oneself, however, narcissism is additionally defined by such characteristics as entitlement, exploitativeness and dominance. Additionally, while positive self-image is a shared characteristic of narcissism and self-esteem, narcissistic self-appraisals are exaggerated and limited to agentic traits (intellect, talent, etc.), whereas in non-narcissistic self-esteem, positive views of the self compared with others are relatively modest and sample equally from the agentic and communal (morality, honesty, etc.) domains.[23] Thus, while sharing positive self-regard as a main feature, and while narcissism is defined by high self-esteem, the two constructs are not interchangeable.

Threatened egotism is characterized as a response to criticism that threatens the ego of narcissists; they often react in a hostile and aggressive manner.[14][61][62]

Low

Low self-esteem can result from various factors, including genetic factors, physical appearance or weight, mental health issues, socioeconomic status, significant emotional experiences, social stigma, peer pressure or bullying.[63]

A person with low self-esteem may show some of the following characteristics:[64][medical citation needed]

  • Heavy self-criticism and dissatisfaction.[15]
  • Hypersensitivity to criticism with resentment against critics and feelings of being attacked.[15]
  • Chronic indecision and an exaggerated fear of mistakes.[15]
  • Excessive will to please and unwillingness to displease any petitioner.[15]
  • Perfectionism, which can lead to frustration when perfection is not achieved.[15]
  • Neurotic guilt, dwelling on or exaggerating the magnitude of past mistakes.[15]
  • Floating hostility and general defensiveness and irritability without any proximate cause.[15]
  • Pessimism and a general negative outlook.[15]
  • Envy, invidiousness, or general resentment.[15]
  • Sees temporary setbacks as permanent, intolerable conditions.[54]

Individuals with low self-esteem tend to be critical of themselves. Some depend on the approval and praise of others when evaluating self-worth. Others may measure their likability in terms of successes: others will accept themselves if they succeed but will not if they fail.[65] People with chronic low self esteem are at a higher risk for experiencing psychotic disorders; and this behavior is closely linked to forming psychotic symptoms as well.[66][67][68][69][70][71][72][73]

Treatments

Metacognitive therapy, EMDR technique, mindfulness-based cognitive therapy, rational emotive behavior therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy and trait and construct therapies have been shown to improve the patient's self-esteem.[74]

The three states

This classification proposed by Martin Ross[75] distinguishes three states of self-esteem compared to the "feats" (triumphs, honors, virtues) and the "anti-feats" (defeats, embarrassment, shame, etc.) of the individuals.[4][76]

Shattered

The individual does not regard themselves as valuable or lovable. They may be overwhelmed by defeat, or shame, or see themselves as such, and they name their "anti-feat". For example, if they consider that being over a certain age is an anti-feat, they define themselves with the name of their anti-feat, and say, "I am old". They express actions and feelings such as pity, insulting themselves, and they may become paralyzed by their sadness.[75][77]

Vulnerable

The individual has a generally positive self-image. However, their self-esteem is also vulnerable to the perceived risk of an imminent anti-feat (such as defeat, embarrassment, shame, discredit), consequently, they are often nervous and regularly use defense mechanisms.[77] A typical protection mechanism of those with vulnerable self-esteem may consist in avoiding decision-making. Although such individuals may outwardly exhibit great self-confidence, the underlying reality may be just the opposite: the apparent self-confidence is indicative of their heightened fear of anti-feats and the fragility of their self-esteem.[4] They may also try to blame others to protect their self-image from situations that would threaten it. They may employ defense mechanisms, including attempting to lose at games and other competitions in order to protect their self-image by publicly dissociating themselves from a need to win, and asserting an independence from social acceptance which they may deeply desire. In this deep fear of being unaccepted by an individual's peers, they make poor life choices by making risky decisions.[76][77]

Strong

People with strong self-esteem have a positive self-image and enough strength so that anti-feats do not subdue their self-esteem. They have less fear of failure. These individuals appear humble, cheerful, and this shows a certain strength not to boast about feats and not to be afraid of anti-feats.[76][77] They are capable of fighting with all their might to achieve their goals because, if things go wrong, their self-esteem will not be affected. They can acknowledge their own mistakes precisely because their self-image is strong, and this acknowledgment will not impair or affect their self-image.[77] They live with less fear of losing social prestige, and with more happiness and general well-being.[77] However, no type of self-esteem is indestructible,[citation needed] and due to certain situations or circumstances in life, one can fall from this level into any other state of self-esteem.[75][77]

Contingent vs. non-contingent

A distinction is made between contingent (or conditional[78]) and non-contingent (or unconditional[79]) self-esteem.

Contingent self-esteem is derived from external sources, such as what others say, one's success or failure, one's competence,[80] or relationship-contingent self-esteem.

Therefore, contingent self-esteem is marked by instability, unreliability, and vulnerability. Persons lacking a non-contingent self-esteem are "predisposed to an incessant pursuit of self-value".[81] However, because the pursuit of contingent self-esteem is based on receiving approval, it is doomed to fail, as no one receives constant approval, and disapproval often evokes depression. Furthermore, fear of disapproval inhibits activities in which failure is possible.[82]

"The courage to be is the courage to accept oneself, in spite of being unacceptable.... This is the Pauline-Lutheran doctrine of 'justification by faith.'" Paul Tillich[83]

Non-contingent self-esteem is described as true, stable, and solid.[84] It springs from a belief that one is "acceptable period, acceptable before life itself, ontologically acceptable".[85] Belief that one is "ontologically acceptable" is to believe that one's acceptability is "the way things are without contingency".[86] In this belief, as expounded by theologian Paul Tillich, acceptability is not based on a person's virtue. It is an acceptance given "in spite of our guilt, not because we have no guilt".[87]

Psychiatrist Thomas A Harris drew on Tillich for his classic I'm OK – You're OK that addresses non-contingent self-esteem. Harris translated Tillich's "acceptable" by the vernacular OK, a term that means "acceptable".[88] The Christian message, said Harris, is not "YOU CAN BE OK, IF"; it is "YOU ARE ACCEPTED, unconditionally".[89]

A secure non-contingent self-esteem springs from the belief that one is ontologically acceptable and accepted.[90]

Domain-specific self-esteem

Whereas global self-esteem addresses how individuals appraise themselves in their entirety, domain-specific self-esteem facets relate to how they appraise themselves in various pertinent domains of life. Such functionally distinct facets of self-esteem may comprise self-evaluations in social, emotional, body-related, school performance-related, and creative-artistic domains.[91][92]

They have been found to be predictive of outcomes related to psychological functioning, health, education, and work.[93] Low self-esteem in the social domain (i.e., self-perceived social competence), for example, has been repeatedly identified as a risk factor for bullying victimization.[94][91]

Importance

Abraham Maslow states that psychological health is not possible unless the essential core of the person is fundamentally accepted, loved and respected by others and by oneself. Self-esteem allows people to face life with more confidence, benevolence, and optimism, and thus easily reach their goals and self-actualize.[95]

Self-esteem may make people convinced they deserve happiness.[95] Understanding this is fundamental, and universally beneficial, since the development of positive self-esteem increases the capacity to treat other people with respect, benevolence and goodwill, thus favoring rich interpersonal relationships and avoiding destructive ones.[95] For Erich Fromm, the love of others and love of ourselves are not alternatives. On the contrary, an attitude of love toward themselves will be found in all those who are capable of loving others. Self-esteem allows creativity at the workplace and is a specially critical condition for teaching professions.[96]

José-Vicente Bonet claims that the importance of self-esteem is obvious as a lack of self-esteem is, he says, not a loss of esteem from others, but self-rejection. Bonet claims that this corresponds to major depressive disorder.[15] Freud also claimed that the depressive has suffered "an extraordinary diminution in his self-regard, an impoverishment of his ego on a grand scale... He has lost his self-respect".[97]

The Yogyakarta Principles, a document on international human rights law, addresses the discriminatory attitude toward LGBT people that makes their self-esteem low to be subject to human rights violation including human trafficking.[98] The World Health Organization recommends in "Preventing Suicide",[99] published in 2000, that strengthening students' self-esteem is important to protect children and adolescents against mental distress and despondency, enabling them to cope adequately with difficult and stressful life situations.[100]

Other than increased happiness, higher self-esteem is also known to correlate with a better ability to cope with stress and a higher likeliness of taking on difficult tasks relative to those with low self-esteem.[101]

Correlations

From the late 1970s to the early 1990s many Americans assumed as a matter of course that students' self-esteem acted as a critical factor in the grades that they earned in school, in their relationships with their peers, and in their later success in life. Under this assumption, some American groups created programs which aimed to increase the self-esteem of students. Until the 1990s, little peer-reviewed and controlled research took place on this topic.

Peer-reviewed research undertaken since then has not validated previous assumptions. Recent research indicates that inflating students' self-esteems in and of itself has no positive effect on grades. Roy Baumeister has shown that inflating self-esteem by itself can actually decrease grades.[102][103] The relationship involving self-esteem and academic results does not signify that high self-esteem contributes to high academic results. It simply means that high self-esteem may be accomplished as a result of high academic performance due to the other variables of social interactions and life events affecting this performance.[5]

Attempts by pro-esteem advocates to encourage self-pride in students solely by reason of their uniqueness as human beings will fail if feelings of well-being are not accompanied by well-doing. It is only when students engage in personally meaningful endeavors for which they can be justifiably proud that self-confidence grows, and it is this growing self-assurance that in turn triggers further achievement.[104]

High self-esteem has a high correlation to self-reported happiness; whether this is a causal relationship has not been established.[5] The relationship between self-esteem and life satisfaction is stronger in individualistic cultures.[105]

Additionally, self-esteem has been found to be related to forgiveness in close relationships, in that people with high self-esteem will be more forgiving than people with low self-esteem.[106]

High self-esteem does not prevent children from smoking, drinking, taking drugs, or engaging in early sex.[5]

Mental Health

Self-esteem has been associated with several mental health conditions, including depression,[107] anxiety,[107] and eating disorders.[108] For example, low self-esteem may increase the likelihood that people who experience dysfunctional thoughts will develop symptoms of depression.[109] In contrast, high self-esteem may protect against the development of mental health conditions, with research finding that high self-esteem reduces the chances of bulimia[5] and anxiety.[110]

Neuroscience

In research conducted in 2014 by Robert S. Chavez and Todd F. Heatherton, it was found that self-esteem is related to the connectivity of the frontostriatal circuit. The frontostriatal pathway connects the medial prefrontal cortex, which deals with self-knowledge, to the ventral striatum, which deals with feelings of motivation and reward. Stronger anatomical pathways are correlated with higher long-term self-esteem, while stronger functional connectivity is correlated with higher short-term self-esteem.[111]

Criticism and controversy

The American psychologist Albert Ellis criticized on numerous occasions the concept of self-esteem as essentially self-defeating and ultimately destructive.[112] Although acknowledging the human propensity and tendency to ego rating as innate, he has critiqued the philosophy of self-esteem as unrealistic, illogical and self- and socially destructive – often doing more harm than good. Questioning the foundations and usefulness of generalized ego strength, he has claimed that self-esteem is based on arbitrary definitional premises, and overgeneralized, perfectionistic and grandiose thinking.[112] Acknowledging that rating and valuing behaviors and characteristics is functional and even necessary, he sees rating and valuing human beings' totality and total selves as irrational and unethical. The healthier alternative to self-esteem according to him is unconditional self-acceptance and unconditional other-acceptance.[113] Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy is a psychotherapy based on this approach.[114]

"There seem to be only two clearly demonstrated benefits of high self-esteem....First, it increases initiative, probably because it lends confidence. People with high self-esteem are more willing to act on their beliefs, to stand up for what they believe in, to approach others, to risk new undertakings. (This unfortunately includes being extra willing to do stupid or destructive things, even when everyone else advises against them.)...It can also lead people to ignore sensible advice as they stubbornly keep wasting time and money on hopeless causes"[115]

