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Intelligence

August 23, 2023

For the human faculty of thinking and understanding, see Intellect. For human intelligence, see Human intelligence. For other uses, see Intelligence (disambiguation).

Intelligence is the capacity or ability to acquire, apprehend and apply knowledge in a behavioral context.[1][2] The term rose to prominence during the early 1900's,[3] coinciding the emergence of behaviorism.[4] Intelligence differs from intellect, with the latter being measured in cognitive performance rather than behavior as a whole. In the case of human intelligence, one can be intelligent in more than a single domain, take for example abstraction, logic, understanding, self-awareness, learning, emotional knowledge, reasoning, planning, creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solving. According to American psychologist Howard Gardner, intelligence can be divided into multiple intelligences[5] or intelligent performances. Similarly, intellect can be interpreted as an aggregate of intellects or intellectual performances.

More generally, intelligence can be described as the capacity or ability to perceive or infer information, and to retain it as knowledge to be applied towards adaptive behaviors within an environment or context.[6] Intelligence is most often studied in humans but has also been observed in both non-human animals and in plants despite controversy as to whether some of these forms of life exhibit intelligence.[7][8] Intelligence in computers or other machines is called artificial intelligence.

Etymology

Main article: Nous

The word intelligence derives from the Latin nouns intelligentia or intellēctus, which in turn stem from the verb intelligere, to comprehend or perceive. In the Middle Ages, the word intellectus became the scholarly technical term for understanding, and a translation for the Greek philosophical term nous. This term, however, was strongly linked to the metaphysical and cosmological theories of teleological scholasticism, including theories of the immortality of the soul, and the concept of the active intellect (also known as the active intelligence). This approach to the study of nature was strongly rejected by the early modern philosophers such as Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and David Hume, all of whom preferred "understanding" (in place of "intellectus" or "intelligence") in their English philosophical works.[9][10] Hobbes for example, in his Latin De Corpore, used "intellectus intelligit", translated in the English version as "the understanding understandeth", as a typical example of a logical absurdity.[11] "Intelligence" has therefore become less common in English language philosophy, but it has later been taken up (with the scholastic theories which it now implies) in more contemporary psychology.[12]

Definitions

Unsolved problem in philosophy:

What exactly is intelligence? How could an external observer prove that an agent is intelligent?

(more unsolved problems in philosophy)

The definition of intelligence is controversial, varying in what its abilities are and whether or not it is quantifiable.[13]

In 1994 the "Mainstream Science on Intelligence" was published, as an op-ed statement in the Wall Street Journal, as a response to controversy over the book The Bell Curve which proposed policy changes based on purported connections between race and intelligence. It was signed by fifty-two researchers, out of 131 total invited to sign, with 48 explicitly refusing to sign. The op-ed described intelligence thus:[14]

A very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience. It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-taking smarts. Rather, it reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings—"catching on," "making sense" of things, or "figuring out" what to do.[15]

From Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns (1995), a report published by the Board of Scientific Affairs of the American Psychological Association, also in response to controversy over The Bell Curve:

Individuals differ from one another in their ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought. Although these individual differences can be substantial, they are never entirely consistent: a given person's intellectual performance will vary on different occasions, in different domains, as judged by different criteria. Concepts of "intelligence" are attempts to clarify and organize this complex set of phenomena. Although considerable clarity has been achieved in some areas, no such conceptualization has yet answered all the important questions, and none commands universal assent. Indeed, when two dozen prominent theorists were recently asked to define intelligence, they gave two dozen, somewhat different, definitions.[16]

Besides those definitions, psychology and learning researchers also have suggested definitions of intelligence such as the following:

Researcher Quotation
Alfred Binet Judgment, otherwise called "good sense", "practical sense", "initiative", the faculty of adapting one's self to circumstances ... auto-critique.[17]
David Wechsler The aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment.[18]
Lloyd Humphreys "...the resultant of the process of acquiring, storing in memory, retrieving, combining, comparing, and using in new contexts information and conceptual skills".[19]
Howard Gardner To my mind, a human intellectual competence must entail a set of skills of problem solving—enabling the individual to resolve genuine problems or difficulties that he or she encounters and, when appropriate, to create an effective product—and must also entail the potential for finding or creating problems—and thereby laying the groundwork for the acquisition of new knowledge.[20]
Robert Sternberg & William Salter Goal-directed adaptive behavior.[21]
Reuven Feuerstein The theory of Structural Cognitive Modifiability describes intelligence as "the unique propensity of human beings to change or modify the structure of their cognitive functioning to adapt to the changing demands of a life situation".[22]
Shane Legg & Marcus Hutter A synthesis of 70+ definitions from psychology, philosophy, and AI researchers: "Intelligence measures an agent's ability to achieve goals in a wide range of environments",[13] which has been mathematically formalized.[23]
Alexander Wissner-Gross F = T ∇ S [24]

"Intelligence is a force, F, that acts so as to maximize future freedom of action. It acts to maximize future freedom of action, or keep options open, with some strength T, with the diversity of possible accessible futures, S, up to some future time horizon, τ. In short, intelligence doesn't like to get trapped".

Human

Main article: Human intelligence

Human intelligence is the intellectual power of humans, which is marked by complex cognitive feats and high levels of motivation and self-awareness.[25] Intelligence enables humans to remember descriptions of things and use those descriptions in future behaviors. It is a cognitive process. It gives humans the cognitive abilities to learn, form concepts, understand, and reason, including the capacities to recognize patterns, innovate, plan, solve problems, and employ language to communicate. Intelligence enables humans to experience and think.[26]

Intelligence is different from learning. Learning refers to the act of retaining facts and information or abilities and being able to recall them for future use, while intelligence is the cognitive ability of someone to perform these and other processes. There have been various attempts to quantify intelligence via testing, such as the Intelligence Quotient (IQ) test. However, many people disagree with the validity of IQ tests, stating that they cannot accurately measure intelligence.[27]

There is debate about if human intelligence is based on hereditary factors or if it is based on environmental factors. Hereditary intelligence is the theory that intelligence is fixed upon birth and not able to grow. Environmental intelligence is the theory that intelligence is developed throughout life depending on the environment around the person. An environment that cultivates intelligence is one that challenges the person's cognitive abilities.[27]

