Einkorn wheat
Einkorn wheat (from German Einkorn, literally "single grain") can refer either to a wild species of wheat (Triticum) or to its domesticated form. The wild form is T. boeoticum (syn. T. m. ssp. boeoticum), and the domesticated form is T. monococcum (syn. T. m. ssp. boeoticum). Einkorn is a diploid species (2n = 14 chromosomes) of hulled wheat, with tough glumes ('husks') that tightly enclose the grains. The cultivated form is similar to the wild, except that the ear stays intact when ripe[1] and the seeds are larger. The domestic form is known as "petit épeautre" in French, "Einkorn" in German, "einkorn" or "littlespelt" in English, "piccolo farro" in Italian and "escanda menor" in Spanish.[2] The name refers to the fact that each spikelet contains only one grain.
| Einkorn wheat | |
|---|---|
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Clade: | Tracheophytes |
| Clade: | Angiosperms |
| Clade: | Monocots |
| Clade: | Commelinids |
| Order: | Poales |
| Family: | Poaceae |
| Subfamily: | Pooideae |
| Genus: | Triticum |
| Species: | T. monococcum |
| Binomial name | |
| Triticum monococcum | |
| Synonyms | |
| Triticum monococcum subsp. monococcum | |
| Wild einkorn | |
|---|---|
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Clade: | Tracheophytes |
| Clade: | Angiosperms |
| Clade: | Monocots |
| Clade: | Commelinids |
| Order: | Poales |
| Family: | Poaceae |
| Subfamily: | Pooideae |
| Genus: | Triticum |
| Species: | T. boeoticum |
| Binomial name | |
| Triticum boeoticum | |
| Synonyms | |
Einkorn wheat was one of the first plants to be domesticated and cultivated. The earliest clear evidence of the domestication of einkorn dates from 10,600 to 9,900 years before present (8650 BCE to 7950 BCE) from Çayönü and Cafer Höyük, two Early Pre-Pottery Neolithic B archaeological sites in southern Turkey.[3] Remnants of einkorn were found with the iceman mummy Ötzi, dated to 3100 BCE.[4]
History edit
Einkorn wheat commonly grows wild in the hill country in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent and Anatolia although it has a wider distribution reaching into the Balkans and south to Jordan near the Dead Sea. It is a short variety of wild wheat, usually less than 70 centimetres (28 in) tall and is not very productive of edible seeds.[citation needed]
The principal difference between wild einkorn and cultivated einkorn is the method of seed dispersal. In the wild variety the seed head usually shatters and drops the kernels (seeds) of wheat onto the ground.[1] This facilitates a new crop of wheat. In the domestic variety, the seed head remains intact. While such a mutation may occasionally occur in the wild, it is not viable there in the long term: the intact seed head will only drop to the ground when the stalk rots, and the kernels will not scatter but form a tight clump which inhibits germination and makes the mutant seedlings susceptible to disease. But harvesting einkorn with intact seed heads was easier for early human harvesters, who could then manually break apart the seed heads and scatter any kernels not eaten. Over time and through selection, conscious or unconscious, the human preference for intact seed heads created the domestic variety, which also has slightly larger kernels than wild einkorn. Domesticated einkorn thus requires human planting and harvesting for its continuing existence.[5] This process of domestication might have taken only 20 to 200 years with the end product a wheat easier for humans to harvest.[6]
Einkorn wheat is one of the earliest cultivated forms of wheat, alongside emmer wheat (T. dicoccum). Hunter gatherers in the Fertile Crescent may have started harvesting einkorn as early as 30,000 years ago, according to archaeological evidence from Syria.[7][8][9] Although gathered from the wild for thousands of years, einkorn wheat was first domesticated approximately 10,000 years BP in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) or B (PPNB) periods.[10] Evidence from DNA fingerprinting suggests einkorn was first domesticated near Karaca Dağ in southeast Turkey, an area in which a number of PPNB farming villages have been found.[11] One theory by Yuval Noah Harari suggests that the domestication of einkorn was linked to intensive agriculture to support the nearby Göbekli Tepe site.[12]
An important characteristic facilitating the domestication of einkorn and other annual grains is that the plants are largely self-pollinating. Thus, the desirable (for human management) traits of einkorn could be perpetuated at less risk of cross-fertilization with wild plants which might have traits – e.g. smaller seeds, shattering seed heads,[1] as less desirable for human management.[13]
From the northern part of the Fertile Crescent, the cultivation of einkorn wheat spread to the Caucasus, the Balkans, and central Europe. Einkorn wheat was more commonly grown in cooler climates than emmer wheat, the other domesticated wheat. Cultivation of einkorn in the Middle East began to decline in favor of emmer wheat around 2000 BC. Cultivation of einkorn was never extensive in Italy, southern France, and Spain. Einkorn continued to be cultivated in some areas of northern Europe throughout the Middle Ages and until the early part of the 20th century.[14]
Taxonomy edit
- Triticum boeoticum
- syn. Triticum monococcum subsp. boeoticum (wild)
- Triticum monococcum
- syn. T. monococcum subsp. monococcum (domesticated)
Einkorn vs. common modern wheat varieties edit
Einkorn wheat is low-yielding but can survive on poor, dry, marginal soils where other varieties of wheat will not. It is primarily eaten boiled in whole grains or in porridge.[14] As with other ancient varieties of wheat, Einkorn is grouped with "the covered wheats" as its kernels do not break free from its seed coat (glume) with threshing and it is, therefore, difficult to separate the husk from the seed.[15]
Current use edit
Einkorn is a common food in northern Provence (France).[16] It is also used for bulgur or as animal feed in mountainous areas of France, India, Italy, Morocco, the former Yugoslavia, Turkey, and other countries.[15]
Nutrition and gluten edit
Einkorn contains gluten and has a higher percentage of protein than modern red wheats and is considered more nutritious because it has higher levels of fat, phosphorus, potassium, pyridoxine, and beta-carotene.[15]
Genetics edit
Disease resistance edit
Einkorn is the source of many potential introgressions for immunity – Nikolai Vavilov called it an "accumulator of complex immunities."[17] T. monococcum is the source of Sr21, a stem rust resistance gene which has been introgressed into hexaploid worldwide.[18] It is also the source of Yr34, a resistance gene for yellow rust.[19]
Salt-tolerance gene edit
The salt-tolerance feature of T. monococcum has been bred into durum wheat.[20]
Images edit
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- Wild einkorn, Mount Karadağ
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- Associations of wild cereals and other wild grasses in northern Israel
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- T. monococcum, Japanese agricultural encyclopedia Seikei Zusetsu (1804)
References edit
- ^ a b c Brown, Terence; Jones, Martin; Powell, Wayne; Allaby, Robin (2009). "The complex origins of domesticated crops in the Fertile Crescent" (PDF). Trends in Ecology & Evolution (Review). Cell Press. 24 (2): 103–109. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2008.09.008. ISSN 0169-5347. PMID 19100651.