False attempts

For persons with low self-esteem, any positive stimulus will temporarily raise self-esteem. Therefore, possessions, sex, success, or physical appearance will produce the development of self-esteem, but the development is ephemeral at best.[116] Such attempts to raise one's self-esteem by positive stimulus produce a "boom or bust" pattern. "Compliments and positive feedback" produce a boost, but a bust follows a lack of such feedback. For a person whose "self-esteem is contingent", success is "not extra sweet", but "failure is extra bitter".[82]

As narcissism

Life satisfaction, happiness, healthy behavioral practices, perceived efficacy, and academic success and adjustment have been associated with having high levels of self-esteem (Harter, 1987; Huebner, 1991; Lipschitz-Elhawi & Itzhaky, 2005; Rumberger 1995; Swenson & Prelow, 2005; Yarcheski & Mahon, 1989).[ISBN missing][117]: 270  However, a common mistake is to think that loving oneself is necessarily equivalent to narcissism, as opposed for example to what Erik Erikson speaks of as "a post-narcissistic love of the ego".[118] People with a healthy self-esteem accept and love themselves unconditionally, acknowledging both virtues and faults in the self, and yet, in spite of everything, are able to continue to love themselves. In narcissists, by contrast, an " uncertainty about their own worth gives rise to...a self-protective, but often totally spurious, aura of grandiosity"[119] – producing the class "of narcissists, or people with very high, but insecure, self-esteem... fluctuating with each new episode of social praise or rejection."[2]: 479 

Narcissism can thus be seen as a symptom of fundamentally low self-esteem, that is, lack of love towards oneself, but often accompanied by "an immense increase in self-esteem" based on "the defense mechanism of denial by overcompensation."[120] "Idealized love of self...rejected the part of him" that he denigrates – "this destructive little child"[121] within. Instead, the narcissist emphasizes their virtues in the presence of others, just to try to convince themself that they are a valuable person and to try to stop feeling ashamed for their faults;[15] such "people with unrealistically inflated self-views, which may be especially unstable and highly vulnerable to negative information,...tend to have poor social skills."[2]: 126 

See also

 
Wikiquote has quotations related to Self-esteem.

