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Electric car

An electric car, battery electric car, or all-electric car is an automobile that is propelled by one or more electric motors, using only energy stored in batteries. Compared to internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, electric cars are quieter, have no exhaust emissions, and lower emissions overall.[1] In the United States and the European Union, as of 2020, the total cost of ownership of recent electric vehicles is cheaper than that of equivalent ICE cars, due to lower fueling and maintenance costs.[2][3] Charging an electric car can be done at a variety of charging stations; these charging stations can be installed in both houses and public areas.[4]

Worldwide, 6.6 million plug-in electric cars were sold in 2021, more than doubling 2020 sales, and achieving a market share of 9% of the global new car market.[5] All-electric cars represented 71% of plug-in car sales in 2021.[6] As of December 2021, 16 million plug-in electric cars were on the world's roads.[5] Many countries have established government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles, tax credits, subsidies, and other non-monetary incentives while several countries have legislated to phase-out sales of fossil fuel cars,[7][8] to reduce air pollution and limit climate change.[9]

The Tesla Model 3 became the world's all-time best-selling electric car in early 2020,[10] and in June 2021 became the first electric car to pass 1 million global sales.[11] Together with other emerging automotive technologies such as autonomous driving, connected vehicles and shared mobility, electric cars form a future mobility vision called Autonomous, Connected, Electric and Shared (ACES) Mobility.[12]

Terminology

The term "electric car" typically refers specifically to battery electric vehicles (BEVs) or all-electric cars, a type of electric vehicle (EV) that has an onboard rechargeable battery pack that can be plugged in and charged from the electric grid, and the electricity stored on the vehicle is the only energy source that provide propulsion for the wheels. The term generally refers to highway-capable automobiles, but there are also low-speed electric vehicles with limitations in terms of weight, power and maximum speed that are allowed to travel on public roads. The latter are classified as Neighborhood Electric Vehicles (NEVs) in the United States,[13] and as electric motorised quadricycles in Europe.[14]

History

Early developments

Robert Anderson is often credited with inventing the first electric car some time between 1832 and 1839.[15]

The following experimental electric cars appeared during the 1880s:

Electricity was among the preferred methods for automobile propulsion in the late-19th and early-20th centuries, providing a level of comfort and an ease of operation that could not be achieved by the gasoline-driven cars of the time.[23] The electric vehicle fleet peaked at approximately 30,000 vehicles at the turn of the 20th century.[24]

In 1897, electric cars first found commercial use as taxis in Britain and in the United States. In London, Walter Bersey's electric cabs were the first self-propelled vehicles for hire at a time when cabs were horse-drawn.[25] In New York City, a fleet of twelve hansom cabs and one brougham, based on the design of the Electrobat II, formed part of a project funded in part by the Electric Storage Battery Company of Philadelphia.[26] During the 20th century, the main manufacturers of electric vehicles in the United States included Anthony Electric, Baker, Columbia, Anderson, Edison, Riker, Milburn, Bailey Electric, and Detroit Electric. Their electric vehicles were quieter than gasoline-powered ones, and did not require gear changes.[27][28]

Six electric cars held the land speed record in the 19th century.[29] The last of them was the rocket-shaped La Jamais Contente, driven by Camille Jenatzy, which broke the 100 km/h (62 mph) speed barrier by reaching a top speed of 105.88 km/h (65.79 mph) in 1899.

Electric cars remained popular until advances in internal-combustion engine (ICE) cars and mass production of cheaper gasoline- and diesel-powered vehicles led to a decline. ICE cars' much quicker refueling times and cheaper production-costs made them more popular. However, a decisive moment came with the introduction in 1912 of the electric starter motor[30] that replaced other, often laborious, methods of starting the ICE, such as hand-cranking.

Modern electric cars

In the early 1990s the California Air Resources Board (CARB) began a push for more fuel-efficient, lower-emissions vehicles, with the ultimate goal of a move to zero-emissions vehicles such as electric vehicles.[32][33] In response, automakers developed electric models. These early cars were eventually withdrawn from the U.S. market, because of a massive campaign by the US automakers to discredit the idea of electric cars.[34]

California electric-auto maker Tesla Motors began development in 2004 of what would become the Tesla Roadster, first delivered to customers in 2008. The Roadster was the first highway-legal all-electric car to use lithium-ion battery cells, and the first production all-electric car to travel more than 320 km (200 miles) per charge.[35]

