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Human intelligence

March 03, 2023

For the espionage discipline, see Human intelligence (intelligence collection).

Human intelligence is the intellectual capability of humans, which is marked by complex cognitive feats and high levels of motivation and self-awareness.[1] High intelligence is associated with better outcomes in life.[2]

Through intelligence, humans possess the cognitive abilities to learn, form concepts, understand, apply logic and reason, including the capacities to recognize patterns, plan, innovate, solve problems, make decisions, retain information, and use language to communicate. There are conflicting ideas about how intelligence is measured, ranging from the idea that intelligence is fixed upon birth, or that it is malleable and can change depending on an individual's mindset and efforts.[3] Several subcategories of intelligence, such as emotional intelligence or social intelligence, are heavily debated as to whether they are traditional forms of intelligence.[4][5] They are generally thought to be distinct processes that occur, though there is speculation that they tie into traditional intelligence more than previously suspected.[4][5]

History

Main article: Evolution of human intelligence
See also: Evolution of the brain

Correlates

Further information: Intelligence and education

As a construct and measured by intelligence tests, intelligence is considered to be one of the most useful concepts in psychology, because it correlates with many relevant variables, for instance the probability of suffering an accident, salary, and more.[6]

Education
According to a 2018 metastudy of educational effects on intelligence, education appears to be the "most consistent, robust, and durable method" known for raising intelligence.[7]
Myopia
A number of studies have shown a correlation between IQ and myopia.[8] Some suggest that the reason for the correlation is environmental, whereby people with a higher IQ are more likely to damage their eyesight with prolonged reading, or the other way around whereby people who read more are more likely to reach a higher IQ, while others contend that a genetic link exists.[9]
Aging
There is evidence that aging causes a decline in cognitive functions. In one cross-sectional study, various cognitive functions measured declines by about 0.8 in z-score from age 20 to age 50, the cognitive functions included speed of processing, working memory, and long-term memory.[10]
Genes
A number of single-nucleotide polymorphisms in human DNA are correlated with intelligence.[11][12]
Motivation
Motivation is a factor that influences the results of the IQ test. People with higher motivation tend to obtain higher IQ scores.[13]

Theories

Relevance of IQ tests

Further information: § Insufficiency of measurement via IQ

In psychology, human intelligence is commonly assessed by IQ scores that are determined by IQ tests. However, while IQ test scores show a high degree of inter-test reliability, and predict certain forms of achievement rather effectively, their construct validity as a holistic measure of human intelligence is considered dubious.[14][15][16] While IQ tests are generally understood to measure some forms of intelligence, they may fail to serve as an accurate measure of broader definitions of human intelligence inclusive of creativity and social intelligence.[16] According to psychologist Wayne Weiten, "IQ tests are valid measures of the kind of intelligence necessary to do well in academic work. But if the purpose is to assess intelligence in a broader sense, the validity of IQ tests is questionable."[16]

Theory of multiple intelligences

Main article: Theory of multiple intelligences

Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences is based on studies not only of normal children and adults, but also of gifted individuals (including so-called "savants"), of persons who have suffered brain damage, of experts and virtuosos, and of individuals from diverse cultures. Gardner breaks intelligence down into at least a number of different components. In the first edition of his book Frames of Mind (1983), he described seven distinct types of intelligence—logical-mathematical, linguistic, spatial, musical, kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. In a second edition of this book, he added two more types of intelligence—naturalist and existential intelligences. He argues that psychometric (IQ) tests address only linguistic and logical plus some aspects of spatial intelligence.[17] A major criticism of Gardner's theory is that it has never been tested, or subjected to peer review, by Gardner or anyone else, and indeed that it is unfalsifiable.[18] Others (e.g. Locke, 2005) have suggested that recognizing many specific forms of intelligence (specific aptitude theory) implies a political—rather than scientific—agenda, intended to appreciate the uniqueness in all individuals, rather than recognizing potentially true and meaningful differences in individual capacities. Schmidt and Hunter (2004) suggest that the predictive validity of specific aptitudes over and above that of general mental ability, or "g", has not received empirical support. On the other hand, Jerome Bruner agreed with Gardner that the intelligences were "useful fictions", and went on to state that "his approach is so far beyond the data-crunching of mental testers that it deserves to be cheered."[19]

Triarchic theory of intelligence

Main article: Triarchic theory of intelligence

Robert Sternberg proposed the triarchic theory of intelligence to provide a more comprehensive description of intellectual competence than traditional differential or cognitive theories of human ability.[20] The triarchic theory describes three fundamental aspects of intelligence:

  • Analytic intelligence comprises the mental processes through which intelligence is expressed.
  • Creative intelligence is necessary when an individual is confronted with a challenge that is nearly, but not entirely, novel or when an individual is engaged in automatizing the performance of a task.
  • Practical intelligence is bound in a sociocultural milieu and involves adaptation to, selection of, and shaping of the environment to maximize fit in the context.

The triarchic theory does not argue against the validity of a general intelligence factor; instead, the theory posits that general intelligence is part of analytic intelligence, and only by considering all three aspects of intelligence can the full range of intellectual functioning be fully understood.

More recently, the triarchic theory has been updated and renamed as the Theory of Successful Intelligence by Sternberg.[21][22] Intelligence is now defined as an individual's assessment of success in life by the individual's own (idiographic) standards and within the individual's sociocultural context. Success is achieved by using combinations of analytical, creative, and practical intelligence. The three aspects of intelligence are referred to as processing skills. The processing skills are applied to the pursuit of success through what were the three elements of practical intelligence: adapting to, shaping of, and selecting of one's environments. The mechanisms that employ the processing skills to achieve success include utilizing one's strengths and compensating or correcting for one's weaknesses.

Sternberg's theories and research on intelligence remain contentious within the scientific community.[23][24][25][26]

PASS theory of intelligence

Main article: PASS Theory of Intelligence

Based on A. R. Luria's (1966)[27] seminal work on the modularization of brain function, and supported by decades of neuroimaging research, the PASS Theory of Intelligence[28] (Planning/Attention/Simultaneous/Successive) proposes that cognition is organized in three systems and four processes. The first process is the Planning, which involves executive functions responsible for controlling and organizing behavior, selecting and constructing strategies, and monitoring performance. The second is the Attention process, which is responsible for maintaining arousal levels and alertness, and ensuring focus on relevant stimuli. The next two are called Simultaneous and Successive processing and they involve encoding, transforming, and retaining information. Simultaneous processing is engaged when the relationship between items and their integration into whole units of information is required. Examples of this include recognizing figures, such as a triangle within a circle vs. a circle within a triangle, or the difference between 'he had a shower before breakfast' and 'he had breakfast before a shower.' Successive processing is required for organizing separate items in a sequence such as remembering a sequence of words or actions exactly in the order in which they had just been presented. These four processes are functions of four areas of the brain. Planning is broadly located in the front part of our brains, the frontal lobe. Attention and arousal are combined functions of the frontal lobe and the lower parts of the cortex, although the parietal lobes are also involved in attention as well. Simultaneous processing and Successive processing occur in the posterior region or the back of the brain. Simultaneous processing is broadly associated with the occipital and the parietal lobes while Successive processing is broadly associated with the frontal-temporal lobes. The PASS theory is heavily indebted to both Luria (1966,[27] 1973[29]), and studies in cognitive psychology involved in promoting a better look at intelligence.[30]

Piaget's theory and Neo-Piagetian theories

Main articles: Piaget's theory of cognitive development and Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development

In Piaget's theory of cognitive development the focus is not on mental abilities but rather on a child's mental models of the world. As a child develops, increasingly more accurate models of the world are developed which enable the child to interact with the world better. One example being object permanence where the child develops a model where objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched.

Piaget's theory described four main stages and many sub-stages in the development. These four main stages are:

  • sensorimotor stage (birth-2yrs);
  • pre-operational stage (2yrs-7rs);
  • concrete operational stage (7rs-11yrs); and
  • formal operations stage (11yrs-16yrs)[31]

Degree of progress through these stages are correlated, but not identical with psychometric IQ.[32][33] Piaget conceptualizes intelligence as an activity more than a capacity.

