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Noam Chomsky

March 20, 2023

"Chomsky" redirects here. For other uses, see Chomsky (disambiguation).

Avram Noam Chomsky[a] (born December 7, 1928) is an American public intellectual: a linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, historian,[b] social critic, and political activist. Sometimes called "the father of modern linguistics",[c] Chomsky is also a major figure in analytic philosophy and one of the founders of the field of cognitive science. He is a Laureate Professor of Linguistics at the University of Arizona and an Institute Professor Emeritus at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), and is the author of more than 150 books on topics such as linguistics, war, and politics. Ideologically, he aligns with anarcho-syndicalism and libertarian socialism.

Noam Chomsky
Chomsky in 2017
Born
Avram Noam Chomsky

(1928-12-07) December 7, 1928 (age 94)
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.
Spouses
​
​
(m. 1949; died 2008)​
Valeria Wasserman
​
(m. 2014)​
Children3, including Aviva
Parents
Awards
 
Academic background
EducationUniversity of Pennsylvania
(AB, MA, PhD)
ThesisTransformational Analysis (1955)
Doctoral advisorZellig Harris[1]
Influences
 
Academic work
DisciplineLinguistics, analytic philosophy, cognitive science, political criticism
School or tradition
Institutions
Doctoral students
 
Influenced
 
Websitechomsky.info
Signature

Born to Ashkenazi Jewish immigrants in Philadelphia, Chomsky developed an early interest in anarchism from alternative bookstores in New York City. He studied at the University of Pennsylvania. During his postgraduate work in the Harvard Society of Fellows, Chomsky developed the theory of transformational grammar for which he earned his doctorate in 1955. That year he began teaching at MIT, and in 1957 emerged as a significant figure in linguistics with his landmark work Syntactic Structures, which played a major role in remodeling the study of language. From 1958 to 1959 Chomsky was a National Science Foundation fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study. He created or co-created the universal grammar theory, the generative grammar theory, the Chomsky hierarchy, and the minimalist program. Chomsky also played a pivotal role in the decline of linguistic behaviorism, and was particularly critical of the work of B. F. Skinner.

An outspoken opponent of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, which he saw as an act of American imperialism, in 1967 Chomsky rose to national attention for his anti-war essay "The Responsibility of Intellectuals". Becoming associated with the New Left, he was arrested multiple times for his activism and placed on President Richard Nixon's list of political opponents. While expanding his work in linguistics over subsequent decades, he also became involved in the linguistics wars. In collaboration with Edward S. Herman, Chomsky later articulated the propaganda model of media criticism in Manufacturing Consent, and worked to expose the Indonesian occupation of East Timor. His defense of unconditional freedom of speech, including that of Holocaust denial, generated significant controversy in the Faurisson affair of the 1980s. Since retiring from active teaching at MIT, he has continued his vocal political activism, including opposing the 2003 invasion of Iraq and supporting the Occupy movement. Chomsky began teaching at the University of Arizona in 2017.

One of the most cited scholars alive,[d] Chomsky has influenced a broad array of academic fields. He is widely recognized as having helped to spark the cognitive revolution in the human sciences, contributing to the development of a new cognitivistic framework for the study of language and the mind. In addition to his continued scholarship, he remains a leading critic of U.S. foreign policy, contemporary state capitalism, U.S. involvement and Israel's role in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, and mass media. Chomsky and his ideas are highly influential in the anti-capitalist and anti-imperialist movements.

Life

Childhood: 1928–1945

Avram Noam Chomsky was born on December 7, 1928, in the East Oak Lane neighborhood of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.[20] His parents, Ze'ev "William" Chomsky and Elsie Simonofsky, were Jewish immigrants.[21] William had fled the Russian Empire in 1913 to escape conscription and worked in Baltimore sweatshops and Hebrew elementary schools before attending university.[22] After moving to Philadelphia, William became principal of the Congregation Mikveh Israel religious school and joined the Gratz College faculty. He placed great emphasis on educating people so that they would be "well integrated, free and independent in their thinking, concerned about improving and enhancing the world, and eager to participate in making life more meaningful and worthwhile for all", a mission that shaped and was subsequently adopted by his son.[23] Elsie was a teacher and activist born in Belarus. They met at Mikveh Israel, where they both worked.[21]

Noam (born 1928) was the Chomskys' first child. His younger brother, David Eli Chomsky (1934–2021), was born five years later, and worked as a cardiologist in Philadelphia.[24][25][26] The brothers were close, though David was more easygoing while Noam could be very competitive.[27] Chomsky and his brother were raised Jewish, being taught Hebrew and regularly involved with discussing the political theories of Zionism; the family was particularly influenced by the Left Zionist writings of Ahad Ha'am.[26] Chomsky faced antisemitism as a child, particularly from Philadelphia's Irish and German communities.[28]

Chomsky attended the independent, Deweyite Oak Lane Country Day School[29] and Philadelphia's Central High School, where he excelled academically and joined various clubs and societies, but was troubled by the school's hierarchical and regimented teaching methods.[30] He also attended Hebrew High School at Gratz College, where his father taught.[31]

Chomsky has described his parents as "normal Roosevelt Democrats" with center-left politics, but relatives involved in the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union exposed him to socialism and far-left politics.[32] He was substantially influenced by his uncle and the Jewish leftists who frequented his New York City newspaper stand to debate current affairs.[33] Chomsky himself often visited left-wing and anarchist bookstores when visiting his uncle in the city, voraciously reading political literature.[34] He wrote his first article at age 10 on the spread of fascism following the fall of Barcelona (Feb. 1939) during the Spanish Civil War[35] and, from the age of 12 or 13, identified with anarchist politics, as well as the "anti-Bolshevik Left."[36][31] He later described his discovery of anarchism as "a lucky accident"[37] that made him critical of Stalinism and other forms of Marxism–Leninism.[38]

University: 1945–1955

 
Carol Schatz married Chomsky in 1949.

In 1945, aged 16, Chomsky began a general program of study at the University of Pennsylvania, where he explored philosophy, logic, and languages and developed a primary interest in learning Arabic.[39] Living at home, he funded his undergraduate degree by teaching Hebrew.[40] Frustrated with his experiences at the university, he considered dropping out and moving to a kibbutz in Mandatory Palestine,[41] but his intellectual curiosity was reawakened through conversations with the Russian-born linguist Zellig Harris, whom he first met in a political circle in 1947. Harris introduced Chomsky to the field of theoretical linguistics and convinced him to major in the subject.[42] Chomsky's BA honors thesis, "Morphophonemics of Modern Hebrew", applied Harris's methods to the language.[43] Chomsky revised this thesis for his MA, which he received from the University of Pennsylvania in 1951; it was subsequently published as a book.[44] He also developed his interest in philosophy while at university, in particular under the tutelage of Nelson Goodman.[45]

From 1951 to 1955 Chomsky was a member of the Society of Fellows at Harvard University, where he undertook research on what became his doctoral dissertation.[46] Having been encouraged by Goodman to apply,[47] Chomsky was attracted to Harvard in part because the philosopher Willard Van Orman Quine was based there. Both Quine and a visiting philosopher, J. L. Austin of the University of Oxford, strongly influenced Chomsky.[48] In 1952 Chomsky published his first academic article, Systems of Syntactic Analysis, which appeared not in a journal of linguistics but in The Journal of Symbolic Logic.[47] Highly critical of the established behaviorist currents in linguistics, in 1954 he presented his ideas at lectures at the University of Chicago and Yale University.[49] He had not been registered as a student at Pennsylvania for four years, but in 1955 he submitted a thesis setting out his ideas on transformational grammar; he was awarded a Doctor of Philosophy degree for it, and it was privately distributed among specialists on microfilm before being published in 1975 as part of The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory.[50] Harvard professor George Armitage Miller was impressed by Chomsky's thesis and collaborated with him on several technical papers in mathematical linguistics.[51] Chomsky's doctorate exempted him from compulsory military service, which was otherwise due to begin in 1955.[52]

In 1947 Chomsky began a romantic relationship with Carol Doris Schatz, whom he had known since early childhood. They married in 1949.[53] After Chomsky was made a Fellow at Harvard, the couple moved to the Allston area of Boston and remained there until 1965, when they relocated to the suburb of Lexington.[54] In 1953 the couple took a Harvard travel grant to Europe, from the United Kingdom through France, Switzerland into Italy,[55] and Israel, where they lived in Hashomer Hatzair's HaZore'a kibbutz. Despite enjoying himself, Chomsky was appalled by the country's Jewish nationalism, anti-Arab racism and, within the kibbutz's leftist community, pro-Stalinism.[56] On visits to New York City, Chomsky continued to frequent the office of the Yiddish anarchist journal Fraye Arbeter Shtime and became enamored with the ideas of Rudolf Rocker, a contributor whose work introduced Chomsky to the link between anarchism and classical liberalism.[57] Chomsky also read other political thinkers: the anarchists Mikhail Bakunin and Diego Abad de Santillán, democratic socialists George Orwell, Bertrand Russell, and Dwight Macdonald, and works by Marxists Karl Liebknecht, Karl Korsch, and Rosa Luxemburg.[58] His readings convinced him of the desirability of an anarcho-syndicalist society, and he became fascinated by the anarcho-syndicalist communes set up during the Spanish Civil War, as documented in Orwell's Homage to Catalonia (1938).[59] He read the leftist journal Politics, which furthered his interest in anarchism,[60] and the council communist periodical Living Marxism, though he rejected the orthodoxy of its editor, Paul Mattick.[61]

Early career: 1955–1966

Chomsky befriended two linguists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Morris Halle and Roman Jakobson, the latter of whom secured him an assistant professor position there in 1955. At MIT, Chomsky spent half his time on a mechanical translation project and half teaching a course on linguistics and philosophy.[62] He described MIT as "a pretty free and open place, open to experimentation and without rigid requirements. It was just perfect for someone of my idiosyncratic interests and work."[63] In 1957 MIT promoted him to the position of associate professor, and from 1957 to 1958 he was also employed by Columbia University as a visiting professor.[64] The Chomskys had their first child that same year, a daughter named Aviva.[65] He also published his first book on linguistics, Syntactic Structures, a work that radically opposed the dominant Harris–Bloomfield trend in the field.[66] Responses to Chomsky's ideas ranged from indifference to hostility, and his work proved divisive and caused "significant upheaval" in the discipline.[67] The linguist John Lyons later asserted that Syntactic Structures "revolutionized the scientific study of language".[68] From 1958 to 1959 Chomsky was a National Science Foundation fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey.[69]

 
The Great Dome at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where Chomsky began working in 1955

In 1959, Chomsky published a review of B. F. Skinner's 1957 book Verbal Behavior in the academic journal Language, in which he argued against Skinner's view of language as learned behavior.[70][71] The review argued that Skinner ignored the role of human creativity in linguistics and helped to establish Chomsky as an intellectual.[72] With Halle, Chomsky proceeded to found MIT's graduate program in linguistics. In 1961 he was awarded tenure, becoming a full professor in the Department of Modern Languages and Linguistics.[73] Chomsky went on to be appointed plenary speaker at the Ninth International Congress of Linguists, held in 1962 in Cambridge, Massachusetts, which established him as the de facto spokesperson of American linguistics.[74] Between 1963 and 1965 he consulted on a military-sponsored project "to establish natural language as an operational language for command and control"; Barbara Partee, a collaborator on this project and then-student of Chomsky, has said this research was justified to the military on the basis that "in the event of a nuclear war, the generals would be underground with some computers trying to manage things, and that it would probably be easier to teach computers to understand English than to teach the generals to program."[75]

Chomsky continued to publish his linguistic ideas throughout the decade, including in Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965), Topics in the Theory of Generative Grammar (1966), and Cartesian Linguistics: A Chapter in the History of Rationalist Thought (1966).[76] Along with Halle, he also edited the Studies in Language series of books for Harper and Row.[77] As he began to accrue significant academic recognition and honors for his work, Chomsky lectured at the University of California, Berkeley, in 1966.[78] His Beckman lectures at Berkeley were assembled and published as Language and Mind in 1968.[79] Despite his growing stature, an intellectual falling-out between Chomsky and some of his early colleagues and doctoral students—including Paul Postal, John "Haj" Ross, George Lakoff, and James D. McCawley—triggered a series of academic debates that came to be known as the "Linguistics Wars", although they revolved largely around philosophical issues rather than linguistics proper.[80]

Anti-war activism and dissent: 1967–1975

[I]t does not require very far-reaching, specialized knowledge to perceive that the United States was invading South Vietnam. And, in fact, to take apart the system of illusions and deception which functions to prevent understanding of contemporary reality [is] not a task that requires extraordinary skill or understanding. It requires the kind of normal skepticism and willingness to apply one's analytical skills that almost all people have and that they can exercise.

—Chomsky on the Vietnam War[81]

Chomsky joined protests against U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War in 1962, speaking on the subject at small gatherings in churches and homes.[82] His 1967 critique of U.S. involvement, "The Responsibility of Intellectuals", among other contributions to The New York Review of Books, debuted Chomsky as a public dissident.[83] This essay and other political articles were collected and published in 1969 as part of Chomsky's first political book, American Power and the New Mandarins.[84] He followed this with further political books, including At War with Asia (1970), The Backroom Boys (1973), For Reasons of State (1973), and Peace in the Middle East? (1974), published by Pantheon Books.[85][86] These publications led to Chomsky's association with the American New Left movement,[87] though he thought little of prominent New Left intellectuals Herbert Marcuse and Erich Fromm and preferred the company of activists to that of intellectuals.[88] Chomsky remained largely ignored by the mainstream press throughout this period.[89]

He also became involved in left-wing activism. Chomsky refused to pay half his taxes, publicly supported students who refused the draft, and was arrested while participating an anti-war teach-in outside the Pentagon.[90] During this time, Chomsky co-founded the anti-war collective RESIST with Mitchell Goodman, Denise Levertov, William Sloane Coffin, and Dwight Macdonald.[91] Although he questioned the objectives of the 1968 student protests,[92] Chomsky gave many lectures to student activist groups and, with his colleague Louis Kampf, ran undergraduate courses on politics at MIT independently of the conservative-dominated political science department.[93] When student activists campaigned to stop weapons and counterinsurgency research at MIT, Chomsky was sympathetic but felt that the research should remain under MIT's oversight and limited to systems of deterrence and defense.[94] Chomsky has acknowledged that his MIT lab's funding at this time came from the military.[95] He later said he considered resigning from MIT during the Vietnam War.[96] There has since been a wide-ranging debate about what effects Chomsky's employment at MIT had on his political and linguistic ideas.[97]

External images
Chomsky participating in the anti-Vietnam War March on the Pentagon, October 21, 1967
  Chomsky with other public figures
  The protesters passing the Lincoln Memorial en route to the Pentagon

Because of his anti-war activism, Chomsky was arrested on multiple occasions and included on President Richard Nixon's master list of political opponents.[98] Chomsky was aware of the potential repercussions of his civil disobedience, and his wife began studying for her own doctorate in linguistics to support the family in the event of Chomsky's imprisonment or joblessness.[99] Chomsky's scientific reputation insulated him from administrative action based on his beliefs.[100] In 1970 he visited southeast Asia to lecture at Vietnam's Hanoi University of Science and Technology and toured war refugee camps in Laos. In 1973 he helped lead a committee commemorating the 50th anniversary of the War Resisters League.[101]

His work in linguistics continued to gain international recognition as he received multiple honorary doctorates.[102] He delivered public lectures at the University of Cambridge, Columbia University (Woodbridge Lectures), and Stanford University.[103] His appearance in a 1971 debate with French continental philosopher Michel Foucault positioned Chomsky as a symbolic figurehead of analytic philosophy.[104] He continued to publish extensively on linguistics, producing Studies on Semantics in Generative Grammar (1972),[100] an enlarged edition of Language and Mind (1972),[105] and Reflections on Language (1975).[105] In 1974 Chomsky became a corresponding fellow of the British Academy.[103]

Edward S. Herman and the Faurisson affair: 1976–1980

See also: Cambodian genocide denial § Chomsky and Herman, and Faurisson affair
 
Chomsky in 1977

In the late 1970s and 1980s, Chomsky's linguistic publications expanded and clarified his earlier work, addressing his critics and updating his grammatical theory.[106] His political talks often generated considerable controversy, particularly when he criticized the Israeli government and military.[107] In the early 1970s Chomsky began collaborating with Edward S. Herman, who had also published critiques of the U.S. war in Vietnam.[108] Together they wrote Counter-Revolutionary Violence: Bloodbaths in Fact & Propaganda, a book that criticized U.S. military involvement in Southeast Asia and the mainstream media's failure to cover it. Warner Modular published it in 1973, but its parent company disapproved of the book's contents and ordered all copies destroyed.[109]

While mainstream publishing options proved elusive, Chomsky found support from Michael Albert's South End Press, an activist-oriented publishing company.[110] In 1979, South End published Chomsky and Herman's revised Counter-Revolutionary Violence as the two-volume The Political Economy of Human Rights,[111] which compares U.S. media reactions to the Cambodian genocide and the Indonesian occupation of East Timor. It argues that because Indonesia was a U.S. ally, U.S. media ignored the East Timorese situation while focusing on events in Cambodia, a U.S. enemy.[112] Chomsky's response included two testimonials before the United Nations' Special Committee on Decolonization, successful encouragement for American media to cover the occupation, and meetings with refugees in Lisbon.[113] The Marxist academic Steven Lukes publicly accused Chomsky of betraying his anarchist ideals and acting as an apologist for Cambodian leader Pol Pot.[114] Herman said that the controversy "imposed a serious personal cost" on Chomsky,[115] Chomsky said that "conformist intellectuals of East or West" deal with dissident opinion by trying "to overwhelm it with a flood of lies".[116] He regarded the personal criticism as less important than the evidence that "mainstream intelligentsia suppressed or justified the crimes of their own states".[116]