References

  1. ^ a b Hewitt, John P. (2009). Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology. Oxford University Press. pp. 217–224. ISBN 978-0195187243.
  2. ^ a b c Smith, E. R.; Mackie, D. M. (2007). Social Psychology (3rd ed.). Hove: Psychology Press. ISBN 978-1841694085.
  3. ^ a b Marsh, H.W. (1990). "Causal ordering of academic self-concept and academic achievement: A multiwave, longitudinal path analysis". Journal of Educational Psychology. 82 (4): 646–656. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.82.4.646.
  4. ^ a b c Urbina Robalino, Gisella del Rocio; Eugenio Piloso, Mery Aracely (2015). Efectos de la violencia intrafamiliar en el autoestima de los estudiantes de octavo y noveno año de la Escuela de educación básica 11 de Diciembre (bachelor thesis) (in Spanish). Advised by S. Yagual. Ecuador: Universidad Estatal Península de Santa Elena.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Baumeister, R. F.; Campbell, J. D.; Krueger, J. I.; Vohs, K. D. (2003). "Does High Self-Esteem Cause Better Performance, Interpersonal Success, Happiness, or Healthier Lifestyles?". Psychological Science in the Public Interest. 4 (1): 1–44. doi:10.1111/1529-1006.01431. ISSN 1529-1006. PMID 26151640.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Orth U.; Robins R.W. (2014). "The development of self-esteem". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 23 (5): 381–387. doi:10.1177/0963721414547414. S2CID 38796272.
  7. ^ a b . Bartleby.com. Archived from the original on 25 January 2009. Retrieved 11 December 2017.
  8. ^ a b . Bartleby.com. Archived from the original on 25 January 2009. Retrieved 11 December 2017.
  9. ^ a b . Bartleby.com. Archived from the original on 24 January 2009. Retrieved 11 December 2017.
  10. ^ The Macquarie Dictionary. Compare The Dictionary of Psychology by Raymond Joseph Corsini. Psychology Press, 1999. ISBN 158391028X. Online via Google Book Search.
  11. ^ a b "Hume Texts Online". davidhume.org. Retrieved 2019-12-15.
  12. ^ Morris, William Edward; Brown, Charlotte R. (2019), "David Hume", in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2019 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrieved 2019-12-17
  13. ^ James, W. (1892). Psychology: The briefer course. New York: Henry Holt.[page needed][ISBN missing]
  14. ^ a b Baumeister, Roy F.; Smart, L.; Boden, J. (1996). "Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of self-esteem". Psychological Review. 103 (1): 5–33. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.1009.3747. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.103.1.5. PMID 8650299.
  15. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y José-Vicente Bonet. Sé amigo de ti mismo: manual de autoestima. 1997. Ed. Sal Terrae. Maliaño (Cantabria, España). ISBN 978-8429311334.
  16. ^ a b Fukuyama, Francis (1992). The End of History and the Last Man. New York: Simon and Schuster (published 2006). pp. xvi–xvii. ISBN 978-0743284554. Retrieved 2018-07-29. [...] Plato in the Republic [...] noted that there were three parts to the soul, a desiring part, a reasoning part, and a part that he called thymos, or 'spiritedness.' [...] The propensity to feel self-esteem arises out of the part of the soul called thymos.
  17. ^ a b c Judge, T. A.; Locke, E. A.; Durham, C. C. (1997). "The dispositional causes of job satisfaction: A core evaluations approach". Research in Organizational Behavior. 19: 151–188.
  18. ^ Bono, J. E.; Judge, T. A. (2003). "Core self-evaluations: A review of the trait and its role in job satisfaction and job performance". European Journal of Personality. 17 (Suppl1): S5–S18. doi:10.1002/per.481. S2CID 32495455.
  19. ^ Dormann, C.; Fay, D.; Zapf, D.; Frese, M. (2006). "A state-trait analysis of job satisfaction: On the effect of core self-evaluations". Applied Psychology: An International Review. 55 (1): 27–51. doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2006.00227.x.
  20. ^ a b Judge, T. A.; Locke, E. A.; Durham, C. C.; Kluger, A. N. (1998). "Dispositional effects on job and life satisfaction: The role of core evaluations". Journal of Applied Psychology. 83 (1): 17–34. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.83.1.17. PMID 9494439.
  21. ^ Judge, T. A.; Bono, J. E. (2001). "Relationship of core self-evaluations traits – self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability – with job satisfaction and job performance: A meta-analysis". Journal of Applied Psychology. 86 (1): 80–92. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.86.1.80. PMID 11302235.
  22. ^ Nolan, James L. (1998). The Therapeutic State: Justifying Government at Century's End. NYU Press. pp. 152–161. ISBN 978-0814757918. Retrieved 2013-05-06.
  23. ^ a b Heine S. J.; Lehman D. R.; Markus H. R.; Kitayama S. (1999). "Is there a universal need for positive self-regard?". Psychological Review. 106 (4): 766–794. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.321.2156. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.106.4.766. PMID 10560328.
  24. ^ a b Maslow, A. H. (1987). Motivation and Personality (3rd ed.). New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0060419875.
  25. ^ a b Greenberg, J. (2008). "Understanding the vital human quest for self-esteem". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 3 (1): 48–55. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2008.00061.x. PMID 26158669. S2CID 34963030.
  26. ^ Wickman S.A.; Campbell C. (2003). "An analysis of how Carl Rogers enacted client-centered conversation with Gloria". Journal of Counseling & Development. 81 (2): 178–184. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6678.2003.tb00239.x.
  27. ^ Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. doi:10.1515/9781400876136. ISBN 978-1400876136.
  28. ^ . Macses.ucsf.edu. Archived from the original on 11 July 2010. Retrieved 11 December 2017.
  29. ^ Slater, Lauren (3 Feb 2002). "The Trouble With Self-Esteem". The New York Times. Retrieved 27 Nov 2012.
  30. ^ Bosson J.K.; Swann W.B.; Pennebaker J.W. (2000). "Stalking the perfect measure of implicit self esteem: The blind men and the elephant revisited?". Journal of Personality & Social Psychology. 79 (4): 631–643. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.371.9919. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.79.4.631. PMID 11045743.
  31. ^ Koole, S. L., & Pelham, B. W. (2003). "On the nature of implicit self-esteem: The case of the name letter effect". In S. Spencer, S. Fein, & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), Motivated social perception: The Ontario Symposium (pp. 93–116). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.[ISBN missing]
  32. ^ Stieger, S.; Burger, C. (2013). "More complex than previously thought: New insights into the optimal administration of the Initial Preference Task". Self and Identity. 12 (2): 201–216. doi:10.1080/15298868.2012.655897. S2CID 142080983.
  33. ^ Greenwald, A. G.; McGhee, D. E.; Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). "Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test" (PDF). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 74 (6): 1464–1480. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464. PMID 9654756.
  34. ^ Hetts J.J.; Sakuma M.; Pelham B.W. (1999). "Two roads to positive regard: Implicit and explicit self-evaluation and culture". Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 35 (6): 512–559. doi:10.1006/jesp.1999.1391.
  35. ^ a b Raboteg-Saric Z.; Sakic M. (2014). "Relations of parenting styles and friendship quality to self-esteem, life satisfaction, & happiness in adolescents". Applied Research in the Quality of Life. 9 (3): 749–765. doi:10.1007/s11482-013-9268-0. S2CID 143419028.
  36. ^ Olsen, J. M.; Breckler, S. J.; Wiggins, E. C. (2008). Social Psychology Alive (First Canadian ed.). Toronto: Thomson Nelson. ISBN 978-0176224523.[page needed]
  37. ^ Coopersmith, S. (1967). The Antecedents of Self-Esteem. New York: W. H. Freeman. ISBN 978-0716709121.
  38. ^ Isberg, R. S.; Hauser, S. T.; Jacobson, A. M.; Powers, S. I.; Noam, G.; Weiss-Perry, B.; Fullansbee, D. (1989). "Parental contexts of adolescent self-esteem: A developmental perspective". Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 18 (1): 1–23. doi:10.1007/BF02139243. PMID 24271601. S2CID 35823262.
  39. ^ Lamborn, S. D.; Mounts, N. S.; Steinberg, L.; Dornbusch, S. M. (1991). "Patterns of Competence and Adjustment among Adolescents from Authoritative, Authoritarian, Indulgent, and Neglectful Families". Child Development. 62 (5): 1049–1065. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1991.tb01588.x. PMID 1756655.
  40. ^ "Self-Esteem." Self-Esteem. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Nov. 2012.
  41. ^ Crocker, J.; Sommers, S. R.; Luhtanen, R. K. (2002). "Hopes Dashed and Dreams Fulfilled: Contingencies of Self-Worth and Graduate School Admissions". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 28 (9): 1275–1286. doi:10.1177/01461672022812012. S2CID 143985402.
  42. ^ Butler, R. (1998). "Age Trends in the Use of Social and Temporal Comparison for Self-Evaluation: Examination of a Novel Developmental Hypothesis". Child Development. 69 (4): 1054–1073. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.tb06160.x. PMID 9768486.
  43. ^ Pomerantz, E. M.; Ruble, D. N.; Frey, K. S.; Grenlich, F. (1995). "Meeting Goals and Confronting Conflict: Children's Changing Perceptions of Social Comparison". Child Development. 66 (3): 723–738. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1995.tb00901.x. PMID 7789198.
  44. ^ Thorne, A.; Michaelieu, Q. (1996). "Situating Adolescent Gender and Self-Esteem with Personal Memories". Child Development. 67 (4): 1374–1390. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01802.x. PMID 8890489.
  45. ^ Leary, M. R.; Baumeister, R. F. (2000). "The Nature and Function of Self-Esteem: Sociometer Theory". In Zanna, M. P. (ed.). Advances in Experimental Social Psychology. Vol. 32. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. pp. 1–62. ISBN 978-0120152322.
  46. ^ Erol, R. Y.; Orth, U. (2011). "Self-Esteem Development From Age 14 to 30 Years: A Longitudinal Study". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 101 (3): 607–619. doi:10.1037/a0024299. PMID 21728448.
  47. ^ Maldonado L.; Huang Y.; Chen R.; Kasen S.; Cohen P.; Chen H. (2013). "Impact of early adolescent anxiety disorders on self-esteem development from adolescence to young adulthood". Journal of Adolescent Health. 53 (2): 287–292. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.02.025. PMC 3725205. PMID 23648133.
  48. ^ Ehrenreich, Barbara (2007). Patterns for college Writing (12th ed.). Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's. p. 680.[ISBN missing]
  49. ^ Gruenewald T.L.; Kemeny M.E.; Aziz N.; Fahey J.L. (2004). "Acute threat to the social self: Shame, social self-esteem, and cortisol activity". Psychosomatic Medicine. 66 (6): 915–924. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.505.5316. doi:10.1097/01.psy.0000143639.61693.ef. PMID 15564358. S2CID 29504978.
  50. ^ Johnson E.A.; O'Brien K.A. (2013). "Self-compassion soothes the savage ego-threat system: Effects on negative affect, shame, rumination, & depressive symptoms". Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 32 (9): 939963. doi:10.1521/jscp.2013.32.9.939.
  51. ^ In a survey on technology 60% of people using social media reported that it has impacted their self-esteem in a negative way.
  52. ^ a b Power, F. Clark; Khmelkov, Vladimir T. (1998). "Character development and self-esteem: Psychological foundations and educational implications". International Journal of Educational Research. 27 (7): 539–551. doi:10.1016/S0883-0355(97)00053-0.
  53. ^ Adapted from Hamachek, D. E. (1971). Encounters with the Self. New York: Rinehart. ISBN 978-0030777851.
  54. ^ a b New, Michelle (March 2012). . KidsHealth. Archived from the original on 2012-11-23. Retrieved 27 November 2012.
  55. ^ Jordan, C. H.; Spencer, S. J.; Zanna, M. P. (2003). "'I love me...I love me not': Implicit self-esteem, explicit self-esteem and defensiveness". In Spencer, S. J.; Fein, S.; Zanna, M. P.; Olsen, J. M. (eds.). Motivated social perception: The Ontario symposium. Vol. 9. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. pp. 117–145. ISBN 978-0805840360.
  56. ^ Jordan, C. H.; Spencer, S. J.; Zanna, M. P.; Hoshino-Browne, E.; Correll, J. (2003). "Secure and defensive high self-esteem" (PDF). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 85 (5): 969–978. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.5.969. PMID 14599258.
  57. ^ Jaaffar, Amar Hisham; Ibrahim, Hazril Izwar; Rajadurai, Jegatheesan; Sohail, M. Sadiq (2019-06-24). "Psychological Impact of Work-Integrated Learning Programmes in Malaysia: The Moderating Role of Self-Esteem on Relation between Self-Efficacy and Self-Confidence". International Journal of Educational Psychology. 8 (2): 188–213. doi:10.17583/ijep.2019.3389. ISSN 2014-3591.
  58. ^ Barbara Krahe, The Social Psychology of Aggression (Psychology Press, 2013), 75.[ISBN missing]
  59. ^ Sedikieds, C.; Rudich, E. A.; Gregg, A. P.; Kumashiro, M.; Rusbult, C. (2004). "Are normal narcissists psychologically healthy? Self-esteem matters". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 87 (3): 400–416. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.3.400. PMID 15382988. S2CID 12903591.
  60. ^ "Narcissism vs. Authentic Self-Esteem". afterpsychotherapy.com. 17 January 2011. Retrieved 22 October 2017.
  61. ^ Morf, C. C.; Rhodewalk, F. (1993). "Narcissism and self-evaluation maintenance: Explorations in object relations". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 19 (6): 668–676. doi:10.1177/0146167293196001. S2CID 145525829.
  62. ^ Twenge, J. M.; Campbell, W. K. (2003). "'Isn't it fun to get the respect we're going to deserve?' Narcissism, social rejection, and aggression". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 29 (2): 261–272. doi:10.1177/0146167202239051. PMID 15272953. S2CID 29837581.
  63. ^ Jones FC (2003). "Low self esteem". Chicago Defender. p. 33. ISSN 0745-7014.
  64. ^ Adapted, Gill J. "Indispensable Self-Esteem". Human Development. 1: 1980.
  65. ^ Baldwin, M. W.; Sinclair, L. (1996). "Self-esteem and 'if...then' contingencies of interpersonal acceptance". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 71 (6): 1130–1141. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.71.6.1130. PMID 8979382. S2CID 7294467.
  66. ^ Warman DM, Lysaker PH, Luedtke B, Martin JM (2010) "Self-esteem and delusionproneness". JNervMentDis. 198:455–457.
  67. ^ Smith B, Fowler DG, Freeman D, Bebbington P, Bashforth H, Garety P, Dunn G,Kuipers E (2006) "Emotion and psychosis: Links between depression, self-esteem,negative schematic beliefs and delusions and hallucinations". Schizophr Res. 86:181–188
  68. ^ Garety PA, Kuipers E, Fowler D, Freeman D, Bebbington PE (2001) "A cognitivemodel of the positive symptoms of psychosis". Psychol Med. 31:189–195.
  69. ^ Bentall RP, Kinderman P, Kaney S (1994) "The self, attributional processes andabnormal beliefs: Towards a model of persecutory delusions". Behav Res Ther. 32:331–341
  70. ^ Karatzias T, Gumley A, Power K, O'Grady M (2007) "Illness appraisals and self-esteemas correlates of anxiety and affective comorbid disorders in schizophrenia". ComprPsychiatry. 48:371–375.
  71. ^ Bradshaw W, Brekke JS (1999) "Subjective experience in schizophrenia: Factorsinfluencing self-esteem, satisfaction with life, and subjective distress." Am J Ortho-psychiatry. 69:254–260.
  72. ^ Blairy S, Linotte S, Souery D, Papadimitriou GN, Dikeos D, Lerer B, Kaneva R,Milanova V, Serretti A, Macciardi F, Mendlewicz J (2004) "Social adjust-ment and self-esteem of bipolar patients: A multicentric study." J Affect Disord. 79:97–103
  73. ^ Bowins B, Shugar G (1998) "Delusions and self-esteem." Can J Psychiatry. 43:154–158.
  74. ^ "ORCID". orcid.org. 2021-08-31. Retrieved 2021-09-07.
  75. ^ a b c Ross, Martín. El Mapa de la Autoestima. 2013. Dunken. ISBN 978-9870267737[page needed]
  76. ^ a b c Leiva, Darcy (11 May 2015). "Como influye el genero en la Autoestima de los Adolescentes". Monografias.com. Retrieved 11 December 2017.
  77. ^ a b c d e f g Bonet Gallardo, L. (2015). La retroalimentació entre l'autoestima i l'activitat digital al col·lectiu adolescent [Feedback between self-esteem and digital activity in the adolescent group] (bachelor thesis) (in Spanish). Advised by Huertas Bailén, Amparo. Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona.
  78. ^ "Contingent Synonyms, Contingent Antonyms". thesaurus.com. Retrieved 22 October 2017.
  79. ^ "Unconditional". The Free Dictionary. Retrieved 11 December 2017.
  80. ^ Koivula, Nathalie; Hassmén, Peter; Fallby, Johan (2002). "Self-esteem and perfectionism in elite athletes: effects on competitive anxiety and self-confidence". Personality and Individual Differences. 32 (5): 865–875. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00092-7.
  81. ^ Victoria Blom. "'Striving for Self-esteem' (Department of Psychology, Stockholm University, 2011)" (PDF). p. 17.
  82. ^ a b "The Boom and Bust Ego". Psychology Today. Retrieved 11 December 2017.
  83. ^ Paul Tillich, Terry Lectures: Courage to Be (Yale University, 2000) 164.
  84. ^ Christopher J. Mruk, Self-esteem Research, Theory, and Practice (Springer, 1995), 88.
  85. ^ Terry D. Cooper, Paul Tillich and Psychology: Historic and Contemporary Explorations in Theology, Psychotherapy, and Ethics (Mercer University, 2006). 7.[ISBN missing]
  86. ^ "Self-esteem/OKness: a personal story" (PDF). Ahpcc.org.uk. Retrieved 11 December 2017.
  87. ^ Terry D. Cooper, Paul Tillich and Psychology: Historic and Contemporary Explorations in Theology, Psychotherapy, and Ethics (Mercer University,2006). 5.[ISBN missing]
  88. ^ "OK". The Free Dictionary. Retrieved 11 December 2017.
  89. ^ Thomas A. Harris, I'm OK – You're OK (Harper and Row), 1969, 235.
  90. ^ Michael H. Kernis. "Toward a Conceptualization of Optimal Self-Esteem" (PDF). Academic.udayton.edu. Retrieved 11 December 2017.
  91. ^ a b Burger, C.; Bachmann, L. (2021). "Perpetration and victimization in offline and cyber contexts: A variable- and person-oriented examination of associations and differences regarding domain-specific self-esteem and school adjustment". Int J Environ Res Public Health. 18 (19): 10429. doi:10.3390/ijerph181910429. PMC 8508291. PMID 34639731.   Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
  92. ^ Barbot B.; Safont-Mottay C.; Oubrayrie-Roussel N (2019). "Multidimensional scale of self-esteem (EMES-16): Psychometric evaluation of a domain-specific measure of self-esteem for French-speaking adolescents". International Journal of Behavioral Development. 43 (5): 436–446. doi:10.1177/0165025418824996. S2CID 151135576.
  93. ^ Orth U.; Dapp L.C.; Erol R.Y.; Krauss S.; Luciano E.C. (2021). "Development of domain-specific self-evaluations: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 120 (1): 145–172. doi:10.1037/pspp0000378. PMID 33252972. S2CID 227244920.
  94. ^ Andreou E (2001). "Bully/victim problems and their association with coping behaviour in conflictual peer interactions among school-age children". Educational Psychology. 21 (1): 59–66. doi:10.1080/01443410125042. S2CID 143734781.
  95. ^ a b c Nathaniel Branden. Cómo mejorar su autoestima. 1987. Versión traducida: 1990. 1ª edición en formato electrónico: enero de 2010. Ediciones Paidós Ibérica. ISBN 978-8449323478.
  96. ^ Christian Miranda. La autoestima profesional: una competencia mediadora para la innovación en las prácticas pedagógicas 2011-07-22 at the Wayback Machine. Revista Iberoamericana sobre Calidad, Eficacia y Cambio en Educación. 2005. Volume 3, number 1. PDF format.
  97. ^ Sigmund Freud, On Metapsychology (PFL 11) pp. 254–256
  98. ^ The Yogyakarta Principles, Preamble and Principles 11
  99. ^ World Health Organization (2014). . World Health Organization – Mental Health: 92. Archived from the original on September 5, 2014.
  100. ^ "Preventing Suicide, A resource for teachers and other school staff, WHO, Geneva, 2000" (PDF). who.int. Retrieved 22 October 2017.[dead link]
  101. ^ Schacter, Daniel L.; Gilbert, Daniel T.; Wegner, Daniel M. (2009). "Self Esteem". Psychology (Second ed.). New York: Worth. ISBN 978-0716752158.
  102. ^ Baumeister, Roy F.; Jennifer D. Campbell, Joachim I. Krueger and Kathleen D. Vohs; Krueger, Joachim I.; Vohs, Kathleen D. (January 2005). (PDF). Scientific American. 292 (1): 84–91. Bibcode:2005SciAm.292a..84B. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0105-84. PMID 15724341. S2CID 121786659. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 20 February 2011.
  103. ^ Baumeister, Roy (23 December 2009). "Self-Esteem". Education.com. Retrieved 8 January 2015.
  104. ^ Owens, Timothy J.; Stryker, Sheldon; Goodman, Norman, eds. (2001). Extending Self-Esteem Theory and Research: Sociological and Psychological Currents. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511527739. ISBN 978-0521630887.
  105. ^ Ulrich Schimmack and Ed Diener (2003). "Predictive validity of explicit and implicit self-esteem for subjective well-being" (PDF). Journal of Research in Personality. 37 (2): 100–106. doi:10.1016/S0092-6566(02)00532-9.
  106. ^ Eaton, J; Wardstruthers, C; Santelli, A (2006). "Dispositional and state forgiveness: The role of self-esteem, need for structure, and narcissism". Personality and Individual Differences. 41 (2): 371–380. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.02.005. ISSN 0191-8869.
  107. ^ a b Sowislo, Julia Friederike; Orth, Ulrich (2013). "Does low self-esteem predict depression and anxiety? A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies". Psychological Bulletin. 139 (1): 213–240. doi:10.1037/a0028931. ISSN 1939-1455. PMID 22730921.
  108. ^ Colmsee, Isabelle-Sophie O.; Hank, Petra; Bošnjak, Michael (2021-01-01). "Low Self-Esteem as a Risk Factor for Eating Disorders". Zeitschrift für Psychologie. 229 (1): 48–69. doi:10.1027/2151-2604/a000433. ISSN 2190-8370. S2CID 234058766.
  109. ^ Simpson, J.; Hillman, R.; Crawford, T.; Overton, P. G. (2010-12-01). "Self-esteem and self-disgust both mediate the relationship between dysfunctional cognitions and depressive symptoms". Motivation and Emotion. 34 (4): 399–406. doi:10.1007/s11031-010-9189-2. ISSN 1573-6644. S2CID 145371730.
  110. ^ Greenberg, Jeff; Solomon, Sheldon; Pyszczynski, Tom; Rosenblatt, Abram; Burling, John; Lyon, Deborah; Simon, Linda; Pinel, Elizabeth (1992). "Why do people need self-esteem? Converging evidence that self-esteem serves an anxiety-buffering function". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 63 (6): 913–922. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.63.6.913. ISSN 1939-1315. PMID 1460559.
  111. ^ Chavez, Robert S.; Heatherton, Todd F. (1 May 2014). "Multimodal frontostriatal connectivity underlies individual differences in self-esteem". Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. Oxford University Press. 10 (3): 364–370. doi:10.1093/scan/nsu063. PMC 4350482. PMID 24795440.
  112. ^ a b Ellis, A. (2001). Feeling better, getting better, staying better. Impact Publishers[ISBN missing][page needed]
  113. ^ Ellis, A. (2005). The Myth of Self-esteem. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1591023548.[page needed]
  114. ^ Ellis, Albert; Dryden, Windy (2007). The Practice of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy: Second Edition. Springer Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0826122179. Retrieved 11 December 2017 – via Google Books.
  115. ^ Baumeister; Tierney (2011). Willpower: The Greatest's Human Strength. p. 192.[ISBN missing]
  116. ^ Nathaniel Branden, The Six Pillars of Self-esteem (Bantam, 1995), 52.[ISBN missing] Also see Nathaniel Branden, How to Raise Your Self-Esteem: The Proven Action-Oriented Approach to Greater Self-Respect and Self-Confidence (Random House, 1988), 9.[ISBN missing]Spanish edition: Cómo mejorar su autoestima (Paidos, 2009).[ISBN missing]
  117. ^ Michaels, M.; Barr, A.; Roosa, M.; Knight, G. (2007). "Self-Esteem: Assessing Measurement Equivalence in a Multiethnic Sample of Youth". Journal of Early Adolescence. 27 (3): 269–95. doi:10.1177/0272431607302009. S2CID 146806309.
  118. ^ Erikson, Erik H. (1973). Childhood and Society. Harmondsworth: Penguin. p. 260. ISBN 978-0140207545.
  119. ^ Crompton, Simon (2007). All about Me. London: Collins. p. 16. ISBN 978-0007247950.
  120. ^ Fenichel, Otto (1946). The Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis. London. pp. 407–410.
  121. ^ Symington, Neville (2003). Narcissism: A New Theory. London: Karmac. p. 114. ISBN 978-1855750470.