One of Piaget's most famous studies focused purely on the discriminative abilities of children between the ages of two and a half years old, and four and a half years old. He began the study by taking children of different ages and placing two lines of sweets, one with the sweets in a line spread further apart, and one with the same number of sweets in a line placed more closely together. He found that, "Children between 2 years, 6 months old and 3 years, 2 months old correctly discriminate the relative number of objects in two rows; between 3 years, 2 months and 4 years, 6 months they indicate a longer row with fewer objects to have "more"; after 4 years, 6 months they again discriminate correctly".[34] Initially younger children were not studied, because if at the age of four years a child could not conserve quantity, then a younger child presumably could not either. The results show however that children that are younger than three years and two months have quantity conservation, but as they get older they lose this quality, and do not recover it until four and a half years old. This attribute may be lost temporarily because of an overdependence on perceptual strategies, which correlates more candy with a longer line of candy, or because of the inability for a four-year-old to reverse situations.[31] By the end of this experiment several results were found. First, younger children have a discriminative ability that shows the logical capacity for cognitive operations exists earlier than acknowledged. This study also reveals that young children can be equipped with certain qualities for cognitive operations, depending on how logical the structure of the task is. Research also shows that children develop explicit understanding at age 5 and as a result, the child will count the sweets to decide which has more. Finally the study found that overall quantity conservation is not a basic characteristic of humans' native inheritance.[31]

Piaget's theory has been criticized for the age of appearance of a new model of the world, such as object permanence, being dependent on how the testing is done (see the article on object permanence). More generally, the theory may be very difficult to test empirically because of the difficulty of proving or disproving that a mental model is the explanation for the results of the testing.[35]

Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development expand Piaget's theory in various ways such as also considering psychometric-like factors such as processing speed and working memory, "hypercognitive" factors like self-monitoring, more stages, and more consideration on how progress may vary in different domains such as spatial or social.[36][37]

Parieto-frontal integration theory of intelligence

Main article: Parieto-frontal integration theory

Based on a review of 37 neuroimaging studies, Jung and Haier (2007) proposed that the biological basis of intelligence stems from how well the frontal and parietal regions of the brain communicate and exchange information with each other.[38] Subsequent neuroimaging and lesion studies report general consensus with the theory.[39][40][41] A review of the neuroscience and intelligence literature concludes that the parieto-frontal integration theory is the best available explanation for human intelligence differences.[42]

Investment theory

Based on the Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory, the tests of intelligence most often used in the relevant studies include measures of fluid ability (Gf) and crystallized ability (Gc); that differ in their trajectory of development in individuals.[43] The 'investment theory' by Cattell[44] states that the individual differences observed in the procurement of skills and knowledge (Gc) are partially attributed to the 'investment' of Gf, thus suggesting the involvement of fluid intelligence in every aspect of the learning process.[45] It is essential to highlight that the investment theory suggests that personality traits affect 'actual' ability, and not scores on an IQ test.[46] In association, Hebb's theory of intelligence suggested a bifurcation as well, Intelligence A (physiological), that could be seen as a semblance of fluid intelligence and Intelligence B (experiential), similar to crystallized intelligence.[47]

Intelligence compensation theory (ICT)

The intelligence compensation theory (a term first coined by Wood and Englert, 2009)[48] states that individuals who are comparatively less intelligent work harder, more methodically, become more resolute and thorough (more conscientious) in order to achieve goals, to compensate for their 'lack of intelligence' whereas more intelligent individuals do not require traits/behaviours associated with the personality factor conscientiousness to progress as they can rely on the strength of their cognitive abilities as opposed to structure or effort.[49][50] The theory suggests the existence of a causal relationship between intelligence and conscientiousness, such that the development of the personality trait conscientiousness is influenced by intelligence. This assumption is deemed plausible as it is unlikely that the reverse causal relationship could occur;[51] implying that the negative correlation would be higher between fluid intelligence (Gf) and conscientiousness. The justification being the timeline of development of Gf, Gc and personality, as crystallized intelligence would not have developed completely when personality traits develop. Subsequently, during school-going ages, more conscientious children would be expected to gain more crystallized intelligence (knowledge) through education, as they would be more efficient, thorough, hard-working and dutiful.[52]

This theory has recently been contradicted by evidence, that identifies compensatory sample selection. Thus, attributing the previous findings to the bias in selecting samples with individuals above a certain threshold of achievement.[53]

Bandura's theory of self-efficacy and cognition

The view of cognitive ability has evolved over the years, and it is no longer viewed as a fixed property held by an individual. Instead, the current perspective describes it as a general capacity, comprising not only cognitive, but motivational, social and behavioural aspects as well. These facets work together to perform numerous tasks. An essential skill often overlooked is that of managing emotions, and aversive experiences that can compromise one's quality of thought and activity. The link between intelligence and success has been bridged by crediting individual differences in self-efficacy. Bandura's theory identifies the difference between possessing skills and being able to apply them in challenging situations. Thus, the theory suggests that individuals with the same level of knowledge and skill may perform badly, averagely or excellently based on differences in self-efficacy.

A key role of cognition is to allow for one to predict events and in turn devise methods to deal with these events effectively. These skills are dependent on processing of stimuli that is unclear and ambiguous. To learn the relevant concepts, individuals must be able to rely on the reserve of knowledge to identify, develop and execute options. They must be able to apply the learning acquired from previous experiences. Thus, a stable sense of self-efficacy is essential to stay focused on tasks in the face of challenging situations.[54]

To summarize, Bandura's theory of self-efficacy and intelligence suggests that individuals with a relatively low sense of self-efficacy in any field will avoid challenges. This effect is heightened when they perceive the situations as personal threats. When failure occurs, they recover from it more slowly than others, and credit it to an insufficient aptitude. On the other hand, persons with high levels of self-efficacy hold a task-diagnostic aim that leads to effective performance.[55]

Process, personality, intelligence and knowledge theory (PPIK)

 
Predicted growth curves for Intelligence as process, crystallized intelligence, occupational knowledge and avocational knowledge based on Ackerman's PPIK Theory[citation needed]

Developed by Ackerman, the PPIK (process, personality, intelligence and knowledge) theory further develops the approach on intelligence as proposed by Cattell, the Investment theory and Hebb, suggesting a distinction between intelligence as knowledge and intelligence as process (two concepts that are comparable and related to Gc and Gf respectively, but broader and closer to Hebb's notions of "Intelligence A" and "Intelligence B") and integrating these factors with elements such as personality, motivation and interests.[56][57]

Ackerman describes the difficulty of distinguishing process from knowledge, as content cannot be eliminated from any ability test.[56][57][58] Personality traits have not shown to be significantly correlated with the intelligence as process aspect except in the context of psychopathology. One exception to this generalization has been the finding of sex differences in cognitive abilities, specifically abilities in mathematical and spatial form.[56][59] On the other hand, the intelligence as knowledge factor has been associated with personality traits of Openness and Typical Intellectual Engagement,[56][60][61] which also strongly correlate with verbal abilities (associated with crystallized intelligence).[56]

Latent inhibition

Main article: Latent inhibition

It appears that Latent inhibition, the phenomenon of familiar stimuli having a postponed reaction time than unfamiliar stimuli has a positive correlation with creativity.