Much of the above definition applies also to the intelligence of non-human animals.[citation needed]

Emotional

Main article: Emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence is thought to be the ability to convey emotion to others in an understandable way as well as to read the emotions of others accurately.[28] Some theories imply that a heightened emotional intelligence could also lead to faster generating and processing of emotions in addition to the accuracy.[29] In addition, higher emotional intelligence is thought to help us manage emotions, which is beneficial for our problem-solving skills. Emotional intelligence is important to our mental health and has ties into social intelligence.[28]

Social

Main article: Social intelligence

Social intelligence is the ability to understand the social cues and motivations of others and oneself in social situations. It is thought to be distinct to other types of intelligence, but has relations to emotional intelligence. Social intelligence has coincided with other studies that focus on how we make judgements of others, the accuracy with which we do so, and why people would be viewed as having positive or negative social character. There is debate as to whether or not these studies and social intelligence come from the same theories or if there is a distinction between them, and they are generally thought to be of two different schools of thought.[30]

Book smart and street smart

Concepts of "book smarts" and "street smart" are contrasting views based on the premise that some people have knowledge gained through academic study, but may lack the experience to sensibly apply that knowledge, while others have knowledge gained through practical experience, but may lack accurate information usually gained through study by which to effectively apply that knowledge. Artificial intelligence researcher Hector Levesque has noted that:

Given the importance of learning through text in our own personal lives and in our culture, it is perhaps surprising how utterly dismissive we tend to be of it. It is sometimes derided as being merely "book knowledge," and having it is being "book smart." In contrast, knowledge acquired through direct experience and apprenticeship is called "street knowledge," and having it is being "street smart".[31]

Nonhuman animal

Main article: Animal cognition
 
The common chimpanzee can use tools. This chimpanzee is using a stick to get food.

Although humans have been the primary focus of intelligence researchers, scientists have also attempted to investigate animal intelligence, or more broadly, animal cognition. These researchers are interested in studying both mental ability in a particular species, and comparing abilities between species. They study various measures of problem solving, as well as numerical and verbal reasoning abilities. Some challenges in this area are defining intelligence so that it has the same meaning across species (e.g. comparing intelligence between literate humans and illiterate animals), and also operationalizing a measure that accurately compares mental ability across different species and contexts.[citation needed]

Wolfgang Köhler's research on the intelligence of apes is an example of research in this area. Stanley Coren's book, The Intelligence of Dogs is a notable book on the topic of dog intelligence.[32] (See also: Dog intelligence.) Non-human animals particularly noted and studied for their intelligence include chimpanzees, bonobos (notably the language-using Kanzi) and other great apes, dolphins, elephants and to some extent parrots, rats and ravens.[33]

Cephalopod intelligence also provides an important comparative study. Cephalopods appear to exhibit characteristics of significant intelligence, yet their nervous systems differ radically from those of backboned animals. Vertebrates such as mammals, birds, reptiles and fish have shown a fairly high degree of intellect that varies according to each species. The same is true with arthropods.[34]

g factor in non-humans

Main article: g Factor in Non-Humans

Evidence of a general factor of intelligence has been observed in non-human animals. The general factor of intelligence, or g factor, is a psychometric construct that summarizes the correlations observed between an individual's scores on a wide range of cognitive abilities. First described in humans, the g factor has since been identified in a number of non-human species.[35]

Cognitive ability and intelligence cannot be measured using the same, largely verbally dependent, scales developed for humans. Instead, intelligence is measured using a variety of interactive and observational tools focusing on innovation, habit reversal, social learning, and responses to novelty. Studies have shown that g is responsible for 47% of the individual variance in cognitive ability measures in primates[35] and between 55% and 60% of the variance in mice (Locurto, Locurto). These values are similar to the accepted variance in IQ explained by g in humans (40–50%).[36]

Plant

Main articles: Plant perception (physiology) § Plant cognition, and Plant cognition

It has been argued that plants should also be classified as intelligent based on their ability to sense and model external and internal environments and adjust their morphology, physiology and phenotype accordingly to ensure self-preservation and reproduction.[37][38]

A counter argument is that intelligence is commonly understood to involve the creation and use of persistent memories as opposed to computation that does not involve learning. If this is accepted as definitive of intelligence, then it includes the artificial intelligence of robots capable of "machine learning", but excludes those purely autonomic sense-reaction responses that can be observed in many plants. Plants are not limited to automated sensory-motor responses, however, they are capable of discriminating positive and negative experiences and of "learning" (registering memories) from their past experiences. They are also capable of communication, accurately computing their circumstances, using sophisticated cost–benefit analysis and taking tightly controlled actions to mitigate and control the diverse environmental stressors.[7][8][39]

Artificial

Main article: Artificial intelligence

Scholars studying artificial intelligence have proposed definitions of intelligence that include the intelligence demonstrated by machines. Some of these definitions are meant to be general enough to encompass human and other animal intelligence as well. An intelligent agent can be defined as a system that perceives its environment and takes actions which maximize its chances of success.[40] Kaplan and Haenlein define artificial intelligence as "a system's ability to correctly interpret external data, to learn from such data, and to use those learnings to achieve specific goals and tasks through flexible adaptation".[41] Progress in artificial intelligence can be demonstrated in benchmarks ranging from games to practical tasks such as protein folding.[42] Existing AI lags humans in terms of general intelligence, which is sometimes defined as the "capacity to learn how to carry out a huge range of tasks".[43]

Singularitarian Eliezer Yudkowsky provides a loose qualitative definition of intelligence as "that sort of smartish stuff coming out of brains, which can play chess, and price bonds, and persuade people to buy bonds, and invent guns, and figure out gravity by looking at wandering lights in the sky; and which, if a machine intelligence had it in large quantities, might let it invent molecular nanotechnology; and so on". Mathematician Olle Häggström defines intelligence in terms of "optimization power", an agent's capacity for efficient cross-domain optimization of the world according to the agent's preferences, or more simply the ability to "steer the future into regions of possibility ranked high in a preference ordering". In this optimization framework, Deep Blue has the power to "steer a chessboard's future into a subspace of possibility which it labels as 'winning', despite attempts by Garry Kasparov to steer the future elsewhere."[44] Hutter and Legg, after surveying the literature, define intelligence as "an agent's ability to achieve goals in a wide range of environments".[45][46] While cognitive ability is sometimes measured as a one-dimensional parameter, it could also be represented as a "hypersurface in a multidimensional space" to compare systems that are good at different intellectual tasks.[47] Some skeptics believe that there is no meaningful way to define intelligence, aside from "just pointing to ourselves".[48]