Chomsky had long publicly criticized Nazism, and totalitarianism more generally, but his commitment to freedom of speech led him to defend the right of French historian Robert Faurisson to advocate a position widely characterized as Holocaust denial. Without Chomsky's knowledge, his plea for Faurisson's freedom of speech was published as the preface to the latter's 1980 book Mémoire en défense contre ceux qui m'accusent de falsifier l'histoire.[117] Chomsky was widely condemned for defending Faurisson,[118] and France's mainstream press accused Chomsky of being a Holocaust denier himself, refusing to publish his rebuttals to their accusations.[119] Critiquing Chomsky's position, sociologist Werner Cohn later published an analysis of the affair titled Partners in Hate: Noam Chomsky and the Holocaust Deniers.[120] The Faurisson affair had a lasting, damaging effect on Chomsky's career,[121] especially in France.[122]

Critique of propaganda and international affairs: 1980–2001

External video
  Manufacturing Consent: Noam Chomsky and the Media, a 1992 documentary exploring Chomsky's work of the same name and its impact

In 1985, during the Nicaraguan Contra War—in which the U.S. supported the contra militia against the Sandinista government—Chomsky traveled to Managua to meet with workers' organizations and refugees of the conflict, giving public lectures on politics and linguistics.[123] Many of these lectures were published in 1987 as On Power and Ideology: The Managua Lectures.[124] In 1983 he published The Fateful Triangle, which argued that the U.S. had continually used the Israeli–Palestinian conflict for its own ends.[125] In 1988, Chomsky visited the Palestinian territories to witness the impact of Israeli occupation.[126]

Chomsky and Herman's Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (1988) outlines their propaganda model for understanding mainstream media. Even in countries without official censorship, they argued, the news is censored through five filters that greatly influence both what and how news is presented.[127] The book was inspired by Alex Carey and adapted into a 1992 film.[128] In 1989, Chomsky published Necessary Illusions: Thought Control in Democratic Societies, in which he suggests that a worthwhile democracy requires that its citizens undertake intellectual self-defense against the media and elite intellectual culture that seeks to control them.[129] By the 1980s, Chomsky's students had become prominent linguists who, in turn, expanded and revised his linguistic theories.[130]

In the 1990s, Chomsky embraced political activism to a greater degree than before.[131] Retaining his commitment to the cause of East Timorese independence, in 1995 he visited Australia to talk on the issue at the behest of the East Timorese Relief Association and the National Council for East Timorese Resistance.[132] The lectures he gave on the subject were published as Powers and Prospects in 1996.[132] As a result of the international publicity Chomsky generated, his biographer Wolfgang Sperlich opined that he did more to aid the cause of East Timorese independence than anyone but the investigative journalist John Pilger.[133] After East Timor attained independence from Indonesia in 1999, the Australian-led International Force for East Timor arrived as a peacekeeping force; Chomsky was critical of this, believing it was designed to secure Australian access to East Timor's oil and gas reserves under the Timor Gap Treaty.[134]

Iraq war criticism and retirement from MIT: 2001–2017

 
Chomsky speaking in support of the Occupy movement in 2011

Chomsky was widely interviewed after the September 11 attacks in 2001 as the American public attempted to make sense of the attacks.[135] He argued that the ensuing War on Terror was not a new development but a continuation of U.S. foreign policy and concomitant rhetoric since at least the Reagan era.[136] He gave the D.T. Lakdawala Memorial Lecture in New Delhi in 2001,[137] and in 2003 visited Cuba at the invitation of the Latin American Association of Social Scientists.[138] Chomsky's 2003 Hegemony or Survival articulated what he called the United States' "imperial grand strategy" and critiqued the Iraq War and other aspects of the War on Terror.[139] Chomsky toured internationally with greater regularity during this period.[138]

Chomsky retired from MIT in 2002,[140] but continued to conduct research and seminars on campus as an emeritus.[141] That same year he visited Turkey to attend the trial of a publisher who had been accused of treason for printing one of Chomsky's books; Chomsky insisted on being a co-defendant and amid international media attention, the Security Courts dropped the charge on the first day.[142] During that trip Chomsky visited Kurdish areas of Turkey and spoke out in favor of the Kurds' human rights.[142] A supporter of the World Social Forum, he attended its conferences in Brazil in both 2002 and 2003, also attending the Forum event in India.[143]

Chomsky discussing ecology, ethics and anarchism in 2014

Chomsky supported the 2011 Occupy movement. He spoke at encampments and produced two works that chronicled its influence: Occupy (2012), a pamphlet, and Occupy: Reflections on Class War, Rebellion and Solidarity (2013). He attributed Occupy's growth to a perception that the Democratic Party had abandoned the interests of the white working class.[144] In March 2014, Chomsky joined the advisory council of the Nuclear Age Peace Foundation,[145] an organization that advocates the global abolition of nuclear weapons, as a senior fellow.[146] The 2015 documentary Requiem for the American Dream summarizes his views on capitalism and economic inequality through a "75-minute teach-in".[147]

University of Arizona: 2017–present

In 2017, Chomsky taught a short-term politics course at the University of Arizona in Tucson[148] and was later hired as a part-time professor in the linguistics department there, with his duties including teaching and public seminars.[149] His salary is covered by philanthropic donations.[150]

Chomsky signed the Declaration on the Common Language of the Croats, Serbs, Bosniaks and Montenegrins in 2018.[151][152]

In March 2022, Chomsky called the Russian invasion of Ukraine a "major war crime", ranking alongside the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq and the German–Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939,[153] adding, "It always makes sense to seek explanations, but there is no justification, no extenuation."[154] In October 2022, he called on the U.S. to stop "undermining negotiations" between Ukraine and Russia.[155]

Linguistic theory

What started as purely linguistic research ... has led, through involvement in political causes and an identification with an older philosophic tradition, to no less than an attempt to formulate an overall theory of man. The roots of this are manifest in the linguistic theory ... The discovery of cognitive structures common to the human race but only to humans (species specific), leads quite easily to thinking of unalienable human attributes.

—Edward Marcotte on the significance of Chomsky's linguistic theory[156]

The basis of Chomsky's linguistic theory lies in biolinguistics, the linguistic school that holds that the principles underpinning the structure of language are biologically preset in the human mind and hence genetically inherited.[157] He argues that all humans share the same underlying linguistic structure, irrespective of sociocultural differences.[158] In adopting this position Chomsky rejects the radical behaviorist psychology of B. F. Skinner, who viewed behavior (including talking and thinking) as a completely learned product of the interactions between organisms and their environments. Accordingly, Chomsky argues that language is a unique evolutionary development of the human species and distinguished from modes of communication used by any other animal species.[159][160] Chomsky's nativist, internalist view of language is consistent with the philosophical school of "rationalism" and contrasts with the anti-nativist, externalist view of language consistent with the philosophical school of "empiricism",[161] which contends that all knowledge, including language, comes from external stimuli.[156]

Universal grammar

Main article: Universal grammar

Since the 1960s Chomsky has maintained that syntactic knowledge is at least partially inborn, implying that children need only learn certain language-specific features of their native languages. He bases his argument on observations about human language acquisition and describes a "poverty of the stimulus": an enormous gap between the linguistic stimuli to which children are exposed and the rich linguistic competence they attain. For example, although children are exposed to only a very small and finite subset of the allowable syntactic variants within their first language, they somehow acquire the highly organized and systematic ability to understand and produce an infinite number of sentences, including ones that have never before been uttered, in that language.[162] To explain this, Chomsky reasoned that the primary linguistic data must be supplemented by an innate linguistic capacity. Furthermore, while a human baby and a kitten are both capable of inductive reasoning, if they are exposed to exactly the same linguistic data, the human will always acquire the ability to understand and produce language, while the kitten will never acquire either ability. Chomsky referred to this difference in capacity as the language acquisition device, and suggested that linguists needed to determine both what that device is and what constraints it imposes on the range of possible human languages. The universal features that result from these constraints would constitute "universal grammar".[163][164][165] Multiple scholars have challenged universal grammar on the grounds of the evolutionary infeasibility of its genetic basis for language,[166] the lack of universal characteristics between languages,[167] and the unproven link between innate/universal structures and the structures of specific languages.[168] Scholar Michael Tomasello has challenged Chomsky's theory of innate syntactic knowledge as based on theory and not behavioral observation.[169] Although it was influential from 1960s through 1990s, Chomsky's nativist theory was ultimately rejected by the mainstream child language acquisition research community owing to its inconsistency with research evidence.[170][171] It was also argued by linguists including Robert Freidin, Geoffrey Sampson, Geoffrey K. Pullum and Barbara Scholz that Chomsky's linguistic evidence for it had been false.[172]

Transformational-generative grammar

Main articles: Transformational grammar, Generative grammar, Chomsky hierarchy, and Minimalist program

Transformational-generative grammar is a broad theory used to model, encode, and deduce a native speaker's linguistic capabilities.[173] These models, or "formal grammars", show the abstract structures of a specific language as they may relate to structures in other languages.[174] Chomsky developed transformational grammar in the mid-1950s, whereupon it became the dominant syntactic theory in linguistics for two decades.[173] "Transformations" refers to syntactic relationships within language, e.g., being able to infer that the subject between two sentences is the same person.[175] Chomsky's theory posits that language consists of both deep structures and surface structures: Outward-facing surface structures relate phonetic rules into sound, while inward-facing deep structures relate words and conceptual meaning. Transformational-generative grammar uses mathematical notation to express the rules that govern the connection between meaning and sound (deep and surface structures, respectively). By this theory, linguistic principles can mathematically generate potential sentence structures in a language.[156]

 
Set inclusions described by the Chomsky hierarchy

It is a common conception that Chomsky invented transformational-generative grammar, but his actual contribution to it was considered modest at the time when Chomsky first published his theory. In his 1955 dissertation and his 1957 textbook Syntactic Structures, he presented recent developments in the analysis formulated by Zellig Harris, who was Chomsky's PhD supervisor, and by Charles F. Hockett.[e] Their method is derived from the work of the Danish structural linguist Louis Hjelmslev, who introduced algorithmic grammar to general linguistics.[f] Based on this rule-based notation of grammars, Chomsky grouped logically possible phrase-structure grammar types into a series of four nested subsets and increasingly complex types, together known as the Chomsky hierarchy. This classification remains relevant to formal language theory[176] and theoretical computer science, especially programming language theory,[177] compiler construction, and automata theory.[178]

Following transformational grammar's heyday through the mid-1970s, a derivative[173] government and binding theory became a dominant research framework through the early 1990s, remaining an influential theory,[173] when linguists turned to a "minimalist" approach to grammar. This research focused on the principles and parameters framework, which explained children's ability to learn any language by filling open parameters (a set of universal grammar principles) that adapt as the child encounters linguistic data.[179] The minimalist program, initiated by Chomsky,[180] asks which minimal principles and parameters theory fits most elegantly, naturally, and simply.[179] In an attempt to simplify language into a system that relates meaning and sound using the minimum possible faculties, Chomsky dispenses with concepts such as "deep structure" and "surface structure" and instead emphasizes the plasticity of the brain's neural circuits, with which come an infinite number of concepts, or "logical forms".[160] When exposed to linguistic data, a hearer-speaker's brain proceeds to associate sound and meaning, and the rules of grammar we observe are in fact only the consequences, or side effects, of the way language works. Thus, while much of Chomsky's prior research focused on the rules of language, he now focuses on the mechanisms the brain uses to generate these rules and regulate speech.[160][181]

Political views

Main article: Political positions of Noam Chomsky

The second major area to which Chomsky has contributed—and surely the best known in terms of the number of people in his audience and the ease of understanding what he writes and says—is his work on sociopolitical analysis; political, social, and economic history; and critical assessment of current political circumstance. In Chomsky's view, although those in power might—and do—try to obscure their intentions and to defend their actions in ways that make them acceptable to citizens, it is easy for anyone who is willing to be critical and consider the facts to discern what they are up to.

—James McGilvray, 2014[182]

Chomsky is a prominent political dissident.[g] His political views have changed little since his childhood,[183] when he was influenced by the emphasis on political activism that was ingrained in Jewish working-class tradition.[184] He usually identifies as an anarcho-syndicalist or a libertarian socialist.[185] He views these positions not as precise political theories but as ideals that he thinks best meet human needs: liberty, community, and freedom of association.[186] Unlike some other socialists, such as Marxists, Chomsky believes that politics lies outside the remit of science,[187] but he still roots his ideas about an ideal society in empirical data and empirically justified theories.[188]

In Chomsky's view, the truth about political realities is systematically distorted or suppressed by an elite corporatocracy, which uses corporate media, advertising, and think tanks to promote its own propaganda. His work seeks to reveal such manipulations and the truth they obscure.[189] Chomsky believes this web of falsehood can be broken by "common sense", critical thinking, and understanding the roles of self-interest and self-deception,[190] and that intellectuals abdicate their moral responsibility to tell the truth about the world in fear of losing prestige and funding.[191] He argues that, as such an intellectual, it is his duty to use his social privilege, resources, and training to aid popular democracy movements in their struggles.[192]

Although he has joined protest marches and organized activist groups, Chomsky's primary political outlets are education and publication. He offers a wide range of political writings[193] as well as free lessons and lectures to encourage wider political consciousness.[194] He is a longtime member of the Industrial Workers of the World international union,[195] as was his father.[196]

United States foreign policy

 
Chomsky at the 2003 World Social Forum, a convention for counter-hegemonic globalization, in Porto Alegre

Chomsky has been a prominent critic of American imperialism[197] and believes that World War II is the only justified war the U.S. has fought in his lifetime.[36] He believes that the basic principle of the foreign policy of the United States is the establishment of "open societies" that are economically and politically controlled by the United States and where U.S.-based businesses can prosper.[198] He argues that the U.S. seeks to suppress any movements within these countries that are not compliant with U.S. interests and to ensure that U.S.-friendly governments are placed in power.[191] When discussing current events, he emphasizes their place within a wider historical perspective.[199] He believes that official, sanctioned historical accounts of U.S. and British extraterritorial operations have consistently whitewashed these nations' actions in order to present them as having benevolent motives in either spreading democracy or, in older instances, spreading Christianity; criticizing these accounts, he seeks to correct them.[200] Prominent examples he regularly cites are the actions of the British Empire in India and Africa and the actions of the U.S. in Vietnam, the Philippines, Latin America, and the Middle East.[200]

Chomsky's political work has centered heavily on criticizing the actions of the United States.[199] He has said he focuses on the U.S. because the country has militarily and economically dominated the world during his lifetime and because its liberal democratic electoral system allows the citizenry to influence government policy.[201] His hope is that, by spreading awareness of the impact U.S. foreign policies have on the populations affected by them, he can sway the populations of the U.S. and other countries into opposing the policies.[200] He urges people to criticize their governments' motivations, decisions, and actions, to accept responsibility for their own thoughts and actions, and to apply the same standards to others as to themselves.[202]

Chomsky has been critical of U.S. involvement in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, arguing that it has consistently blocked a peaceful settlement.[191] Chomsky also criticizes the U.S.'s close ties with Saudi Arabia and involvement in Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen, highlighting that Saudi Arabia has "one of the most grotesque human rights records in the world".[203]

Capitalism and socialism

In his youth, Chomsky developed a dislike of capitalism and the pursuit of material wealth.[204] At the same time, he developed a disdain for authoritarian socialism, as represented by the Marxist–Leninist policies of the Soviet Union.[205] Rather than accepting the common view among U.S. economists that a spectrum exists between total state ownership of the economy and total private ownership, he instead suggests that a spectrum should be understood between total democratic control of the economy and total autocratic control (whether state or private).[206] He argues that Western capitalist countries are not really democratic,[207] because, in his view, a truly democratic society is one in which all persons have a say in public economic policy.[208] He has stated his opposition to ruling elites, among them institutions like the IMF, World Bank, and GATT (precursor to the WTO).[209]

Chomsky highlights that, since the 1970s, the U.S. has become increasingly economically unequal as a result of the repeal of various financial regulations and the unilateral rescinding of the Bretton Woods financial control agreement by the U.S.[210] He characterizes the U.S. as a de facto one-party state, viewing both the Republican Party and Democratic Party as manifestations of a single "Business Party" controlled by corporate and financial interests.[211] Chomsky highlights that, within Western capitalist liberal democracies, at least 80% of the population has no control over economic decisions, which are instead in the hands of a management class and ultimately controlled by a small, wealthy elite.[212]

Noting the entrenchment of such an economic system, Chomsky believes that change is possible through the organized cooperation of large numbers of people who understand the problem and know how they want to reorganize the economy more equitably.[212] Acknowledging that corporate domination of media and government stifles any significant change to this system, he sees reason for optimism in historical examples such as the social rejection of slavery as immoral, the advances in women's rights, and the forcing of government to justify invasions.[210] He views violent revolution to overthrow a government as a last resort to be avoided if possible, citing the example of historical revolutions where the population's welfare has worsened as a result of upheaval.[212]

Chomsky sees libertarian socialist and anarcho-syndicalist ideas as the descendants of the classical liberal ideas of the Age of Enlightenment,[213] arguing that his ideological position revolves around "nourishing the libertarian and creative character of the human being".[214] He envisions an anarcho-syndicalist future with direct worker control of the means of production and government by workers' councils, who would select temporary and revocable representatives to meet together at general assemblies.[215] The point of this self-governance is to make each citizen, in Thomas Jefferson's words, "a direct participator in the government of affairs."[216] He believes that there will be no need for political parties.[217] By controlling their productive life, he believes that individuals can gain job satisfaction and a sense of fulfillment and purpose.[218] He argues that unpleasant and unpopular jobs could be fully automated, carried out by workers who are specially remunerated, or shared among everyone.[219]

Israeli–Palestinian conflict

Israel uses sophisticated attack jets and naval vessels to bomb densely-crowded refugee camps, schools, apartment blocks, mosques, and slums to attack a [Palestinian] population that has no air force, no air defense, no navy, no heavy weapons, no artillery units, no mechanized armor, no command in control, no army… and calls it a war. It is not a war, it is murder.