Better Place, a venture-backed company based in Palo Alto, California, but steered from Israel, developed and sold battery charging and battery swapping services for electric cars. The company was publicly launched on 29 October 2007 and announced deployment of electric vehicle networks in Israel, Denmark and Hawaii in 2008 and 2009. The company planned to deploy the infrastructure on a country-by-country basis. In January 2008, Better Place announced a memorandum of understanding with Renault-Nissan to build the world's first Electric Recharge Grid Operator (ERGO) model for Israel. Under the agreement, Better Place would build the electric recharge grid and Renault-Nissan would provide the electric vehicles. Better Place filed for bankruptcy in Israel in May 2013. The company's financial difficulties were caused by mismanagement, wasteful efforts to establish toeholds and run pilots in too many countries, the high investment required to develop the charging and swapping infrastructure, and a market penetration far lower than originally predicted.[36]

The Mitsubishi i-MiEV, launched in 2009 in Japan, was the first highway-legal series production electric car,[37] and also the first all-electric car to sell more than 10,000 units. Several months later, the Nissan Leaf, launched in 2010, surpassed the i MiEV as the best selling all-electric car at that time.[38]

Starting in 2008, a renaissance in electric vehicle manufacturing occurred due to advances in batteries, and the desire to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions and to improve urban air quality.[39] During the 2010s, the electric vehicle industry in China expanded greatly with government support.[40] The subsidies introduced by the Chinese government will however be cut by 20 to 30% and phased out completely before 2023. Several automakers marked up the prices of their electric vehicles in anticipation of the subsidy adjustment, including Tesla, Volkswagen and Guangzhou-based GAC Group, which counts Fiat, Honda, Isuzu, Mitsubishi, and Toyota as foreign partners.[41]

In July 2019 US-based Motor Trend magazine awarded the fully-electric Tesla Model S the title "ultimate car of the year".[42] In March 2020 the Tesla Model 3 passed the Nissan Leaf to become the world's all-time best-selling electric car, with more than 500,000 units delivered;[10] it reached the milestone of 1 million global sales in June 2021.[11]

In the third quarter of 2021, the Alliance for Automotive Innovation reported that sales of electric vehicles had reached six percent of all US light-duty automotive sales, the highest volume of EV sales ever recorded at 187,000 vehicles. This was an 11% sales increase, as opposed to a 1.3% increase in gasoline and diesel-powered units. The report indicated that California was the US leader in EV with nearly 40% of US purchases, followed by Florida – 6%, Texas – 5% and New York 4.4%.[43]

Electric companies from the Middle East have been designing electric cars. Oman's Mays Motors have developed the Mays i E1 which is expected to begin production in 2023. Built from carbon fibre, it has a range of about 560 km (350 miles) and can accelerate from 0–130 km/h (0–80 mph) in about 4 secs.[44] In Turkey, the EV company Togg is starting production of its electric vehicles. Batteries will be created in a joint venture with the Chinese company Farasis Energy.[45]

Economics

Manufacturing cost

The most expensive part of an electric car is its battery. The price decreased from €605 per kWh in 2010, to €170 in 2017, to €100 in 2019.[46][47] When designing an electric vehicle, manufacturers may find that for low production, converting existing platforms may be cheaper, as development cost is lower; however, for higher production, a dedicated platform may be preferred to optimize design, and cost.[48]

Total cost of ownership

In the EU and US, but not yet China, the total cost of ownership of recent electric cars is cheaper than that of equivalent gasoline cars, due to lower fueling and maintenance costs.[2][3][49]

The greater the distance driven per year, the more likely the total cost of ownership for an electric car will be less than for an equivalent ICE car.[50] The break even distance varies by country depending on the taxes, subsidies, and different costs of energy. In some countries the comparison may vary by city, as a type of car may have different charges to enter different cities; for example, in England, London charges ICE cars more than Birmingham does.[51]

Purchase cost

Several national and local governments have established EV incentives to reduce the purchase price of electric cars and other plug-ins.[52][53][54][55]

As of 2020, the electric vehicle battery is more than a quarter of the total cost of the car.[56] Purchase prices are expected to drop below those of new ICE cars when battery costs fall below US$100 per kWh, which is forecast to be in the mid-2020s.[57][58]

Leasing or subscriptions are popular in some countries,[59][60] depending somewhat on national taxes and subsidies,[61] and end of lease cars are expanding the second hand market.[62]

In a June 2022 report by AlixPartners, the cost for raw materials on an average EV rose from $3,381 in March 2020 to $8,255 in May 2022. The cost increase voice is attributed mainly to lithium, nickel, and cobalt.[63]

Running costs

Electricity almost always costs less than gasoline per kilometer travelled, but the price of electricity often varies depending on where and what time of day the car is charged.[64][65] Cost savings are also affected by the price of gasoline which can vary by location.[66]

Environmental aspects

 
The Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia is one of the largest known lithium reserves in the world.[67][68]

Electric cars have several benefits when replacing ICE cars, including a significant reduction of local air pollution, as they do not emit exhaust pollutants such as volatile organic compounds, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, ozone, lead, and various oxides of nitrogen.[69] Similar to ICE vehicles, electric cars emit particulates from tyre and brake wear[70] which may damage health,[71] although regenerative braking in electric cars means less brake dust.[72] More research is needed on non-exhaust particulates.[73] The sourcing of fossil fuels (oil well to gasoline tank) causes further damage as well as use of resources during the extraction and refinement processes.