Further reading

  • Baumeister, Roy F. (April 2001). "Violent Pride: Do people turn violent because of self-hate or self-love?," in Scientific American, 284, No. 4, pp. 96–101
  • Branden, N. (1969). The Psychology of Self-Esteem. New York: Bantam.
  • Branden, N. (2001). The psychology of self-esteem: a revolutionary approach to self-understanding that launched a new era in modern psychology. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. ISBN 0787945269
  • Burke, C. (2008) "Self-esteem: Why?; Why not?," New York[ISBN missing]
  • Crocker J.; Park L. E. (2004). "The costly pursuit of self-esteem". Psychological Bulletin. 130 (3): 392–414. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.392. PMID 15122925.
  • Franklin, Richard L. (1994). "Overcoming The Myth of Self-Worth: Reason and Fallacy in What You Say to Yourself." ISBN 0963938703
  • Hill, S.E. & Buss, D.M. (2006). "The Evolution of Self-Esteem." In Michael Kernis, (Ed.), Self Esteem: Issues and Answers: A Sourcebook of Current Perspectives.. Psychology Press: New York. 328–333. Full text
  • Lerner, Barbara (1985). "Self-Esteem and Excellence: The Choice and the Paradox," American Educator, Winter 1985.
  • Mecca, Andrew M., et al., (1989). The Social Importance of Self-esteem University of California Press, 1989. (ed; other editors included Neil J. Smelser and John Vasconcellos)
  • Mruk, C. (2006). Self-Esteem research, theory, and practice: Toward a positive psychology of self-esteem (3rd ed.). New York: Springer.[ISBN missing]
  • Rodewalt F.; Tragakis M. W. (2003). "Self-esteem and self-regulation: Toward optimal studies of self-esteem". Psychological Inquiry. 14 (1): 66–70. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli1401_02.
  • Ruggiero, Vincent R. (2000). "Bad Attitude: Confronting the Views That Hinder Student's Learning" American Educator.
  • Sedikides, C., & Gregg. A. P. (2003). "Portraits of the self." In M. A. Hogg & J. Cooper (Eds.), Sage handbook of social psychology (pp. 110–138). London: Sage Publications.[ISBN missing]
  • Twenge, Jean M. (2007). Generation Me: Why Today's Young Americans Are More Confident, Assertive, Entitled – and More Miserable Than Ever Before. Free Press. ISBN 978-0743276986