—Chomsky criticizing Israel, 2012[220]

Chomsky has written prolifically on the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, aiming to raise public awareness of it.[221] He has long endorsed a left binationalist program in Israel and Palestine, seeking to create a democratic state in the Levant that is home to both Jews and Arabs.[222] He has called the adoption of the 1947 United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine "a very bad decision."[36] Nevertheless, given the realpolitik of the situation, he has also considered a two-state solution on the condition that the nation-states exist on equal terms.[223] Chomsky was denied entry to the West Bank in 2010 because of his criticisms of Israel. He had been invited to deliver a lecture at Bir Zeit University and was to meet with Palestinian Prime Minister Salam Fayyad.[224][225][226][227] An Israeli Foreign Ministry spokesman later said that Chomsky was denied entry by mistake.[228]

Mass media and propaganda

Main article: Propaganda model
External video
  Chomsky on propaganda and the manufacturing of consent, June 1, 2003

Chomsky's political writings have largely focused on ideology, social and political power, mass media, and state policy.[229] One of his best-known works, Manufacturing Consent, dissects the media's role in reinforcing and acquiescing to state policies across the political spectrum while marginalizing contrary perspectives. Chomsky asserts that this version of censorship, by government-guided "free market" forces, is subtler and harder to undermine than was the equivalent propaganda system in the Soviet Union.[230] As he argues, the mainstream press is corporate-owned and thus reflects corporate priorities and interests.[231] Acknowledging that many American journalists are dedicated and well-meaning, he argues that the mass media's choices of topics and issues, the unquestioned premises on which that coverage rests, and the range of opinions expressed are all constrained to reinforce the state's ideology:[232] although mass media will criticize individual politicians and political parties, it will not undermine the wider state-corporate nexus of which it is a part.[233] As evidence, he highlights that the U.S. mass media does not employ any socialist journalists or political commentators.[234] He also points to examples of important news stories that the U.S. mainstream media has ignored because reporting on them would reflect badly upon the country, including the murder of Black Panther Fred Hampton with possible FBI involvement, the massacres in Nicaragua perpetrated by U.S.-funded Contras, and the constant reporting on Israeli deaths without equivalent coverage of the far larger number of Palestinian deaths in that conflict.[235] To remedy this situation, Chomsky calls for grassroots democratic control and involvement of the media.[236]

Chomsky considers most conspiracy theories fruitless, distracting substitutes for thinking about policy formation in an institutional framework, where individual manipulation is secondary to broader social imperatives.[237] While not dismissing them outright, he considers them unproductive to challenging power in a substantial way. In response to the labeling of his own ideas as a conspiracy theory, Chomsky has said that it is very rational for the media to manipulate information in order to sell it, like any other business. He asks whether General Motors would be accused of conspiracy if it deliberately selected what it used or discarded to sell its product.[238] Instead of supporting the educational system as an antidote, he believes that most education is counterproductive.[239] Chomsky describes mass education as a system solely intended to turn farmers from independent producers into unthinking industrial employees.[239]

Philosophy

Chomsky has also been active in a number of philosophical fields, including philosophy of mind, philosophy of language, and philosophy of science.[240] In these fields he is credited with ushering in the "cognitive revolution",[240] a significant paradigm shift that rejected logical positivism, the prevailing philosophical methodology of the time, and reframed how philosophers think about language and the mind.[180] Chomsky views the cognitive revolution as rooted in 17th-century rationalist ideals.[241] His position—the idea that the mind contains inherent structures to understand language, perception, and thought—has more in common with rationalism (Enlightenment and Cartesian) than behaviorism.[242] He named one of his key works Cartesian Linguistics: A Chapter in the History of Rationalist Thought (1966).[241] This sparked criticism from historians and philosophers who disagreed with Chomsky's interpretations of classical sources and use of philosophical terminology.[h] In the philosophy of language, Chomsky is particularly known for his criticisms of the notion of reference and meaning in human language and his perspective on the nature and function of mental representations.[243]

Chomsky's famous 1971 debate on human nature with the French philosopher Michel Foucault was symbolic in positioning Chomsky as the prototypical analytic philosopher against Foucault, a stalwart of the continental tradition.[104] It showed what appeared to be irreconcilable differences between two moral and intellectual luminaries of the 20th century. Foucault's position was that of critique, that human nature could not be conceived in terms foreign to present understanding, while Chomsky held that human nature contained universalities such as a common standard of moral justice as deduced through reason based on what rationally serves human necessity.[244] Chomsky criticized postmodernism and French philosophy generally, arguing that the obscure language of postmodern, leftist philosophers gives little aid to the working classes.[245] He has also debated analytic philosophers, including Tyler Burge, Donald Davidson, Michael Dummett, Saul Kripke, Thomas Nagel, Hilary Putnam, Willard Van Orman Quine, and John Searle.[180]

Chomsky's contributions span intellectual and world history, including the history of philosophy.[246] Irony is a recurring characteristic of his writing, as he often implies that his readers know better, which can make them more engaged in the veracity of his claims.[247]

Personal life

 
Chomsky (far right) and his wife Valeria (second from right) with David and Carolee Krieger of the Nuclear Age Peace Foundation, 2014

Chomsky endeavors to separate his family life, linguistic scholarship, and political activism from each other.[248] An intensely private person,[249] he is uninterested in appearances and the fame his work has brought him.[250] He also has little interest in modern art and music.[251] McGilvray suggests that Chomsky was never motivated by a desire for fame, but impelled to tell what he perceived as the truth and a desire to aid others in doing so.[252] Chomsky acknowledges that his income affords him a privileged life compared to the majority of the world's population;[253] nevertheless, he characterizes himself as a "worker", albeit one who uses his intellect as his employable skill.[254] He reads four or five newspapers daily; in the US, he subscribes to The Boston Globe, The New York Times, The Wall Street Journal, Financial Times, and The Christian Science Monitor.[255] Chomsky is non-religious, but has expressed approval of forms of religion such as liberation theology.[256]

Chomsky is known to use charged language ("corrupt", "fascist", "fraudulent") when describing established political and academic figures, which can polarize his audience but is in keeping with his belief that much scholarship is self-serving.[257] His colleague Steven Pinker has said that he "portrays people who disagree with him as stupid or evil, using withering scorn in his rhetoric", and that this contributes to the extreme reactions he receives .[258] Chomsky avoids attending academic conferences, including left-oriented ones such as the Socialist Scholars Conference, preferring to speak to activist groups or hold university seminars for mass audiences.[259] His approach to academic freedom has led him to support MIT academics whose actions he deplores; in 1969, when Chomsky heard that Walt Rostow, a major architect of the Vietnam war, wanted to return to work at MIT, Chomsky threatened "to protest publicly" if Rostow were denied a position at MIT. In 1989, when Pentagon adviser John Deutch applied to be president of MIT, Chomsky supported his candidacy. Later, when Deutch became head of the CIA, The New York Times quoted Chomsky as saying, "He has more honesty and integrity than anyone I've ever met. ... If somebody's got to be running the CIA, I'm glad it's him."[260]

Chomsky was married to Carol (née Carol Doris Schatz) from 1949 until her death in 2008.[254] They had three children together: Aviva (born 1957), Diane (born 1960), and Harry (born 1967).[261] In 2014, Chomsky married Valeria Wasserman.[262]

Reception and influence

[Chomsky's] voice is heard in academia beyond linguistics and philosophy: from computer science to neuroscience, from anthropology to education, mathematics and literary criticism. If we include Chomsky's political activism then the boundaries become quite blurred, and it comes as no surprise that Chomsky is increasingly seen as enemy number one by those who inhabit that wide sphere of reactionary discourse and action.

—Sperlich, 2006[263]

Chomsky has been a defining Western intellectual figure, central to the field of linguistics and definitive in cognitive science, computer science, philosophy, and psychology.[264] In addition to being known as one of the most important intellectuals of his time,[i] Chomsky has a dual legacy as a leader and luminary in both linguistics and the realm of political dissent.[265] Despite his academic success, his political viewpoints and activism have resulted in his being distrusted by mainstream media, and he is regarded as being "on the outer margin of acceptability".[266] Chomsky's public image and social reputation often color his work's public reception.[9]

In academia

McGilvray observes that Chomsky inaugurated the "cognitive revolution" in linguistics,[267] and that he is largely responsible for establishing the field as a formal, natural science,[268] moving it away from the procedural form of structural linguistics dominant during the mid-20th century.[269] As such, some have called Chomsky "the father of modern linguistics".[c] Linguist John Lyons further remarked that within a few decades of publication, Chomskyan linguistics had become "the most dynamic and influential" school of thought in the field.[270] By the 1970s his work had also come to exert a considerable influence on philosophy,[271] and a Minnesota State University Moorhead poll ranked Syntactic Structures as the single most important work in cognitive science.[272] In addition, his work in automata theory and the Chomsky hierarchy have become well known in computer science, and he is much cited in computational linguistics.[273][274][275]

Chomsky's criticisms of behaviorism contributed substantially to the decline of behaviorist psychology;[276] in addition, he is generally regarded as one of the primary founders of the field of cognitive science.[277][240] Some arguments in evolutionary psychology are derived from his research results;[278] Nim Chimpsky, a chimpanzee who was the subject of a study in animal language acquisition at Columbia University, was named after Chomsky in reference to his view of language acquisition as a uniquely human ability.[279]

ACM Turing Award winner Donald Knuth credited Chomsky's work with helping him combine his interests in mathematics, linguistics, and computer science.[280] IBM computer scientist John Backus, another Turing Award winner, used some of Chomsky's concepts to help him develop FORTRAN, the first widely used high-level computer programming language.[281] Chomsky's theory of generative grammar has also influenced work in music theory and analysis.[282][283][284]

Chomsky is among the most cited authors living or dead.[d] He was cited within the Arts and Humanities Citation Index more often than any other living scholar from 1980 to 1992.[285] Chomsky was also extensively cited in the Social Sciences Citation Index and Science Citation Index during the same period. The librarian who conducted the research said that the statistics show that "he is very widely read across disciplines and that his work is used by researchers across disciplines ... it seems that you can't write a paper without citing Noam Chomsky."[264] As a result of his influence, there are dueling camps of Chomskyan and non-Chomskyan linguistics, with the disputes between the two camps often acrimonious.[286] Additionally, according to journalist Maya Jaggi, Chomsky is among the most quoted sources in the humanities, ranking alongside Marx, Shakespeare and the Bible.[258]

In politics

Chomsky's status as the "most-quoted living author" is credited to his political writings, which vastly outnumber his writings on linguistics.[287] Chomsky biographer Wolfgang B. Sperlich characterizes him as "one of the most notable contemporary champions of the people";[249] journalist John Pilger has described him as a "genuine people's hero; an inspiration for struggles all over the world for that basic decency known as freedom. To a lot of people in the margins—activists and movements—he's unfailingly supportive."[258] Arundhati Roy has called him "one of the greatest, most radical public thinkers of our time",[288] and Edward Said thought him "one of the most significant challengers of unjust power and delusions".[258] Fred Halliday has said that by the start of the 21st century Chomsky had become a "guru" for the world's anti-capitalist and anti-imperialist movements.[258] The propaganda model of media criticism that he and Herman developed has been widely accepted in radical media critiques and adopted to some level in mainstream criticism of the media,[289] also exerting a significant influence on the growth of alternative media, including radio, publishers, and the Internet, which in turn have helped to disseminate his work.[290]

Sperlich also says that Chomsky has been vilified by corporate interests, particularly in the mainstream press.[141] University departments devoted to history and political science rarely include Chomsky's work on their undergraduate syllabi.[291] Critics have argued that despite publishing widely on social and political issues, Chomsky has no formal expertise in these areas; he has responded that such issues are not as complex as many social scientists claim and that almost everyone is able to comprehend them regardless of whether they have been academically trained to do so.[192] According to McGilvray, many of Chomsky's critics "do not bother quoting his work or quote out of context, distort, and create straw men that cannot be supported by Chomsky's text".[192]

Chomsky drew criticism for not calling the Bosnian War's Srebrenica massacre a "genocide".[292][293] While he did not deny the fact of the massacre,[294] which he called "a horror story and major crime", he felt the massacre did not meet the definition of genocide.[292]

Chomsky's far-reaching criticisms of U.S. foreign policy and the legitimacy of U.S. power have raised controversy. A document obtained pursuant to a Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request from the U.S. government revealed that the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) monitored his activities and for years denied doing so. The CIA also destroyed its files on Chomsky at some point, possibly in violation of federal law.[295] He has often received undercover police protection at MIT and when speaking on the Middle East, but has refused uniformed police protection.[296] German news magazine Der Spiegel described Chomsky as "the Ayatollah of anti-American hatred",[141] while American conservative commentator David Horowitz called him "the most devious, the most dishonest and ... the most treacherous intellect in America", whose work is infused with "anti-American dementia" and evidences his "pathological hatred of his own country".[297] Writing in Commentary magazine, the journalist Jonathan Kay described Chomsky as "a hard-boiled anti-American monomaniac who simply refuses to believe anything that any American leader says".[298]

Chomsky's criticism of Israel has led to his being called a traitor to the Jewish people and an anti-Semite.[299] Criticizing Chomsky's defense of the right of individuals to engage in Holocaust denial on the grounds that freedom of speech must be extended to all viewpoints, Werner Cohn called Chomsky "the most important patron" of the neo-Nazi movement.[300] The Anti-Defamation League (ADL) called him a Holocaust denier,[301] describing him as a "dupe of intellectual pride so overweening that he is incapable of making distinctions between totalitarian and democratic societies, between oppressors and victims".[301] In turn, Chomsky has claimed that the ADL is dominated by "Stalinist types" who oppose democracy in Israel.[299] The lawyer Alan Dershowitz has called Chomsky a "false prophet of the left";[302] Chomsky called Dershowitz "a complete liar" who is on "a crazed jihad, dedicating much of his life to trying to destroy my reputation".[303] In early 2016, President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan of Turkey publicly rebuked Chomsky after he signed an open letter condemning Erdoğan for his anti-Kurdish repression and double standards on terrorism.[304] Chomsky accused Erdoğan of hypocrisy, noting that Erdoğan supports al-Qaeda's Syrian affiliate,[305] the al-Nusra Front.[304]

Academic achievements, awards, and honors

See also: List of honorary degrees awarded to Noam Chomsky
 
Chomsky receiving an award from the president of the Nuclear Age Peace Foundation, David Krieger (2014)

In 1970, the London Times named Chomsky one of the "makers of the twentieth century".[156] He was voted the world's leading public intellectual in The 2005 Global Intellectuals Poll jointly conducted by American magazine Foreign Policy and British magazine Prospect.[306] New Statesman readers listed Chomsky among the world's foremost heroes in 2006.[307]

In the United States he is a Member of the National Academy of Sciences, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the Linguistic Society of America, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Philosophical Association,[308] and the American Philosophical Society.[309] Abroad he is a corresponding fellow of the British Academy, an honorary member of the British Psychological Society, a member of the Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina,[308] and a foreign member of the Department of Social Sciences of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts.[310] He received a 1971 Guggenheim Fellowship, the 1984 American Psychological Association Award for Distinguished Contributions to Psychology, the 1988 Kyoto Prize in Basic Sciences, the 1996 Helmholtz Medal,[308] the 1999 Benjamin Franklin Medal in Computer and Cognitive Science,[311] the 2010 Erich Fromm Prize,[312] and the British Academy's 2014 Neil and Saras Smith Medal for Linguistics.[313] He is also a two-time winner of the NCTE George Orwell Award for Distinguished Contribution to Honesty and Clarity in Public Language (1987 and 1989).[308] He has also received the Rabindranath Tagore Centenary Award from The Asiatic Society.[314]

Chomsky received the 2004 Carl-von-Ossietzky Prize from the city of Oldenburg, Germany, to acknowledge his body of work as a political analyst and media critic.[315] He received an honorary fellowship in 2005 from the Literary and Historical Society of University College Dublin.[316] He received the 2008 President's Medal from the Literary and Debating Society of the National University of Ireland, Galway.[317] Since 2009, he has been an honorary member of International Association of Professional Translators and Interpreters (IAPTI).[318] He received the University of Wisconsin's A.E. Havens Center's Award for Lifetime Contribution to Critical Scholarship[319] and was inducted into IEEE Intelligent Systems' AI's Hall of Fame for "significant contributions to the field of AI and intelligent systems."[320] Chomsky has an Erdős number of four.[321]