Depending on the production process and the source of the electricity to charge the vehicle, emissions may be partly shifted from cities to the plants that generate electricity and produce the car as well as to the transportation of material.[32] The amount of carbon dioxide emitted depends on the emissions of the electricity source and the efficiency of the vehicle. For electricity from the grid, the life-cycle emissions vary depending on the proportion of coal-fired power, but are always less than ICE cars.[74]

The cost of installing charging infrastructure has been estimated to be repaid by health cost savings in less than three years.[75] According to a 2020 study, balancing lithium supply and demand for the rest of the century will require good recycling systems, vehicle-to-grid integration, and lower lithium intensity of transportation.[76]

Some activists and journalists have raised concerns over the perceived lack of impact of electric cars in solving the climate change crisis[77] compared to other, less popularized methods.[78] These concerns have largely centered around the existence of less carbon-intensive and more efficient forms of transportation such as active mobility,[79] mass transit and e-scooters and the continuation of a system designed for cars first.[80]

Public opinion

A 2022 survey found that 33% of car buyers in Europe will opt for a petrol or diesel car when purchasing a new vehicle. 67% of the respondents mentioned opting for the hybrid or electric version.[81][82] More specifically, it found that electric cars are only preferred by 28% of Europeans, making them the least preferred type of vehicle. 39% of Europeans tend to prefer hybrid vehicles, while 33% prefer petrol or diesel vehicles.[83][84]

44% Chinese car buyers, on the other hand, are the most likely to buy an electric car, while 38% of Americans would opt for a hybrid car, 33% would prefer petrol or diesel, while only 29% would go for an electric car.[83][85]

Specifically for the EU, 47% of car buyers over 65 years old are likely to purchase a hybrid vehicle, while 31% of younger respondents do not consider hybrid vehicles a good option. 35% would rather opt for a petrol or diesel vehicle, and 24% for an electric car instead of a hybrid.[83][86]

In the EU, only 13% of the total population do not plan on owning a vehicle at all.[83]

Performance

Acceleration and drivetrain design

 
Typical "skateboard" layout with the battery as floor and a motor at one or both axles

Electric motors can provide high power-to-weight ratios. Batteries can be designed to supply the electrical current needed to support these motors. Electric motors have a flat torque curve down to zero speed. For simplicity and reliability, most electric cars use fixed-ratio gearboxes and have no clutch.

Many electric cars have faster acceleration than average ICE cars, largely due to reduced drivetrain frictional losses and the more quickly-available torque of an electric motor.[87] However, NEVs may have a low acceleration due to their relatively weak motors.

Electric vehicles can also use a motor in each wheel hub or next to the wheels, this is rare but claimed to be safer.[88] Electric vehicles that lack an axle, differential, or transmission can have less drivetrain inertia. Some direct current motor-equipped drag racer EVs have simple two-speed manual transmissions to improve top speed.[89] The concept electric supercar Rimac Concept One claims it can go from 0–97 km/h (0–60 mph) in 2.5 seconds. Tesla claims the upcoming Tesla Roadster will go 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) in 1.9 seconds.[90]

Energy efficiency

 
Energy efficiency of electric cars in towns and on motorways according to the DoE

Internal combustion engines have thermodynamic limits on efficiency, expressed as a fraction of energy used to propel the vehicle compared to energy produced by burning fuel. Gasoline engines effectively use only 15% of the fuel energy content to move the vehicle or to power accessories; diesel engines can reach on-board efficiency of 20%; electric vehicles have efficiencies of 69–72%, when counted against stored chemical energy, or around 59–62%, when counted against required energy to recharge.[91][92]

Electric motors are more efficient than internal combustion engines in converting stored energy into driving a vehicle. However, they are not equally efficient at all speeds. To allow for this, some cars with dual electric motors have one electric motor with a gear optimised for city speeds and the second electric motor with a gear optimised for highway speeds. The electronics select the motor that has the best efficiency for the current speed and acceleration.[93] Regenerative braking, which is most common in electric vehicles, can recover as much as one fifth of the energy normally lost during braking.[32][91]

Cabin heating and cooling

While heating can be provided with an electric resistance heater, higher efficiency and integral cooling can be obtained with a reversible heat pump, such as on the Nissan Leaf.[94] PTC junction cooling[95] is also attractive for its simplicity—this kind of system is used, for example, in the 2008 Tesla Roadster.