January 08, 2023
self, esteem, song, self, esteem, song, musician, self, esteem, musician, confidence, worth, abilities, encompasses, beliefs, about, oneself, example, loved, worthy, well, emotional, states, such, triumph, despair, pride, shame, smith, mackie, 2007, defined, s. For the song see Self Esteem song For the musician see Self Esteem musician Self esteem is confidence in one s own worth or abilities Self esteem encompasses beliefs about oneself for example I am loved I am worthy as well as emotional states such as triumph despair pride and shame 1 Smith and Mackie 2007 defined it by saying The self concept is what we think about the self self esteem is the positive or negative evaluations of the self as in how we feel about it 2 Self esteem is an attractive psychological construct because it predicts certain outcomes such as academic achievement 3 4 happiness 5 satisfaction in marriage and relationships 6 and criminal behavior 6 Self esteem can apply to a specific attribute or globally Psychologists usually regard self esteem as an enduring personality characteristic trait self esteem though normal short term variations state self esteem also exist Synonyms or near synonyms of self esteem include self worth 7 self regard 8 self respect 9 10 and self integrity Contents 1 History 1 1 In public policy 2 Theories 3 Measurement 4 Development across lifespan 4 1 Shame 4 2 Real self ideal self and dreaded self 5 Types 5 1 High 5 2 Secure vs defensive 5 3 Implicit and explicit 5 4 Narcissism and threatened egotism 5 5 Low 5 5 1 Treatments 5 6 The three states 5 6 1 Shattered 5 6 2 Vulnerable 5 6 3 Strong 5 7 Contingent vs non contingent 5 8 Domain specific self esteem 6 Importance 6 1 Correlations 6 2 Mental Health 7 Neuroscience 8 Criticism and controversy 8 1 False attempts 8 2 As narcissism 9 See also 10 References 11 Further readingHistory EditThe concept of self esteem has its origins in the 18th century first expressed in the writings of the Scottish enlightenment thinker David Hume Hume posits that it is important to value and think well of oneself because it serves a motivational function that enables people to explore their full potential 11 12 The identification of self esteem as a distinct psychological construct has its origins in the work of philosopher psychologist geologist and anthropologist William James 1892 James identified multiple dimensions of the self with two levels of hierarchy processes of knowing called the I self and the resulting knowledge about the self the Me self The observation about the self and storage of those observations by the I self creates three types of knowledge which collectively account for the Me self according to James These are the material self social self and spiritual self The social self comes closest to self esteem comprising all characteristics recognized by others The material self consists of representations of the body and possessions and the spiritual self of descriptive representations and evaluative dispositions regarding the self This view of self esteem as the collection of an individual s attitudes toward itself remains today 13 In the mid 1960s social psychologist Morris Rosenberg defined self esteem as a feeling of self worth and developed the Rosenberg self esteem scale RSES which became the most widely used scale to measure self esteem in the social sciences 14 In the early 20th century the behaviorist movement minimized introspective study of mental processes emotions and feelings replacing introspection with objective study through experiments on behaviors observed in relation with the environment Behaviorism viewed the human being as an animal subject to reinforcements and suggested placing psychology as an experimental science similar to chemistry or biology As a consequence clinical trials on self esteem were overlooked since behaviorists considered the idea less liable to rigorous measurement 15 In the mid 20th century the rise of phenomenology and humanistic psychology led to renewed interest in self esteem Self esteem then took a central role in personal self actualization and in the treatment of psychic disorders Psychologists started to consider the relationship between psychotherapy and the personal satisfaction of people with high self esteem as useful to the field This led to new elements being introduced to the concept of self esteem including the reasons why people tend to feel less worthy and why people become discouraged or unable to meet challenges by themselves 15 In 1992 the political scientist Francis Fukuyama associated self esteem with what Plato called thymos the spiritedness part of the Platonic soul 16 From 1997 the core self evaluations approach included self esteem as one of four dimensions that comprise one s fundamental appraisal of oneself along with locus of control neuroticism and self efficacy 17 The concept of core self evaluations as first examined by Judge Locke and Durham 1997 17 has since proven to have the ability to predict job satisfaction and job performance 17 18 19 20 21 Self esteem may be essential to self evaluation 20 In public policy Edit The importance of self esteem gained endorsement from some government and non government groups starting around the 1970s such that one can speak of a self esteem movement 5 22 This movement can be used by whom as an example of promising evidence that psychological research can have an effect on forming public policy citation needed The underlying idea of the movement was that low self esteem was the root of problems for individuals making it the root of societal problems and dysfunctions A leading figure of the movement psychologist Nathaniel Branden stated I cannot think of a single psychological problem from anxiety and depression to fear of intimacy or of success to spouse battery or child molestation that is not traced back to the problem of low self esteem 5 3 Self esteem was believed by whom to be a cultural phenomenon of Western individualistic societies since low self esteem was not found in collectivist countries such as Japan 23 Concern about low self esteem and its many presumed negative consequences led California assemblyman John Vasconcellos to work to set up and fund the Task Force on Self Esteem and Personal and Social Responsibility in California in 1986 Vasconcellos argued that this task force could combat many of the state s problems from crime and teen pregnancy to school underachievement and pollution 5 He compared increasing self esteem to giving out a vaccine for a disease it could help protect people from being overwhelmed by life s challenges The task force set up committees in many California counties and formed a committee of scholars to review the available literature on self esteem This committee found very small associations between low self esteem and its assumed consequences ultimately showing that low self esteem was not the root of all societal problems and not as important as the committee had originally thought However the authors of the paper that summarized the review of the literature still believed that self esteem is an independent variable that affects major social problems The task force disbanded in 1995 and the National Council for Self Esteem and later the National Association for Self Esteem NASE was established by whom taking on the task force s mission Vasconcellos and Jack Canfield were members of its advisory board in 2003 and members of its masters coalition included Anthony Robbins Bernie Siegel and Gloria Steinem 5 Theories EditMany early theories suggested that self esteem is a basic human need or motivation American psychologist Abraham Maslow included self esteem in his hierarchy of human needs He described two different forms of esteem the need for respect from others in the form of recognition success and admiration and the need for self respect in the form of self love self confidence skill or aptitude 24 Respect from others was believed to be more fragile and easily lost than inner self esteem According to Maslow without the fulfillment of the self esteem need individuals will be driven to seek it and unable to grow and obtain self actualization Maslow also states that the healthiest expression of self esteem is the one which manifests in the respect we deserve for others more than renown fame and flattery Modern theories of self esteem explore the reasons humans are motivated to maintain a high regard for themselves Sociometer theory maintains that self esteem evolved to check one s level of status and acceptance in one s social group According to Terror Management Theory self esteem serves a protective function and reduces anxiety about life and death 25 Carl Rogers 1902 1987 an advocate of humanistic psychology theorized the origin of many people s problems to be that they despise themselves and consider themselves worthless and incapable of being loved This is why Rogers believed in the importance of giving unconditional acceptance to a client and when this was done it could improve the client s self esteem 15 In his therapy sessions with clients he offered positive regard no matter what 26 Indeed the concept of self esteem is approached since then in humanistic psychology as an inalienable right for every person summarized in the following sentence Every human being with no exception for the mere fact to be it is worthy of unconditional respect of everybody else he deserves to esteem himself and to be esteemed 15 Measurement EditSelf esteem is typically assessed using self report inventories One of the most widely used instruments the Rosenberg self esteem scale RSES 27 is a 10 item self esteem scale score that requires participants to indicate their level of agreement with a series of statements about themselves An alternative measure the Coopersmith Inventory uses a 50 question battery over a variety of topics and asks subjects whether they rate someone as similar or dissimilar to themselves 28 If a subject s answers demonstrate solid self regard the scale regards them as well adjusted If those answers reveal some inner shame it considers them to be prone to social deviance 29 Implicit measures of self esteem began to be used in the 1980s 30 These rely on indirect measures of cognitive processing thought to be linked to implicit self esteem including the name letter task or initial preference task 31 32 and the Implicit Association Task 33 Such indirect measures are designed to reduce awareness of the process of assessment When using them to assess implicit self esteem psychologists apply self relevant stimuli to the participant and then measure how quickly a person identifies positive or negative stimuli 34 For example if a woman was given the self relevant stimuli of female and mother psychologists would measure how quickly she identified the negative word evil or the positive word kind Development across lifespan EditExperiences in a person s life are a major source of how self esteem develops 5 In the early years of a child s life parents have a significant influence on self esteem and can be considered the main source of positive and negative experiences a child will have 35 Unconditional love from parents helps a child develop a stable sense of being cared for and respected These feelings translate into later effects on self esteem as the child grows older 36 Students in elementary school who have high self esteem tend to have authoritative parents who are caring supportive adults who set clear standards for their child and allow them to voice their opinion in decision making Although studies thus far have reported only a correlation of warm supportive parenting styles mainly authoritative and permissive with children having high self esteem these parenting styles could easily be thought of as having some causal effect in self esteem development 35 37 38 39 Childhood experiences that contribute to healthy self esteem include being listened to being spoken to respectfully receiving appropriate attention and affection and having accomplishments recognized and mistakes or failures acknowledged and accepted Experiences that contribute to low self esteem include being harshly criticized being physically sexually or emotionally abused being ignored ridiculed or teased or being expected to be perfect all the time 40 During school aged years academic achievement is a significant contributor to self esteem development 5 Consistently achieving success or consistently failing will have a strong effect on students individual self esteem 41 However students can also experience low self esteem while in school For example they may not have academic achievements or they live in a troubled environment outside of school Issues like the ones previously stated can cause adolescents to doubt themselves Social experiences are another important contributor to self esteem As children go through school they begin to understand and recognize differences between themselves and their classmates Using social comparisons children assess whether they did better or worse than classmates in different activities These comparisons play an important role in shaping the child s self esteem and influence the positive or negative feelings they have about themselves 42 43 As children go through adolescence peer influence becomes much more important Adolescents make appraisals of themselves based on their relationships with close friends 44 Successful relationships among friends are very important to the development of high self esteem for children Social acceptance brings about confidence and produces high self esteem whereas rejection from peers and loneliness brings about self doubts and produces low self esteem 45 Adolescence shows an increase in self esteem that continues to increase in young adulthood and middle age 6 A decrease is seen from middle age to old age with varying findings on whether it is a small or large decrease 6 Reasons for the variability could be because of differences in health cognitive ability and socioeconomic status in old age 6 No differences have been found between males and females in their development of self esteem 6 Multiple cohort studies show that there is not a difference in the life span trajectory of self esteem between generations due to societal changes such as grade inflation in education or the presence of social media 6 High levels of mastery low risk taking and better health are ways to predict higher self esteem In terms of personality emotionally stable extroverted and conscientious individuals experience higher self esteem 6 These predictors have shown us that self esteem has trait like qualities by remaining stable over time like personality and intelligence 6 However this does not mean it can not be changed 6 Hispanic adolescents have a slightly lower self esteem than their black and white peers but then slightly higher levels by age 30 46 47 African Americans have a sharper increase in self esteem in adolescence and young adulthood compared to Whites However during old age they experience a more rapid decline in self esteem 6 Shame Edit Shame can be a contributor to those with problems of low self esteem 48 Feelings of shame usually occur because of a situation where the social self is devalued such as a socially evaluated poor performance A poor performance leads to higher responses of psychological states that indicate a threat to the social self namely a decrease in social self esteem and an increase in shame 49 This increase in shame can be helped with self compassion 50 51 Real self ideal self and dreaded self Edit There are three levels of self evaluation development in relation to the real self ideal self and the dreaded self The real ideal and dreaded selves