In 2011, the US Peace Memorial Foundation awarded Chomsky the US Peace Prize for anti-war activities over five decades.[322] For his work in human rights, peace, and social criticism, he received the 2011 Sydney Peace Prize,[323] the Sretenje Order in 2015,[324] the 2017 Seán MacBride Peace Prize[325] and the Dorothy Eldridge Peacemaker Award.[311]

Chomsky has received honorary doctorates from institutions including the University of London and the University of Chicago (1967), Loyola University Chicago and Swarthmore College (1970), Bard College (1971), Delhi University (1972), the University of Massachusetts (1973), and the International School for Advanced Studies in Trieste (2012) among others.[102] His public lectures have included the 1969 John Locke Lectures,[311] 1975 Whidden Lectures,[103] 1977 Huizinga Lecture, and 1988 Massey Lectures, among others.[311]

Various tributes to Chomsky have been dedicated over the years. He is the eponym for a bee species,[326] a frog species,[327] and a building complex at the Indian university Jamia Millia Islamia.[328] Actor Viggo Mortensen and avant-garde guitarist Buckethead dedicated their 2003 album Pandemoniumfromamerica to Chomsky.[329]

Selected bibliography

Main article: Noam Chomsky bibliography and filmography

See also

Notes

  1. ^ English: /noʊm ˈtʃɒmski/ ( listen) NOHM CHOM-skee, Hebrew: [ˈnoʔam ˈχomski].
  2. ^ "In thinking about the Effect of Chomsky's work, we have had to dwell upon the reception of Chomsky's work and the perception of Chomsky as a Jew, a linguist, a philosopher, a historian, a gadfly, an icon, and an anarchist." (Barsky 2007:107)
  3. ^ a b
    • Fox 1998: "Mr. Chomsky ... is the father of modern linguistics and remains the field's most influential practitioner."
    • Tymoczko & Henle 2004, p. 101: "As the founder of modern linguistics, Noam Chomsky, observed, each of the following sequences of words is nonsense ..."
    • Tanenhaus 2016: "At 87, Noam Chomsky, the founder of modern linguistics, remains a vital presence in American intellectual life."
  4. ^ a b
    • Knight 2016, p. 2: "In 1992, the Arts and Humanities Citation Index ranked him as the most cited person alive (the Index's top ten being Marx, Lenin, Shakespeare, Aristotle, the Bible, Plato, Freud, Chomsky, Hegel and Cicero)."
    • Babe 2015, p. xvii: "[Chomsky] was the most cited living scholar between 1980 and 1992 (according to the Arts and Humanities Citation Index)."
  5. ^
    • Smith 2004, pp. 107 "Chomsky's early work was renowned for its mathematical rigor and he made some contribution to the nascent discipline of mathematical linguistics, in particular the analysis of (formal) languages in terms of what is now known as the Chomsky hierarchy."
    • Koerner 1983, pp. 159: "Characteristically, Harris proposes a transfer of sentences from English to Modern Hebrew ... Chomsky's approach to syntax in Syntactic Structures and several years thereafter was not much different from Harris's approach, since the concept of 'deep' or 'underlying structure' had not yet been introduced. The main difference between Harris (1954) and Chomsky (1957) appears to be that the latter is dealing with transfers within one single language only"
  6. ^
    • Koerner 1978, pp. 41f: "it is worth noting that Chomsky cites Hjelmslev's Prolegomena, which had been translated into English in 1953, since the authors' theoretical argument, derived largely from logic and mathematics, exhibits noticeable similarities."
    • Seuren 1998, pp. 166: "Both Hjelmslev and Harris were inspired by the mathematical notion of an algorithm as a purely formal production system for a set of strings of symbols. ... it is probably accurate to say that Hjelmslev was the first to try and apply it to the generation of strings of symbols in natural language"
    • Hjelmslev 1969 Prolegomena to a Theory of Language. Danish original 1943; first English translation 1954.
  7. ^
    • Macintyre 2010
    • Burris 2013: "Noam Chomsky has built his entire reputation as a political dissident on his command of the facts."
    • McNeill 2014: "[Chomsky is] often dubbed one of the world's most important intellectuals and its leading public dissident ..."
  8. ^
    • Hamans & Seuren 2010, p. 377: "Having achieved a unique position of supremacy in the theory of syntax and having exploited that position far beyond the narrow circles of professional syntacticians, he felt the need to shore up his theory with the authority of history. It is shown that this attempt, resulting mainly in his Cartesian Linguistics of 1966, was widely, and rightly, judged to be a radical failure"
  9. ^
    • McNeill 2014: "[Chomsky is] often dubbed one of the world's most important intellectuals ..."
    • Campbell 2005: "Noam Chomsky, the linguistics professor who has become one of the most outspoken critics of US foreign policy, has won a poll that names him as the world's top public intellectual."
    • Robinson 1979: "Judged in terms of the power, range, novelty and influence of his thought, Noam Chomsky is arguably the most important intellectual alive today."
    • Flint 1995: "The man once called the most important intellectual alive keeps his office in ... the campus of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology."

References

  1. ^ Partee 2015, p. 328.
  2. ^ a b Chomsky 1991, p. 50.
  3. ^ Sperlich 2006, pp. 44–45.
  4. ^ Slife 1993, p. 115.
  5. ^ Barsky 1997, p. 58.
  6. ^ Antony & Hornstein 2003, p. 295.
  7. ^ Chomsky 2016.
  8. ^ Harbord 1994, p. 487.
  9. ^ a b c d e f Barsky 2007, p. 107.
  10. ^ Smith 2004, p. 185.
  11. ^ a b Amid the Philosophers.
  12. ^ Persson & LaFollette 2013.
  13. ^ Prickett 2002, p. 234.
  14. ^ Searle 1972.
  15. ^ a b c d e Adams 2003.
  16. ^ Gould 1981.
  17. ^ "Kyle Kulinski Speaks, the Bernie Bros Listen". from the original on March 5, 2020. Retrieved February 9, 2022.
  18. ^ Keller 2007.
  19. ^ Swartz 2006.
  20. ^ Lyons 1978, p. xv; Barsky 1997, p. 9; McGilvray 2014, p. 3.
  21. ^ a b Barsky 1997, pp. 9–10; Sperlich 2006, p. 11.
  22. ^ Barsky 1997, p. 9.
  23. ^ Barsky 1997, p. 11.
  24. ^ Russ, Valerie (July 12, 2021). "Dr. David Chomsky, a cardiologist who made house calls, dies at 86". The Philadelphia Inquirer. from the original on July 12, 2021. Retrieved September 10, 2021.
  25. ^ Feinberg 1999, p. 3.
  26. ^ a b Barsky 1997, pp. 11–13; Sperlich 2006, p. 11.
  27. ^ Barsky 1997, pp. 11–13.
  28. ^ Barsky 1997, p. 15.
  29. ^ Lyons 1978, p. xv; Barsky 1997, pp. 15–17; Sperlich 2006, p. 12; McGilvray 2014, p. 3.
  30. ^ Lyons 1978, p. xv; Barsky 1997, pp. 21–22; Sperlich 2006, p. 14; McGilvray 2014, p. 4.
  31. ^ a b Lyons 1978, p. xv; Barsky 1997, pp. 15–17.
  32. ^ Barsky 1997, p. 14; Sperlich 2006, pp. 11, 14–15.
  33. ^ Barsky 1997, p. 23; Sperlich 2006, pp. 12, 14–15, 67; McGilvray 2014, p. 4.
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Further reading

  • "American Socrates". Truthdig (Interview). Interviewed by Chris Hedges. June 15, 2014. from the original on June 18, 2014. Retrieved June 16, 2014.
  • Changeux, Jean-Pierre; Courrége, Philippe; Danchin, Antoine (1973). "A Theory of the Epigenesis of Neuronal Networks by Selective Stabilization of Synapses". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 70 (10): 2974–2978. Bibcode:1973PNAS...70.2974C. doi:10.1073/pnas.70.10.2974. PMC 427150. PMID 4517949.
  • Chomsky, Noam (1959). "Reviews: Verbal behavior by B. F. Skinner". Language. 35 (1): 26–58. doi:10.2307/411334. JSTOR 411334. from the original on September 10, 2019. Retrieved January 3, 2017.
  • Chomsky, Noam (2008–2009). "Human nature and the origins of language" (PDF). Radical Anthropology (2): 19–23. (PDF) from the original on December 7, 2019. Retrieved July 12, 2019.
  • Chomsky, Noam (February 13, 2015). "The World of Our Grandchildren". Jacobin. Interviewed by David Barsamian. from the original on March 22, 2015. Retrieved February 15, 2015.
  • Everett, Daniel L. (2008). Don't Sleep, There Are Snakes: Life and Language in the Amazonian Jungle. New York: Pantheon Books. ISBN 978-0-375-42502-8 – via Internet Archive.
  • Farndale, Nigel. "Noam Chomsky interview". The Daily Telegraph. from the original on April 24, 2019. Retrieved May 15, 2016.
  • Fox, Margalit (December 20, 2008). "Carol Chomsky, 78, Linguist and Educator, Dies". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. from the original on September 7, 2015. Retrieved December 10, 2015.
  • Gardner, R. A.; Gardner, B. T. (1969). (PDF). Science. 165 (3894): 664–672. Bibcode:1969Sci...165..664G. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.384.4164. doi:10.1126/science.165.3894.664. JSTOR 1727877. PMID 5793972. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 12, 2019. Retrieved August 21, 2013.
  • Gardner, R. A.; Gardner, B. T.; Van Cantfort, Thomas E. (1989). . Albany, NY: SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-88706-965-9. Archived from the original on July 21, 2014.
  • "IWW Interview with Noam Chomsky: Worker Occupations And The Future Of Radical Labor". IWW. October 9, 2009. from the original on May 11, 2015. Retrieved March 29, 2015.
  • Joseph, John E. (2002). From Whitney to Chomsky: Essays in the history of American linguistics. Studies in the History of the Language Sciences. Vol. 103. John Benjamins. doi:10.1075/sihols.103. ISBN 978-9027275370.
  • — (2010). "Chomsky's atavistic revolution (with a little help from his enemies)". In Kibbee, Douglas A. (ed.). Chomskyan (R)evolutions. John Benjamins. pp. 1–18. doi:10.1075/z.154.01jos. ISBN 978-9027211699 – via Internet Archive.
  • — (2011). "Théories et politiques de Noam Chomsky" [Political Theories of Noam Chomsky]. Langages (in French). 182 (2): 55–68. doi:10.3917/lang.182.0055. ISSN 0458-726X.
  • Katz, Yarden (November 1, 2012). "Noam Chomsky on Where Artificial Intelligence Went Wrong". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on January 4, 2013.
  • Knoester, Matthew (2003). "Education according to Chomsky". Mind, Culture, and Activity. 10 (3): 266–270. doi:10.1207/s15327884mca1003_10. S2CID 144284901.
  • Laurence, Stephen (2003). "Is Linguistics a Branch of Psychology?" (PDF). In Barker, A. (ed.). Epistemology of Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 69–106. ISBN 978-0199250585. (PDF) from the original on July 26, 2014. Retrieved August 19, 2013.
  • Lehmann, Christian (1982). "On some current views of the language universal". In Radden, Günter; Dirven, René (eds.). Issues in the Theory of Universal Grammar. Tübingen: Gunter Narr. pp. 75–94. ISBN 978-3-87808-565-2.
  • Lent, John A.; Amazeen, Michelle A., eds. (2015). "Noam Chomsky". Key Thinkers in Critical Communication Scholarship: From the Pioneers to the Next Generation. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 1–12. ISBN 978-1-137-46342-5. from the original on June 3, 2016. Retrieved December 12, 2015.
  • Lim, Ee-Peng (2011). "AI's Hall of Fame: Computational Linguistics and Cognitive Science". IEEE Intelligent Systems. 26 (4): 12. doi:10.1109/MIS.2011.64. from the original on June 30, 2019. Retrieved June 30, 2019.
  • McDonald, Alyssa (September 2010). "The NS Interview: Noam Chomsky". New Statesman. from the original on September 14, 2010. Retrieved September 15, 2010.
  • Miles, H. Lyn White (1990). "The cognitive foundations for reference in a signing orangutan". In Gibson, Kathleen Rita; Packer, Sue Taylor (eds.). "Language" and intelligence in monkeys and apes: Comparative developmental perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38028-7 – via Internet Archive.
  • Mitchell, Peter R.; Schoeffel, John, eds. (2002). Understanding Power: The Indispensable Chomsky. New York: New Press. ISBN 978-1565847033. OCLC 46936001 – via Internet Archive.
  • Nishida, T. (1968). "The social group of wild chimpanzees in the Mahali Mountains" (PDF). Primates. 9 (3): 167–224. doi:10.1007/BF01730971. hdl:2433/213162. S2CID 28751730. (PDF) from the original on October 26, 2018. Retrieved October 26, 2018.
  • Patel, Aniruddh D. (2008). Music, Language, and the Brain. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512375-3 – via Internet Archive.
  • Patterson, Francine; Linden, Eugene (1981). The Education of Koko. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. ISBN 978-0-03-046101-9.
  • Plooij, F. X. (1978). "Some basic traits of language in wild chimpanzees?". In Lock, A. (ed.). Action, Gesture and Symbol: The Emergence of Language. London: Academic Press. pp. 111–131. ISBN 978-0-12-454050-7.
  • Poole, Geoffrey (2005). "Noam Chomsky". In Routledge, Christopher; Chapman, Siobhan (eds.). Key Thinkers in Linguistics and the Philosophy of Language. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 53–59. ISBN 978-0-7486-1757-9.
  • Posner, Richard A. (2003). Public Intellectuals: A Study of Decline (Revised ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01246-2.
  • Premack, D. (1985). "'Gavagai!' or the future history of the animal language controversy". Cognition. 19 (3): 207–296. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(85)90036-8. PMID 4017517. S2CID 39292094.
  • Savage-Rumbaugh, S.; McDonald, K.; Sevcik, R. A.; Hopkins, W. D.; Rubert, E. (1986). "Spontaneous Symbol Acquisition and Communicative Use By Pygmy Chimpanzees (Pan paniscus)" (PDF). Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 115 (3): 211–235. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.115.3.211. PMID 2428917. (PDF) from the original on September 7, 2013. Retrieved August 21, 2013.
  • Savage-Rumbaugh, S.; Rumbaugh, D. M.; McDonald, K. (1985). "Language learning in two species of apes". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 9 (4): 653–665. doi:10.1016/0149-7634(85)90012-0. PMID 4080283. S2CID 579851.
  • Shalom, Stephen. . New Politics. No. 23. Archived from the original on August 8, 2016. Retrieved October 7, 2016.
  • Tattersall, Ian (August 18, 2016). "At the Birth of Language". The New York Review of Books. Vol. LXIII, no. 13. pp. 27–28. from the original on June 30, 2019. Retrieved June 30, 2019, a review of Berwick, Robert C.; Chomsky, Noam. Why Only Us: Language and Evolution. MIT Press.
  • Terrace, Herbert S. (1987). Nim: A Chimpanzee who Learned Sign Language. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-06341-8.