To avoid using part of the battery's energy for heating and thus reducing the range, some models allow the cabin to be heated while the car is plugged in. For example, the Nissan Leaf, the Mitsubishi i-MiEV, Renault Zoe and Tesla cars can be pre-heated while the vehicle is plugged in.[96][97][98]

Some electric cars (for example, the Citroën Berlingo Electrique) use an auxiliary heating system (for example gasoline-fueled units manufactured by Webasto or Eberspächer) but sacrifice "green" and "Zero emissions" credentials. Cabin cooling can be augmented with solar power external batteries and USB fans or coolers, or by automatically allowing outside air to flow through the car when parked; two models of the 2010 Toyota Prius include this feature as an option.[99]

Safety

 
Side impact test of a Tesla Model X

The safety issues of BEVs are largely dealt with by the international standard ISO 6469. This document is divided into three parts dealing with specific issues:

  • On-board electrical energy storage, i.e. the battery[100]
  • Functional safety means and protection against failures[101]
  • Protection of persons against electrical hazards[102]

Heaviness

The weight of the batteries themselves usually makes an EV heavier than a comparable gasoline vehicle. In a collision, the occupants of a heavy vehicle will, on average, suffer fewer and less serious injuries than the occupants of a lighter vehicle; therefore, the additional weight brings safety benefits (to the occupant).[103] On average, an accident will cause about 50% more injuries to the occupants of a 2,000 lb (900 kg) vehicle than those in a 3,000 lb (1,400 kg) vehicle.[104] Heavier cars are more dangerous to people outside the car if they hit a pedestrian or another vehicle.[105]

Stability

The battery in skateboard configuration lowers the center of gravity, increasing driving stability, lowering the risk of an accident through loss of control.[106] If there is a separate motor near or in each wheel, this is claimed to be safer due to better handling.[107]

Risk of fire

Like their ICE counterparts, electric vehicle batteries can catch fire after a crash or mechanical failure.[108] Plug-in electric vehicle fire incidents have occurred, albeit fewer per distance traveled than ICE vehicles.[109] Some cars' high-voltage systems are designed to shut down automatically in the event of an airbag deployment,[110][111] and in case of failure firefighters may be trained for manual high-voltage system shutdown.[112][113] Much more water may be required than for ICE car fires and a thermal imaging camera is recommended to warn of possible re-ignition of battery fires.[114][115]

Controls

As of 2018, most electric cars have similar driving controls to that of a car with a conventional automatic transmission. Even though the motor may be permanently connected to the wheels through a fixed-ratio gear, and no parking pawl may be present, the modes "P" and "N" are often still provided on the selector. In this case, the motor is disabled in "N" and an electrically actuated hand brake provides the "P" mode.

In some cars, the motor will spin slowly to provide a small amount of creep in "D", similar to a traditional automatic transmission car.[116]

When an internal combustion vehicle's accelerator is released, it may slow by engine braking, depending on the type of transmission and mode. EVs are usually equipped with regenerative braking that slows the vehicle and recharges the battery somewhat.[117] Regenerative braking systems also decrease the use of the conventional brakes (similar to engine braking in an ICE vehicle), reducing brake wear and maintenance costs.

Batteries

 
Prototypes of 75 watt-hour/kilogram lithium-ion polymer batteries. Newer lithium-ion cells can provide up to 280 W·h/kg and last through thousands of charging cycles.

Lithium-ion-based batteries are often used for their high power and energy density.[118] Batteries with different chemical compositions are becoming more widely used, such as lithium iron phosphate which is not dependant on nickel and cobalt so can be used to make cheaper batteries and thus cheaper cars.[119]

Range

The range of an electric car depends on the number and type of batteries used, and (as with all vehicles), the aerodynamics, weight and type of vehicle, performance requirements, and the weather.[120] Cars marketed for mainly city use are often manufactured with a short range battery to keep them small and light.[121]

Most electric cars are fitted with a display of the expected range. This may take into account how the vehicle is being used and what the battery is powering. However, since factors can vary over the route, the estimate can vary from the actual range. The display allows the driver to make informed choices about driving speed and whether to stop at a charging point en route. Some roadside assistance organizations offer charge trucks to recharge electric cars in case of emergency.[122]

Charging

 
BYD e6 is able to recharge to 80% in 15 minutes.