See also

References

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  2. ^ Humphreys, Lloyd G. (1994). Intelligence from the Standpoint of a (Pragmatic) Behaviorist. Taylor & Francis. Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 179-192
  3. ^ White, Margaret B. & Hall, Alfred E. (1980). An overview of intelligence testing. Phi Delta Kappa International. Vol. 58, No. 4, pp. 210-216
  4. ^ Buxton, Claude E. (1985). Influences in Psychology: Points of View in the Modern History of Psychology. Academic Press.
  5. ^ Gardner, Howard. (1983). Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences.
  6. ^ Sharma, Radha R. (2008). Emotional Intelligence from 17th Century to 21st Century: Perspectives and Directions for Future Research. Sage Journals. Vol. 12.
  7. ^ a b Goh, C. H.; Nam, H. G.; Park, Y. S. (2003). "Stress memory in plants: A negative regulation of stomatal response and transient induction of rd22 gene to light in abscisic acid-entrained Arabidopsis plants". The Plant Journal. 36 (2): 240–255. doi:10.1046/j.1365-313X.2003.01872.x. PMID 14535888.
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  9. ^ Maich, Aloysius (1995). A Hobbes Dictionary. Blackwell. p. 305.
  10. ^ Nidditch, Peter. "Foreword". An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Oxford University Press. p. xxii.
  11. ^ Hobbes, Thomas; Molesworth, William (15 February 1839). Londoni, apud Joannem Bohn. Archived from the original on 5 November 2013 – via Internet Archive.
  12. ^ This paragraph almost verbatim from Goldstein, Sam; Princiotta, Dana; Naglieri, Jack A., eds. (2015). Handbook of Intelligence: Evolutionary Theory, Historical Perspective, and Current Concepts. New York, Heidelberg, Dordrecht, London: Springer. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-4939-1561-3.
  13. ^ a b S. Legg; M. Hutter (2007). "A Collection of Definitions of Intelligence". Advances in Artificial General Intelligence: Concepts, Architectures and Algorithms. Vol. 157. pp. 17–24. ISBN 978-1586037581.
  14. ^ Gottfredson 1997, pp. 17–20
  15. ^ Gottfredson, Linda S. (1997). "Mainstream Science on Intelligence (editorial)" (PDF). Intelligence. 24: 13–23. doi:10.1016/s0160-2896(97)90011-8. ISSN 0160-2896. (PDF) from the original on 22 December 2014.
  16. ^ Neisser, Ulrich; Boodoo, Gwyneth; Bouchard, Thomas J.; Boykin, A. Wade; Brody, Nathan; Ceci, Stephen J.; Halpern, Diane F.; Loehlin, John C.; Perloff, Robert; Sternberg, Robert J.; Urbina, Susana (1996). "Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns" (PDF). American Psychologist. 51 (2): 77–101. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.51.2.77. ISSN 0003-066X. (PDF) from the original on 28 March 2016. Retrieved 9 October 2014.
  17. ^ Binet, Alfred (1916) [1905]. . The development of intelligence in children: The Binet-Simon Scale. E.S. Kite (Trans.). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. pp. 37–90. Archived from the original on 19 June 2010. Retrieved 14 August 2010. originally published as Méthodes nouvelles pour le diagnostic du niveau intellectuel des anormaux. L'Année Psychologique, 11, 191–244
  18. ^ Wechsler, D (1944). The measurement of adult intelligence. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 978-0-19-502296-4. OCLC 219871557.
  19. ^ Humphreys, L. G. (1979). "The construct of general intelligence". Intelligence. 3 (2): 105–120. doi:10.1016/0160-2896(79)90009-6.
  20. ^ Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books. 1993. ISBN 978-0-465-02510-7. OCLC 221932479.
  21. ^ Sternberg RJ; Salter W (1982). Handbook of human intelligence. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29687-8. OCLC 11226466.
  22. ^ Feuerstein, R., Feuerstein, S., Falik, L & Rand, Y. (1979; 2002). Dynamic assessments of cognitive modifiability. ICELP Press, Jerusalem: Israel; Feuerstein, R. (1990). The theory of structural modifiability. In B. Presseisen (Ed.), Learning and thinking styles: Classroom interaction. Washington, DC: National Education Associations
  23. ^ S. Legg; M. Hutter (2007). "Universal Intelligence: A Definition of Machine Intelligence". Minds and Machines. 17 (4): 391–444. arXiv:0712.3329. Bibcode:2007arXiv0712.3329L. doi:10.1007/s11023-007-9079-x. S2CID 847021.
  24. ^ "TED Speaker: Alex Wissner-Gross: A new equation for intelligence". TED.com. 6 February 2014. from the original on 4 September 2016. Retrieved 7 September 2016.
  25. ^ Tirri, Nokelainen (2011). Measuring Multiple Intelligences and Moral Sensitivities in Education. Moral Development and Citizenship Education. Springer. ISBN 978-94-6091-758-5. from the original on 2 August 2017.
  26. ^ Colom, Roberto (December 2010). "Human intelligence and brain networks". Dialogues Clin. Neurosci. 12 (4): 489–501. doi:10.31887/DCNS.2010.12.4/rcolom. PMC 3181994. PMID 21319494.
  27. ^ a b Bouchard, Thomas J. (1982). "Review of The Intelligence Controversy". The American Journal of Psychology. 95 (2): 346–349. doi:10.2307/1422481. ISSN 0002-9556. JSTOR 1422481.
  28. ^ a b Salovey, Peter; Mayer, John D. (March 1990). "Emotional Intelligence". Imagination, Cognition and Personality. 9 (3): 185–211. doi:10.2190/DUGG-P24E-52WK-6CDG. hdl:10654/36316. ISSN 0276-2366. S2CID 219900460.
  29. ^ Mayer, John D.; Salovey, Peter (1 October 1993). "The intelligence of emotional intelligence". Intelligence. 17 (4): 433–442. doi:10.1016/0160-2896(93)90010-3. ISSN 0160-2896.
  30. ^ Walker, Ronald E.; Foley, Jeanne M. (December 1973). "Social Intelligence: Its History and Measurement". Psychological Reports. 33 (3): 839–864. doi:10.2466/pr0.1973.33.3.839. ISSN 0033-2941. S2CID 144839425.
  31. ^ Hector J. Levesque, Common Sense, the Turing Test, and the Quest for Real AI (2017), p. 80.
  32. ^ Coren, Stanley (1995). The Intelligence of Dogs. Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0-553-37452-0. OCLC 30700778.
  33. ^ Childs, Casper (27 May 2020). "Words With An Astronaut". Valenti. Codetipi. Retrieved 14 March 2021.
  34. ^ Roth, Gerhard (19 December 2015). "Convergent evolution of complex brains and high intelligence". Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 370 (1684): 20150049. doi:10.1098/rstb.2015.0049. PMC 4650126. PMID 26554042.
  35. ^ a b Reader, S. M., Hager, Y., & Laland, K. N. (2011). "The evolution of primate general and cultural intelligence". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 366(1567), 1017–1027.
  36. ^ Kamphaus, R. W. (2005). Clinical assessment of child and adolescent intelligence. Springer Science & Business Media.
  37. ^ Trewavas, Anthony (September 2005). "Green plants as intelligent organisms". Trends in Plant Science. 10 (9): 413–419. doi:10.1016/j.tplants.2005.07.005. PMID 16054860.
  38. ^ Trewavas, A. (2002). "Mindless mastery". Nature. 415 (6874): 841. Bibcode:2002Natur.415..841T. doi:10.1038/415841a. PMID 11859344. S2CID 4350140.
  39. ^ Rensing, L.; Koch, M.; Becker, A. (2009). "A comparative approach to the principal mechanisms of different memory systems". Naturwissenschaften. 96 (12): 1373–1384. Bibcode:2009NW.....96.1373R. doi:10.1007/s00114-009-0591-0. PMID 19680619. S2CID 29195832.
  40. ^ Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2003). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-790395-5. OCLC 51325314.
  41. ^ "Kaplan Andreas and Haelein Michael (2019) Siri, Siri, in my hand: Who's the fairest in the land? On the interpretations, illustrations, and implications of artificial intelligence, Business Horizons, 62(1)".
  42. ^ "How did a company best known for playing games just crack one of science's toughest puzzles?". Fortune. 2020. Retrieved 21 February 2021.
  43. ^ Heath, Nick (2018). "What is artificial general intelligence?". ZDNet. Retrieved 21 February 2021.
  44. ^ Häggström, Olle (2016). Here be dragons: science, technology and the future of humanity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 103, 104. ISBN 978-0191035395.
  45. ^ Gary Lea (2015). "The Struggle To Define What Artificial Intelligence Actually Means". Popular Science. Retrieved 21 February 2021.
  46. ^ Legg, Shane; Hutter, Marcus (30 November 2007). "Universal Intelligence: A Definition of Machine Intelligence". Minds and Machines. 17 (4): 391–444. arXiv:0712.3329. doi:10.1007/s11023-007-9079-x. S2CID 847021.
  47. ^ Bostrom, Nick (2014). Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. "Chapter 4: The Kinetics of an Intelligence Explosion", footnote 9. ISBN 978-0-19-967811-2.
  48. ^ "Superintelligence: The Idea That Eats Smart People". idlewords.com. Retrieved 21 February 2021.