External links

March 20, 2023
noam, chomsky, chomsky, redirects, here, other, uses, chomsky, disambiguation, avram, born, december, 1928, american, public, intellectual, linguist, philosopher, cognitive, scientist, historian, social, critic, political, activist, sometimes, called, father, . Chomsky redirects here For other uses see Chomsky disambiguation Avram Noam Chomsky a born December 7 1928 is an American public intellectual a linguist philosopher cognitive scientist historian b social critic and political activist Sometimes called the father of modern linguistics c Chomsky is also a major figure in analytic philosophy and one of the founders of the field of cognitive science He is a Laureate Professor of Linguistics at the University of Arizona and an Institute Professor Emeritus at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology MIT and is the author of more than 150 books on topics such as linguistics war and politics Ideologically he aligns with anarcho syndicalism and libertarian socialism Noam ChomskyChomsky in 2017BornAvram Noam Chomsky 1928 12 07 December 7 1928 age 94 Philadelphia Pennsylvania U S SpousesCarol Doris Schatz m 1949 died 2008 wbr Valeria Wasserman m 2014 wbr Children3 including AvivaParentsWilliam Chomsky father Elsie Simonofsky mother Awards Guggenheim Fellowship 1971 Member of the National Academy of Sciences 1972 APA Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions to Psychology 1984 Orwell Award 1987 1989 Kyoto Prize in Basic Sciences 1988 Helmholtz Medal 1996 Benjamin Franklin Medal in Computer and Cognitive Science 1999 Sydney Peace Prize 2011 Nuclear Age Peace Foundation 2014 Academic backgroundEducationUniversity of Pennsylvania AB MA PhD ThesisTransformational Analysis 1955 Doctoral advisorZellig Harris 1 Influences Academic J L Austin William Chomsky C West Churchman Rene Descartes Galileo 2 Nelson Goodman Morris Halle Zellig Harris Wilhelm von Humboldt David Hume 3 Roman Jakobson Immanuel Kant 4 George Armitage Miller Paṇini Hilary Putnam 5 W V O Quine Bertrand Russell Ferdinand de Saussure Marcel Paul Schutzenberger Alan Turing 2 Ludwig Wittgenstein 6 Political Mikhail Bakunin Alex Carey William Chomsky John Dewey 7 Zellig Harris Wilhelm von Humboldt 8 David Hume 9 Karl Korsch Peter Kropotkin 9 Karl Liebknecht Rosa Luxemburg John Locke Dwight Macdonald Paul Mattick 9 John Stuart Mill George Orwell Anton Pannekoek Pierre Joseph Proudhon 10 Rudolf Rocker Jean Jacques Rousseau 9 Bertrand Russell Diego Abad de Santillan Adam Smith 9 Academic workDisciplineLinguistics analytic philosophy cognitive science political criticismSchool or traditionAnarcho syndicalismlibertarian socialismInstitutionsUniversity of Arizona 2017 present Massachusetts Institute of Technology 1955 present Institute for Advanced Study 1958 1959 Doctoral students Gulsat Aygen Mark Baker Jonathan Bobaljik Joan Bresnan Peter Culicover Ray C Dougherty Janet Dean Fodor John Goldsmith C T James Huang Sabine Iatridou Ray Jackendoff Edward Klima Jan Koster Jaklin Kornfilt S Y Kuroda George Lakoff Howard Lasnik Robert Lees Alec Marantz Diane Massam James D McCawley Jacques Mehler Andrea Moro Barbara Partee David Perlmutter David Pesetsky Tanya Reinhart John R Ross Ivan Sag Edwin S WilliamsInfluenced In academia John Backus Derek Bickerton Julian C Boyd Daniel Dennett 11 Daniel Everett Jerry Fodor Gilbert Harman Marc Hauser Norbert Hornstein Niels Kaj Jerne Donald Knuth Georges J F Kohler Peter Ludlow Colin McGinn 12 Cesar Milstein Steven Pinker 13 John Searle 14 Neil Smith Crispin Wright 11 In politics Michael Albert Julian Assange Bono 15 Jean Bricmont Hugo Chavez Zack de la Rocha Clinton Fernandes Norman Finkelstein Robert Fisk Amy Goodman Stephen Jay Gould 16 Glenn Greenwald Christopher Hitchens 15 Naomi Klein 15 Kyle Kulinski 17 Michael Moore 15 John Nichols Ann Nocenti 18 John Pilger Harold Pinter 15 Arundhati Roy Edward Said Aaron Swartz 19 Websitechomsky wbr infoSignatureBorn to Ashkenazi Jewish immigrants in Philadelphia Chomsky developed an early interest in anarchism from alternative bookstores in New York City He studied at the University of Pennsylvania During his postgraduate work in the Harvard Society of Fellows Chomsky developed the theory of transformational grammar for which he earned his doctorate in 1955 That year he began teaching at MIT and in 1957 emerged as a significant figure in linguistics with his landmark work Syntactic Structures which played a major role in remodeling the study of language From 1958 to 1959 Chomsky was a National Science Foundation fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study He created or co created the universal grammar theory the generative grammar theory the Chomsky hierarchy and the minimalist program Chomsky also played a pivotal role in the decline of linguistic behaviorism and was particularly critical of the work of B F Skinner An outspoken opponent of U S involvement in the Vietnam War which he saw as an act of American imperialism in 1967 Chomsky rose to national attention for his anti war essay The Responsibility of Intellectuals Becoming associated with the New Left he was arrested multiple times for his activism and placed on President Richard Nixon s list of political opponents While expanding his work in linguistics over subsequent decades he also became involved in the linguistics wars In collaboration with Edward S Herman Chomsky later articulated the propaganda model of media criticism in Manufacturing Consent and worked to expose the Indonesian occupation of East Timor His defense of unconditional freedom of speech including that of Holocaust denial generated significant controversy in the Faurisson affair of the 1980s Since retiring from active teaching at MIT he has continued his vocal political activism including opposing the 2003 invasion of Iraq and supporting the Occupy movement Chomsky began teaching at the University of Arizona in 2017 One of the most cited scholars alive d Chomsky has influenced a broad array of academic fields He is widely recognized as having helped to spark the cognitive revolution in the human sciences contributing to the development of a new cognitivistic framework for the study of language and the mind In addition to his continued scholarship he remains a leading critic of U S foreign policy contemporary state capitalism U S involvement and Israel s role in the Israeli Palestinian conflict and mass media Chomsky and his ideas are highly influential in the anti capitalist and anti imperialist movements Contents 1 Life 1 1 Childhood 1928 1945 1 2 University 1945 1955 1 3 Early career 1955 1966 1 4 Anti war activism and dissent 1967 1975 1 5 Edward S Herman and the Faurisson affair 1976 1980 1 6 Critique of propaganda and international affairs 1980 2001 1 7 Iraq war criticism and retirement from MIT 2001 2017 1 8 University of Arizona 2017 present 2 Linguistic theory 2 1 Universal grammar 2 2 Transformational generative grammar 3 Political views 3 1 United States foreign policy 3 2 Capitalism and socialism 3 3 Israeli Palestinian conflict 3 4 Mass media and propaganda 4 Philosophy 5 Personal life 6 Reception and influence 6 1 In academia 6 2 In politics 6 3 Academic achievements awards and honors 7 Selected bibliography 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Bibliography 12 Further reading 13 External linksLifeChildhood 1928 1945 Avram Noam Chomsky was born on December 7 1928 in the East Oak Lane neighborhood of Philadelphia Pennsylvania 20 His parents Ze ev William Chomsky and Elsie Simonofsky were Jewish immigrants 21 William had fled the Russian Empire in 1913 to escape conscription and worked in Baltimore sweatshops and Hebrew elementary schools before attending university 22 After moving to Philadelphia William became principal of the Congregation Mikveh Israel religious school and joined the Gratz College faculty He placed great emphasis on educating people so that they would be well integrated free and independent in their thinking concerned about improving and enhancing the world and eager to participate in making life more meaningful and worthwhile for all a mission that shaped and was subsequently adopted by his son 23 Elsie was a teacher and activist born in Belarus They met at Mikveh Israel where they both worked 21 Noam born 1928 was the Chomskys first child His younger brother David Eli Chomsky 1934 2021 was born five years later and worked as a cardiologist in Philadelphia 24 25 26 The brothers were close though David was more easygoing while Noam could be very competitive 27 Chomsky and his brother were raised Jewish being taught Hebrew and regularly involved with discussing the political theories of Zionism the family was particularly influenced by the Left Zionist writings of Ahad Ha am 26 Chomsky faced antisemitism as a child particularly from Philadelphia s Irish and German communities 28 Chomsky attended the independent Deweyite Oak Lane Country Day School 29 and Philadelphia s Central High School where he excelled academically and joined various clubs and societies but was troubled by the school s hierarchical and regimented teaching methods 30 He also attended Hebrew High School at Gratz College where his father taught 31 Chomsky has described his parents as normal Roosevelt Democrats with center left politics but relatives involved in the International Ladies Garment Workers Union exposed him to socialism and far left politics 32 He was substantially influenced by his uncle and the Jewish leftists who frequented his New York City newspaper stand to debate current affairs 33 Chomsky himself often visited left wing and anarchist bookstores when visiting his uncle in the city voraciously reading political literature 34 He wrote his first article at age 10 on the spread of fascism following the fall of Barcelona Feb 1939 during the Spanish Civil War 35 and from the age of 12 or 13 identified with anarchist politics as well as the anti Bolshevik Left 36 31 He later described his discovery of anarchism as a lucky accident 37 that made him critical of Stalinism and other forms of Marxism Leninism 38 University 1945 1955 Carol Schatz married Chomsky in 1949 In 1945 aged 16 Chomsky began a general program of study at the University of Pennsylvania where he explored philosophy logic and languages and developed a primary interest in learning Arabic 39 Living at home he funded his undergraduate degree by teaching Hebrew 40 Frustrated with his experiences at the university he considered dropping out and moving to a kibbutz in Mandatory Palestine 41 but his intellectual curiosity was reawakened through conversations with the Russian born linguist Zellig Harris whom he first met in a political circle in 1947 Harris introduced Chomsky to the field of theoretical linguistics and convinced him to major in the subject 42 Chomsky s BA honors thesis Morphophonemics of Modern Hebrew applied Harris s methods to the language 43 Chomsky revised this thesis for his MA which he received from the University of Pennsylvania in 1951 it was subsequently published as a book 44 He also developed his interest in philosophy while at university in particular under the tutelage of Nelson Goodman 45 From 1951 to 1955 Chomsky was a member of the Society of Fellows at Harvard University where he undertook research on what became his doctoral dissertation 46 Having been encouraged by Goodman to apply 47 Chomsky was attracted to Harvard in part because the philosopher Willard Van Orman Quine was based there Both Quine and a visiting philosopher J L Austin of the University of Oxford strongly influenced Chomsky 48 In 1952 Chomsky published his first academic article Systems of Syntactic Analysis which appeared not in a journal of linguistics but in The Journal of Symbolic Logic 47 Highly critical of the established behaviorist currents in linguistics in 1954 he presented his ideas at lectures at the University of Chicago and Yale University 49 He had not been registered as a student at Pennsylvania for four years but in 1955 he submitted a thesis setting out his ideas on transformational grammar he was awarded a Doctor of Philosophy degree for it and it was privately distributed among specialists on microfilm before being published in 1975 as part of The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory 50 Harvard professor George Armitage Miller was impressed by Chomsky s thesis and collaborated with him on several technical papers in mathematical linguistics 51 Chomsky s doctorate exempted him from compulsory military service which was otherwise due to begin in 1955 52 In 1947 Chomsky began a romantic relationship with Carol Doris Schatz whom he had known since early childhood They married in 1949 53 After Chomsky was made a Fellow at Harvard the couple moved to the Allston area of Boston and remained there until 1965 when they relocated to the suburb of Lexington 54 In 1953 the couple took a Harvard travel grant to Europe from the United Kingdom through France Switzerland into Italy 55 and Israel where they lived in Hashomer Hatzair s HaZore a kibbutz Despite enjoying himself Chomsky was appalled by the country s Jewish nationalism anti Arab racism and within the kibbutz s leftist community pro Stalinism 56 On visits to New York City Chomsky continued to frequent the office of the Yiddish anarchist journal Fraye Arbeter Shtime and became enamored with the ideas of Rudolf Rocker a contributor whose work introduced Chomsky to the link between anarchism and classical liberalism 57 Chomsky also read other political thinkers the anarchists Mikhail Bakunin and Diego Abad de Santillan democratic socialists George Orwell Bertrand Russell and Dwight Macdonald and works by Marxists Karl Liebknecht Karl Korsch and Rosa Luxemburg 58 His readings convinced him of the desirability of an anarcho syndicalist society and he became fascinated by the anarcho syndicalist communes set up during the Spanish Civil War as documented in Orwell s Homage to Catalonia 1938 59 He read the leftist journal Politics which furthered his interest in anarchism 60 and the council communist periodical Living Marxism though he rejected the orthodoxy of its editor Paul Mattick 61 Early career 1955 1966 Chomsky befriended two linguists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology MIT Morris Halle and Roman Jakobson the latter of whom secured him an assistant professor position there in 1955 At MIT Chomsky spent half his time on a mechanical translation project and half teaching a course on linguistics and philosophy 62 He described MIT as a pretty free and open place open to experimentation and without rigid requirements It was just perfect for someone of my idiosyncratic interests and work 63 In 1957 MIT promoted him to the position of associate professor and from 1957 to 1958 he was also employed by Columbia University as a visiting professor 64 The Chomskys had their first child that same year a daughter named Aviva 65 He also published his first book on linguistics Syntactic Structures a work that radically opposed the dominant Harris Bloomfield trend in the field 66 Responses to Chomsky s ideas ranged from indifference to hostility and his work proved divisive and caused significant upheaval in the discipline 67 The linguist John Lyons later asserted that Syntactic Structures revolutionized the scientific study of language 68 From 1958 to 1959 Chomsky was a National Science Foundation fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton New Jersey 69 The Great Dome at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology where Chomsky began working in 1955 In 1959 Chomsky published a review of B F Skinner s 1957 book Verbal Behavior in the academic journal Language in which he argued against Skinner s view of language as learned behavior 70 71 The review argued that Skinner ignored the role of human creativity in linguistics and helped to establish Chomsky as an intellectual 72 With Halle Chomsky proceeded to found MIT s graduate program in linguistics In 1961 he was awarded tenure becoming a full professor in the Department of Modern Languages and Linguistics 73 Chomsky went on to be appointed plenary speaker at the Ninth International Congress of Linguists held in 1962 in Cambridge Massachusetts which established him as the de facto spokesperson of American linguistics 74 Between 1963 and 1965 he consulted on a military sponsored project to establish natural language as an operational language for command and control Barbara Partee a collaborator on this project and then student of Chomsky has said this research was justified to the military on the basis that in the event of a nuclear war the generals would be underground with some computers trying to manage things and that it would probably be easier to teach computers to understand English than to teach the generals to program 75 Chomsky continued to publish his linguistic ideas throughout the decade including in Aspects of the Theory of Syntax 1965 Topics in the Theory of Generative Grammar 1966 and Cartesian Linguistics A Chapter in the History of Rationalist Thought 1966 76 Along with Halle he also edited the Studies in Language series of books for Harper and Row 77 As he began to accrue significant academic recognition and honors for his work Chomsky lectured at the University of California Berkeley in 1966 78 His Beckman lectures at Berkeley were assembled and published as Language and Mind in 1968 79 Despite his growing stature an intellectual falling out between Chomsky and some of his early colleagues and doctoral students including Paul Postal John Haj Ross George Lakoff and James D McCawley triggered a series of academic debates that came to be known as the Linguistics Wars although they revolved largely around philosophical issues rather than linguistics proper 80 Anti war activism and dissent 1967 1975 I t does not require very far reaching specialized knowledge to perceive that the United States was invading South Vietnam And in fact to take apart the system of illusions and deception which functions to prevent understanding of contemporary reality is not a task that requires extraordinary skill or understanding It requires the kind of normal skepticism and willingness to apply one s analytical skills that almost all people have and that they can exercise Chomsky on the Vietnam War 81 Chomsky joined protests against U S involvement in the Vietnam War in 1962 speaking on the subject at small gatherings in churches and homes 82 His 1967 critique of U S involvement The Responsibility of Intellectuals among other contributions to The New York Review of Books debuted Chomsky as a public dissident 83 This essay and other political articles were collected and published in 1969 as part of Chomsky s first political book American Power and the New Mandarins 84 He followed this with further political books including At War with Asia 1970 The Backroom Boys 1973 For Reasons of State 1973 and Peace in the Middle East 1974 published by Pantheon Books 85 86 These publications led to Chomsky s association with the American New Left movement 87 though he thought little of prominent New Left intellectuals Herbert Marcuse and Erich Fromm and preferred the company of activists to that of intellectuals 88 Chomsky remained largely ignored by the mainstream press throughout this period 89 He also became involved in left wing activism Chomsky refused to pay half his taxes publicly supported students who refused the draft and was arrested while participating an anti war teach in outside the Pentagon 90 During this time Chomsky co founded the anti war collective RESIST with Mitchell Goodman Denise Levertov William Sloane Coffin and Dwight Macdonald 91 Although he questioned the objectives of the 1968 student protests 92 Chomsky gave many lectures to student activist groups and with his colleague Louis Kampf ran undergraduate courses on politics at MIT independently of the conservative dominated political science department 93 When student activists campaigned to stop weapons and counterinsurgency research at MIT Chomsky was sympathetic but felt that the research should remain under MIT s oversight and limited to systems of deterrence and defense 94 Chomsky has acknowledged that his MIT lab s funding at this time came from the military 95 He later said he considered resigning from MIT during the Vietnam War 96 There has since been a wide ranging debate about what effects Chomsky s employment at MIT had on his political and linguistic ideas 97 External imagesChomsky participating in the anti Vietnam War March on the Pentagon October 21 1967 Chomsky with other public figures The protesters passing the Lincoln Memorial en route to the PentagonBecause of his anti war activism Chomsky was arrested on multiple occasions and included on President Richard