develop in children in a sequential pattern on cognitive levels 52 Moral judgment stages Individuals describe their real ideal and dreaded selves with stereotypical labels such as nice or bad Individuals describe their ideal and real selves in terms of disposition for actions or as behavioral habits The dreaded self is often described as being unsuccessful or as having bad habits Ego development stages Individuals describe their ideal and real selves in terms of traits that are based on attitudes as well as actions The dreaded self is often described as having failed to meet social expectations or as self centered Self understanding stages Individuals describe their ideal and real selves as having unified identities or characters Descriptions of the dreaded self focus on a failure to live up to one s ideals or role expectations often because of real world problems This development brings with it increasingly complicated and encompassing moral demands This level is where individuals self esteems can suffer because they do not feel as though they are living up to certain expectations This feeling will moderately affect one s self esteem with an even larger effect seen when individuals believe they are becoming their dreaded selves 52 Types EditHigh Edit Pyramid of Maslow People with a healthy level of self esteem 53 Firmly believe in certain values and principles and are ready to defend them even when finding opposition feeling secure enough to modify them in light of experience 15 Are able to act according to what they think to be the best choice trusting their own judgment and not feeling guilty when others do not like their choice 15 Do not lose time worrying excessively about what happened in the past nor about what could happen in the future They learn from the past and plan for the future but live in the present intensely 15 Fully trust in their capacity to solve problems not hesitating after failures and difficulties They ask others for help when they need it 15 Consider themselves equal in dignity to others rather than inferior or superior while accepting differences in certain talents personal prestige or financial standing 15 Understand how they are an interesting and valuable person for others at least for those with whom they have a friendship 15 Resist manipulation collaborate with others only if it seems appropriate and convenient 15 Admit and accept different internal feelings and drives either positive or negative revealing those drives to others only when they choose 15 Are able to enjoy a great variety of activities 15 Are sensitive to feelings and needs of others respect generally accepted social rules and claim no right or desire to prosper at others expense 15 Can work toward finding solutions and voice discontent without belittling themselves or others when challenges arise 54 Secure vs defensive Edit A person can have high self esteem and hold it confidently where they do not need reassurance from others to maintain their positive self view whereas others with defensive high self esteem may still report positive self evaluations on the Rosenberg Scale as all high self esteem individuals do however their positive self views are fragile and vulnerable to criticism Defensive high self esteem individuals internalize subconscious self doubts and insecurities causing them to react very negatively to any criticism they may receive There is a need for constant positive feedback from others for these individuals to maintain their feelings of self worth The necessity of repeated praise can be associated with boastful arrogant behavior or sometimes even aggressive and hostile feelings toward anyone who questions the individual s self worth an example of threatened egotism 55 56 The Journal of Educational Psychology conducted a study in which they used a sample of 383 Malaysian undergraduates participating in work integrated learning WIL programs across five public universities to test the relationship between self esteem and other psychological attributes such as self efficacy and self confidence The results demonstrated that self esteem has a positive and significant relationship with self confidence and self efficacy since students with higher self esteem had better performances at university than those with lower self esteem It was concluded that higher education institutions and employers should emphasize the importance of undergraduates self esteem development 57 Implicit and explicit Edit Implicit self esteem refers to a person s disposition to evaluate themselves positively or negatively in a spontaneous automatic or unconscious manner It contrasts with explicit self esteem which entails more conscious and reflective self evaluation Both explicit self esteem and implicit self esteem are theoretically subtypes of self esteem proper However the validity of implicit self esteem as a construct is highly questionable given not only its weak or nonexistent correlation with explicit self esteem and informant ratings of self esteem 11 16 but also the failure of multiple measures of implicit self esteem to correlate with each other 24 As present there is little scientific evidence that self esteem can be reliably or validly measured through implicit means 25 Narcissism and threatened egotism Edit Narcissism is a disposition people may have that represents an excessive love for one s self It is characterized by an inflated view of self worth Individuals who score high on narcissism measures Robert Raskin s Narcissistic Personality Inventory would likely select true to such statements as If I ruled the world it would be a much better place 58 There is only a moderate correlation between narcissism and self esteem 59 that is to say that an individual can have high self esteem but low narcissism or can be a conceited obnoxious person and score high self esteem and high narcissism 60 However when correlation analysis is restricted to the sense of superiority or self admiration aspects of narcissism correlations between narcissism and self esteem become strong usually at or around r 50 but sometimes up to b 86 8 7 9 Moreover self esteem is positively correlated with a sense of superiority even when controlling for overall narcissism 1 3 In addition to exaggerated regard for oneself however narcissism is additionally defined by such characteristics as entitlement exploitativeness and dominance Additionally while positive self image is a shared characteristic of narcissism and self esteem narcissistic self appraisals are exaggerated and limited to agentic traits intellect talent etc whereas in non narcissistic self esteem positive views of the self compared with others are relatively modest and sample equally from the agentic and communal morality honesty etc domains 23 Thus while sharing positive self regard as a main feature and while narcissism is defined by high self esteem the two constructs are not interchangeable Threatened egotism is characterized as a response to criticism that threatens the ego of narcissists they often react in a hostile and aggressive manner 14 61 62 Low Edit Low self esteem can result from various factors including genetic factors physical appearance or weight mental health issues socioeconomic status significant emotional experiences social stigma peer pressure or bullying 63 A person with low self esteem may show some of the following characteristics 64 medical citation needed Heavy self criticism and dissatisfaction 15 Hypersensitivity to criticism with resentment against critics and feelings of being attacked 15 Chronic indecision and an exaggerated fear of mistakes 15 Excessive will to please and unwillingness to displease any petitioner 15 Perfectionism which can lead to frustration when perfection is not achieved 15 Neurotic guilt dwelling on or exaggerating the magnitude of past mistakes 15 Floating hostility and general defensiveness and irritability without any proximate cause 15 Pessimism and a general negative outlook 15 Envy invidiousness or general resentment 15 Sees temporary setbacks as permanent intolerable conditions 54 Individuals with low self esteem tend to be critical of themselves Some depend on the approval and praise of others when evaluating self worth Others may measure their likability in terms of successes others will accept themselves if they succeed but will not if they fail 65 People with chronic low self esteem are at a higher risk for experiencing psychotic disorders and this behavior is closely linked to forming psychotic symptoms as well 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 Treatments Edit Metacognitive therapy EMDR technique mindfulness based cognitive therapy rational emotive behavior therapy cognitive behavioral therapy and trait and construct therapies have been shown to improve the patient s self esteem 74 The three states Edit This classification proposed by Martin Ross 75 distinguishes three states of self esteem compared to the feats triumphs honors virtues and the anti feats defeats embarrassment shame etc of the individuals 4 76 Shattered Edit The individual does not regard themselves as valuable or lovable They may be overwhelmed by defeat or shame or see themselves as such and they name their anti feat For example if they consider that being over a certain age is an anti feat they define themselves with the name of their anti feat and say I am old They express actions and feelings such as pity insulting themselves and they may become paralyzed by their sadness 75 77 Vulnerable Edit The individual has a generally positive self image However their self esteem is also vulnerable to the perceived risk of an imminent anti feat such as defeat embarrassment shame discredit consequently they are often nervous and regularly use defense mechanisms 77 A typical protection mechanism of those with vulnerable self esteem may consist in avoiding decision making Although such individuals may outwardly exhibit great self confidence the underlying reality may be just the opposite the apparent self confidence is indicative of their heightened fear of anti feats and the fragility of their self esteem 4 They may also try to blame others to protect their self image from situations that would threaten it They may employ defense mechanisms including attempting to lose at games and other competitions in order to protect their self image by publicly dissociating themselves from a need to win and asserting an independence from social acceptance which they may deeply desire In this deep fear of being unaccepted by an individual s peers they make poor life choices by making risky decisions 76 77 Strong Edit People with strong self esteem have a positive self image and enough strength so that anti feats do not subdue their self esteem They have less fear of failure These individuals appear humble cheerful and this shows a certain strength not to boast about feats and not to be afraid of anti feats 76 77 They are capable of fighting with all their might to achieve their goals because if things go wrong their self esteem will not be affected They can acknowledge their own mistakes precisely because their self image is strong and this acknowledgment will not impair or affect their self image 77 They live with less fear of losing social prestige and with more happiness and general well being 77 However no type of self esteem is indestructible citation needed and due to certain situations or circumstances in life one can fall from this level into any other state of self esteem 75 77 Contingent vs non contingent Edit A distinction is made between contingent or conditional 78 and non contingent or unconditional 79 self esteem Contingent self esteem is derived from external sources such as what others say one s success or failure one s competence 80 or relationship contingent self esteem Therefore contingent self esteem is marked by instability unreliability and vulnerability Persons lacking a non contingent self esteem are predisposed to an incessant pursuit of self value 81 However because the pursuit of contingent self esteem is based on receiving approval it is doomed to fail as no one receives constant approval and disapproval often evokes depression Furthermore fear of disapproval inhibits activities in which failure is possible 82 The courage to be is the courage to accept oneself in spite of being unacceptable This is the Pauline Lutheran doctrine of justification by faith Paul Tillich 83 Non contingent self esteem is described as true stable and solid 84 It springs from a belief that one is acceptable period acceptable before life itself ontologically acceptable 85 Belief that one is ontologically acceptable is to believe that one s acceptability is the way things are without contingency 86 In this belief as expounded by theologian Paul Tillich acceptability is not based on a person s virtue It is an acceptance given in spite of our guilt not because we have no guilt 87 Psychiatrist Thomas A Harris drew on Tillich for his classic I m OK You re OK that addresses non contingent self esteem Harris translated Tillich s acceptable by the vernacular OK a term that means acceptable 88 The Christian message said Harris is not YOU CAN BE OK IF it is YOU ARE ACCEPTED unconditionally 89 A secure non contingent self esteem springs from the belief that one is ontologically acceptable and accepted 90 Domain specific self esteem Edit Whereas global self esteem addresses how individuals appraise themselves in their entirety domain specific self esteem facets relate to how they appraise themselves in various pertinent domains of life Such functionally distinct facets of self esteem may comprise self evaluations in social emotional body related school performance related and creative artistic domains 91 92 They have been found to be predictive of outcomes related to psychological functioning health education and work 93 Low self esteem in the social domain i e self perceived social competence for example has been repeatedly identified as a risk factor for bullying victimization 94 91 Importance EditAbraham Maslow states that psychological health is not possible unless the essential core of the person is fundamentally accepted loved and respected by others and by oneself Self esteem allows people to face life with more confidence benevolence and optimism and thus easily reach their goals and self actualize 95 Self esteem may make people convinced they deserve happiness 95 Understanding this is fundamental and universally beneficial since the development of positive self esteem increases the capacity to treat other people with respect benevolence and goodwill thus favoring rich interpersonal relationships and avoiding destructive ones 95 For Erich Fromm the love of others and love of ourselves are not alternatives On the contrary an attitude of love toward themselves will be found in all those who are capable of loving others Self esteem allows creativity at the workplace and is a specially critical condition for teaching professions 96 Jose Vicente Bonet claims that the importance of self esteem is obvious as a lack of self esteem is he says not a loss of esteem from others but self rejection Bonet claims that this corresponds to major depressive disorder 15 Freud also claimed that the depressive has suffered an extraordinary diminution in his self regard an impoverishment of his ego on a grand scale He has lost his self respect 97 The Yogyakarta Principles a document on international human rights law addresses the discriminatory attitude toward LGBT people that makes their self esteem low to be subject to human rights violation including human trafficking 98 The World Health Organization recommends in Preventing Suicide 99 published in 2000 that strengthening