Connectors

Most electric cars use a wired connection to supply electricity for recharging. Electric vehicle charging plugs are not universal throughout the world. However vehicles using one type of plug are generally able to charge at other types of charging stations through the use of plug adapters.[124]

The Type 2 connector is the most common type of plug, but different versions are used in China and Europe.[125][126]

The Type 1 (also called SAE J1772) connector is common in North America[127][128] but rare elsewhere, as it does not support three-phase charging.[129]

Wireless charging, either for stationary cars or as an electric road,[130] is less common as of 2021, but is used in some cities for taxis.[131][132]

Home charging

Electric cars are usually charged overnight from a home charging station; sometimes known as a charging point, wallbox charger, or simply a charger; in a garage or on the outside of a house.[133][134] As of 2021 typical home chargers are 7 kW, but not all include smart charging.[133] Compared to fossil fuel vehicles, the need for charging using public infrastructure is diminished because of the opportunities for home charging; vehicles can be plugged in and begin each day with a full charge.[135] Charging from a standard outlet is also possible but very slow.

Public charging

 
Charging station at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. This station is run by Petrobras and uses solar energy.

Public charging stations are almost always faster than home chargers,[136] with many supplying direct current to avoid the bottleneck of going through the car's AC to DC converter,[137] as of 2021 the fastest being 350 kW.[138]

Combined Charging System (CCS) is the most widespread charging standard,[126] whereas the GB/T 27930 standard is used in China, and CHAdeMO in Japan. The United States has no de facto standard, with a mix of CCS, Tesla Superchargers, and CHAdeMO charging stations.

Charging an electric vehicle using public charging stations takes longer than refueling a fossil fuel vehicle. The speed at which a vehicle can recharge depends on the charging station's charging speed and the vehicle's own capacity to receive a charge. As of 2021 some cars are 400 volt and some 800 volt.[139] Connecting a vehicle that can accommodate very fast charging to a charging station with a very high rate of charge can refill the vehicle's battery to 80% in 15 minutes.[140] Vehicles and charging stations with slower charging speeds may take as long as two hours to refill a battery to 80%. As with a mobile phone, the final 20% takes longer because the systems slow down to fill the battery safely and avoid damaging it.

Some companies are building battery swapping stations, to substantially reduce the effective time to recharge.[141][142] Some electric cars (for example, the BMW i3) have an optional gasoline range extender. The system is intended as an emergency backup to extend range to the next recharging location, and not for long-distance travel.[143]

Electric roads

Electric road technologies which power and charge electric vehicles while driving were assessed in Sweden from 2013.[144]: 12  The assessment was scheduled to conclude in 2022.[145] The first standard for electrical equipment on-board a vehicle powered by a rail electric road system (ERS), CENELEC Technical Standard 50717, has been approved in late 2022.[146] Following standards, encompassing "full interoperability" and a "unified and interoperable solution" for ground-level power supply, are scheduled to be published by the end 2024, detailing complete "specifications for communication and power supply through conductive rails embedded in the road".[147][148] The first permanent electric road in Sweden is planned to be completed by 2026[149] on a section of the E20 route between Hallsberg and Örebro, followed by an expansion of further 3000 kilometers of electric roads by 2045.[150] A working group of the French Ministry of Ecology considers ground-level power supply technologies the most likely candidate for electric roads,[151] and recommended adopting a European electric road standard formulated with Sweden, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Poland, and others.[152] France plans to invest 30 to 40 billion euro by 2035 in an electric road system spanning 8,800 kilometers that recharges electric cars, buses and trucks while driving. Two tenders for assessment of electric road technologies are expected to be announced by 2023. [151]

Vehicle-to-grid: uploading and grid buffering

During peak load periods, when the cost of generation can be very high, electric vehicles with vehicle-to-grid capabilities could contribute energy to the grid. These vehicles can then be recharged during off-peak hours at cheaper rates while helping to absorb excess night time generation. The batteries in the vehicles serve as a distributed storage system to buffer power.[153]

Lifespan

As with all lithium-ion batteries, electric vehicle batteries may degrade over long periods of time, especially if they are frequently charged to 100%; however, this may take at least several years before being noticeable.[154] A typical warranty is 8 years or 100,000 mi (160,000 km),[155] but they usually last much longer, perhaps 15 to 20 years in the car and then more years in another use.[156]

Currently available electric cars

Highway capable

Tesla became the world's leading electric vehicle manufacturer in December 2019.[157][158] Its Model S was the world's top selling plug-in electric car in 2015 and 2016,[159][160] and its Model 3 has been the world's best selling plug-in electric car for four consecutive years, from 2018 to 2021.[6][161][162][163] The Tesla Model 3 surpassed the Leaf in early 2020 to become the world's cumulative best selling electric car.[10] Tesla produced its 1 millionth electric car in March 2020, becoming the first auto manufacturer to do so,[164] and in June 2021, the Model 3 became the first electric car to pass 1 million sales.[11] Tesla has been listed as the world's top selling plug-in electric car manufacturer, both as a brand and by automotive group for four years running, from 2018 to 2021.[6][165][166][167][161] At the end of 2021, Tesla's global cumulative sales since 2012 totaled 2.3 million units,[168] with 936,222 of those delivered in 2021.[169]