Nixon s master list of political opponents 98 Chomsky was aware of the potential repercussions of his civil disobedience and his wife began studying for her own doctorate in linguistics to support the family in the event of Chomsky s imprisonment or joblessness 99 Chomsky s scientific reputation insulated him from administrative action based on his beliefs 100 In 1970 he visited southeast Asia to lecture at Vietnam s Hanoi University of Science and Technology and toured war refugee camps in Laos In 1973 he helped lead a committee commemorating the 50th anniversary of the War Resisters League 101 His work in linguistics continued to gain international recognition as he received multiple honorary doctorates 102 He delivered public lectures at the University of Cambridge Columbia University Woodbridge Lectures and Stanford University 103 His appearance in a 1971 debate with French continental philosopher Michel Foucault positioned Chomsky as a symbolic figurehead of analytic philosophy 104 He continued to publish extensively on linguistics producing Studies on Semantics in Generative Grammar 1972 100 an enlarged edition of Language and Mind 1972 105 and Reflections on Language 1975 105 In 1974 Chomsky became a corresponding fellow of the British Academy 103 Edward S Herman and the Faurisson affair 1976 1980 See also Cambodian genocide denial Chomsky and Herman and Faurisson affair Chomsky in 1977 In the late 1970s and 1980s Chomsky s linguistic publications expanded and clarified his earlier work addressing his critics and updating his grammatical theory 106 His political talks often generated considerable controversy particularly when he criticized the Israeli government and military 107 In the early 1970s Chomsky began collaborating with Edward S Herman who had also published critiques of the U S war in Vietnam 108 Together they wrote Counter Revolutionary Violence Bloodbaths in Fact amp Propaganda a book that criticized U S military involvement in Southeast Asia and the mainstream media s failure to cover it Warner Modular published it in 1973 but its parent company disapproved of the book s contents and ordered all copies destroyed 109 While mainstream publishing options proved elusive Chomsky found support from Michael Albert s South End Press an activist oriented publishing company 110 In 1979 South End published Chomsky and Herman s revised Counter Revolutionary Violence as the two volume The Political Economy of Human Rights 111 which compares U S media reactions to the Cambodian genocide and the Indonesian occupation of East Timor It argues that because Indonesia was a U S ally U S media ignored the East Timorese situation while focusing on events in Cambodia a U S enemy 112 Chomsky s response included two testimonials before the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization successful encouragement for American media to cover the occupation and meetings with refugees in Lisbon 113 The Marxist academic Steven Lukes publicly accused Chomsky of betraying his anarchist ideals and acting as an apologist for Cambodian leader Pol Pot 114 Herman said that the controversy imposed a serious personal cost on Chomsky 115 Chomsky said that conformist intellectuals of East or West deal with dissident opinion by trying to overwhelm it with a flood of lies 116 He regarded the personal criticism as less important than the evidence that mainstream intelligentsia suppressed or justified the crimes of their own states 116 Chomsky had long publicly criticized Nazism and totalitarianism more generally but his commitment to freedom of speech led him to defend the right of French historian Robert Faurisson to advocate a position widely characterized as Holocaust denial Without Chomsky s knowledge his plea for Faurisson s freedom of speech was published as the preface to the latter s 1980 book Memoire en defense contre ceux qui m accusent de falsifier l histoire 117 Chomsky was widely condemned for defending Faurisson 118 and France s mainstream press accused Chomsky of being a Holocaust denier himself refusing to publish his rebuttals to their accusations 119 Critiquing Chomsky s position sociologist Werner Cohn later published an analysis of the affair titled Partners in Hate Noam Chomsky and the Holocaust Deniers 120 The Faurisson affair had a lasting damaging effect on Chomsky s career 121 especially in France 122 Critique of propaganda and international affairs 1980 2001 External video Manufacturing Consent Noam Chomsky and the Media a 1992 documentary exploring Chomsky s work of the same name and its impactIn 1985 during the Nicaraguan Contra War in which the U S supported the contra militia against the Sandinista government Chomsky traveled to Managua to meet with workers organizations and refugees of the conflict giving public lectures on politics and linguistics 123 Many of these lectures were published in 1987 as On Power and Ideology The Managua Lectures 124 In 1983 he published The Fateful Triangle which argued that the U S had continually used the Israeli Palestinian conflict for its own ends 125 In 1988 Chomsky visited the Palestinian territories to witness the impact of Israeli occupation 126 Chomsky and Herman s Manufacturing Consent The Political Economy of the Mass Media 1988 outlines their propaganda model for understanding mainstream media Even in countries without official censorship they argued the news is censored through five filters that greatly influence both what and how news is presented 127 The book was inspired by Alex Carey and adapted into a 1992 film 128 In 1989 Chomsky published Necessary Illusions Thought Control in Democratic Societies in which he suggests that a worthwhile democracy requires that its citizens undertake intellectual self defense against the media and elite intellectual culture that seeks to control them 129 By the 1980s Chomsky s students had become prominent linguists who in turn expanded and revised his linguistic theories 130 In the 1990s Chomsky embraced political activism to a greater degree than before 131 Retaining his commitment to the cause of East Timorese independence in 1995 he visited Australia to talk on the issue at the behest of the East Timorese Relief Association and the National Council for East Timorese Resistance 132 The lectures he gave on the subject were published as Powers and Prospects in 1996 132 As a result of the international publicity Chomsky generated his biographer Wolfgang Sperlich opined that he did more to aid the cause of East Timorese independence than anyone but the investigative journalist John Pilger 133 After East Timor attained independence from Indonesia in 1999 the Australian led International Force for East Timor arrived as a peacekeeping force Chomsky was critical of this believing it was designed to secure Australian access to East Timor s oil and gas reserves under the Timor Gap Treaty 134 Iraq war criticism and retirement from MIT 2001 2017 Chomsky speaking in support of the Occupy movement in 2011 Chomsky was widely interviewed after the September 11 attacks in 2001 as the American public attempted to make sense of the attacks 135 He argued that the ensuing War on Terror was not a new development but a continuation of U S foreign policy and concomitant rhetoric since at least the Reagan era 136 He gave the D T Lakdawala Memorial Lecture in New Delhi in 2001 137 and in 2003 visited Cuba at the invitation of the Latin American Association of Social Scientists 138 Chomsky s 2003 Hegemony or Survival articulated what he called the United States imperial grand strategy and critiqued the Iraq War and other aspects of the War on Terror 139 Chomsky toured internationally with greater regularity during this period 138 Chomsky retired from MIT in 2002 140 but continued to conduct research and seminars on campus as an emeritus 141 That same year he visited Turkey to attend the trial of a publisher who had been accused of treason for printing one of Chomsky s books Chomsky insisted on being a co defendant and amid international media attention the Security Courts dropped the charge on the first day 142 During that trip Chomsky visited Kurdish areas of Turkey and spoke out in favor of the Kurds human rights 142 A supporter of the World Social Forum he attended its conferences in Brazil in both 2002 and 2003 also attending the Forum event in India 143 source source source source source source source source source source Chomsky discussing ecology ethics and anarchism in 2014 Chomsky supported the 2011 Occupy movement He spoke at encampments and produced two works that chronicled its influence Occupy 2012 a pamphlet and Occupy Reflections on Class War Rebellion and Solidarity 2013 He attributed Occupy s growth to a perception that the Democratic Party had abandoned the interests of the white working class 144 In March 2014 Chomsky joined the advisory council of the Nuclear Age Peace Foundation 145 an organization that advocates the global abolition of nuclear weapons as a senior fellow 146 The 2015 documentary Requiem for the American Dream summarizes his views on capitalism and economic inequality through a 75 minute teach in 147 University of Arizona 2017 present In 2017 Chomsky taught a short term politics course at the University of Arizona in Tucson 148 and was later hired as a part time professor in the linguistics department there with his duties including teaching and public seminars 149 His salary is covered by philanthropic donations 150 Chomsky signed the Declaration on the Common Language of the Croats Serbs Bosniaks and Montenegrins in 2018 151 152 In March 2022 Chomsky called the Russian invasion of Ukraine a major war crime ranking alongside the U S led invasion of Iraq and the German Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939 153 adding It always makes sense to seek explanations but there is no justification no extenuation 154 In October 2022 he called on the U S to stop undermining negotiations between Ukraine and Russia 155 Linguistic theoryWhat started as purely linguistic research has led through involvement in political causes and an identification with an older philosophic tradition to no less than an attempt to formulate an overall theory of man The roots of this are manifest in the linguistic theory The discovery of cognitive structures common to the human race but only to humans species specific leads quite easily to thinking of unalienable human attributes Edward Marcotte on the significance of Chomsky s linguistic theory 156 The basis of Chomsky s linguistic theory lies in biolinguistics the linguistic school that holds that the principles underpinning the structure of language are biologically preset in the human mind and hence genetically inherited 157 He argues that all humans share the same underlying linguistic structure irrespective of sociocultural differences 158 In adopting this position Chomsky rejects the radical behaviorist psychology of B F Skinner who viewed behavior including talking and thinking as a completely learned product of the interactions between organisms and their environments Accordingly Chomsky argues that language is a unique evolutionary development of the human species and distinguished from modes of communication used by any other animal species 159 160 Chomsky s nativist internalist view of language is consistent with the philosophical school of rationalism and contrasts with the anti nativist externalist view of language consistent with the philosophical school of empiricism 161 which contends that all knowledge including language comes from external stimuli 156 Universal grammar Main article Universal grammar Since the 1960s Chomsky has maintained that syntactic knowledge is at least partially inborn implying that children need only learn certain language specific features of their native languages He bases his argument on observations about human language acquisition and describes a poverty of the stimulus an enormous gap between the linguistic stimuli to which children are exposed and the rich linguistic competence they attain For example although children are exposed to only a very small and finite subset of the allowable syntactic variants within their first language they somehow acquire the highly organized and systematic ability to understand and produce an infinite number of sentences including ones that have never before been uttered in that language 162 To explain this Chomsky reasoned that the primary linguistic data must be supplemented by an innate linguistic capacity Furthermore while a human baby and a kitten are both capable of inductive reasoning if they are exposed to exactly the same linguistic data the human will always acquire the ability to understand and produce language while the kitten will never acquire either ability Chomsky referred to this difference in capacity as the language acquisition device and suggested that linguists needed to determine both what that device is and what constraints it imposes on the range of possible human languages The universal features that result from these constraints would constitute universal grammar 163 164 165 Multiple scholars have challenged universal grammar on the grounds of the evolutionary infeasibility of its genetic basis for language 166 the lack of universal characteristics between languages 167 and the unproven link between innate universal structures and the structures of specific languages 168 Scholar Michael Tomasello has challenged Chomsky s theory of innate syntactic knowledge as based on theory and not behavioral observation 169 Although it was influential from 1960s through 1990s Chomsky s nativist theory was ultimately rejected by the mainstream child language acquisition research community owing to its inconsistency with research evidence 170 171 It was also argued by linguists including Robert Freidin Geoffrey Sampson Geoffrey K Pullum and Barbara Scholz that Chomsky s linguistic evidence for it had been false 172 Transformational generative grammar Main articles Transformational grammar Generative grammar Chomsky hierarchy and Minimalist program Transformational generative grammar is a broad theory used to model encode and deduce a native speaker s linguistic capabilities 173 These models or formal grammars show the abstract structures of a specific language as they may relate to structures in other languages 174 Chomsky developed transformational grammar in the mid 1950s whereupon it became the dominant syntactic theory in linguistics for two decades 173 Transformations refers to syntactic relationships within language e g being able to infer that the subject between two sentences is the same person 175 Chomsky s theory posits that language consists of both deep structures and surface structures Outward facing surface structures relate phonetic rules into sound while inward facing deep structures relate words and conceptual meaning Transformational generative grammar uses mathematical notation to express the rules that govern the connection between meaning and sound deep and surface structures respectively By this theory linguistic principles can mathematically generate potential sentence structures in a language 156 Set inclusions described by the Chomsky hierarchy It is a common conception that Chomsky invented transformational generative grammar but his actual contribution to it was considered modest at the time when Chomsky first published his theory In his 1955 dissertation and his 1957 textbook Syntactic Structures he presented recent developments in the analysis formulated by Zellig Harris who was Chomsky s PhD supervisor and by Charles F Hockett e Their method is derived from the work of the Danish structural linguist Louis Hjelmslev who introduced algorithmic grammar to general linguistics f Based on this rule based notation of grammars Chomsky grouped logically possible phrase structure grammar types into a series of four nested subsets and increasingly complex types together known as the Chomsky hierarchy This classification remains relevant to formal language theory 176 and theoretical computer science especially programming language theory 177 compiler construction and automata theory 178 Following transformational grammar s heyday through the mid 1970s a derivative 173 government and binding theory became a dominant research framework through the early 1990s remaining an influential theory 173 when linguists turned to a minimalist approach to grammar This research focused on the principles and parameters framework which explained children s ability to learn any language by filling open parameters a set of universal grammar principles that adapt as the child encounters linguistic data 179 The minimalist program initiated by Chomsky 180 asks which minimal principles and parameters theory fits most elegantly naturally and simply 179 In an attempt to simplify language into a system that relates meaning and sound using the minimum possible faculties Chomsky dispenses with concepts such as deep structure and surface structure and instead emphasizes the plasticity of the brain s neural circuits with which come an infinite number of concepts or logical forms 160 When exposed to linguistic data a hearer speaker s brain proceeds to associate sound and meaning and the rules of grammar we observe are in fact only the consequences or side effects of the way language works Thus while much of Chomsky s prior research focused on the rules of language he now focuses on the mechanisms the brain uses to generate these rules and regulate speech 160 181 Political viewsMain article Political positions of Noam Chomsky The second major area to which Chomsky has contributed and surely the best known in terms of the number of people in his audience and the ease of understanding what he writes and says is his work on sociopolitical analysis political social and economic history and critical assessment of current political circumstance In Chomsky s view although those in power might and do try to obscure their intentions and to defend their actions in ways that make them acceptable to citizens it is easy for anyone who is willing to be critical and consider the facts to discern what they are up to James McGilvray 2014 182 Chomsky is a prominent political dissident g His political views have changed little since his childhood 183 when he was influenced by the emphasis on political activism that was ingrained in Jewish working class tradition 184 He usually identifies as an anarcho syndicalist or a libertarian socialist 185 He views these positions not as precise political theories but as ideals that he thinks best meet human needs liberty community and freedom of association 186 Unlike some other socialists such as Marxists Chomsky believes that politics lies outside the remit of science 187 but he still roots his ideas about an ideal society in empirical data and empirically justified theories 188 In Chomsky s view the truth about political realities is systematically distorted or suppressed by an elite corporatocracy which uses corporate media advertising and think tanks to promote its own propaganda His work seeks to reveal such manipulations and the truth they obscure 189 Chomsky believes this web of falsehood can be broken by common sense critical thinking and understanding the roles of self interest and self deception 190 and that intellectuals abdicate their moral responsibility to tell the truth about the world in fear of losing prestige and funding 191 He argues that as such an intellectual it is his duty to use his social privilege resources and training to aid popular democracy movements in their struggles 192 Although he has joined protest marches and organized activist groups Chomsky s primary political outlets are education and publication He offers a wide range of political writings 193 as well as free lessons and lectures to encourage wider political consciousness 194 He is a longtime member of the Industrial Workers of the World international union 195 as was his father 196 United States foreign policy Chomsky at the 2003 World Social Forum a convention for counter hegemonic globalization in Porto Alegre Chomsky has been a prominent critic of American imperialism 197 and believes that World War II is the only justified war the U S has fought in his lifetime 36 He believes that the basic principle of the foreign policy of the United States is the establishment of open societies that are economically and politically controlled by the United States and where U S based businesses can prosper 198 He argues that the U S seeks to suppress any movements within these countries that are not compliant with U S interests and to ensure that U S friendly governments are placed in power 191 When discussing current events he emphasizes their place within a wider historical