Further reading

  • Sternberg, Robert J.; Kaufman, Scott Barry, eds. (2011). The Cambridge Handbook of Intelligence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108770422. ISBN 978-0521739115. S2CID 241027150.
  • Mackintosh, N. J. (2011). IQ and Human Intelligence (second ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-958559-5.
  • Flynn, James R. (2009). What Is Intelligence: Beyond the Flynn Effect (expanded paperback ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-74147-7.
    • Lay summary in: C Shalizi (27 April 2009). . University of Michigan (Review). Archived from the original on 14 June 2010.
  • Stanovich, Keith (2009). What Intelligence Tests Miss: The Psychology of Rational Thought. New Haven (CT): Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-12385-2.
    • Lay summary in: Jamie Hale. . Psych Central (Review). Archived from the original on 24 December 2013.
  • Blakeslee, Sandra; Hawkins, Jeff (2004). On intelligence. New York: Times Books. ISBN 978-0-8050-7456-7. OCLC 55510125.
  • Bock, Gregory; Goode, Jamie; Webb, Kate, eds. (2000). The Nature of Intelligence. Novartis Foundation Symposium 233. Chichester: Wiley. doi:10.1002/0470870850. ISBN 978-0471494348.
    • Lay summary in: William D. Casebeer (30 November 2001). . Mental Help (Review). Archived from the original on 26 May 2013.
  • Wolman, Benjamin B., ed. (1985). Handbook of Intelligence. consulting editors: Douglas K. Detterman, Alan S. Kaufman, Joseph D. Matarazzo. New York: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-89738-5.
  • Terman, Lewis Madison; Merrill, Maude A. (1937). Measuring intelligence: A guide to the administration of the new revised Stanford-Binet tests of intelligence. Riverside textbooks in education. Boston (MA): Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 964301.
  • Binet, Alfred; Simon, Th. (1916). The development of intelligence in children: The Binet-Simon Scale. Publications of the Training School at Vineland New Jersey Department of Research No. 11. E. S. Kite (Trans.). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. p. 1. Retrieved 18 July 2010.

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Intelligence.
 