As of December 2021, the Renault–Nissan–Mitsubishi Alliance is listed as one of the world's leading all-electric vehicle manufacturers, with global all-electric vehicle sales totaling over 1 million light-duty electric vehicles, including those manufactured by Mitsubishi Motors since 2009.[170][171] Nissan leads global sales within the Alliance, with about 500,000 cars and vans sold by April 2020,[172] followed by the Groupe Renault with more than 397,000 electric vehicles sold worldwide through December 2020, including its Twizy heavy quadricycle.[173] Mitsubishi's only all-electric vehicle is the i-MiEV, with global sales of over 50,000 units by March 2015, accounting for all variants of the i-MiEV, including the two minicab versions sold in Japan.[174] The Alliance's best-selling Nissan Leaf was the world's top-selling plug-in electric car in 2013 and 2014.[159] Until early 2020, the Nissan Leaf was the world's all-time top-selling highway-legal electric car,[10] and, as of October 2021, global sales totaled 550,000 units since inception.[175]

Other leading electric vehicles manufacturers are BAIC Motor, with 480,000 units sold, SAIC Motor with 314,000 units, and Geely with 228,700, all cumulative sales in China as of December 2019,[176] and Volkswagen.[177]

The following table lists the all-time best-selling highway-capable all-electric cars with cumulative global sales of over 200,000 units:

All-time top selling highway-capable(1) all-electric passenger cars
Company Model Market launch Image Annual global sales Total global sales Total sales through Ref
  Tesla, Inc. Tesla Model 3 2017-07   500,713 (2021) ~1.3 million 2021-12 [6][178]
  Nissan Nissan Leaf 2010-12   64,201 (2021) 564,201 2021-12 [6][179]
SAIC-GM-Wuling Wuling Hongguang Mini EV 2020-07   424,138 (2021) 551,789(2) 2021-12 [6][180]
  Tesla, Inc. Tesla Model Y 2020-03   410,517 (2021) ~490,000 2021-12 [6][181]
  Renault Renault Zoe 2012-12   77,529 (2021) 362,329 2021-12 [173][182]
  Tesla, Inc. Tesla Model S 2012-06   ~10,900 (3Q 2021) ~319,600 2021-09 [183][184]
Volkswagen Volkswagen ID.4 2020-09
 
174,092 (2022) 295,723 2022-12 [185][186]
Chery Chery eQ 2014-11   68,821 (2021) ~243,000 2021-12 [6][187][188]
GAC Group Aion S 2019-09
 
115,663 (2022) 232,481 2022-12 [189][190][191]
  BMW BMW i3 2013-11   28,216 (2021) ~220,000(3) 2021-12 [192][193]
BAIC BAIC EU-Series 2016-01   19,794 (2021) 218,228(2) 2021-12 [194]
BAIC BAIC EC-Series 2016-12   454 (2021) 206,079(2) 2021-12 [195]
BYD BYD dolphin 2021-08 180,461 (2022) 210,059 2022-12 [196][197]
BYD BYD Yuan Plus/Atto 3 2022-01
 
201,744 (2022) 201,744 2022-12 [198]
Notes:
(1) Vehicles are considered highway-capable if able to achieve at least a top speed of 100 km/h (62 mph).
(2) Sales in mainland China only.
(3) BMW i3 sales includes the REx variant (split is not available).
(4) BYD Yuan plus called Atto 3 in markets outside of china.

Electric cars by country

In the year of 2021, the total number of electric cars on the world’s roads went to about 16.5 million. The sales of electric cars in the first quarter of 2022 went up to 2 million. [199] China has the largest all-electric car fleet in use, with 2.58 million at the end of 2019, more than half (53.9%) of the world’s electric car stock.

All-electric cars have oversold plug-in hybrids since 2012.[200][162][163]

 
Annual sales of plug-in electric passenger cars in the world's top markets between 2011 and 2021[201][202][203][204][205][206][207][208]
 
Evolution of the ratio between global sales of BEVs and PHEVs between 2011 and 2021[200][162][163][209]

Government policies and incentives

 
A dedicated electric car free charging and parking lot in Oslo
 
Four out of ten Europeans interviewed for the European Investment Bank climate survey thought subsidies for electric cars should be a priority to fight climate change.