perspective 199 He believes that official sanctioned historical accounts of U S and British extraterritorial operations have consistently whitewashed these nations actions in order to present them as having benevolent motives in either spreading democracy or in older instances spreading Christianity criticizing these accounts he seeks to correct them 200 Prominent examples he regularly cites are the actions of the British Empire in India and Africa and the actions of the U S in Vietnam the Philippines Latin America and the Middle East 200 Chomsky s political work has centered heavily on criticizing the actions of the United States 199 He has said he focuses on the U S because the country has militarily and economically dominated the world during his lifetime and because its liberal democratic electoral system allows the citizenry to influence government policy 201 His hope is that by spreading awareness of the impact U S foreign policies have on the populations affected by them he can sway the populations of the U S and other countries into opposing the policies 200 He urges people to criticize their governments motivations decisions and actions to accept responsibility for their own thoughts and actions and to apply the same standards to others as to themselves 202 Chomsky has been critical of U S involvement in the Israeli Palestinian conflict arguing that it has consistently blocked a peaceful settlement 191 Chomsky also criticizes the U S s close ties with Saudi Arabia and involvement in Saudi Arabian led intervention in Yemen highlighting that Saudi Arabia has one of the most grotesque human rights records in the world 203 Capitalism and socialism In his youth Chomsky developed a dislike of capitalism and the pursuit of material wealth 204 At the same time he developed a disdain for authoritarian socialism as represented by the Marxist Leninist policies of the Soviet Union 205 Rather than accepting the common view among U S economists that a spectrum exists between total state ownership of the economy and total private ownership he instead suggests that a spectrum should be understood between total democratic control of the economy and total autocratic control whether state or private 206 He argues that Western capitalist countries are not really democratic 207 because in his view a truly democratic society is one in which all persons have a say in public economic policy 208 He has stated his opposition to ruling elites among them institutions like the IMF World Bank and GATT precursor to the WTO 209 Chomsky highlights that since the 1970s the U S has become increasingly economically unequal as a result of the repeal of various financial regulations and the unilateral rescinding of the Bretton Woods financial control agreement by the U S 210 He characterizes the U S as a de facto one party state viewing both the Republican Party and Democratic Party as manifestations of a single Business Party controlled by corporate and financial interests 211 Chomsky highlights that within Western capitalist liberal democracies at least 80 of the population has no control over economic decisions which are instead in the hands of a management class and ultimately controlled by a small wealthy elite 212 Noting the entrenchment of such an economic system Chomsky believes that change is possible through the organized cooperation of large numbers of people who understand the problem and know how they want to reorganize the economy more equitably 212 Acknowledging that corporate domination of media and government stifles any significant change to this system he sees reason for optimism in historical examples such as the social rejection of slavery as immoral the advances in women s rights and the forcing of government to justify invasions 210 He views violent revolution to overthrow a government as a last resort to be avoided if possible citing the example of historical revolutions where the population s welfare has worsened as a result of upheaval 212 Chomsky sees libertarian socialist and anarcho syndicalist ideas as the descendants of the classical liberal ideas of the Age of Enlightenment 213 arguing that his ideological position revolves around nourishing the libertarian and creative character of the human being 214 He envisions an anarcho syndicalist future with direct worker control of the means of production and government by workers councils who would select temporary and revocable representatives to meet together at general assemblies 215 The point of this self governance is to make each citizen in Thomas Jefferson s words a direct participator in the government of affairs 216 He believes that there will be no need for political parties 217 By controlling their productive life he believes that individuals can gain job satisfaction and a sense of fulfillment and purpose 218 He argues that unpleasant and unpopular jobs could be fully automated carried out by workers who are specially remunerated or shared among everyone 219 Israeli Palestinian conflict Israel uses sophisticated attack jets and naval vessels to bomb densely crowded refugee camps schools apartment blocks mosques and slums to attack a Palestinian population that has no air force no air defense no navy no heavy weapons no artillery units no mechanized armor no command in control no army and calls it a war It is not a war it is murder Chomsky criticizing Israel 2012 220 Chomsky has written prolifically on the Israeli Palestinian conflict aiming to raise public awareness of it 221 He has long endorsed a left binationalist program in Israel and Palestine seeking to create a democratic state in the Levant that is home to both Jews and Arabs 222 He has called the adoption of the 1947 United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine a very bad decision 36 Nevertheless given the realpolitik of the situation he has also considered a two state solution on the condition that the nation states exist on equal terms 223 Chomsky was denied entry to the West Bank in 2010 because of his criticisms of Israel He had been invited to deliver a lecture at Bir Zeit University and was to meet with Palestinian Prime Minister Salam Fayyad 224 225 226 227 An Israeli Foreign Ministry spokesman later said that Chomsky was denied entry by mistake 228 Mass media and propaganda Main article Propaganda model External video Chomsky on propaganda and the manufacturing of consent June 1 2003Chomsky s political writings have largely focused on ideology social and political power mass media and state policy 229 One of his best known works Manufacturing Consent dissects the media s role in reinforcing and acquiescing to state policies across the political spectrum while marginalizing contrary perspectives Chomsky asserts that this version of censorship by government guided free market forces is subtler and harder to undermine than was the equivalent propaganda system in the Soviet Union 230 As he argues the mainstream press is corporate owned and thus reflects corporate priorities and interests 231 Acknowledging that many American journalists are dedicated and well meaning he argues that the mass media s choices of topics and issues the unquestioned premises on which that coverage rests and the range of opinions expressed are all constrained to reinforce the state s ideology 232 although mass media will criticize individual politicians and political parties it will not undermine the wider state corporate nexus of which it is a part 233 As evidence he highlights that the U S mass media does not employ any socialist journalists or political commentators 234 He also points to examples of important news stories that the U S mainstream media has ignored because reporting on them would reflect badly upon the country including the murder of Black Panther Fred Hampton with possible FBI involvement the massacres in Nicaragua perpetrated by U S funded Contras and the constant reporting on Israeli deaths without equivalent coverage of the far larger number of Palestinian deaths in that conflict 235 To remedy this situation Chomsky calls for grassroots democratic control and involvement of the media 236 Chomsky considers most conspiracy theories fruitless distracting substitutes for thinking about policy formation in an institutional framework where individual manipulation is secondary to broader social imperatives 237 While not dismissing them outright he considers them unproductive to challenging power in a substantial way In response to the labeling of his own ideas as a conspiracy theory Chomsky has said that it is very rational for the media to manipulate information in order to sell it like any other business He asks whether General Motors would be accused of conspiracy if it deliberately selected what it used or discarded to sell its product 238 Instead of supporting the educational system as an antidote he believes that most education is counterproductive 239 Chomsky describes mass education as a system solely intended to turn farmers from independent producers into unthinking industrial employees 239 PhilosophyChomsky has also been active in a number of philosophical fields including philosophy of mind philosophy of language and philosophy of science 240 In these fields he is credited with ushering in the cognitive revolution 240 a significant paradigm shift that rejected logical positivism the prevailing philosophical methodology of the time and reframed how philosophers think about language and the mind 180 Chomsky views the cognitive revolution as rooted in 17th century rationalist ideals 241 His position the idea that the mind contains inherent structures to understand language perception and thought has more in common with rationalism Enlightenment and Cartesian than behaviorism 242 He named one of his key works Cartesian Linguistics A Chapter in the History of Rationalist Thought 1966 241 This sparked criticism from historians and philosophers who disagreed with Chomsky s interpretations of classical sources and use of philosophical terminology h In the philosophy of language Chomsky is particularly known for his criticisms of the notion of reference and meaning in human language and his perspective on the nature and function of mental representations 243 Chomsky s famous 1971 debate on human nature with the French philosopher Michel Foucault was symbolic in positioning Chomsky as the prototypical analytic philosopher against Foucault a stalwart of the continental tradition 104 It showed what appeared to be irreconcilable differences between two moral and intellectual luminaries of the 20th century Foucault s position was that of critique that human nature could not be conceived in terms foreign to present understanding while Chomsky held that human nature contained universalities such as a common standard of moral justice as deduced through reason based on what rationally serves human necessity 244 Chomsky criticized postmodernism and French philosophy generally arguing that the obscure language of postmodern leftist philosophers gives little aid to the working classes 245 He has also debated analytic philosophers including Tyler Burge Donald Davidson Michael Dummett Saul Kripke Thomas Nagel Hilary Putnam Willard Van Orman Quine and John Searle 180 Chomsky s contributions span intellectual and world history including the history of philosophy 246 Irony is a recurring characteristic of his writing as he often implies that his readers know better which can make them more engaged in the veracity of his claims 247 Personal life Chomsky far right and his wife Valeria second from right with David and Carolee Krieger of the Nuclear Age Peace Foundation 2014 Chomsky endeavors to separate his family life linguistic scholarship and political activism from each other 248 An intensely private person 249 he is uninterested in appearances and the fame his work has brought him 250 He also has little interest in modern art and music 251 McGilvray suggests that Chomsky was never motivated by a desire for fame but impelled to tell what he perceived as the truth and a desire to aid others in doing so 252 Chomsky acknowledges that his income affords him a privileged life compared to the majority of the world s population 253 nevertheless he characterizes himself as a worker albeit one who uses his intellect as his employable skill 254 He reads four or five newspapers daily in the US he subscribes to The Boston Globe The New York Times The Wall Street Journal Financial Times and The Christian Science Monitor 255 Chomsky is non religious but has expressed approval of forms of religion such as liberation theology 256 Chomsky is known to use charged language corrupt fascist fraudulent when describing established political and academic figures which can polarize his audience but is in keeping with his belief that much scholarship is self serving 257 His colleague Steven Pinker has said that he portrays people who disagree with him as stupid or evil using withering scorn in his rhetoric and that this contributes to the extreme reactions he receives 258 Chomsky avoids attending academic conferences including left oriented ones such as the Socialist Scholars Conference preferring to speak to activist groups or hold university seminars for mass audiences 259 His approach to academic freedom has led him to support MIT academics whose actions he deplores in 1969 when Chomsky heard that Walt Rostow a major architect of the Vietnam war wanted to return to work at MIT Chomsky threatened to protest publicly if Rostow were denied a position at MIT In 1989 when Pentagon adviser John Deutch applied to be president of MIT Chomsky supported his candidacy Later when Deutch became head of the CIA The New York Times quoted Chomsky as saying He has more honesty and integrity than anyone I ve ever met If somebody s got to be running the CIA I m glad it s him 260 Chomsky was married to Carol nee Carol Doris Schatz from 1949 until her death in 2008 254 They had three children together Aviva born 1957 Diane born 1960 and Harry born 1967 261 In 2014 Chomsky married Valeria Wasserman 262 Reception and influence Chomsky s voice is heard in academia beyond linguistics and philosophy from computer science to neuroscience from anthropology to education mathematics and literary criticism If we include Chomsky s political activism then the boundaries become quite blurred and it comes as no surprise that Chomsky is increasingly seen as enemy number one by those who inhabit that wide sphere of reactionary discourse and action Sperlich 2006 263 Chomsky has been a defining Western intellectual figure central to the field of linguistics and definitive in cognitive science computer science philosophy and psychology 264 In addition to being known as one of the most important intellectuals of his time i Chomsky has a dual legacy as a leader and luminary in both linguistics and the realm of political dissent 265 Despite his academic success his political viewpoints and activism have resulted in his being distrusted by mainstream media and he is regarded as being on the outer margin of acceptability 266 Chomsky s public image and social reputation often color his work s public reception 9 In academia McGilvray observes that Chomsky inaugurated the cognitive revolution in linguistics 267 and that he is largely responsible for establishing the field as a formal natural science 268 moving it away from the procedural form of structural linguistics dominant during the mid 20th century 269 As such some have called Chomsky the father of modern linguistics c Linguist John Lyons further remarked that within a few decades of publication Chomskyan linguistics had become the most dynamic and influential school of thought in the field 270 By the 1970s his work had also come to exert a considerable influence on philosophy 271 and a Minnesota State University Moorhead poll ranked Syntactic Structures as the single most important work in cognitive science 272 In addition his work in automata theory and the Chomsky hierarchy have become well known in computer science and he is much cited in computational linguistics 273 274 275 Chomsky s criticisms of behaviorism contributed substantially to the decline of behaviorist psychology 276 in addition he is generally regarded as one of the primary founders of the field of cognitive science 277 240 Some arguments in evolutionary psychology are derived from his research results 278 Nim Chimpsky a chimpanzee who was the subject of a study in animal language acquisition at Columbia University was named after Chomsky in reference to his view of language acquisition as a uniquely human ability 279 ACM Turing Award winner Donald Knuth credited Chomsky s work with helping him combine his interests in mathematics linguistics and computer science 280 IBM computer scientist John Backus another Turing Award winner used some of Chomsky s concepts to help him develop FORTRAN the first widely used high level computer programming language 281 Chomsky s theory of generative grammar has also influenced work in music theory and analysis 282 283 284 Chomsky is among the most cited authors living or dead d He was cited within the Arts and Humanities Citation Index more often than any other living scholar from 1980 to 1992 285 Chomsky was also extensively cited in the Social Sciences Citation Index and Science Citation Index during the same period The librarian who conducted the research said that the statistics show that he is very widely read across disciplines and that his work is used by researchers across disciplines it seems that you can t write a paper without citing Noam Chomsky 264 As a result of his influence there are dueling camps of Chomskyan and non Chomskyan linguistics with the disputes between the two camps often acrimonious 286 Additionally according to journalist Maya Jaggi Chomsky is among the most quoted sources in the humanities ranking alongside Marx Shakespeare and the Bible 258 In politics Chomsky s status as the most quoted living author is credited to his political writings which vastly outnumber his writings on linguistics 287 Chomsky biographer Wolfgang B Sperlich characterizes him as one of the most notable contemporary champions of the people 249 journalist John Pilger has described him as a genuine people s hero an inspiration for struggles all over the world for that basic decency known as freedom To a lot of people in the margins activists and movements he s unfailingly supportive 258 Arundhati Roy has called him one of the greatest most radical public thinkers of our time 288 and Edward Said thought him one of the most significant challengers of unjust power and delusions 258 Fred Halliday has said that by the start of the 21st century Chomsky had become a guru for the world s anti capitalist and anti imperialist movements 258 The propaganda model of media criticism that he and Herman developed has been widely accepted in radical media critiques and adopted to some level in mainstream criticism of the media 289 also exerting a significant influence on the growth of alternative media including radio publishers and the Internet which in turn have helped to disseminate his work 290 Sperlich also says that Chomsky has been vilified by corporate interests particularly in the mainstream press 141 University departments devoted to history and political science rarely include Chomsky s work on their undergraduate syllabi 291 Critics have argued that despite publishing widely on social and political issues Chomsky has no formal expertise in these areas he has responded that such issues are not as complex as many social scientists claim and that almost everyone is able to comprehend them regardless of whether they have been academically trained to do so 192 According to McGilvray many of Chomsky s critics do not bother quoting his work or quote out of context distort and create straw men that cannot be supported by Chomsky s text 192 Chomsky drew criticism for not calling the Bosnian War s Srebrenica massacre a genocide 292 293 While he did not deny the fact of the massacre 294 which he called a horror story and major crime he felt the massacre did not meet the definition of genocide 292 Chomsky s far reaching criticisms of U S foreign policy and the legitimacy of U S power have raised controversy A document obtained pursuant to a Freedom of Information Act FOIA request from the U S government revealed that the Central Intelligence Agency CIA monitored his activities and for years denied doing so The CIA also destroyed its files on Chomsky at some point possibly in violation of federal law 295 He has often received undercover police protection at MIT and when speaking on the Middle East but has refused uniformed police protection 296 German news magazine Der Spiegel described Chomsky as the Ayatollah of anti