Look up intelligence in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
 
Wikiquote has quotations related to Intelligence.
  • Intelligence on In Our Time at the BBC
  • History of Influences in the Development of Intelligence Theory and Testing 11 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine – Developed by Jonathan Plucker at Indiana University
  • The Limits of Intelligence: The laws of physics may well prevent the human brain from evolving into an ever more powerful thinking machine by Douglas Fox in Scientific American, 14 June 2011.
  • A Collection of Definitions of Intelligence

August 23, 2023
intelligence, human, faculty, thinking, understanding, intellect, human, intelligence, human, intelligence, other, uses, disambiguation, capacity, ability, acquire, apprehend, apply, knowledge, behavioral, context, term, rose, prominence, during, early, 1900, . For the human faculty of thinking and understanding see Intellect For human intelligence see Human intelligence For other uses see Intelligence disambiguation Intelligence is the capacity or ability to acquire apprehend and apply knowledge in a behavioral context 1 2 The term rose to prominence during the early 1900 s 3 coinciding the emergence of behaviorism 4 Intelligence differs from intellect with the latter being measured in cognitive performance rather than behavior as a whole In the case of human intelligence one can be intelligent in more than a single domain take for example abstraction logic understanding self awareness learning emotional knowledge reasoning planning creativity critical thinking and problem solving According to American psychologist Howard Gardner intelligence can be divided into multiple intelligences 5 or intelligent performances Similarly intellect can be interpreted as an aggregate of intellects or intellectual performances More generally intelligence can be described as the capacity or ability to perceive or infer information and to retain it as knowledge to be applied towards adaptive behaviors within an environment or context 6 Intelligence is most often studied in humans but has also been observed in both non human animals and in plants despite controversy as to whether some of these forms of life exhibit intelligence 7 8 Intelligence in computers or other machines is called artificial intelligence Contents 1 Etymology 2 Definitions 3 Human 3 1 Emotional 3 2 Social 3 3 Book smart and street smart 4 Nonhuman animal 4 1 g factor in non humans 5 Plant 6 Artificial 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External linksEtymology EditMain article Nous The word intelligence derives from the Latin nouns intelligentia or intellectus which in turn stem from the verb intelligere to comprehend or perceive In the Middle Ages the word intellectus became the scholarly technical term for understanding and a translation for the Greek philosophical term nous This term however was strongly linked to the metaphysical and cosmological theories of teleological scholasticism including theories of the immortality of the soul and the concept of the active intellect also known as the active intelligence This approach to the study of nature was strongly rejected by the early modern philosophers such as Francis Bacon Thomas Hobbes John Locke and David Hume all of whom preferred understanding in place of intellectus or intelligence in their English philosophical works 9 10 Hobbes for example in his Latin De Corpore used intellectus intelligit translated in the English version as the understanding understandeth as a typical example of a logical absurdity 11 Intelligence has therefore become less common in English language philosophy but it has later been taken up with the scholastic theories which it now implies in more contemporary psychology 12 Definitions EditUnsolved problem in philosophy What exactly is intelligence How could an external observer prove that an agent is intelligent more unsolved problems in philosophy The definition of intelligence is controversial varying in what its abilities are and whether or not it is quantifiable 13 In 1994 the Mainstream Science on Intelligence was published as an op ed statement in the Wall Street Journal as a response to controversy over the book The Bell Curve which proposed policy changes based on purported connections between race and intelligence It was signed by fifty two researchers out of 131 total invited to sign with 48 explicitly refusing to sign The op ed described intelligence thus 14 A very general mental capability that among other things involves the ability to reason plan solve problems think abstractly comprehend complex ideas learn quickly and learn from experience It is not merely book learning a narrow academic skill or test taking smarts Rather it reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings catching on making sense of things or figuring out what to do 15 From Intelligence Knowns and Unknowns 1995 a report published by the Board of Scientific Affairs of the American Psychological Association also in response to controversy over The Bell Curve Individuals differ from one another in their ability to understand complex ideas to adapt effectively to the environment to learn from experience to engage in various forms of reasoning to overcome obstacles by taking thought Although these individual differences can be substantial they are never entirely consistent a given person s intellectual performance will vary on different occasions in different domains as judged by different criteria Concepts of intelligence are attempts to clarify and organize this complex set of phenomena Although considerable clarity has been achieved in some areas no such conceptualization has yet answered all the important questions and none commands universal assent Indeed when two dozen prominent theorists were recently asked to define intelligence they gave two dozen somewhat different definitions 16 Besides those definitions psychology and learning researchers also have suggested definitions of intelligence such as the following Researcher QuotationAlfred Binet Judgment otherwise called good sense practical sense initiative the faculty of adapting one s self to circumstances auto critique 17 David Wechsler The aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully to think rationally and to deal effectively with his environment 18 Lloyd Humphreys the resultant of the process of acquiring storing in memory retrieving combining comparing and using in new contexts information and conceptual skills 19 Howard Gardner To my mind a human intellectual competence must entail a set of skills of problem solving enabling the individual to resolve genuine problems or difficulties that he or she encounters and when appropriate to create an effective product and must also entail the potential for finding or creating problems and thereby laying the groundwork for the acquisition of new knowledge 20 Robert Sternberg amp William Salter Goal directed adaptive behavior 21 Reuven Feuerstein The theory of Structural Cognitive Modifiability describes intelligence as the unique propensity of human beings to change or modify the structure of their cognitive functioning to adapt