Several national, provincial, and local governments around the world have introduced policies to support the mass-market adoption of plug-in electric vehicles. A variety of policies have been established to provide: financial support to consumers and manufacturers; non-monetary incentives; subsidies for the deployment of charging infrastructure; and long-term regulations with specific targets.[201][210]

Timeline of national targets
for full ICE phase out or
100% ZEV car sales[201][211]
Selected countries Year
Norway (100% ZEV sales) 2025
Denmark 2030
Iceland
Ireland
Netherlands (100% ZEV sales)
Sweden
United Kingdom (100% ZEV sales) 2035
France 2040
Canada (100% ZEV sales)
Singapore
Germany (100% ZEV sales) 2050
U.S. (10 ZEV states)
Japan (100% HEV/PHEV/ZEV sales)

Financial incentives for consumers are aiming to make electric car purchase price competitive with conventional cars due to the higher upfront cost of electric vehicles. Depending on battery size, there are one-time purchase incentives such as grants and tax credits; exemptions from import duties; exemptions from road tolls and congestion charges; and exemption of registration and annual fees.

 
All-electric car on a bus lane in Oslo

Among the non-monetary incentives, there are several perks such allowing plug-in vehicles access to bus lanes and high-occupancy vehicle lanes, free parking and free charging.[210] Some countries or cities that restrict private car ownership (for example, a purchase quota system for new vehicles), or have implemented permanent driving restrictions (for example, no-drive days), have these schemes exclude electric vehicles to promote their adoption.[212][213][214][215][216][217]

Some government have also established long term regulatory signals with specific targets such as zero-emissions vehicle (ZEV) mandates, national or regional CO2 emission regulations, stringent fuel economy standards, and the phase out of internal combustion engine vehicle sales.[201][210] For example, Norway set a national goal that by 2025 all new car sales should be ZEVs (battery electric or hydrogen).[218][219] While these incentives aim to facilitate a quicker transition from internal combustion cars, they have been criticized by some economists for

 
In a 2022 climate survey, European and American car buyers state that would opt for hybrid or petrol or diesel cars, while Chinese respondents favour fully electric cars.[220]

creating excess deadweight loss in the electric car market, which may partially counteract environmental gains.[221][222][223]

EV plans from major manufacturers

As of Manufacturer Investment Investment
Timeframe
# EVs Year
Goal
Notes
2020-11 Volkswagen $86 billion 2025 27 2022 Plans 27 electric vehicles by 2022, on a dedicated EV platform dubbed "Modular Electric Toolkit" and initialed as MEB.[224] In November 2020 it announced the intention to invest $86 billion in the following five years, aimed at developing EVs and increasing its share in the EV market. Total capital expenditure will include "digital factories", automotive software and self-driving cars.[225]
2020-11 GM $27 billion 30 2035

[226]

Announced that it’s boosting its EV and self-driving investment from $20 billion to $27 billion, and it currently plans to have 30 EVs on the market by the end of 2025 (including: the Hummer EV; the Cadillac Lyriq SUV; Buick, GMC, and Chevrolet EVs; and a Chevy compact crossover EV).[227] CEO Barra said 40% of the vehicles GM will offer in the United States will be battery electric vehicles by the end of 2025.[228] GM's "BEV3" next-generation electric vehicle platform is designed to be flexible for use in many different vehicle types, such as front, rear and all-wheel drive configurations.[229]
2019-01 Mercedes $23 billion 2030 10 2022 Plans to increase their electric car manufacturing to 50% in global sales by 2030. Additionally, relying on the Nissan Leaf, for many of their processing needs .[230]
2019-07 Ford $29 billion

[231]

2025 Will use Volkswagen's Modular Electric Toolkit ("MEB") to design and build its own fully electric vehicles starting in 2023.[232] The Ford Mustang Mach-E is an electric crossover that will reach up to 480 km (300 miles).[233] Ford is planning to release an electric F-150 in the 2021 time frame.[234][235]
2019-03 BMW 12 2025 Plans 12 all electric vehicles by 2025, using a fifth-generation electric powertrain architecture, which will save weight and cost and increase capacity.[236] BMW has ordered €10 billion worth of battery cells for the period from 2021 through 2030.[237][238][239]
2020-01 Hyundai 23 2025 Announced that it plans 23 pure electric cars by 2025.[240] Hyundai will announce its next generation electric vehicle platform, named e-GMP, in 2021.[241]
2019-06 Toyota Has developed a global EV platform named e-TNGA that can accommodate a three-row SUV, sporty sedan, small crossover or a boxy compact.[242] Toyota and Subaru will release a new EV on a shared platform;[243] it will be about the size of a Toyota RAV4 or a Subaru Forester.
2019-04 29 automakers $300 billion 2029 A Reuters analysis of 29 global automakers concluded that automakers are planning on spending $300 billion over the next 5 to 10 years on electric cars, with 45% of that investment projected to occur in China.[244]
2020-10 Fiat Launched its new electric version of the New 500 for sale in Europe starting in early 2021.[245][246]
2020-11 Nissan Announced the intention to sell only electric and hybrid cars in China from 2025, introducing nine new models. Nissan other plans includes manufacturing, by 2035, half zero-emission vehicles and half gasoline-electric hybrid vehicles.[247] In 2018 Infiniti, the luxury brand of Nissan, announced that by 2021 all newly introduced vehicles will be electric or hybrid.[248]
2020-12 Audi €35 billion 2021–2025 20 2025 30 new electrified models by 2025, of which 20 PEV.[249] By 2030–2035, Audi intends to offer just electric vehicles.[250]