American hatred 141 while American conservative commentator David Horowitz called him the most devious the most dishonest and the most treacherous intellect in America whose work is infused with anti American dementia and evidences his pathological hatred of his own country 297 Writing in Commentary magazine the journalist Jonathan Kay described Chomsky as a hard boiled anti American monomaniac who simply refuses to believe anything that any American leader says 298 Chomsky s criticism of Israel has led to his being called a traitor to the Jewish people and an anti Semite 299 Criticizing Chomsky s defense of the right of individuals to engage in Holocaust denial on the grounds that freedom of speech must be extended to all viewpoints Werner Cohn called Chomsky the most important patron of the neo Nazi movement 300 The Anti Defamation League ADL called him a Holocaust denier 301 describing him as a dupe of intellectual pride so overweening that he is incapable of making distinctions between totalitarian and democratic societies between oppressors and victims 301 In turn Chomsky has claimed that the ADL is dominated by Stalinist types who oppose democracy in Israel 299 The lawyer Alan Dershowitz has called Chomsky a false prophet of the left 302 Chomsky called Dershowitz a complete liar who is on a crazed jihad dedicating much of his life to trying to destroy my reputation 303 In early 2016 President Recep Tayyip Erdogan of Turkey publicly rebuked Chomsky after he signed an open letter condemning Erdogan for his anti Kurdish repression and double standards on terrorism 304 Chomsky accused Erdogan of hypocrisy noting that Erdogan supports al Qaeda s Syrian affiliate 305 the al Nusra Front 304 Academic achievements awards and honors See also List of honorary degrees awarded to Noam Chomsky Chomsky receiving an award from the president of the Nuclear Age Peace Foundation David Krieger 2014 In 1970 the London Times named Chomsky one of the makers of the twentieth century 156 He was voted the world s leading public intellectual in The 2005 Global Intellectuals Poll jointly conducted by American magazine Foreign Policy and British magazine Prospect 306 New Statesman readers listed Chomsky among the world s foremost heroes in 2006 307 In the United States he is a Member of the National Academy of Sciences the American Academy of Arts and Sciences the Linguistic Society of America the American Association for the Advancement of Science the American Philosophical Association 308 and the American Philosophical Society 309 Abroad he is a corresponding fellow of the British Academy an honorary member of the British Psychological Society a member of the Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina 308 and a foreign member of the Department of Social Sciences of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts 310 He received a 1971 Guggenheim Fellowship the 1984 American Psychological Association Award for Distinguished Contributions to Psychology the 1988 Kyoto Prize in Basic Sciences the 1996 Helmholtz Medal 308 the 1999 Benjamin Franklin Medal in Computer and Cognitive Science 311 the 2010 Erich Fromm Prize 312 and the British Academy s 2014 Neil and Saras Smith Medal for Linguistics 313 He is also a two time winner of the NCTE George Orwell Award for Distinguished Contribution to Honesty and Clarity in Public Language 1987 and 1989 308 He has also received the Rabindranath Tagore Centenary Award from The Asiatic Society 314 Chomsky received the 2004 Carl von Ossietzky Prize from the city of Oldenburg Germany to acknowledge his body of work as a political analyst and media critic 315 He received an honorary fellowship in 2005 from the Literary and Historical Society of University College Dublin 316 He received the 2008 President s Medal from the Literary and Debating Society of the National University of Ireland Galway 317 Since 2009 he has been an honorary member of International Association of Professional Translators and Interpreters IAPTI 318 He received the University of Wisconsin s A E Havens Center s Award for Lifetime Contribution to Critical Scholarship 319 and was inducted into IEEE Intelligent Systems AI s Hall of Fame for significant contributions to the field of AI and intelligent systems 320 Chomsky has an Erdos number of four 321 In 2011 the US Peace Memorial Foundation awarded Chomsky the US Peace Prize for anti war activities over five decades 322 For his work in human rights peace and social criticism he received the 2011 Sydney Peace Prize 323 the Sretenje Order in 2015 324 the 2017 Sean MacBride Peace Prize 325 and the Dorothy Eldridge Peacemaker Award 311 Chomsky has received honorary doctorates from institutions including the University of London and the University of Chicago 1967 Loyola University Chicago and Swarthmore College 1970 Bard College 1971 Delhi University 1972 the University of Massachusetts 1973 and the International School for Advanced Studies in Trieste 2012 among others 102 His public lectures have included the 1969 John Locke Lectures 311 1975 Whidden Lectures 103 1977 Huizinga Lecture and 1988 Massey Lectures among others 311 Various tributes to Chomsky have been dedicated over the years He is the eponym for a bee species 326 a frog species 327 and a building complex at the Indian university Jamia Millia Islamia 328 Actor Viggo Mortensen and avant garde guitarist Buckethead dedicated their 2003 album Pandemoniumfromamerica to Chomsky 329 Selected bibliographyMain article Noam Chomsky bibliography and filmography Linguistics Syntactic Structures 1957 Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 1964 Aspects of the Theory of Syntax 1965 Cartesian Linguistics 1965 Language and Mind 1968 The Sound Pattern of English with Morris Halle 1968 Reflections on Language 1975 Lectures on Government and Binding 1981 The Minimalist Program 1995 Politics American Power and the New Mandarins 1969 For Reasons of State 1973 Counter Revolutionary Violence Bloodbaths in Fact amp Propaganda with Edward S Herman 1973 The Political Economy of Human Rights 1979 Towards a New Cold War 1982 The Fateful Triangle 1983 Pirates and Emperors 1986 Manufacturing Consent 1988 Necessary Illusions 1989 Deterring Democracy 1991 Letters from Lexington 1993 The Prosperous Few and the Restless Many 1993 World Orders Old and New 1994 Objectivity and Liberal Scholarship 1997 Profit over People 1999 9 11 2001 Understanding Power 2002 Middle East Illusions 2003 Hegemony or Survival 2003 Getting Haiti Right This Time 2004 Imperial Ambitions 2005 Failed States The Abuse of Power and the Assault on Democracy 2006 Interventions 2007 Gaza in Crisis 2010 Making the Future 2012 Occupy 2012 Requiem for the American Dream 2017 See alsoAmerican philosophy Theory of language Chomsky surname Knowledge worker List of linguists List of peace activists List of pioneers in computer scienceNotes English n oʊ m ˈ tʃ ɒ m s k i listen NOHM CHOM skee Hebrew ˈnoʔam ˈxomski In thinking about the Effect of Chomsky s work we have had to dwell upon the reception of Chomsky s work and the perception of Chomsky as a Jew a linguist a philosopher a historian a gadfly an icon and an anarchist Barsky 2007 107 a b Fox 1998 Mr Chomsky is the father of modern linguistics and remains the field s most influential practitioner Tymoczko amp Henle 2004 p 101 As the founder of modern linguistics Noam Chomsky observed each of the following sequences of words is nonsense Tanenhaus 2016 At 87 Noam Chomsky the founder of modern linguistics remains a vital presence in American intellectual life a b Knight 2016 p 2 In 1992 the Arts and Humanities Citation Index ranked him as the most cited person alive the Index s top ten being Marx Lenin Shakespeare Aristotle the Bible Plato Freud Chomsky Hegel and Cicero Babe 2015 p xvii Chomsky was the most cited living scholar between 1980 and 1992 according to the Arts and Humanities Citation Index Smith 2004 pp 107 Chomsky s early work was renowned for its mathematical rigor and he made some contribution to the nascent discipline of mathematical linguistics in particular the analysis of formal languages in terms of what is now known as the Chomsky hierarchy Koerner 1983 pp 159 Characteristically Harris proposes a transfer of sentences from English to Modern Hebrew Chomsky s approach to syntax in Syntactic Structures and several years thereafter was not much different from Harris s approach since the concept of deep or underlying structure had not yet been introduced The main difference between Harris 1954 and Chomsky 1957 appears to be that the latter is dealing with transfers within one single language only Koerner 1978 pp 41f it is worth noting that Chomsky cites Hjelmslev s Prolegomena which had been translated into English in 1953 since the authors theoretical argument derived largely from logic and mathematics exhibits noticeable similarities Seuren 1998 pp 166 Both Hjelmslev and Harris were inspired by the mathematical notion of an algorithm as a purely formal production system for a set of strings of symbols it is probably accurate to say that Hjelmslev was the first to try and apply it to the generation of strings of symbols in natural language Hjelmslev 1969 Prolegomena to a Theory of Language Danish original 1943 first English translation 1954 Macintyre 2010 Burris 2013 Noam Chomsky has built his entire reputation as a political dissident on his command of the facts McNeill 2014 Chomsky is often dubbed one of the world s most important intellectuals and its leading public dissident Hamans amp Seuren 2010 p 377 Having achieved a unique position of supremacy in the theory of syntax and having exploited that position far beyond the narrow circles of professional syntacticians he felt the need to shore up his theory with the authority of history It is shown that this attempt resulting mainly in his Cartesian Linguistics of 1966 was widely and rightly judged to be a radical failure McNeill 2014 Chomsky is often dubbed one of the world s most important intellectuals Campbell 2005 Noam Chomsky the linguistics professor who has become one of the most outspoken critics of US foreign policy has won a poll that names him as the world s top public intellectual Robinson 1979 Judged in terms of the power range novelty and influence of his thought Noam Chomsky is arguably the most important intellectual alive today Flint 1995 The man once called the most important intellectual alive keeps his office in the campus of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology References Partee 2015 p 328 a b Chomsky 1991 p 50 Sperlich 2006 pp 44 45 Slife 1993 p 115 Barsky 1997 p 58 Antony amp Hornstein 2003 p 295 Chomsky 2016 Harbord 1994 p 487 a b c d e f Barsky 2007 p 107 Smith 2004 p 185 a b Amid the Philosophers Persson amp LaFollette 2013 Prickett 2002 p 234 Searle 1972 a b c d e Adams 2003 Gould 1981 Kyle Kulinski Speaks the Bernie Bros Listen Archived from the original on March 5 2020 Retrieved February 9 2022 Keller 2007 Swartz 2006 Lyons 1978 p xv Barsky 1997 p 9 McGilvray 2014 p 3 a b Barsky 1997 pp 9 10 Sperlich 2006 p 11 Barsky 1997 p 9 Barsky 1997 p 11 Russ Valerie July 12 2021 Dr David Chomsky a cardiologist who made house calls dies at 86 The Philadelphia Inquirer Archived from the original on July 12 2021 Retrieved September 10 2021 Feinberg 1999 p 3 a b Barsky 1997 pp 11 13 Sperlich 2006 p 11 Barsky 1997 pp 11 13 Barsky 1997 p 15 Lyons 1978 p xv Barsky 1997 pp 15 17 Sperlich 2006 p 12 McGilvray 2014 p 3 Lyons 1978 p xv Barsky 1997 pp 21 22 Sperlich 2006 p 14 McGilvray 2014 p 4 a b Lyons 1978 p xv Barsky 1997 pp 15 17 Barsky 1997 p 14 Sperlich 2006 pp 11 14 15 Barsky 1997 p 23 Sperlich 2006 pp 12 14 15 67 McGilvray 2014 p 4 Barsky 1997 p 23 Lyons 1978 p xv Barsky 1997 pp 15 17 Sperlich 2006 p 13 McGilvray 2014 p 3 a b c Interview with Noam Chomsky Interviews with Max Raskin Archived from the original on January 10 2022 Retrieved January 10 2022 Barsky 1997 pp 17 19 Barsky 1997 pp 17 19 Sperlich 2006 pp 16 18 Barsky 1997 p 47 Sperlich 2006 p 16 Barsky 1997 p 47 Sperlich 2006 p 17 Barsky 1997 pp 48 51 Sperlich 2006 pp 18 19 31 Barsky 1997 pp 51 52 Sperlich 2006 p 32 Barsky 1997 pp 51 52 Sperlich 2006 p 33 Sperlich 2006 p 33 Lyons 1978 p xv Barsky 1997 p 79 Sperlich 2006 p 20 a b Sperlich 2006 p 34 Sperlich 2006 pp 33 34 Barsky 1997 p 81 Barsky 1997 pp 83 85 Sperlich 2006 p 36 McGilvray 2014 pp 4 5 Sperlich 2006 p 38 Sperlich 2006 p 36 Barsky 1997 pp 13 48 51 52 Sperlich 2006 pp 18 19 Sperlich 2006 p 20 Sperlich 2006 pp 20 21 Barsky 1997 p 82 Sperlich 2006 pp 20 21 Barsky 1997 p 24 Sperlich 2006 p 13 Barsky 1997 pp 24 25 Barsky 1997 p 26 Barsky 1997 pp 34 35 Barsky 1997 p 36 Lyons 1978 p xv Barsky 1997 pp 86 87 Sperlich 2006 pp 38 40 Barsky 1997 p 87 Lyons 1978 p xvi Barsky 1997 p 91 Barsky 1997 p 91 Sperlich 2006 p 22 Barsky 1997 pp 88 91 Sperlich 2006 p 40 McGilvray 2014 p 5 Barsky 1997 pp 88 91 Lyons 1978 p 1 Lyons 1978 p xvi Barsky 1997 p 84 Lyons 1978 p 6 Barsky 1997 pp 96 99 Sperlich 2006 p 41 McGilvray 2014 p 5 MacCorquodale 1970 pp 83 99 Barsky 1997 p 119 Barsky 1997 pp 101 102 119 Sperlich 2006 p 23 Barsky 1997 p 102 Knight 2018a Barsky 1997 p 103 Barsky 1997 p 104 Lyons 1978 p xvi Barsky 1997 p 120 Barsky 1997 p 122 Sperlich 2006 pp 60 61 Barsky 1997 p 114 Sperlich 2006 p 78 Barsky 1997 pp 120 122 Sperlich 2006 p 83 Lyons 1978 p xvii Barsky 1997 p 123 Sperlich 2006 p 83 Chomsky Noam 1970 At war with Asia 1st ed New York Pantheon Books ISBN 978 0394462103 Lyons 1978 pp xvi xvii Barsky 1997 p 163 Sperlich 2006 p 87 Lyons 1978 p 5 Barsky 1997 p 123 Barsky 1997 pp 134 135 Barsky 1997 pp 162 163 Lyons 1978 p 5 Barsky 1997 pp 127 129 Lyons 1978 p 5 Barsky 1997 pp 127 129 Sperlich 2006 pp 80 81 Barsky 1997 pp 121 122 131 Barsky 1997 p 121 Sperlich 2006 p 78 Barsky 1997 pp 121 122 140 141 Albert 2006 p 98 Knight 2016 p 34 Chomsky 1996 p 102 Allott Knight amp Smith 2019 p 62 Hutton 2020 p 32 Harris 2021 pp 399 400 426 454 Barsky 1997 p 124 Sperlich 2006 p 80 Barsky 1997 pp 123 124 Sperlich 2006 p 22 a b Barsky 1997 p 143 Barsky 1997 p 153 Sperlich 2006 pp 24 25 84 85 a b Lyons 1978 pp xv xvi Barsky 1997 pp 120 143 a b c Barsky 1997 p 156 a b Greif 2015 pp 312 313 a b Sperlich 2006 p 51 Barsky 1997 p 175 Barsky 1997 pp 167 170 Barsky 1997 p 157 Barsky 1997 pp 160 162 Sperlich 2006 p 86 Sperlich 2006 p 85 Barsky 1997 p 187 Sperlich 2006 p 86 Barsky 1997 p 187 Sperlich 2006 p 103 Lukes 1980 Barsky 1997 pp 187 189 a b Barsky 1997 p 190 Barsky 1997 pp 179 180 Sperlich 2006 p 61 Barsky 1997 p 185 Sperlich 2006 p 61 Barsky 1997 p 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Grandchildren Jacobin Interviewed by David Barsamian Archived from the original on March 22 2015 Retrieved February 15 2015 Everett Daniel L 2008 Don t Sleep There Are Snakes Life and Language in the Amazonian Jungle New York Pantheon Books ISBN 978 0 375 42502 8 via Internet Archive Farndale Nigel Noam Chomsky interview The Daily Telegraph Archived from the original on April 24 2019 Retrieved May 15 2016 Fox Margalit December 20 2008 Carol Chomsky 78 Linguist and Educator Dies The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Archived from the original on September 7 2015 Retrieved December 10 2015 Gardner R A Gardner B T 1969 Teaching Sign Language to a Chimpanzee PDF Science 165 3894 664 672 Bibcode 1969Sci 165 664G CiteSeerX 10 1 1 384 4164 doi 10 1126 science 165 3894 664 JSTOR 1727877 PMID 5793972 Archived from the original PDF on April 12 2019 Retrieved August 21 2013 Gardner R A Gardner B T Van Cantfort Thomas E 1989 Teaching Sign Language to Chimpanzees Albany NY SUNY Press ISBN 978 0 88706 965 9 Archived from the original on July 21 2014 IWW Interview with Noam Chomsky Worker Occupations And The Future Of Radical Labor IWW October 9 2009 Archived from the original on May 11 2015 Retrieved March 29 2015 Joseph John E 2002 From Whitney to Chomsky Essays in the history of American linguistics Studies in the History of the Language Sciences Vol 103 John Benjamins doi 10 1075 sihols 103 ISBN 978 9027275370 2010 Chomsky s atavistic revolution with a little help from his enemies In Kibbee Douglas A ed Chomskyan R evolutions John Benjamins pp 1 18 doi 10 1075 z 154 01jos ISBN 978 9027211699 via Internet Archive 2011 Theories et politiques de Noam Chomsky Political Theories of Noam Chomsky Langages in French 182 2 55 68 doi 10 3917 lang 182 0055 ISSN 0458 726X Katz Yarden November 1 2012 Noam Chomsky on Where Artificial Intelligence Went Wrong The Atlantic Archived from the original on January 4 2013 Knoester Matthew 2003 Education according to Chomsky Mind Culture and Activity 10 3 266 270 doi 10 1207 s15327884mca1003 10 S2CID 144284901 Laurence Stephen 2003 Is Linguistics a Branch of Psychology PDF In Barker A ed Epistemology of Language Oxford Oxford University Press pp 69 106 ISBN 978 0199250585 Archived PDF from the original on July 26 2014 Retrieved August 19 2013 Lehmann Christian 1982 On some current views of the language universal In Radden Gunter Dirven Rene eds Issues in the Theory of Universal Grammar Tubingen Gunter Narr pp 75 94 ISBN 978 3 87808 565 2 Lent John A Amazeen Michelle A eds 2015 Noam Chomsky Key Thinkers in Critical Communication Scholarship From the Pioneers to the Next Generation Palgrave Macmillan pp 1 12 ISBN 978 1 137 46342 5 Archived from the original on June 3 2016 Retrieved December 12 2015 Lim Ee Peng 2011 AI s Hall of Fame Computational Linguistics and Cognitive Science IEEE Intelligent Systems 26 4 12 doi 10 1109 MIS 2011 64 Archived from the original on June 30 2019 Retrieved June 30 2019 McDonald Alyssa September 2010 The NS Interview Noam Chomsky New Statesman Archived from the original on September 14 2010 Retrieved September 15 2010 Miles H Lyn White 1990 The cognitive foundations for reference in a signing orangutan In Gibson Kathleen Rita Packer Sue Taylor eds Language and intelligence in monkeys and apes Comparative developmental perspectives Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 38028 7 via Internet Archive Mitchell Peter R Schoeffel John eds 2002 Understanding Power The Indispensable Chomsky New York New Press ISBN 978 1565847033 OCLC 46936001 via Internet Archive Nishida T 1968 The social group of wild chimpanzees in the Mahali Mountains PDF Primates 9 3 167 224 doi 10 1007 BF01730971 hdl 2433 213162 S2CID 28751730 Archived PDF from the original on October 26 2018 Retrieved October 26 2018 Patel Aniruddh D 2008 Music Language and the Brain New York Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 512375 3 via Internet Archive Patterson Francine Linden Eugene 1981 The Education of Koko New York NY Holt Rinehart amp Winston ISBN 978 0 03 046101 9 Plooij F X 1978 Some basic traits of language in wild chimpanzees In Lock A ed Action Gesture and Symbol The Emergence of Language London Academic Press pp 111 131 ISBN 978 0 12 454050 7 Poole Geoffrey 2005 Noam Chomsky In Routledge Christopher Chapman Siobhan eds Key Thinkers in Linguistics and the Philosophy of Language Edinburgh Edinburgh University Press pp 53 59 ISBN 978 0 7486 1757 9 Posner Richard A 2003 Public Intellectuals A Study of Decline Revised ed Cambridge MA Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 01246 2 Premack D 1985 Gavagai or the future history of the animal language controversy Cognition 19 3 207 296 doi 10 1016 0010 0277 85 90036 8 PMID 4017517 S2CID 39292094 Savage Rumbaugh S McDonald K Sevcik R A Hopkins W D Rubert E 1986 Spontaneous Symbol Acquisition and Communicative Use By Pygmy Chimpanzees Pan paniscus PDF Journal of Experimental Psychology General 115 3 211 235 doi 10 1037 0096 3445 115 3 211 PMID 2428917 Archived PDF from the original on September 7 2013 Retrieved August 21 2013 Savage Rumbaugh S Rumbaugh D M McDonald K 1985 Language learning in two species of apes Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 9 4 653 665 doi 10 1016 0149 7634 85 90012 0 PMID 4080283 S2CID 579851 Shalom Stephen Review of Noam Chomsky A Life of Dissent by Robert F Barsky New Politics No 23 Archived from the original on August 8 2016 Retrieved October 7 2016 Tattersall Ian August 18 2016 At the Birth of Language The New York Review of Books Vol LXIII no 13 pp 27 28 Archived from the original on June 30 2019 Retrieved June 30 2019 a review of Berwick Robert C Chomsky Noam Why Only Us Language and Evolution MIT Press Terrace Herbert S 1987 Nim A Chimpanzee who Learned Sign Language New York NY Columbia University Press ISBN 978 0 231 06341 8 External linksOfficial website Noam Chomsky personal archives at MIT Noam Chomsky Audio Conservatory at Internet Archive Faculty page at MIT Faculty page at University of Arizona Noam Chomsky at IMDb Noam Chomsky discography at Discogs div, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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