Improving

Further information: Neuroenhancement and Intelligence amplification

Genetic engineering

See also: Human genetic enhancement and Neurogenetics

Because intelligence appears to be at least partly dependent on brain structure and the genes shaping brain development, it has been proposed that genetic engineering could be used to enhance the intelligence, a process sometimes called biological uplift in science fiction. Experiments on mice have demonstrated superior ability in learning and memory in various behavioral tasks.[62]

Child care

 
Adult brain volume differences due to the program[63]

A 2021 study showed that the Abecedarian Early Intervention Project resulted in significant changes in midlife brain structure in males. MRI scans showed that several brain region and total brain volumes were substantially larger in participants of the child care program than in the control group.[64][63]

Education

IQ leads to greater success in education,[65] but independently education raises IQ scores.[66] A 2017 meta-analysis suggests education increases IQ by 1-5 points per year of education, or at least increases IQ test taking ability.[67]

Nutrition and chemicals

See also: Healthy diet, Nutrition and cognition, Dietary supplement, Nutraceutical, and Eugeroic

Substances which actually or purportedly improve intelligence or other mental functions are called nootropics. A meta analysis shows omega 3 fatty acids improves cognitive performance among those with cognitive deficits, but not among healthy subjects.[68] A meta-regression shows omega 3 fatty acids improve the moods of patients with major depression (major depression is associated with mental deficits).[69]

Activities and adult neural development

See also: Development of the nervous system in humans § Adult neural development

Digital tools

See also: Knowledge work and Personal knowledge management

Digital media

This section is an excerpt from Digital media use and mental health § Impact on cognition.[edit]

There is research and development about the cognitive impacts of smartphones and digital technology. A group reported that, contrary to widespread belief, scientific evidence doesn't show that these technologies harm biological cognitive abilities and that they instead only change predominant ways of cognition – such as a reduced need to remember facts or conduct mathematical calculations by pen and paper outside contemporary schools. However, some activities – like reading novels – that require long focused attention-spans and don't feature ongoing rewarding stimulation may become more challenging in general.[74][75] How extensive online media usage impacts cognitive development in youth is under investigation[76] and impacts may substantially vary by the way and which technologies are being used – such as which and how digital media platforms are being used – and how these are designed. Impacts may vary to a degree such studies have not yet taken into account and may be modulatable by the design, choice and use of technologies and platforms, including by the users themselves.

 
Measured results of the study
A study suggests that in children aged 8–12 during two years, time digital gaming or watching digital videos can be positively correlated with measures intelligence, albeit correlations with overall screen time (including social media, socializing and TV) were not investigated and 'time gaming' did not differentiate between categories of video games (e.g. shares of games' platform and genre), and digital videos did not differentiate between categories of videos.[77][78]

Brain training

Attempts to raise IQ with brain training have led to increases on aspects related with the training tasks – for instance working memory – but it is yet unclear if these increases generalize to increased intelligence per se.[79][80]

A 2008 research paper claimed that practicing a dual n-back task can increase fluid intelligence (Gf), as measured in several different standard tests.[81] This finding received some attention from popular media, including an article in Wired.[82] However, a subsequent criticism of the paper's methodology questioned the experiment's validity and took issue with the lack of uniformity in the tests used to evaluate the control and test groups.[83] For example, the progressive nature of Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM) test may have been compromised by modifications of time restrictions (i.e., 10 minutes were allowed to complete a normally 45-minute test).

Philosophy

On the philosophical front, conscious efforts to influence intelligence raise ethical issues. Neuroethics considers the ethical, legal and social implications of neuroscience, and deals with issues such as the difference between treating a human neurological disease and enhancing the human brain, and how wealth impacts access to neurotechnology. Neuroethical issues interact with the ethics of human genetic engineering.

Transhumanist theorists study the possibilities and consequences of developing and using techniques to enhance human abilities and aptitudes.

Eugenics is a social philosophy which advocates the improvement of human hereditary traits through various forms of intervention.[84] Eugenics has variously been regarded as meritorious or deplorable in different periods of history, falling greatly into disrepute after the defeat of Nazi Germany in World War II.[85]

Measuring

Main article: Intelligence quotient
Further information: Psychometrics
 
Score distribution chart for sample of 905 children tested on 1916 Stanford-Binet Test

The approach to understanding intelligence with the most supporters and published research over the longest period of time is based on psychometric testing. It is also by far the most widely used in practical settings.[17] Intelligence quotient (IQ) tests include the Stanford-Binet, Raven's Progressive Matrices, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale and the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children. There are also psychometric tests that are not intended to measure intelligence itself but some closely related construct such as scholastic aptitude. In the United States examples include the SSAT, the SAT, the ACT, the GRE, the MCAT, the LSAT, and the GMAT.[17] Regardless of the method used, almost any test that requires examinees to reason and has a wide range of question difficulty will produce intelligence scores that are approximately normally distributed in the general population.[86][87]

Intelligence tests are widely used in educational,[88] business, and military settings because of their efficacy in predicting behavior. IQ and g (discussed in the next section) are correlated with many important social outcomes—individuals with low IQs are more likely to be divorced, have a child out of marriage, be incarcerated, and need long-term welfare support, while individuals with high IQs are associated with more years of education, higher status jobs and higher income.[89] Intelligence as measured by Psychometric tests has been found to be highly correlated with successful training and performance outcomes (e.g., adaptive performance),[90][91][92] and IQ/g is the single best predictor of successful job performance; however, some researchers although largely concurring with this finding have advised caution in citing the strength of the claim due to a number of factors, these include: statistical assumptions imposed underlying some of these studies, studies done prior to 1970 which appear inconsistent with more recent studies, and ongoing debates within the Psychology literature as to the validity of current IQ measurement tools.[93][94]

General intelligence factor or g

Main article: g factor (psychometrics)

There are many different kinds of IQ tests using a wide variety of test tasks. Some tests consist of a single type of task, others rely on a broad collection of tasks with different contents (visual-spatial,[95] verbal, numerical) and asking for different cognitive processes (e.g., reasoning, memory, rapid decisions, visual comparisons, spatial imagery, reading, and retrieval of general knowledge). The psychologist Charles Spearman early in the 20th century carried out the first formal factor analysis of correlations between various test tasks. He found a trend for all such tests to correlate positively with each other, which is called a positive manifold. Spearman found that a single common factor explained the positive correlations among tests. Spearman named it g for "general intelligence factor". He interpreted it as the core of human intelligence that, to a larger or smaller degree, influences success in all cognitive tasks and thereby creates the positive manifold. This interpretation of g as a common cause of test performance is still dominant in psychometrics. (Although, an alternative interpretation was recently advanced by van der Maas and colleagues.[96] Their mutualism model assumes that intelligence depends on several independent mechanisms, none of which influences performance on all cognitive tests. These mechanisms support each other so that efficient operation of one of them makes efficient operation of the others more likely, thereby creating the positive manifold.)

IQ tests can be ranked by how highly they load on the g factor. Tests with high g-loadings are those that correlate highly with most other tests. One comprehensive study investigating the correlations between a large collection of tests and tasks[97] has found that the Raven's Progressive Matrices have a particularly high correlation with most other tests and tasks. The Raven's is a test of inductive reasoning with abstract visual material. It consists of a series of problems, sorted approximately by increasing difficulty. Each problem presents a 3 x 3 matrix of abstract designs with one empty cell; the matrix is constructed according to a rule, and the person must find out the rule to determine which of 8 alternatives fits into the empty cell. Because of its high correlation with other tests, the Raven's Progressive Matrices are generally acknowledged as a good indicator of general intelligence. This is problematic, however, because there are substantial gender differences on the Raven's,[98] which are not found when g is measured directly by computing the general factor from a broad collection of tests.[99]

General collective intelligence factor or c

Main article: Collective intelligence

A recent scientific understanding of collective intelligence, defined as a group's general ability to perform a wide range of tasks,[100] expands the areas of human intelligence research applying similar methods and concepts to groups. Definition, operationalization and methods are similar to the psychometric approach of general individual intelligence where an individual's performance on a given set of cognitive tasks is used to measure intelligence indicated by the general intelligence factor g extracted via factor analysis.[101] In the same vein, collective intelligence research aims to discover a 'c factor' explaining between-group differences in performance as well as structural and group compositional causes for it.[102]

Historical psychometric theories

Main article: Intelligence quotient § History

Several different theories of intelligence have historically been important for psychometrics. Often they emphasized more factors than a single one like in g factor.

Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory

Main article: Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory

Many of the broad, recent IQ tests have been greatly influenced by the Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory. It is argued to reflect much of what is known about intelligence from research. A hierarchy of factors for human intelligence is used. g is at the top. Under it there are 10 broad abilities that in turn are subdivided into 70 narrow abilities. The broad abilities are:[103]

  • Fluid intelligence (Gf): includes the broad ability to reason, form concepts, and solve problems using unfamiliar information or novel procedures.
  • Crystallized intelligence (Gc): includes the breadth and depth of a person's acquired knowledge, the ability to communicate one's knowledge, and the ability to reason using previously learned experiences or procedures.
  • Quantitative reasoning (Gq): the ability to comprehend quantitative concepts and relationships and to manipulate numerical symbols.
  • Reading & writing ability (Grw): includes basic reading and writing skills.
  • Short-term memory (Gsm): is the ability to apprehend and hold information in immediate awareness and then use it within a few seconds.
  • Long-term storage and retrieval (Glr): is the ability to store information and fluently retrieve it later in the process of thinking.
  • Visual processing (Gv): is the ability to perceive, analyze, synthesize, and think with visual patterns, including the ability to store and recall visual representations.
  • Auditory processing (Ga): is the ability to analyze, synthesize, and discriminate auditory stimuli, including the ability to process and discriminate speech sounds that may be presented under distorted conditions.
  • Processing speed (Gs): is the ability to perform automatic cognitive tasks, particularly when measured under pressure to maintain focused attention.
  • Decision/reaction time/speed (Gt): reflect the immediacy with which an individual can react to stimuli or a task (typically measured in seconds or fractions of seconds; not to be confused with Gs, which typically is measured in intervals of 2–3 minutes). See Mental chronometry.

Modern tests do not necessarily measure of all of these broad abilities. For example, Gq and Grw may be seen as measures of school achievement and not IQ.[103] Gt may be difficult to measure without special equipment.

g was earlier often subdivided into only Gf and Gc which were thought to correspond to the nonverbal or performance subtests and verbal subtests in earlier versions of the popular Wechsler IQ test. More recent research has shown the situation to be more complex.[103]

Controversies

While not necessarily a dispute about the psychometric approach itself, there are several controversies regarding the results from psychometric research.

One criticism has been against the early research such as craniometry.[104] A reply has been that drawing conclusions from early intelligence research is like condemning the auto industry by criticizing the performance of the Model T.[105]

Several critics, such as Stephen Jay Gould, have been critical of g, seeing it as a statistical artifact, and that IQ tests instead measure a number of unrelated abilities.[104][106] The American Psychological Association's report "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns" stated that IQ tests do correlate and that the view that g is a statistical artifact is a minority one.

Insufficiency of measurement via IQ

This section is an excerpt from Intelligence quotient § Validity as a measure of intelligence.[edit]

Reliability and validity are very different concepts. While reliability reflects reproducibility, validity refers to whether the test measures what it purports to measure.[107] While IQ tests are generally considered to measure some forms of intelligence, they may fail to serve as an accurate measure of broader definitions of human intelligence inclusive of, for example, creativity and social intelligence. For this reason, psychologist Wayne Weiten argues that their construct validity must be carefully qualified, and not be overstated.[107] According to Weiten, "IQ tests are valid measures of the kind of intelligence necessary to do well in academic work. But if the purpose is to assess intelligence in a broader sense, the validity of IQ tests is questionable."[107]

Some scientists have disputed the value of IQ as a measure of intelligence altogether. In The Mismeasure of Man (1981, expanded edition 1996), evolutionary biologist Stephen Jay Gould compared IQ testing with the now-discredited practice of determining intelligence via craniometry, arguing that both are based on the fallacy of reification, "our tendency to convert abstract concepts into entities".[108] Gould's argument sparked a great deal of debate,[109][110] and the book is listed as one of Discover Magazine's "25 Greatest Science Books of All Time".[111]

Along these same lines, critics such as Keith Stanovich do not dispute the capacity of IQ test scores to predict some kinds of achievement, but argue that basing a concept of intelligence on IQ test scores alone neglects other important aspects of mental ability.[112][113] Robert Sternberg, another significant critic of IQ as the main measure of human cognitive abilities, argued that reducing the concept of intelligence to the measure of g does not fully account for the different skills and knowledge types that produce success in human society.[114]

Despite these objections, clinical psychologists generally regard IQ scores as having sufficient statistical validity for many clinical purposes.[specify][115][116]

A study suggested that intelligence is composed of distinct cognitive systems, each of which having its own capacity and being (to some degree) independent of other components, with the cognitive profile being emergent from anatomically distinct cognitive systems (such as brain regions or neural networks).[117][118] For example, IQ and reading-/language-related traits/skills appear to be influenced "at least partly [by] distinct genetic factors".[119][120]

Various types of potential measures related to some definitions of intelligence but not part of IQ measurement include:

Non-human intelligence

See also: Neuroethics, Neurolaw, and Consciousness § Animal consciousness

Human intelligence could be distinguished from potential other types of intelligences which may include those of (some may belong to multiple or be impossible):[additional citation(s) needed]

Such intelligences, if they exist and are considered "intelligent", could be very different from human intelligences. Research may e.g. investigate differences between different types or profiles or aspects of intelligences, such as between modern humans and archaic humans.[128]

Intelligence across cultures

Psychologists have shown that the definition of human intelligence is unique to the culture that one is studying. Robert Sternberg is among the researchers who have discussed how one's culture affects the person's interpretation of intelligence, and he further believes that to define intelligence in only one way without considering different meanings in cultural contexts may cast an investigative and unintentionally egocentric view on the world. To negate this, psychologists offer the following definitions of intelligence:

  1. Successful intelligence is the skills and knowledge needed for success in life, according to one's own definition of success, within one's sociocultural context.
  2. Analytical intelligence is the result of intelligence's components applied to fairly abstract but familiar kinds of problems.
  3. Creative intelligence is the result of intelligence's components applied to relatively novel tasks and situations.
  4. Practical intelligence is the result of intelligence's components applied to experience for purposes of adaption, shaping and selection.[129]

Although typically identified by its western definition, multiple studies support the idea that human intelligence carries different meanings across cultures around the world. In many Eastern cultures, intelligence is mainly related with one's social roles and responsibilities. A Chinese conception of intelligence would define it as the ability to empathize with and understand others — although this is by no means the only way that intelligence is defined in China. In several African communities, intelligence is shown similarly through a social lens. However, rather than through social roles, as in many Eastern cultures, it is exemplified through social responsibilities. For example, in the language of Chi-Chewa, which is spoken by some ten million people across central Africa, the equivalent term for intelligence implies not only cleverness but also the ability to take on responsibility. Furthermore, within American culture there are a variety of interpretations of intelligence present as well. One of the most common views on intelligence within American societies defines it as a combination of problem-solving skills, deductive reasoning skills, and Intelligence quotient (IQ), while other American societies point out that intelligent people should have a social conscience, accept others for who they are, and be able to give advice or wisdom.[130]

See also

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Further reading

  • Mackintosh, N. J. (2011). IQ and Human Intelligence (second ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-958559-5. The second edition of a leading textbook on human intelligence, used in highly selective universities throughout the English-speaking world, with extensive references to research literature.
  • Hunt, Earl (2011). Human Intelligence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-70781-7. First edition of a comprehensive textbook by a veteran scholar of human intelligence.
  • Nisbett, Richard E.; Aronson, Joshua; Blair, Clancy; Dickens, William; Flynn, James; Halpern, Diane F.; Turkheimer, Eric (2012). "Intelligence: new findings and theoretical developments" (PDF). American Psychologist. 67 (2): 130–159. doi:10.1037/a0026699. ISSN 0003-066X. PMID 22233090. Retrieved 22 July 2013. Major review article in a flagship publication of the American Psychological Association, a thorough review of current research.
    • "The latest on intelligence". Daniel Willingham--Science & Education. 2012-05-10.
  • Traill, R.R. (2019). "Mechanisms of Human intelligence — From RNA and Synapse to Broadband". PsyArXiv. doi:10.31234/osf.io/7w63s. S2CID 241968622.
  • Sternberg, Robert J.; Kaufman, Scott Barry, eds. (2011). The Cambridge Handbook of Intelligence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521739115. Authoritative handbook for graduate students and practitioners, with chapters by a variety of authors on most aspects of human intelligence.