to the changing demands of a life situation 22 Shane Legg amp Marcus Hutter A synthesis of 70 definitions from psychology philosophy and AI researchers Intelligence measures an agent s ability to achieve goals in a wide range of environments 13 which has been mathematically formalized 23 Alexander Wissner Gross F T St displaystyle tau 24 Intelligence is a force F that acts so as to maximize future freedom of action It acts to maximize future freedom of action or keep options open with some strength T with the diversity of possible accessible futures S up to some future time horizon t In short intelligence doesn t like to get trapped Human EditMain article Human intelligence Human intelligence is the intellectual power of humans which is marked by complex cognitive feats and high levels of motivation and self awareness 25 Intelligence enables humans to remember descriptions of things and use those descriptions in future behaviors It is a cognitive process It gives humans the cognitive abilities to learn form concepts understand and reason including the capacities to recognize patterns innovate plan solve problems and employ language to communicate Intelligence enables humans to experience and think 26 Intelligence is different from learning Learning refers to the act of retaining facts and information or abilities and being able to recall them for future use while intelligence is the cognitive ability of someone to perform these and other processes There have been various attempts to quantify intelligence via testing such as the Intelligence Quotient IQ test However many people disagree with the validity of IQ tests stating that they cannot accurately measure intelligence 27 There is debate about if human intelligence is based on hereditary factors or if it is based on environmental factors Hereditary intelligence is the theory that intelligence is fixed upon birth and not able to grow Environmental intelligence is the theory that intelligence is developed throughout life depending on the environment around the person An environment that cultivates intelligence is one that challenges the person s cognitive abilities 27 Much of the above definition applies also to the intelligence of non human animals citation needed Emotional Edit Main article Emotional intelligence Emotional intelligence is thought to be the ability to convey emotion to others in an understandable way as well as to read the emotions of others accurately 28 Some theories imply that a heightened emotional intelligence could also lead to faster generating and processing of emotions in addition to the accuracy 29 In addition higher emotional intelligence is thought to help us manage emotions which is beneficial for our problem solving skills Emotional intelligence is important to our mental health and has ties into social intelligence 28 Social Edit Main article Social intelligence Social intelligence is the ability to understand the social cues and motivations of others and oneself in social situations It is thought to be distinct to other types of intelligence but has relations to emotional intelligence Social intelligence has coincided with other studies that focus on how we make judgements of others the accuracy with which we do so and why people would be viewed as having positive or negative social character There is debate as to whether or not these studies and social intelligence come from the same theories or if there is a distinction between them and they are generally thought to be of two different schools of thought 30 Book smart and street smart Edit Concepts of book smarts and street smart are contrasting views based on the premise that some people have knowledge gained through academic study but may lack the experience to sensibly apply that knowledge while others have knowledge gained through practical experience but may lack accurate information usually gained through study by which to effectively apply that knowledge Artificial intelligence researcher Hector Levesque has noted that Given the importance of learning through text in our own personal lives and in our culture it is perhaps surprising how utterly dismissive we tend to be of it It is sometimes derided as being merely book knowledge and having it is being book smart In contrast knowledge acquired through direct experience and apprenticeship is called street knowledge and having it is being street smart 31 Nonhuman animal EditMain article Animal cognition The common chimpanzee can use tools This chimpanzee is using a stick to get food Although humans have been the primary focus of intelligence researchers scientists have also attempted to investigate animal intelligence or more broadly animal cognition These researchers are interested in studying both mental ability in a particular species and comparing abilities between species They study various measures of problem solving as well as numerical and verbal reasoning abilities Some challenges in this area are defining intelligence so that it has the same meaning across species e g comparing intelligence between literate humans and illiterate animals and also operationalizing a measure that accurately compares mental ability across different species and contexts citation needed Wolfgang Kohler s research on the intelligence of apes is an example of research in this area Stanley Coren s book The Intelligence of Dogs is a notable book on the topic of dog intelligence 32 See also Dog intelligence Non human animals particularly noted and studied for their intelligence include chimpanzees bonobos notably the language using Kanzi and other great apes dolphins elephants and to some extent parrots rats and ravens 33 Cephalopod intelligence also provides an important comparative study Cephalopods appear to exhibit characteristics of significant intelligence yet their nervous systems differ radically from those of backboned animals Vertebrates such as mammals birds reptiles and fish have shown a fairly high degree of intellect that varies according to each species The same is true with arthropods 34 g factor in non humans Edit Main article g Factor in Non Humans Evidence of a general factor of intelligence has been observed in non human animals The general factor of intelligence or g factor is a psychometric construct that summarizes the correlations observed between an individual s scores on a wide range of cognitive abilities First described in humans the g factor has since been identified in a number of non human species 35 Cognitive ability and intelligence cannot be measured using the same largely verbally dependent scales developed for humans Instead intelligence is measured using a variety of interactive and observational tools focusing on innovation habit reversal social learning and responses to novelty Studies have shown that g is responsible for 47 of the individual variance in cognitive ability measures in primates 35 and between 55 and 60 of the variance in mice Locurto Locurto These values are similar to the accepted variance in IQ explained by g in humans 40 50 36 Plant EditMain articles Plant perception physiology Plant cognition and Plant cognition It has been argued that plants should also be classified