- ^ Le Brun, Alain (1992). "El poblamiento neolítico en la Isla de Chipre: el establecimiento de Khirokitia". Treballs d'Arqueologia (2): 51–67. ISSN 1134-9263. Centre national de la recherche scientifique (França).
- ^ Weiss, Ehud; Zohary, Daniel (October 2011). "The Neolithic Southwest Asian Founder Crops: Their Biology and Archaeobotany". Current Anthropology. 52 (S4): S239–S240. doi:10.1086/658367. S2CID 83924400 – via JSTOR.
- ^ . Science & Innovation. National Geographic. 2018-07-12. Archived from the original on July 13, 2018. Retrieved 2019-07-31.
- ^ Weiss and Zohary, p. S239-S242
- ^ Anderson, Patricia C. (1991). "Harvesting of Wild Cereals During the Natufian as seen from Experimental Cultivation and Harvest of Wild Einkorn Wheat and Microwear Analysis of Stone Tools". In Bar-Yosef, Ofer (ed.). Natufian Culture in the Levant. International Monographs in Prehistory. Ann Arbor, Michigan, US: Berghahn Books. p. 523.
- ^ Arranz-Otaegui, A., Carretero, L. G., Ramsey, M. N., Fuller, D. Q., & Richter, T. (2018). "Archaeobotanical evidence reveals the origins of bread 14,400 years ago in northeastern Jordan." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. doi:10.1073/pnas.1801071115
- ^ "Crops evolving ten millennia before experts thought". ScienceDaily. 23 October 2017. Retrieved 23 October 2017.
- ^ Allaby, Robin; Stevens, Chris; Lucas, Leilani; Maeda, Osamu; Fuller, Dorian (Oct 2017). "Geographic mosaics and changing rates of cereal domestication". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. The Royal Society. 372 (1735): 20160429. doi:10.1098/rstb.2016.0429. PMC 5665816. PMID 29061901.
- ^ Zohary, Daniel; Hopf, Maria; Weiss, Ehud (2012). Domestication of Plants in the Old World: The Origin and Spread of Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia, Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin (Fourth ed.). Oxford University Press (OUP). p. 38. ISBN 9780199549061.
- ^ Heun, M.; Schäfer-Pregl, R.; Klawan, D.; Castagna, R.; Accerbi, M.; Borghi, B.; Salamini, F. (1997). "Site of Einkorn Wheat Domestication Identified by DNA Fingerprinting". Science. 278 (5341): 1312–1314. Bibcode:1997Sci...278.1312H. doi:10.1126/science.278.5341.1312.
- ^ Harari, Yuval N.; Watzman, Haim (10 February 2015). Sapiens : a brief history of humankind. Translated by Purcell, John (First U.S. ed.). New York: Harper. ISBN 978-0-06-231609-7. OCLC 896791508.
- ^ Bellwood, Peter (2005). First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. p. 46-49.
- ^ a b Hopf, M.; Zohary, Daniel (2000). Domestication of Plants in the Old World: The Origin and Spread of Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe, and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford, Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. pp. 33–43. ISBN 0-19-850356-3.
- ^ a b c Stallknecht, G. F., Gilbertson, K. M., and Ranney, J.E. (1996), "Alternative Wheat Cereals as Food Grains: Einkorn, Emmer, Spelt, Kamut, and Triticale" in J. Janick, ed., Progress in New Crops, Alexandria, VA: ASHA Press, pp. 156-170
- ^ Payany, E (2011). Le Petit Épeautre. LaPlage. ISBN 978-2-84221-283-4.
- ^ Zaharieva, Maria; Monneveux, Philippe (2014). "Cultivated einkorn wheat (Triticum monococcum L. subsp. monococcum): the long life of a founder crop of agriculture". Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. Springer Science and Business Media LLC. 61 (3): 677–706. doi:10.1007/s10722-014-0084-7. eISSN 1573-5109. ISSN 0925-9864. S2CID 16551824.
- ^ Roelfs, Alan P.; Singh, R. P.; Saari, E. E. (1992). Rust diseases of wheat : concepts and methods of disease management. Mexico, D.F: CIMMYT (International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center). p. 81. ISBN 968-6127-47-X. OCLC 26827677.
- ^ Baranwal, Deepak (2022). "Genetic and genomic approaches for breeding rust resistance in wheat". Euphytica. 218 (11). doi:10.1007/s10681-022-03111-y. S2CID 252973250.
- ^ "World Breakthrough On Salt-Tolerant Wheat". ScienceDaily. March 11, 2012.