March 03, 2023
human, intelligence, espionage, discipline, intelligence, collection, intellectual, capability, humans, which, marked, complex, cognitive, feats, high, levels, motivation, self, awareness, high, intelligence, associated, with, better, outcomes, life, through, . For the espionage discipline see Human intelligence intelligence collection Human intelligence is the intellectual capability of humans which is marked by complex cognitive feats and high levels of motivation and self awareness 1 High intelligence is associated with better outcomes in life 2 Through intelligence humans possess the cognitive abilities to learn form concepts understand apply logic and reason including the capacities to recognize patterns plan innovate solve problems make decisions retain information and use language to communicate There are conflicting ideas about how intelligence is measured ranging from the idea that intelligence is fixed upon birth or that it is malleable and can change depending on an individual s mindset and efforts 3 Several subcategories of intelligence such as emotional intelligence or social intelligence are heavily debated as to whether they are traditional forms of intelligence 4 5 They are generally thought to be distinct processes that occur though there is speculation that they tie into traditional intelligence more than previously suspected 4 5 Contents 1 History 2 Correlates 3 Theories 3 1 Relevance of IQ tests 3 2 Theory of multiple intelligences 3 3 Triarchic theory of intelligence 3 4 PASS theory of intelligence 3 5 Piaget s theory and Neo Piagetian theories 3 6 Parieto frontal integration theory of intelligence 3 7 Investment theory 3 8 Intelligence compensation theory ICT 3 9 Bandura s theory of self efficacy and cognition 3 10 Process personality intelligence and knowledge theory PPIK 3 11 Latent inhibition 4 Improving 4 1 Genetic engineering 4 2 Child care 4 3 Education 4 4 Nutrition and chemicals 4 5 Activities and adult neural development 4 6 Digital tools 4 6 1 Digital media 4 7 Brain training 4 8 Philosophy 5 Measuring 5 1 General intelligence factor or g 5 2 General collective intelligence factor or c 5 3 Historical psychometric theories 5 4 Cattell Horn Carroll theory 5 5 Controversies 5 6 Insufficiency of measurement via IQ 6 Non human intelligence 7 Intelligence across cultures 8 See also 9 References 10 Sources 11 Further readingHistory EditMain article Evolution of human intelligence See also Evolution of the brain This section needs expansion You can help by adding to it February 2022 Correlates EditFurther information Intelligence and education As a construct and measured by intelligence tests intelligence is considered to be one of the most useful concepts in psychology because it correlates with many relevant variables for instance the probability of suffering an accident salary and more 6 Education According to a 2018 metastudy of educational effects on intelligence education appears to be the most consistent robust and durable method known for raising intelligence 7 Myopia A number of studies have shown a correlation between IQ and myopia 8 Some suggest that the reason for the correlation is environmental whereby people with a higher IQ are more likely to damage their eyesight with prolonged reading or the other way around whereby people who read more are more likely to reach a higher IQ while others contend that a genetic link exists 9 Aging There is evidence that aging causes a decline in cognitive functions In one cross sectional study various cognitive functions measured declines by about 0 8 in z score from age 20 to age 50 the cognitive functions included speed of processing working memory and long term memory 10 Genes A number of single nucleotide polymorphisms in human DNA are correlated with intelligence 11 12 Motivation Motivation is a factor that influences the results of the IQ test People with higher motivation tend to obtain higher IQ scores 13 Theories EditRelevance of IQ tests Edit Further information Insufficiency of measurement via IQ In psychology human intelligence is commonly assessed by IQ scores that are determined by IQ tests However while IQ test scores show a high degree of inter test reliability and predict certain forms of achievement rather effectively their construct validity as a holistic measure of human intelligence is considered dubious 14 15 16 While IQ tests are generally understood to measure some forms of intelligence they may fail to serve as an accurate measure of broader definitions of human intelligence inclusive of creativity and social intelligence 16 According to psychologist Wayne Weiten IQ tests are valid measures of the kind of intelligence necessary to do well in academic work But if the purpose is to assess intelligence in a broader sense the validity of IQ tests is questionable 16 Theory of multiple intelligences Edit Main article Theory of multiple intelligences Howard Gardner s theory of multiple intelligences is based on studies not only of normal children and adults but also of gifted individuals including so called savants of persons who have suffered brain damage of experts and virtuosos and of individuals from diverse cultures Gardner breaks intelligence down into at least a number of different components In the first edition of his book Frames of Mind 1983 he described seven distinct types of intelligence logical mathematical linguistic spatial musical kinesthetic interpersonal and intrapersonal In a second edition of this book he added two more types of intelligence naturalist and existential intelligences He argues that psychometric IQ tests address only linguistic and logical plus some aspects of spatial intelligence 17 A major criticism of Gardner s theory is that it has never been tested or subjected to peer review by Gardner or anyone else and indeed that it is unfalsifiable 18 Others e g Locke 2005 have suggested that recognizing many specific forms of intelligence specific aptitude theory implies a political rather than scientific agenda intended to appreciate the uniqueness in all individuals rather than recognizing potentially true and meaningful differences in individual capacities Schmidt and Hunter 2004 suggest that the predictive validity of specific aptitudes over and above that of general mental ability or g has not received empirical support On the other hand Jerome Bruner agreed with Gardner that the intelligences were useful fictions and went on to state that his approach is so far beyond the data crunching of mental testers that it deserves to be cheered 19 Triarchic theory of intelligence Edit Main article Triarchic theory of intelligence Robert Sternberg proposed the triarchic theory of intelligence to provide a more comprehensive description of intellectual competence than traditional differential or cognitive theories of human ability 20 The triarchic theory describes three fundamental aspects of intelligence Analytic intelligence comprises the mental processes through which intelligence is expressed Creative intelligence is necessary when an individual is confronted with a challenge that is nearly but not entirely novel or when an individual is engaged in automatizing the performance of a task Practical intelligence is bound in a sociocultural milieu and involves adaptation to selection of and shaping of the environment to maximize fit in the context The triarchic theory does not argue against the validity of a general intelligence factor instead the theory posits that general intelligence is part of analytic intelligence and only by considering all three aspects of intelligence can the full range of intellectual functioning be fully understood More recently the triarchic theory has been updated and renamed as the Theory of Successful Intelligence by Sternberg 21 22 Intelligence is now defined as an individual s assessment of success in life by the individual s own idiographic standards and within the individual s sociocultural context Success is achieved by using combinations of analytical creative and practical intelligence The three aspects of intelligence are referred to as processing skills The processing skills are applied to the pursuit of success through what were the three elements of practical intelligence adapting to shaping of and selecting of one s environments The mechanisms that employ the processing skills to achieve success include utilizing one s strengths and compensating or correcting for one s weaknesses Sternberg s theories and research on intelligence remain contentious within the scientific community 23 24 25 26 PASS theory of intelligence Edit Main article PASS Theory of Intelligence Based on A R Luria s 1966 27 seminal work on the modularization of brain function and supported by decades of neuroimaging research the PASS Theory of Intelligence 28 Planning Attention Simultaneous Successive proposes that cognition is organized in three systems and four processes The first process is the Planning which involves executive functions responsible for controlling and organizing behavior selecting and constructing strategies and monitoring performance The second is the Attention process which is responsible for maintaining arousal levels and alertness and ensuring focus on relevant stimuli The next two are called Simultaneous and Successive processing and they involve encoding transforming and retaining information Simultaneous processing is engaged when the relationship between items and their integration into whole units of information is required Examples of this include recognizing figures such as a triangle within a circle vs a circle within a triangle or the difference between he had a shower before breakfast and he had breakfast before a shower Successive processing is required for organizing separate items in a sequence such as remembering a sequence of words or actions exactly in the order in which they had just been presented These four processes are functions of four areas of the brain Planning is broadly located in the front part of our brains the frontal lobe Attention and arousal are combined functions of the frontal lobe and the lower parts of the cortex although the parietal lobes are also involved in attention as well Simultaneous processing and Successive processing occur in the posterior region or the back of the brain Simultaneous processing is broadly associated with the occipital and the parietal lobes while Successive processing is broadly associated with the frontal temporal lobes The PASS theory is heavily indebted to both Luria 1966 27 1973 29 and studies in cognitive psychology involved in promoting a better look at intelligence 30 Piaget s theory and Neo Piagetian theories Edit Main articles Piaget s theory of cognitive development and Neo Piagetian theories of cognitive development In Piaget s theory of cognitive development the focus is not on mental abilities but rather on a child s mental models of the world As a child develops increasingly more accurate models of the world are developed which enable the child to interact with the world better One example being object permanence where the child develops a model where objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen heard or touched Piaget s theory described four main stages and many sub stages in the development These four main stages are sensorimotor stage birth 2yrs pre operational stage 2yrs 7rs concrete operational stage 7rs 11yrs and formal operations stage 11yrs 16yrs 31 Degree of progress through these stages are correlated but not identical with psychometric IQ 32 33 Piaget conceptualizes intelligence as an activity more than a capacity One of Piaget s most famous studies focused purely on the discriminative abilities of children between the ages of two and a half years old and four and a half years old He began the study by taking children of different ages and placing two lines of sweets one with the sweets in a line spread further apart and one with the same number of sweets in a line placed more closely together He found that Children between 2 years 6 months old and 3 years 2 months old correctly discriminate the relative number of objects in two rows between 3 years 2 months and 4 years 6 months they indicate a longer row with fewer objects to have more after 4 years 6 months they again discriminate correctly 34 Initially younger children were not studied because if at the age of four years a child could not conserve quantity then a younger child presumably could not either The results show however that children that are younger than three years and two months have quantity conservation but as they get older they lose this quality and do not recover it until four and a half years old This attribute may be lost temporarily because of an overdependence on perceptual strategies which correlates more candy with a longer line of candy or because of the inability for a four year old to reverse situations 31 By the end of this experiment several results were found First younger children have a discriminative ability that shows the logical capacity for cognitive operations exists earlier than acknowledged This study also reveals that young children can be equipped with certain qualities for cognitive operations depending on how logical the structure of the task is Research also shows that children develop explicit understanding at age 5 and as a result the child will count the sweets to decide which has more Finally the study found that overall quantity conservation is not a basic characteristic of humans native inheritance 31 Piaget s theory has been criticized for the age of appearance of a new model of the world such as object permanence being dependent on how the testing is done see the article on object permanence More generally the theory may be very difficult to test empirically because of the difficulty of proving or disproving that a mental model is the explanation for the results of the testing 35 Neo Piagetian theories of cognitive development expand Piaget s theory in various ways such as also considering psychometric like factors such as processing speed and working memory hypercognitive factors like self monitoring more stages and more consideration on how progress may vary in different domains such as spatial or social 36 37 Parieto frontal integration theory of intelligence Edit Main article Parieto frontal integration theory Based on a review of 37 neuroimaging studies Jung and Haier 2007 proposed that the biological basis of intelligence stems from how well the frontal and parietal regions of the brain communicate and exchange information with each other 38 Subsequent neuroimaging and lesion studies report general consensus with the theory 39 40 41 A review of the neuroscience and intelligence literature concludes that the parieto frontal integration theory is the best available explanation for human intelligence differences 42 Investment theory Edit Based on the Cattell Horn Carroll theory the tests of intelligence most often used in the relevant studies include measures of fluid ability Gf and crystallized ability Gc that differ in their trajectory of development in individuals 43 The investment theory by Cattell 44 states that the individual differences observed in the procurement of skills and knowledge Gc are partially attributed to the investment of Gf thus suggesting the involvement of fluid intelligence in every aspect of the learning process 45 It is essential to highlight that the investment theory suggests that personality traits affect actual ability and not scores on an IQ test 46 In association Hebb s theory of intelligence suggested a bifurcation as well Intelligence A physiological that could be seen as a semblance of fluid intelligence and Intelligence B experiential similar to crystallized intelligence 47 Intelligence compensation theory ICT Edit The intelligence compensation theory a term first coined by Wood and Englert 2009 48 states that individuals who are comparatively less intelligent work harder more methodically become more resolute and thorough more conscientious in order to achieve goals to compensate for their lack of intelligence whereas more intelligent individuals do not require traits behaviours associated with the personality factor conscientiousness to progress as they can rely on the strength of their cognitive abilities as opposed to structure or effort 49 50 The theory suggests the existence of a causal relationship between intelligence and conscientiousness such that the development of the personality trait conscientiousness is influenced by intelligence This assumption is deemed plausible as it is unlikely that the reverse causal relationship could occur 51 implying that the negative correlation would be higher between fluid intelligence Gf and conscientiousness The justification being the timeline of development of Gf Gc and personality as crystallized intelligence would not have developed completely when personality traits develop Subsequently during school going ages more conscientious children would be expected to gain more crystallized intelligence knowledge through education as they would be more efficient thorough hard working and dutiful 52 This theory has recently been contradicted by evidence that identifies compensatory sample selection Thus attributing the previous findings to the bias in selecting samples with individuals above a certain threshold of achievement 53 Bandura s theory of self efficacy and cognition Edit The view of cognitive ability has evolved over the years and it is no longer viewed as a fixed property held by an individual Instead the current perspective describes it as a general capacity comprising not only cognitive but motivational social and behavioural aspects as well These facets work together to perform numerous tasks An essential skill often overlooked is that of managing emotions and aversive experiences that can compromise one s quality of thought and activity The link between intelligence and success has been bridged by crediting individual differences in self efficacy Bandura s theory identifies the difference between possessing skills and being able to apply them in challenging situations Thus the theory suggests that individuals with the same level of knowledge and skill may perform badly averagely or excellently based on differences in self efficacy A key role of cognition is to allow for one to predict events and in turn devise methods to deal with these events effectively These skills are dependent on processing of stimuli that is unclear and ambiguous To learn the relevant concepts individuals must be able to rely on the reserve of knowledge to identify develop and execute options They must be able to apply the learning acquired from previous experiences Thus a stable sense of self efficacy is essential to stay focused on tasks in the face of challenging situations 54 To summarize Bandura s theory of self efficacy and intelligence suggests that individuals with a relatively low sense of self efficacy in any field will avoid challenges This effect is heightened when they perceive the situations as personal threats When failure occurs they recover from it more slowly than others and credit it to an insufficient aptitude On the other hand persons with high levels of self efficacy hold a task diagnostic aim that leads to effective performance 55 Process personality intelligence and knowledge theory PPIK Edit This section needs expansion with more extensive and clear explanations You can help by adding to it March 2018 Predicted growth curves for Intelligence as process crystallized intelligence occupational knowledge and avocational knowledge based on Ackerman s PPIK Theory citation needed Developed by Ackerman the PPIK process personality intelligence and knowledge theory further develops the approach on intelligence as proposed by Cattell the Investment theory and Hebb suggesting a distinction between intelligence as knowledge and intelligence as process two concepts that are comparable and related to Gc and Gf respectively but broader and closer to Hebb s notions of Intelligence A and Intelligence B and integrating these factors with elements such as personality motivation and interests 56 57 Ackerman describes the difficulty of distinguishing process from knowledge as content cannot be eliminated from any ability test 56 57 58 Personality traits have not shown to be significantly correlated with the intelligence as process aspect except in the context of psychopathology One exception to this generalization has been the finding of sex differences in cognitive abilities specifically abilities in mathematical and spatial form 56 59 On the other hand the intelligence as knowledge factor has been associated with personality traits of Openness and Typical Intellectual Engagement 56 60 61 which also strongly correlate with verbal abilities associated with crystallized intelligence 56 Latent inhibition Edit Main article Latent inhibition It appears that Latent inhibition the phenomenon of familiar stimuli having a postponed reaction time than unfamiliar stimuli has a positive correlation with creativity Improving EditFurther information Neuroenhancement and Intelligence amplification Genetic engineering Edit See also Human genetic enhancement and Neurogenetics Because intelligence appears to be at least partly dependent on brain structure and the genes shaping brain development it has been proposed that genetic engineering could be used to enhance the intelligence a process sometimes called biological uplift in science fiction Experiments on mice have demonstrated superior ability in learning and memory in various behavioral tasks 62 Child care Edit Adult brain volume differences due to the program 63 A 2021 study showed that the Abecedarian Early Intervention Project resulted in significant changes in midlife brain structure in males MRI scans showed that several brain region and total brain volumes were substantially larger in participants of the child care program than in the control group 64 63 Education Edit IQ leads to greater success in education 65 but independently education raises IQ scores 66 A 2017 meta analysis suggests education increases IQ by 1 5 points per year of education or at least increases IQ test taking ability 67 Nutrition and chemicals