students self esteem is important to protect children and adolescents against mental distress and despondency enabling them to cope adequately with difficult and stressful life situations 100 Other than increased happiness higher self esteem is also known to correlate with a better ability to cope with stress and a higher likeliness of taking on difficult tasks relative to those with low self esteem 101 Correlations Edit From the late 1970s to the early 1990s many Americans assumed as a matter of course that students self esteem acted as a critical factor in the grades that they earned in school in their relationships with their peers and in their later success in life Under this assumption some American groups created programs which aimed to increase the self esteem of students Until the 1990s little peer reviewed and controlled research took place on this topic Peer reviewed research undertaken since then has not validated previous assumptions Recent research indicates that inflating students self esteems in and of itself has no positive effect on grades Roy Baumeister has shown that inflating self esteem by itself can actually decrease grades 102 103 The relationship involving self esteem and academic results does not signify that high self esteem contributes to high academic results It simply means that high self esteem may be accomplished as a result of high academic performance due to the other variables of social interactions and life events affecting this performance 5 Attempts by pro esteem advocates to encourage self pride in students solely by reason of their uniqueness as human beings will fail if feelings of well being are not accompanied by well doing It is only when students engage in personally meaningful endeavors for which they can be justifiably proud that self confidence grows and it is this growing self assurance that in turn triggers further achievement 104 High self esteem has a high correlation to self reported happiness whether this is a causal relationship has not been established 5 The relationship between self esteem and life satisfaction is stronger in individualistic cultures 105 Additionally self esteem has been found to be related to forgiveness in close relationships in that people with high self esteem will be more forgiving than people with low self esteem 106 High self esteem does not prevent children from smoking drinking taking drugs or engaging in early sex 5 Mental Health Edit Self esteem has been associated with several mental health conditions including depression 107 anxiety 107 and eating disorders 108 For example low self esteem may increase the likelihood that people who experience dysfunctional thoughts will develop symptoms of depression 109 In contrast high self esteem may protect against the development of mental health conditions with research finding that high self esteem reduces the chances of bulimia 5 and anxiety 110 Neuroscience EditIn research conducted in 2014 by Robert S Chavez and Todd F Heatherton it was found that self esteem is related to the connectivity of the frontostriatal circuit The frontostriatal pathway connects the medial prefrontal cortex which deals with self knowledge to the ventral striatum which deals with feelings of motivation and reward Stronger anatomical pathways are correlated with higher long term self esteem while stronger functional connectivity is correlated with higher short term self esteem 111 Criticism and controversy EditThe American psychologist Albert Ellis criticized on numerous occasions the concept of self esteem as essentially self defeating and ultimately destructive 112 Although acknowledging the human propensity and tendency to ego rating as innate he has critiqued the philosophy of self esteem as unrealistic illogical and self and socially destructive often doing more harm than good Questioning the foundations and usefulness of generalized ego strength he has claimed that self esteem is based on arbitrary definitional premises and overgeneralized perfectionistic and grandiose thinking 112 Acknowledging that rating and valuing behaviors and characteristics is functional and even necessary he sees rating and valuing human beings totality and total selves as irrational and unethical The healthier alternative to self esteem according to him is unconditional self acceptance and unconditional other acceptance 113 Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy is a psychotherapy based on this approach 114 There seem to be only two clearly demonstrated benefits of high self esteem First it increases initiative probably because it lends confidence People with high self esteem are more willing to act on their beliefs to stand up for what they believe in to approach others to risk new undertakings This unfortunately includes being extra willing to do stupid or destructive things even when everyone else advises against them It can also lead people to ignore sensible advice as they stubbornly keep wasting time and money on hopeless causes 115 False attempts Edit For persons with low self esteem any positive stimulus will temporarily raise self esteem Therefore possessions sex success or physical appearance will produce the development of self esteem but the development is ephemeral at best 116 Such attempts to raise one s self esteem by positive stimulus produce a boom or bust pattern Compliments and positive feedback produce a boost but a bust follows a lack of such feedback For a person whose self esteem is contingent success is not extra sweet but failure is extra bitter 82 As narcissism Edit Life satisfaction happiness healthy behavioral practices perceived efficacy and academic success and adjustment have been associated with having high levels of self esteem Harter 1987 Huebner 1991 Lipschitz Elhawi amp Itzhaky 2005 Rumberger 1995 Swenson amp Prelow 2005 Yarcheski amp Mahon 1989 ISBN missing 117 270 However a common mistake is to think that loving oneself is necessarily equivalent to narcissism as opposed for example to what Erik Erikson speaks of as a post narcissistic love of the ego 118 People with a healthy self esteem accept and love themselves unconditionally acknowledging both virtues and faults in the self and yet in spite of everything are able to continue to love themselves In narcissists by contrast an uncertainty about their own worth gives rise to a self protective but often totally spurious aura of grandiosity 119 producing the class of narcissists or people with very high but insecure self esteem fluctuating with each new episode of social praise or rejection 2 479 Narcissism can thus be seen as a symptom of fundamentally low self esteem that is lack of love towards oneself but often accompanied by an immense increase in self esteem based on the defense mechanism of denial by overcompensation 120 Idealized love of self rejected the part of him that he denigrates this destructive little child 121 within Instead the narcissist emphasizes their virtues in the presence of others just to try to convince themself that they are a valuable person and to try to stop feeling ashamed for their faults 15 such people with unrealistically inflated self views which may be especially unstable and highly vulnerable to negative information tend to have poor social skills 2 126 See also Edit Wikiquote has quotations related to Self esteem Assertiveness Body image Clinical depression Dunning Kruger effect Eating disorder Emotional competence Fear of negative evaluation Gumption trap Health related embarrassment Hubris Identity Inner critic Invisible support Law of Jante List of confidence tricks Optimism bias Outline of self Overconfidence effect Passiveness Self affirmation Self awareness Self enhancement Self esteem functions Self esteem instability Self evaluation maintenance theory Self image Shyness Social anxiety Social phobiaReferences Edit a b Hewitt John P 2009 Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology Oxford University Press pp 217 224 ISBN 978 0195187243 a b c Smith E R Mackie D M 2007 Social Psychology 3rd ed Hove Psychology Press ISBN 978 1841694085 a b Marsh H W 1990 Causal ordering of academic self concept and academic achievement A multiwave longitudinal path analysis Journal of Educational Psychology 82 4 646 656 doi 10 1037 0022 0663 82 4 646 a b c Urbina Robalino Gisella del Rocio Eugenio Piloso Mery Aracely 2015 Efectos de la violencia intrafamiliar en el autoestima de los estudiantes de octavo y noveno ano de la Escuela de educacion basica 11 de Diciembre bachelor thesis in Spanish Advised by S Yagual Ecuador Universidad Estatal Peninsula de Santa Elena a b c d e f g h i j k Baumeister R F Campbell J D Krueger J I Vohs K D 2003 Does High Self Esteem Cause Better Performance Interpersonal Success Happiness or Healthier Lifestyles Psychological Science in the Public Interest 4 1 1 44 doi 10 1111 1529 1006 01431 ISSN 1529 1006 PMID 26151640 a b c d e f g h i j k Orth U Robins R W 2014 The development of self esteem Current Directions in Psychological Science 23 5 381 387 doi 10 1177 0963721414547414 S2CID 38796272 a b Great Books Online Quotes Poems Novels Classics and hundreds more Bartleby com Archived from the original on 25 January 2009 Retrieved 11 December 2017 a b Bartleby com Great Books Online Quotes Poems Novels Classics and hundreds more Bartleby com Archived from the original on 25 January 2009 Retrieved 11 December 2017 a b Great Books Online Quotes Poems Novels Classics and hundreds more Bartleby com Archived from the original on 24 January 2009 Retrieved 11 December 2017 The Macquarie Dictionary Compare The Dictionary of Psychology by Raymond Joseph Corsini Psychology Press 1999 ISBN 158391028X Online via Google Book Search a b Hume Texts Online davidhume org Retrieved 2019 12 15 Morris William Edward Brown Charlotte R 2019 David Hume in Zalta Edward N ed The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Summer 2019 ed Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University retrieved 2019 12 17 James W 1892 Psychology The briefer course New York Henry Holt page needed ISBN missing a b Baumeister Roy F Smart L Boden J 1996 Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression The dark side of self esteem Psychological Review 103 1 5 33 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 1009 3747 doi 10 1037 0033 295X 103 1 5 PMID 8650299 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y Jose Vicente Bonet Se amigo de ti mismo manual de autoestima 1997 Ed Sal Terrae Maliano Cantabria Espana ISBN 978 8429311334 a b Fukuyama Francis 1992 The End of History and the Last Man New York Simon and Schuster published 2006 pp xvi xvii ISBN 978 0743284554 Retrieved 2018 07 29 Plato in the Republic noted that there were three parts to the soul a desiring part a reasoning part and a part that he called thymos or spiritedness The propensity to feel self esteem arises out of the part of the soul called thymos a b c Judge T A Locke E A Durham C C 1997 The dispositional causes of job satisfaction A core evaluations approach Research in Organizational Behavior 19 151 188 Bono J E Judge T A 2003 Core self evaluations A review of the trait and its role in job satisfaction and job performance European Journal of Personality 17 Suppl1 S5 S18 doi 10 1002 per 481 S2CID 32495455 Dormann C Fay D Zapf D Frese M 2006 A state trait analysis of job satisfaction On the effect of core self evaluations Applied Psychology An International Review 55 1 27 51 doi 10 1111 j 1464 0597 2006 00227 x a b Judge T A Locke E A Durham C C Kluger A N 1998 Dispositional effects on job and life satisfaction The role of core evaluations Journal of Applied Psychology 83 1 17 34 doi 10 1037 0021 9010 83 1 17 PMID 9494439 Judge T A Bono J E 2001 Relationship of core self evaluations traits self esteem generalized self efficacy locus of control and emotional stability with job satisfaction and job performance A meta analysis Journal of Applied Psychology 86 1 80 92 doi 10 1037 0021 9010 86 1 80 PMID 11302235 Nolan James L 1998 The Therapeutic State Justifying Government at Century s End NYU Press pp 152 161 ISBN 978 0814757918 Retrieved 2013 05 06 a b Heine S J Lehman D R Markus H R Kitayama S 1999 Is there a universal need for positive self regard Psychological Review 106 4 766 794 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 321 2156 doi 10 1037 0033 295X 106 4 766 PMID 10560328 a b Maslow A H 1987 Motivation and Personality 3rd ed New York Harper amp Row ISBN 978 0060419875 a b Greenberg J 2008 Understanding the vital human quest for self esteem Perspectives on Psychological Science 3 1 48 55 doi 10 1111 j 1745 6916 2008 00061 x PMID 26158669 S2CID 34963030 Wickman S A Campbell C 2003 An analysis of how Carl Rogers enacted client centered conversation with Gloria Journal of Counseling amp Development 81 2 178 184 doi 10 1002 j 1556 6678 2003 tb00239 x Rosenberg M 1965 Society and the adolescent self image Princeton NJ Princeton University Press doi 10 1515 9781400876136 ISBN 978 1400876136 MacArthur SES amp Health Network Research Macses ucsf edu Archived from the original on 11 July 2010 Retrieved 11 December 2017 Slater Lauren 3 Feb 2002 The Trouble With Self Esteem The New York Times Retrieved 27 Nov 2012 Bosson J K Swann W B Pennebaker J W 2000 Stalking the perfect measure of implicit self esteem The blind men and the elephant revisited Journal of Personality amp Social Psychology 79 4 631 643 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 371 9919 doi 10 1037 0022 3514 79 4 631 PMID 11045743 Koole S L amp Pelham B W 2003 On the nature of implicit self esteem The case of the name letter effect In S Spencer S Fein amp M P Zanna Eds Motivated social perception The Ontario Symposium pp 93 116 Hillsdale NJ Lawrence Erlbaum ISBN missing Stieger S Burger C 2013 More complex than previously thought New insights into the optimal administration of the Initial Preference Task Self and Identity 12 2 201 216 doi 10 1080 15298868 2012 655897 S2CID 142080983 Greenwald A G McGhee D E Schwartz J L K 1998 Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition The Implicit Association Test PDF Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 6 1464 1480 doi 10 1037 0022 3514 74 6 1464 PMID 9654756 Hetts J J Sakuma M Pelham B W 1999 Two roads to positive regard Implicit and explicit self evaluation and culture Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 35 6 512 559 doi 10 1006 jesp 1999 1391 a b Raboteg Saric Z Sakic M 2014 Relations of parenting styles and friendship quality to self esteem life satisfaction amp happiness in adolescents Applied Research in the Quality of Life 9 3 749 765 doi 10 1007 s11482 013 9268 0 S2CID 143419028 Olsen J M Breckler S J Wiggins E C 2008 Social Psychology Alive First Canadian ed Toronto Thomson Nelson ISBN 978 0176224523 page needed Coopersmith S 1967 The Antecedents of Self Esteem New York W H Freeman ISBN 978 0716709121 Isberg R S Hauser S T Jacobson A M Powers S I Noam G Weiss Perry B Fullansbee D 1989 Parental contexts of adolescent self esteem A developmental perspective Journal of Youth and Adolescence 18 1 1 23 doi 10 1007 BF02139243 PMID 24271601 S2CID 35823262 Lamborn S D Mounts N S Steinberg L Dornbusch S M 1991 Patterns of Competence and Adjustment among Adolescents from Authoritative Authoritarian Indulgent and Neglectful Families Child Development 62 5 1049 1065 doi 10 1111 j 1467 8624 1991 tb01588 x PMID 1756655 Self Esteem Self Esteem N p n d Web 27 Nov 2012 Crocker J Sommers S R Luhtanen R K 2002 Hopes Dashed and Dreams Fulfilled Contingencies of Self Worth and Graduate School Admissions Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 28 9 1275 1286 doi 10 1177 01461672022812012 S2CID 143985402 Butler R 1998 Age Trends in the Use of Social and Temporal Comparison for Self Evaluation Examination of a Novel Developmental Hypothesis Child Development 69 4 1054 1073 doi 10 1111 j 1467 8624 1998 tb06160 x PMID 9768486 Pomerantz E M Ruble D N Frey K S Grenlich F 1995 Meeting Goals and Confronting Conflict Children s Changing Perceptions of Social Comparison Child Development 66 3 723 738 doi 10 1111 j 1467 8624 1995 tb00901 x PMID 7789198 Thorne A Michaelieu Q 1996 Situating Adolescent Gender and Self Esteem with Personal Memories Child Development 67 4 1374 1390 doi 10 1111 j 1467 8624 1996 tb01802 x PMID 8890489 Leary M R Baumeister R F 2000 The Nature and Function of Self Esteem Sociometer Theory In Zanna M P ed Advances in Experimental Social Psychology Vol 32 San Diego CA Academic Press pp 1 62 ISBN 978 0120152322 Erol R Y Orth U 2011 Self Esteem Development From Age 14 to 30 Years A Longitudinal Study Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 101 3 607 619 doi 10 1037 a0024299 PMID 21728448 Maldonado L Huang Y Chen R Kasen S Cohen P Chen H 2013 Impact of early adolescent anxiety disorders on self esteem development from adolescence to young adulthood Journal of Adolescent Health 53 2 287 292 doi 10 1016 j jadohealth 2013 02 025 PMC 3725205 PMID 23648133 Ehrenreich Barbara 2007 Patterns for college Writing 12th ed Boston Bedford St Martin s p 680 ISBN missing Gruenewald T L Kemeny M E Aziz N Fahey J L 2004 Acute threat to the social self Shame social self esteem and cortisol activity Psychosomatic Medicine 66 6 915 924 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 505 5316 doi 10 1097 01 psy 0000143639 61693 ef PMID 15564358 S2CID 29504978 Johnson E A O Brien K A 2013 Self compassion soothes the savage ego threat system Effects on negative affect shame rumination amp depressive symptoms Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 32 9 939963 doi 10 1521 jscp 2013 32 9 939 In a survey on technology 60 of people using social media reported that it has impacted their self esteem in a negative way a b Power F Clark Khmelkov Vladimir T 1998 Character development and self esteem Psychological foundations and educational implications International Journal of Educational Research 27 7 539 551 doi 10 1016 S0883 0355 97 00053 0 Adapted from Hamachek D E 1971 Encounters with the Self New York Rinehart ISBN 978 0030777851 a b New Michelle March 2012 Developing Your Child s Self Esteem KidsHealth Archived from the original on 2012 11 23 Retrieved 27 November 2012 Jordan C H Spencer S J Zanna M P 2003 I love me I love me not Implicit self esteem explicit self esteem and defensiveness In Spencer S J Fein S Zanna M P Olsen J M eds Motivated social perception The Ontario symposium Vol 9 Mahwah NJ Erlbaum pp 117 145 ISBN 978 0805840360 Jordan C H Spencer S J Zanna M P Hoshino Browne E Correll J 2003 Secure and defensive high self esteem PDF Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 85 5 969 978 doi 10 1037 0022 3514 85 5 969 PMID 14599258 Jaaffar Amar Hisham Ibrahim Hazril Izwar Rajadurai Jegatheesan Sohail M Sadiq 2019 06 24 Psychological Impact of Work Integrated Learning Programmes in Malaysia The Moderating Role of Self Esteem on Relation between Self Efficacy and Self Confidence International Journal of Educational Psychology 8 2 188 213 doi 10 17583 ijep 2019 3389 ISSN 2014 3591 Barbara Krahe The Social Psychology of Aggression Psychology Press 2013 75 ISBN missing Sedikieds C Rudich E A Gregg A P Kumashiro M Rusbult C 2004 Are normal narcissists psychologically healthy Self esteem matters Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 87 3 400 416 doi 10 1037 0022 3514 87 3 400 PMID 15382988 S2CID 12903591 Narcissism vs Authentic Self Esteem afterpsychotherapy com 17 January 2011 Retrieved 22 October 2017 Morf C C Rhodewalk F 1993 Narcissism and self evaluation maintenance Explorations in object relations Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 19 6 668 676 doi 10 1177 0146167293196001 S2CID 145525829 Twenge J M Campbell W K 2003 Isn t it fun to get the respect we re going to deserve Narcissism social rejection and aggression Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 29 2 261 272 doi 10 1177 0146167202239051 PMID 15272953 S2CID 29837581 Jones FC 2003 Low self esteem Chicago Defender p 33 ISSN 0745 7014 Adapted Gill J Indispensable Self Esteem Human Development 1 1980 Baldwin M W Sinclair L 1996 Self esteem and if then contingencies of interpersonal acceptance Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 71 6 1130 1141 doi 10 1037 0022 3514 71 6 1130 PMID 8979382 S2CID 7294467 Warman DM Lysaker PH Luedtke B Martin JM 2010 Self esteem and delusionproneness JNervMentDis 198 455 457 Smith B Fowler DG Freeman D Bebbington P Bashforth H Garety P Dunn G Kuipers E 2006 Emotion and psychosis Links between depression self esteem negative schematic beliefs and delusions and hallucinations Schizophr Res 86 181 188 Garety PA Kuipers E Fowler D Freeman D Bebbington PE 2001 A cognitivemodel of the positive symptoms of psychosis Psychol Med 31 189 195 Bentall RP Kinderman P Kaney S 1994 The self attributional processes andabnormal beliefs Towards a model of persecutory delusions Behav Res Ther 32 331 341 Karatzias T Gumley A Power K O Grady M 2007 Illness appraisals and self esteemas correlates of anxiety and affective comorbid disorders in schizophrenia ComprPsychiatry 48 371 375 Bradshaw W Brekke JS 1999 Subjective experience in schizophrenia Factorsinfluencing self esteem satisfaction with life and subjective distress Am J Ortho psychiatry 69 254 260 Blairy S Linotte S Souery D Papadimitriou GN Dikeos D Lerer B Kaneva R Milanova V Serretti A Macciardi F Mendlewicz J 2004 Social adjust ment and self esteem of bipolar patients A multicentric study J Affect Disord 79 97 103 Bowins B Shugar G 1998 Delusions and self esteem Can J Psychiatry 43 154 158 ORCID orcid org 2021 08 31 Retrieved 2021 09 07 a b c Ross Martin El Mapa de la Autoestima 2013 Dunken ISBN 978 9870267737 page needed a b c Leiva Darcy 11 May 2015 Como influye el genero en la Autoestima de los Adolescentes Monografias com Retrieved 11 December 2017 a b c d e f g Bonet Gallardo L 2015 La retroalimentacio entre l autoestima i l activitat digital al col lectiu adolescent Feedback between self esteem and digital activity in the adolescent group bachelor thesis in Spanish Advised by Huertas Bailen Amparo Universidad Autonoma de Barcelona Contingent Synonyms Contingent Antonyms thesaurus com Retrieved 22 October 2017 Unconditional The Free Dictionary Retrieved 11 December 2017 Koivula Nathalie Hassmen Peter Fallby Johan 2002 Self esteem and perfectionism in elite athletes effects on competitive anxiety and self confidence Personality and Individual Differences 32 5 865 875 doi 10 1016 S0191 8869 01 00092 7 Victoria Blom Striving for Self esteem Department of Psychology Stockholm University 2011 PDF p 17 a b The Boom and Bust Ego Psychology Today Retrieved 11 December 2017 Paul Tillich Terry Lectures Courage to Be Yale University 2000 164 Christopher J Mruk Self esteem Research Theory and Practice Springer 1995 88 Terry D Cooper Paul Tillich and Psychology Historic and Contemporary Explorations in Theology Psychotherapy and Ethics Mercer University 2006 7 ISBN missing Self esteem OKness a personal story PDF Ahpcc org uk Retrieved 11 December 2017 Terry D Cooper Paul Tillich and Psychology Historic and Contemporary Explorations in Theology Psychotherapy and Ethics Mercer University 2006 5 ISBN missing OK The Free Dictionary Retrieved 11 December 2017 Thomas A Harris I m OK You re OK Harper and Row 1969 235 Michael H Kernis Toward a Conceptualization of Optimal Self Esteem PDF Academic udayton edu Retrieved 11 December 2017 a b Burger C Bachmann L 2021 Perpetration and victimization in offline and cyber contexts A variable and person oriented examination of associations and differences regarding domain specific self esteem and school adjustment Int J Environ Res Public Health 18 19 10429 doi 10 3390 ijerph181910429 PMC 8508291 PMID 34639731 Text was copied from this source which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4 0 International License Barbot B Safont Mottay C Oubrayrie Roussel N 2019 Multidimensional scale of self esteem EMES 16 Psychometric evaluation of a domain specific measure of self esteem for French speaking adolescents International Journal of Behavioral Development 43 5 436 446 doi 10 1177 0165025418824996 S2CID 151135576 Orth U Dapp L C Erol R Y Krauss S Luciano E C 2021 Development of domain specific self evaluations A meta analysis of longitudinal studies Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 120 1 145 172 doi 10 1037 pspp0000378 PMID 33252972 S2CID 227244920 Andreou E 2001 Bully victim problems and their association with coping behaviour in conflictual peer interactions among school age children Educational Psychology 21 1 59 66 doi 10 1080 01443410125042 S2CID 143734781 a b c Nathaniel Branden Como mejorar su autoestima 1987 Version traducida 1990 1ª edicion en formato electronico enero de 2010 Ediciones Paidos Iberica ISBN 978 8449323478 Christian Miranda La autoestima profesional una competencia mediadora para la innovacion en las practicas pedagogicas Archived 2011 07 22 at the Wayback Machine Revista Iberoamericana sobre Calidad Eficacia y Cambio en Educacion 2005 Volume 3 number 1 PDF format Sigmund Freud On Metapsychology PFL 11 pp 254 256 The Yogyakarta Principles Preamble and Principles 11 World Health Organization 2014 Preventing suicide A global imperative World Health Organization Mental Health 92 Archived from the original on September 5 2014 Preventing Suicide A resource for teachers and other school staff WHO Geneva 2000 PDF who int Retrieved 22 October 2017 dead link Schacter Daniel L Gilbert Daniel T Wegner Daniel M 2009 Self Esteem Psychology Second ed New York Worth ISBN 978 0716752158 Baumeister Roy F Jennifer D Campbell Joachim I Krueger and Kathleen D Vohs Krueger Joachim I Vohs Kathleen D January 2005 Exploding the Self Esteem Myth PDF Scientific American 292 1 84 91 Bibcode 2005SciAm 292a 84B doi 10 1038 scientificamerican0105 84 PMID 15724341 S2CID 121786659 Archived from the original PDF on 2 April 2015 Retrieved 20 February 2011 Baumeister Roy 23 December 2009 Self Esteem Education com Retrieved 8 January 2015 Owens Timothy J Stryker Sheldon Goodman Norman eds 2001 Extending Self Esteem Theory and Research Sociological and Psychological Currents Cambridge Cambridge University Press doi 10 1017 cbo9780511527739 ISBN 978 0521630887 Ulrich Schimmack and Ed Diener 2003 Predictive validity of explicit and implicit self esteem for subjective well being PDF Journal of Research in Personality 37 2 100 106 doi 10 1016 S0092 6566 02 00532 9 Eaton J Wardstruthers C Santelli A 2006 Dispositional and state forgiveness The role of self esteem need for structure and narcissism Personality and Individual Differences 41 2 371 380 doi 10 1016 j paid 2006 02 005 ISSN 0191 8869 a b Sowislo Julia Friederike Orth Ulrich 2013 Does low self esteem predict depression and anxiety A meta analysis of longitudinal studies Psychological Bulletin 139 1 213 240 doi 10 1037 a0028931 ISSN 1939 1455 PMID 22730921 Colmsee Isabelle Sophie O Hank Petra Bosnjak Michael 2021 01 01 Low Self Esteem as a Risk Factor for Eating Disorders Zeitschrift fur Psychologie 229 1 48 69 doi 10 1027 2151 2604 a000433 ISSN 2190 8370 S2CID 234058766 Simpson J Hillman R Crawford T Overton P G 2010 12 01 Self esteem and self disgust both mediate the relationship between dysfunctional cognitions and depressive symptoms Motivation and Emotion 34 4 399 406 doi 10 1007 s11031 010 9189 2 ISSN 1573 6644 S2CID 145371730 Greenberg Jeff Solomon Sheldon Pyszczynski Tom Rosenblatt Abram Burling John Lyon Deborah Simon Linda Pinel Elizabeth 1992 Why do people need self esteem Converging evidence that self esteem serves an anxiety buffering function Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63 6 913 922 doi 10 1037 0022 3514 63 6 913 ISSN 1939 1315 PMID 1460559 Chavez Robert S Heatherton Todd F 1 May 2014 Multimodal frontostriatal connectivity underlies individual differences in self esteem Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience Oxford University Press 10 3 364 370 doi 10 1093 scan nsu063 PMC 4350482 PMID 24795440 a b Ellis A 2001 Feeling better getting better staying better Impact Publishers ISBN missing page needed Ellis A 2005 The Myth of Self esteem Amherst NY Prometheus Books ISBN 978 1591023548 page needed Ellis Albert Dryden Windy 2007 The Practice of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy Second Edition Springer Publishing Company ISBN 978 0826122179 Retrieved 11 December 2017 via Google Books Baumeister Tierney 2011 Willpower The Greatest s Human Strength p 192 ISBN missing Nathaniel Branden The Six Pillars of Self esteem Bantam 1995 52 ISBN missing Also see Nathaniel Branden How to Raise Your Self Esteem The Proven Action Oriented Approach to Greater Self Respect and Self Confidence Random House 1988 9 ISBN missing Spanish edition Como mejorar su autoestima Paidos 2009 ISBN missing Michaels M Barr A Roosa M Knight G 2007 Self Esteem Assessing Measurement Equivalence in a Multiethnic Sample of Youth Journal of Early Adolescence 27 3 269 95 doi 10 1177 0272431607302009 S2CID 146806309 Erikson Erik H 1973 Childhood and Society Harmondsworth Penguin p 260 ISBN 978 0140207545 Crompton Simon 2007 All about Me London Collins p 16 ISBN 978 0007247950 Fenichel Otto 1946 The Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis London pp 407 410 Symington Neville 2003 Narcissism A New Theory London Karmac p 114 ISBN 978 1855750470 Further reading EditBaumeister Roy F April 2001 Violent Pride Do people turn violent because of self hate or self love in Scientific American 284 No 4 pp 96 101 Branden N 1969 The Psychology of Self Esteem New York Bantam Branden N 2001 The psychology of self esteem a revolutionary approach to self understanding that launched a new era in modern psychology San Francisco Jossey Bass ISBN 0787945269 Burke C 2008 Self esteem Why Why not New York ISBN missing Crocker J Park L E 2004 The costly pursuit of self esteem Psychological Bulletin 130 3 392 414 doi 10 1037 0033 2909 130 3 392 PMID 15122925 Franklin Richard L 1994 Overcoming The Myth of Self Worth Reason and Fallacy in What You Say to Yourself ISBN 0963938703 Hill S E amp Buss D M 2006 The Evolution of Self Esteem In Michael Kernis Ed Self Esteem Issues and Answers A Sourcebook of Current Perspectives Psychology Press New York 328 333 Full text Lerner Barbara 1985 Self Esteem and Excellence The Choice and the Paradox American Educator Winter 1985 Mecca Andrew M et al 1989 The Social Importance of Self esteem University of California Press 1989 ed other editors included Neil J Smelser and John Vasconcellos Mruk C 2006 Self Esteem research theory and practice Toward a positive psychology of self esteem 3rd ed New York Springer ISBN missing Rodewalt F Tragakis M W 2003 Self esteem and self regulation Toward optimal studies of self esteem Psychological Inquiry 14 1 66 70 doi 10 1207 s15327965pli1401 02 Ruggiero Vincent R 2000 Bad Attitude Confronting the Views That Hinder Student s Learning American Educator Sedikides C amp Gregg A P 2003 Portraits of the self In M A Hogg amp J Cooper Eds Sage handbook of social psychology pp 110 138 London Sage Publications ISBN missing Twenge Jean M 2007 Generation Me Why Today s Young Americans Are More Confident Assertive Entitled and More Miserable Than Ever Before Free Press ISBN 978 0743276986 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Self esteem amp oldid 1131683546, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.