as intelligent based on their ability to sense and model external and internal environments and adjust their morphology physiology and phenotype accordingly to ensure self preservation and reproduction 37 38 A counter argument is that intelligence is commonly understood to involve the creation and use of persistent memories as opposed to computation that does not involve learning If this is accepted as definitive of intelligence then it includes the artificial intelligence of robots capable of machine learning but excludes those purely autonomic sense reaction responses that can be observed in many plants Plants are not limited to automated sensory motor responses however they are capable of discriminating positive and negative experiences and of learning registering memories from their past experiences They are also capable of communication accurately computing their circumstances using sophisticated cost benefit analysis and taking tightly controlled actions to mitigate and control the diverse environmental stressors 7 8 39 Artificial EditMain article Artificial intelligence Scholars studying artificial intelligence have proposed definitions of intelligence that include the intelligence demonstrated by machines Some of these definitions are meant to be general enough to encompass human and other animal intelligence as well An intelligent agent can be defined as a system that perceives its environment and takes actions which maximize its chances of success 40 Kaplan and Haenlein define artificial intelligence as a system s ability to correctly interpret external data to learn from such data and to use those learnings to achieve specific goals and tasks through flexible adaptation 41 Progress in artificial intelligence can be demonstrated in benchmarks ranging from games to practical tasks such as protein folding 42 Existing AI lags humans in terms of general intelligence which is sometimes defined as the capacity to learn how to carry out a huge range of tasks 43 Singularitarian Eliezer Yudkowsky provides a loose qualitative definition of intelligence as that sort of smartish stuff coming out of brains which can play chess and price bonds and persuade people to buy bonds and invent guns and figure out gravity by looking at wandering lights in the sky and which if a machine intelligence had it in large quantities might let it invent molecular nanotechnology and so on Mathematician Olle Haggstrom defines intelligence in terms of optimization power an agent s capacity for efficient cross domain optimization of the world according to the agent s preferences or more simply the ability to steer the future into regions of possibility ranked high in a preference ordering In this optimization framework Deep Blue has the power to steer a chessboard s future into a subspace of possibility which it labels as winning despite attempts by Garry Kasparov to steer the future elsewhere 44 Hutter and Legg after surveying the literature define intelligence as an agent s ability to achieve goals in a wide range of environments 45 46 While cognitive ability is sometimes measured as a one dimensional parameter it could also be represented as a hypersurface in a multidimensional space to compare systems that are good at different intellectual tasks 47 Some skeptics believe that there is no meaningful way to define intelligence aside from just pointing to ourselves 48 See also Edit Philosophy portal Psychology portalActive intellect Cattell Horn Carroll theory Intellect Intelligence journal Knowledge Neuroscience and intelligence Noogenesis Outline of human intelligence Passive intellect Superintelligence SapienceReferences Edit Ericsson K A 2018 Intelligence as domain specific superior reproducible performance The role of acquired domain specific mechanisms in expert performance In R J Sternberg Ed The nature of human intelligence pp 85 100 Cambridge University Press https doi org 10 1017 9781316817049 007 Humphreys Lloyd G 1994 Intelligence from the Standpoint of a Pragmatic Behaviorist Taylor amp Francis Vol 5 No 3 pp 179 192 White Margaret B amp Hall Alfred E 1980 An overview of intelligence testing Phi Delta Kappa International Vol 58 No 4 pp 210 216 Buxton Claude E 1985 Influences in Psychology Points of View in the Modern History of Psychology Academic Press Gardner Howard 1983 Frames of Mind The Theory of Multiple Intelligences Sharma Radha R 2008 Emotional Intelligence from 17th Century to 21st Century Perspectives and Directions for Future Research Sage Journals Vol 12 a b Goh C H Nam H G Park Y S 2003 Stress memory in plants A negative regulation of stomatal response and transient induction of rd22 gene to light in abscisic acid entrained Arabidopsis plants The Plant Journal 36 2 240 255 doi 10 1046 j 1365 313X 2003 01872 x PMID 14535888 a b Volkov A G Carrell H Baldwin A Markin V S 2009 Electrical memory in Venus flytrap Bioelectrochemistry 75 2 142 147 doi 10 1016 j bioelechem 2009 03 005 PMID 19356999 Maich Aloysius 1995 A Hobbes Dictionary Blackwell p 305 Nidditch Peter Foreword An Essay Concerning Human Understanding Oxford University Press p xxii Hobbes Thomas Molesworth William 15 February 1839 Opera philosophica quae latine scripsit omnia in unum corpus nunc primum collecta studio et labore Gulielmi Molesworth Londoni apud Joannem Bohn Archived from the original on 5 November 2013 via Internet Archive This paragraph almost verbatim from Goldstein Sam Princiotta Dana Naglieri Jack A eds 2015 Handbook of Intelligence Evolutionary Theory Historical Perspective and Current Concepts New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London Springer p 3 ISBN 978 1 4939 1561 3 a b S Legg M Hutter 2007 A Collection of Definitions of Intelligence Advances in Artificial General Intelligence Concepts Architectures and Algorithms Vol 157 pp 17 24 ISBN 978 1586037581 Gottfredson 1997 pp 17 20 Gottfredson Linda S 1997 Mainstream Science on Intelligence editorial PDF Intelligence 24 13 23 doi 10 1016 s0160 2896 97 90011 8 ISSN 0160 2896 Archived PDF from the original on 22 December 2014 Neisser Ulrich Boodoo Gwyneth Bouchard Thomas J Boykin A Wade Brody Nathan Ceci Stephen J Halpern Diane F Loehlin John C Perloff Robert Sternberg Robert J Urbina Susana 1996 Intelligence Knowns and unknowns PDF American Psychologist 51 2 77 101 doi 10 1037 0003 066x 51 2 77 ISSN 0003 066X Archived PDF from the original on 28 March 2016 Retrieved 9 October 2014 Binet Alfred 1916 1905 New methods for the diagnosis of the intellectual level of subnormals The development of intelligence in children The Binet Simon Scale E S Kite Trans Baltimore Williams amp Wilkins pp 37 90 Archived from the original on 19 June 2010 Retrieved 14 August 2010 originally published as Methodes nouvelles pour le diagnostic du niveau intellectuel des anormaux L Annee Psychologique 11 191 244 Wechsler D 1944 The measurement of adult intelligence Baltimore Williams amp Wilkins ISBN 978 0 19 502296 4 OCLC 219871557 Humphreys L G 1979 The construct of general intelligence Intelligence 3 2 105 120 doi 10 1016 0160 2896 79 90009 6 Frames of mind The theory of multiple intelligences New York Basic Books 1993 ISBN 978 0 465 02510 7 OCLC 221932479 Sternberg RJ Salter W 1982 Handbook of human intelligence Cambridge UK Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 29687 8 OCLC 11226466 Feuerstein R Feuerstein S Falik L amp Rand Y 1979 2002 Dynamic assessments of cognitive modifiability ICELP Press Jerusalem Israel Feuerstein R 1990 The theory of structural modifiability In B Presseisen Ed Learning and thinking styles Classroom interaction Washington DC National Education Associations S Legg M Hutter 2007 Universal Intelligence A Definition of Machine Intelligence Minds and Machines 17 4 391 444 arXiv 0712 3329 Bibcode 2007arXiv0712 3329L doi 10 1007 s11023 007 9079 x S2CID 847021 TED Speaker Alex Wissner Gross A new equation for intelligence TED com 6 February 2014 Archived from the original on 4 September 2016 Retrieved 7 September 2016 Tirri Nokelainen 2011 Measuring Multiple Intelligences and Moral Sensitivities in Education Moral Development and Citizenship Education Springer ISBN 978 94 6091 758 5 Archived from the original on 2 August 2017 Colom Roberto December 2010 Human intelligence and brain networks Dialogues Clin Neurosci 12 4 489 501 doi 10 31887 DCNS 2010 12 4 rcolom PMC 3181994 PMID 21319494 a b Bouchard Thomas J 1982 Review of The Intelligence Controversy The American Journal of Psychology 95 2 346 349 doi 10 2307 1422481 ISSN 0002 9556 JSTOR 1422481 a b Salovey Peter Mayer John D March 1990 Emotional Intelligence Imagination Cognition and Personality 9 3 185 211 doi 10 2190 DUGG P24E 52WK 6CDG hdl 10654 36316 ISSN 0276 2366 S2CID 219900460 Mayer John D Salovey Peter 1 October 1993 The intelligence of emotional intelligence Intelligence 17 4 433 442 doi 10 1016 0160 2896 93 90010 3 ISSN 0160 2896 Walker Ronald E Foley Jeanne M December 1973 Social Intelligence Its History and Measurement Psychological Reports 33 3 839 864 doi 10 2466 pr0 1973 33 3 839 ISSN 0033 2941 S2CID 144839425 Hector J Levesque Common Sense the Turing Test and the Quest for Real AI 2017 p 80 Coren Stanley 1995 The Intelligence of Dogs Bantam Books ISBN 978 0 553 37452 0 OCLC 30700778 Childs Casper 27 May 2020 Words With An Astronaut Valenti Codetipi Retrieved 14 March 2021 Roth Gerhard 19 December 2015 Convergent evolution of complex brains and high intelligence Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 370 1684 20150049 doi 10 1098 rstb 2015 0049 PMC 4650126 PMID 26554042 a b Reader S M Hager Y amp Laland K N 2011 The evolution of primate general and cultural intelligence Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences 366 1567 1017 1027 Kamphaus R W 2005 Clinical assessment of child and adolescent intelligence Springer Science amp Business Media Trewavas Anthony September 2005 Green plants as intelligent organisms Trends in Plant Science 10 9 413 419 doi 10 1016 j tplants 2005 07 005 PMID 16054860 Trewavas A 2002 Mindless mastery Nature 415 6874 841 Bibcode 2002Natur 415 841T doi 10 1038 415841a PMID 11859344 S2CID 4350140 Rensing L Koch M Becker A 2009 A comparative approach to the principal mechanisms of different memory systems Naturwissenschaften 96 12 1373 1384 Bibcode 2009NW 96 1373R doi 10 1007 s00114 009 0591 0 PMID 19680619 S2CID 29195832 Russell Stuart J Norvig Peter 2003 Artificial Intelligence A Modern Approach Englewood Cliffs N J Prentice Hall ISBN 978 0 13 790395 5 OCLC 51325314 Kaplan Andreas and Haelein Michael 2019 Siri Siri in my hand Who s the fairest in the land On the interpretations illustrations and implications of artificial intelligence Business Horizons 62 1 How did a company best known for playing games just crack one of science s toughest puzzles Fortune 2020 Retrieved 21 February 2021 Heath Nick 2018 What is artificial general intelligence ZDNet Retrieved 21 February 2021 Haggstrom Olle 2016 Here be dragons science technology and the future of humanity Oxford Oxford University Press pp 103 104 ISBN 978 0191035395 Gary Lea 2015 The Struggle To Define What Artificial Intelligence Actually Means Popular Science Retrieved 21 February 2021 Legg Shane Hutter Marcus 30 November 2007 Universal Intelligence A Definition of Machine Intelligence Minds and Machines 17 4 391 444 arXiv 0712 3329 doi 10 1007 s11023 007 9079 x S2CID 847021 Bostrom Nick 2014 Superintelligence Paths Dangers Strategies Oxford Oxford University Press Chapter 4 The Kinetics of an Intelligence Explosion footnote 9 ISBN 978 0 19 967811 2 Superintelligence The Idea That Eats Smart People idlewords com Retrieved 21 February 2021 Further reading EditSternberg Robert J Kaufman Scott Barry eds 2011 The Cambridge Handbook of Intelligence Cambridge Cambridge University Press doi 10 1017 9781108770422 ISBN 978 0521739115 S2CID 241027150 Mackintosh N J 2011 IQ and Human Intelligence second ed Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 958559 5 Flynn James R 2009 What Is Intelligence Beyond the Flynn Effect expanded paperback ed Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 74147 7 Lay summary in C Shalizi 27 April 2009 What Is Intelligence Beyond the Flynn Effect University of Michigan Review Archived from the original on 14 June 2010 Stanovich Keith 2009 What Intelligence Tests Miss The Psychology of Rational Thought New Haven CT Yale University Press ISBN 978 0 300 12385 2 Lay summary in Jamie Hale What Intelligence Tests Miss Psych Central Review Archived from the original on 24 December 2013 Blakeslee Sandra Hawkins Jeff 2004 On intelligence New York Times Books ISBN 978 0 8050 7456 7 OCLC 55510125 Bock Gregory Goode Jamie Webb Kate eds 2000 The Nature of Intelligence Novartis Foundation Symposium 233 Chichester Wiley doi 10 1002 0470870850 ISBN 978 0471494348 Lay summary in William D Casebeer 30 November 2001 The Nature of Intelligence Mental Help Review Archived from the original on 26 May 2013 Wolman Benjamin B ed 1985 Handbook of Intelligence consulting editors Douglas K Detterman Alan S Kaufman Joseph D Matarazzo New York Wiley ISBN 978 0 471 89738 5 Terman Lewis Madison Merrill Maude A 1937 Measuring intelligence A guide to the administration of the new revised Stanford Binet tests of intelligence Riverside textbooks in education Boston MA Houghton Mifflin OCLC 964301 Binet Alfred Simon Th 1916 The development of intelligence in children The Binet Simon Scale Publications of the Training School at Vineland New Jersey Department of Research No 11 E S Kite Trans Baltimore Williams amp Wilkins p 1 Retrieved 18 July 2010 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Intelligence Look up intelligence in Wiktionary the free dictionary Wikiquote has quotations related to Intelligence Intelligence on In Our Time at the BBC History of Influences in the Development of Intelligence Theory and Testing Archived 11 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine Developed by Jonathan Plucker at Indiana University The Limits of Intelligence The laws of physics may well prevent the human brain from evolving into an ever more powerful thinking machine by Douglas Fox in Scientific American 14 June 2011 A Collection of Definitions of Intelligence Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Intelligence amp oldid 1171706460, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, 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