Edit See also Healthy diet Nutrition and cognition Dietary supplement Nutraceutical and Eugeroic Substances which actually or purportedly improve intelligence or other mental functions are called nootropics A meta analysis shows omega 3 fatty acids improves cognitive performance among those with cognitive deficits but not among healthy subjects 68 A meta regression shows omega 3 fatty acids improve the moods of patients with major depression major depression is associated with mental deficits 69 Activities and adult neural development Edit See also Development of the nervous system in humans Adult neural development Exercise enhances cognition for healthy and non healthy subjects 70 Which e g intellectually demanding work 71 and how one does work 72 Quality of sleep 73 Digital tools Edit See also Knowledge work and Personal knowledge management Digital media Edit This section is an excerpt from Digital media use and mental health Impact on cognition edit There is research and development about the cognitive impacts of smartphones and digital technology A group reported that contrary to widespread belief scientific evidence doesn t show that these technologies harm biological cognitive abilities and that they instead only change predominant ways of cognition such as a reduced need to remember facts or conduct mathematical calculations by pen and paper outside contemporary schools However some activities like reading novels that require long focused attention spans and don t feature ongoing rewarding stimulation may become more challenging in general 74 75 How extensive online media usage impacts cognitive development in youth is under investigation 76 and impacts may substantially vary by the way and which technologies are being used such as which and how digital media platforms are being used and how these are designed Impacts may vary to a degree such studies have not yet taken into account and may be modulatable by the design choice and use of technologies and platforms including by the users themselves Measured results of the study A study suggests that in children aged 8 12 during two years time digital gaming or watching digital videos can be positively correlated with measures intelligence albeit correlations with overall screen time including social media socializing and TV were not investigated and time gaming did not differentiate between categories of video games e g shares of games platform and genre and digital videos did not differentiate between categories of videos 77 78 Brain training Edit Attempts to raise IQ with brain training have led to increases on aspects related with the training tasks for instance working memory but it is yet unclear if these increases generalize to increased intelligence per se 79 80 A 2008 research paper claimed that practicing a dual n back task can increase fluid intelligence Gf as measured in several different standard tests 81 This finding received some attention from popular media including an article in Wired 82 However a subsequent criticism of the paper s methodology questioned the experiment s validity and took issue with the lack of uniformity in the tests used to evaluate the control and test groups 83 For example the progressive nature of Raven s Advanced Progressive Matrices APM test may have been compromised by modifications of time restrictions i e 10 minutes were allowed to complete a normally 45 minute test Philosophy Edit On the philosophical front conscious efforts to influence intelligence raise ethical issues Neuroethics considers the ethical legal and social implications of neuroscience and deals with issues such as the difference between treating a human neurological disease and enhancing the human brain and how wealth impacts access to neurotechnology Neuroethical issues interact with the ethics of human genetic engineering Transhumanist theorists study the possibilities and consequences of developing and using techniques to enhance human abilities and aptitudes Eugenics is a social philosophy which advocates the improvement of human hereditary traits through various forms of intervention 84 Eugenics has variously been regarded as meritorious or deplorable in different periods of history falling greatly into disrepute after the defeat of Nazi Germany in World War II 85 Measuring EditMain article Intelligence quotient Further information Psychometrics Score distribution chart for sample of 905 children tested on 1916 Stanford Binet Test The approach to understanding intelligence with the most supporters and published research over the longest period of time is based on psychometric testing It is also by far the most widely used in practical settings 17 Intelligence quotient IQ tests include the Stanford Binet Raven s Progressive Matrices the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale and the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children There are also psychometric tests that are not intended to measure intelligence itself but some closely related construct such as scholastic aptitude In the United States examples include the SSAT the SAT the ACT the GRE the MCAT the LSAT and the GMAT 17 Regardless of the method used almost any test that requires examinees to reason and has a wide range of question difficulty will produce intelligence scores that are approximately normally distributed in the general population 86 87 Intelligence tests are widely used in educational 88 business and military settings because of their efficacy in predicting behavior IQ and g discussed in the next section are correlated with many important social outcomes individuals with low IQs are more likely to be divorced have a child out of marriage be incarcerated and need long term welfare support while individuals with high IQs are associated with more years of education higher status jobs and higher income 89 Intelligence as measured by Psychometric tests has been found to be highly correlated with successful training and performance outcomes e g adaptive performance 90 91 92 and IQ g is the single best predictor of successful job performance however some researchers although largely concurring with this finding have advised caution in citing the strength of the claim due to a number of factors these include statistical assumptions imposed underlying some of these studies studies done prior to 1970 which appear inconsistent with more recent studies and ongoing debates within the Psychology literature as to the validity of current IQ measurement tools 93 94 General intelligence factor or g Edit Main article g factor psychometrics There are many different kinds of IQ tests using a wide variety of test tasks Some tests consist of a single type of task others rely on a broad collection of tasks with different contents visual spatial 95 verbal numerical and asking for different cognitive processes e g reasoning memory rapid decisions visual comparisons spatial imagery reading and retrieval of general knowledge The psychologist Charles Spearman early in the 20th century carried out the first formal factor analysis of correlations between various test tasks He found a trend for all such tests to correlate positively with each other which is called a positive manifold Spearman found that a single common factor explained the positive correlations among tests Spearman named it g for general intelligence factor He interpreted it as the core of human intelligence that to a larger or smaller degree influences success in all cognitive tasks and thereby creates the positive manifold This interpretation of g as a common cause of test performance is still dominant in psychometrics Although an alternative interpretation was recently advanced by van der Maas and colleagues 96 Their mutualism model assumes that intelligence depends on several independent mechanisms none of which influences performance on all cognitive tests These mechanisms support each other so that efficient operation of one of them makes efficient operation of the others more likely thereby creating the positive manifold IQ tests can be ranked by how highly they load on the g factor Tests with high g loadings are those that correlate highly with most other tests One comprehensive study investigating the correlations between a large collection of tests and tasks 97 has found that the Raven s Progressive Matrices have a particularly high correlation with most other tests and tasks The Raven s is a test of inductive reasoning with abstract visual material It consists of a series of problems sorted approximately by increasing difficulty Each problem presents a 3 x 3 matrix of abstract designs with one empty cell the matrix is constructed according to a rule and the person must find out the rule to determine which of 8 alternatives fits into the empty cell Because of its high correlation with other tests the Raven s Progressive Matrices are generally acknowledged as a good indicator of general intelligence This is problematic however because there are substantial gender differences on the Raven s 98 which are not found when g is measured directly by computing the general factor from a broad collection of tests 99 General collective intelligence factor or c Edit Main article Collective intelligence A recent scientific understanding of collective intelligence defined as a group s general ability to perform a wide range of tasks 100 expands the areas of human intelligence research applying similar methods and concepts to groups Definition operationalization and methods are similar to the psychometric approach of general individual intelligence where an individual s performance on a given set of cognitive tasks is used to measure intelligence indicated by the general intelligence factor g extracted via factor analysis 101 In the same vein collective intelligence research aims to discover a c factor explaining between group differences in performance as well as structural and group compositional causes for it 102 Historical psychometric theories Edit Main article Intelligence quotient History Several different theories of intelligence have historically been important for psychometrics Often they emphasized more factors than a single one like in g factor Cattell Horn Carroll theory Edit Main article Cattell Horn Carroll theory Many of the broad recent IQ tests have been greatly influenced by the Cattell Horn Carroll theory It is argued to reflect much of what is known about intelligence from research A hierarchy of factors for human intelligence is used g is at the top Under it there are 10 broad abilities that in turn are subdivided into 70 narrow abilities The broad abilities are 103 Fluid intelligence Gf includes the broad ability to reason form concepts and solve problems using unfamiliar information or novel procedures Crystallized intelligence Gc includes the breadth and depth of a person s acquired knowledge the ability to communicate one s knowledge and the ability to reason using previously learned experiences or procedures Quantitative reasoning Gq the ability to comprehend quantitative concepts and relationships and to manipulate numerical symbols Reading amp writing ability Grw includes basic reading and writing skills Short term memory Gsm is the ability to apprehend and hold information in immediate awareness and then use it within a few seconds Long term storage and retrieval Glr is the ability to store information and fluently retrieve it later in the process of thinking Visual processing Gv is the ability to perceive analyze synthesize and think with visual patterns including the ability to store and recall visual representations Auditory processing Ga is the ability to analyze synthesize and discriminate auditory stimuli including the ability to process and discriminate speech sounds that may be presented under distorted conditions Processing speed Gs is the ability to perform automatic cognitive tasks particularly when measured under pressure to maintain focused attention Decision reaction time speed Gt reflect the immediacy with which an individual can react to stimuli or a task typically measured in seconds or fractions of seconds not to be confused with Gs which typically is measured in intervals of 2 3 minutes See Mental chronometry Modern tests do not necessarily measure of all of these broad abilities For example Gq and Grw may be seen as measures of school achievement and not IQ 103 Gt may be difficult to measure without special equipment g was earlier often subdivided into only Gf and Gc which were thought to correspond to the nonverbal or performance subtests and verbal subtests in earlier versions of the popular Wechsler IQ test More recent research has shown the situation to be more complex 103 Controversies Edit While not necessarily a dispute about the psychometric approach itself there are several controversies regarding the results from psychometric research One criticism has been against the early research such as craniometry 104 A reply has been that drawing conclusions from early intelligence research is like condemning the auto industry by criticizing the performance of the Model T 105 Several critics such as Stephen Jay Gould have been critical of g seeing it as a statistical artifact and that IQ tests instead measure a number of unrelated abilities 104 106 The American Psychological Association s report Intelligence Knowns and Unknowns stated that IQ tests do correlate and that the view that g is a statistical artifact is a minority one Insufficiency of measurement via IQ Edit This section is an excerpt from Intelligence quotient Validity as a measure of intelligence edit Reliability and validity are very different concepts While reliability reflects reproducibility validity refers to whether the test measures what it purports to measure 107 While IQ tests are generally considered to measure some forms of intelligence they may fail to serve as an accurate measure of broader definitions of human intelligence inclusive of for example creativity and social intelligence For this reason psychologist Wayne Weiten argues that their construct validity must be carefully qualified and not be overstated 107 According to Weiten IQ tests are valid measures of the kind of intelligence necessary to do well in academic work But if the purpose is to assess intelligence in a broader sense the validity of IQ tests is questionable 107 Some scientists have disputed the value of IQ as a measure of intelligence altogether In The Mismeasure of Man 1981 expanded edition 1996 evolutionary biologist Stephen Jay Gould compared IQ testing with the now discredited practice of determining intelligence via craniometry arguing that both are based on the fallacy of reification our tendency to convert abstract concepts into entities 108 Gould s argument sparked a great deal of debate 109 110 and the book is listed as one of Discover Magazine s 25 Greatest Science Books of All Time 111 Along these same lines critics such as Keith Stanovich do not dispute the capacity of IQ test scores to predict some kinds of achievement but argue that basing a concept of intelligence on IQ test scores alone neglects other important aspects of mental ability 112 113 Robert Sternberg another significant critic of IQ as the main measure of human cognitive abilities argued that reducing the concept of intelligence to the measure of g does not fully account for the different skills and knowledge types that produce success in human society 114 Despite these objections clinical psychologists generally regard IQ scores as having sufficient statistical validity for many clinical purposes specify 115 116 A study suggested that intelligence is composed of distinct cognitive systems each of which having its own capacity and being to some degree independent of other components with the cognitive profile being emergent from anatomically distinct cognitive systems such as brain regions or neural networks 117 118 For example IQ and reading language related traits skills appear to be influenced at least partly by distinct genetic factors 119 120 Various types of potential measures related to some definitions of intelligence but not part of IQ measurement include Cognitive flexibility abilities in switching between different concepts or to adapt behaviour in novel or changing environments 121 Moral intelligence 122 123 Prioritization and goal selection Direct measures of brain activity 122 and other neuroimaging intelligence testing partly investigated in the neuroscience of intelligenceNon human intelligence EditSee also Neuroethics Neurolaw and Consciousness Animal consciousness Human intelligence could be distinguished from potential other types of intelligences which may include those of some may belong to multiple or be impossible additional citation s needed Extraterrestrials 124 Non human animals such as that of bonobos and chimpanzees Artificial intelligences including novel types of learning machines such as semi synthetic wetware computers or digitized minds Chimerics or hybrids created with the use of biotechnologies including humanzees humanized mice or rats with human brain cells organoids 125 126 127 Future posthumans e g cyborgs including cyborgs with biological augmentations Archaic humans including Neanderthals see also genetic factors of recent brain evolution Such intelligences if they exist and are considered intelligent could be very different from human intelligences Research may e g investigate differences between different types or profiles or aspects of intelligences such as between modern humans and archaic humans 128 Intelligence across cultures EditPsychologists have shown that the definition of human intelligence is unique to the culture that one is studying Robert Sternberg is among the researchers who have discussed how one s culture affects the person s interpretation of intelligence and he further believes that to define intelligence in only one way without considering different meanings in cultural contexts may cast an investigative and unintentionally egocentric view on the world To negate this psychologists offer the following definitions of intelligence Successful intelligence is the skills and knowledge needed for success in life according to one s own definition of success within one s sociocultural context Analytical intelligence is the result of intelligence s components applied to fairly abstract but familiar kinds of problems Creative intelligence is the result of intelligence s components applied to relatively novel tasks and situations Practical intelligence is the result of intelligence s components applied to experience for purposes of adaption shaping and selection 129 Although typically identified by its western definition multiple studies support the idea that human intelligence carries different meanings across cultures around the world In many Eastern cultures intelligence is mainly related with one s social roles and responsibilities A Chinese conception of intelligence would define it as the ability to empathize with and understand others although this is by no means the only way that intelligence is defined in China In several African communities intelligence is shown similarly through a social lens However rather than through social roles as in many Eastern cultures it is exemplified through social responsibilities For example in the language of Chi Chewa which is spoken by some ten million people across central Africa the equivalent term for intelligence implies not only cleverness but also the ability to take on responsibility Furthermore within American culture there are a variety of interpretations of intelligence present as well One of the most common views on intelligence within American 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Intelligence and Culture Robert Sternberg American Psychologist American Psychological Association 2004 Vol 59 No 5 pp 325 338 Intelligence and Culture Robert Serpell Handbook of Intelligence Cambridge University Press 2000 pp 549 578 Sources EditAnastasi Anne Urbina Susana 1997 Psychological Testing 7th ed Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice Hall ISBN 978 0023030857 Gould Stephen Jay 1981 The Mismeasure of Man New York W W Norton ISBN 978 0 393 30056 7 Gould Stephen Jay 1996 The Mismeasure of Man Rev and expanded ed New York W W Norton ISBN 978 0 393 31425 0 Kaufman Alan S 2009 IQ Testing 101 New York Springer Publishing ISBN 978 0 8261 0629 2 Neisser Ulrich Boodoo Gwyneth Bouchard Thomas J Boykin A Wade Brody Nathan Ceci Stephen J Halpern Diane F Loehlin John C et al 1996 Intelligence Knowns and unknowns PDF American Psychologist 51 2 77 101 doi 10 1037 0003 066x 51 2 77 ISSN 0003 066X S2CID 20957095 Retrieved 9 October 2014 Further reading EditMackintosh N J 2011 IQ and Human Intelligence second ed Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 958559 5 The second edition of a leading textbook on human intelligence used in highly selective universities throughout the English speaking world with extensive references to research literature Hunt Earl 2011 Human Intelligence Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 70781 7 First edition of a comprehensive textbook by a veteran scholar of human intelligence Nisbett Richard E Aronson Joshua Blair Clancy Dickens William Flynn James Halpern Diane F Turkheimer Eric 2012 Intelligence new findings and theoretical developments PDF American Psychologist 67 2 130 159 doi 10 1037 a0026699 ISSN 0003 066X PMID 22233090 Retrieved 22 July 2013 Major review article in a flagship publication of the American Psychological Association a thorough review of current research The latest on intelligence Daniel Willingham Science amp Education 2012 05 10 Traill R R 2019 Mechanisms of Human intelligence From RNA and Synapse to Broadband PsyArXiv doi 10 31234 osf io 7w63s S2CID 241968622 Sternberg Robert J Kaufman Scott Barry eds 2011 The Cambridge Handbook of Intelligence Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 9780521739115 Authoritative handbook for graduate students and practitioners with chapters by a variety of authors on most aspects of human intelligence Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Human intelligence amp oldid 1136547547, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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