Forecasts

Total global EV sales in 2030 were predicted to reach 31.1 million by Deloitte.[251] The International Energy Agency predicted that the total global stock of EVs would reach almost 145 million by 2030 under current policies, or 230 million if Sustainable Development policies were adopted.[252]

See also

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External links

  •   Media related to Electrically powered automobiles at Wikimedia Commons
  • How an electric car works
  • Wikiversity:Can electric cars significantly help humanity get off fossil fuels?
  • Electric cars range in 2022: table with 100 different models

electric, electric, battery, electric, electric, automobile, that, propelled, more, electric, motors, using, only, energy, stored, batteries, compared, internal, combustion, engine, vehicles, electric, cars, quieter, have, exhaust, emissions, lower, emissions,. An electric car battery electric car or all electric car is an automobile that is propelled by one or more electric motors using only energy stored in batteries Compared to internal combustion engine ICE vehicles electric cars are quieter have no exhaust emissions and lower emissions overall 1 In the United States and the European Union as of 2020 the total cost of ownership of recent electric vehicles is cheaper than that of equivalent ICE cars due to lower fueling and maintenance costs 2 3 Charging an electric car can be done at a variety of charging stations these charging stations can be installed in both houses and public areas 4 Modern all electric carsNissan LeafRenault ZoeBMW i3Tesla Model 3Jaguar I Pace Worldwide 6 6 million plug in electric cars were sold in 2021 more than doubling 2020 sales and achieving a market share of 9 of the global new car market 5 All electric cars represented 71 of plug in car sales in 2021 6 As of December 2021 update 16 million plug in electric cars were on the world s roads 5 Many countries have established government incentives for plug in electric vehicles tax credits subsidies and other non monetary incentives while several countries have legislated to phase out sales of fossil fuel cars 7 8 to reduce air pollution and limit climate change 9 The Tesla Model 3 became the world s all time best selling electric car in early 2020 10 and in June 2021 became the first electric car to pass 1 million global sales 11 Together with other emerging automotive technologies such as autonomous driving connected vehicles and shared mobility electric cars form a future mobility vision called Autonomous Connected Electric and Shared ACES Mobility 12 Contents 1 Terminology 2 History 2 1 Early developments 2 2 Modern electric cars 3 Economics 3 1 Manufacturing cost 3 2 Total cost of ownership 3 2 1 Purchase cost 3 2 2 Running costs 4 Environmental aspects 4 1 Public opinion 5 Performance 5 1 Acceleration and drivetrain design 6 Energy efficiency 6 1 Cabin heating and cooling 7 Safety 7 1 Heaviness 7 2 Stability 7 3 Risk of fire 8 Controls 9 Batteries 9 1 Range 9 2 Charging 9 2 1 Connectors 9 2 2 Home charging 9 2 3 Public charging 9 2 3 1 Electric roads 9 2 4 Vehicle to grid uploading and grid buffering 9 3 Lifespan 10 Currently available electric cars 10 1 Highway capable 10 2 Electric cars by country 11 Government policies and incentives 12 EV plans from major manufacturers 13 Forecasts 14 See also 15 References 16 External linksTerminology EditSee also Vehicle classification by propulsion system Plug in electric vehicle Terminology and Battery electric vehicle The term electric car typically refers specifically to battery electric vehicles BEVs or all electric cars a type of electric vehicle EV that has an onboard rechargeable battery pack that can be plugged in and charged from the electric grid and the electricity stored on the vehicle is the only energy source that provide propulsion for the wheels The term generally refers to highway capable automobiles but there are also low speed electric vehicles with limitations in terms of weight power and maximum speed that are allowed to travel on public roads The latter are classified as Neighborhood Electric Vehicles NEVs in the United States 13 and as electric motorised quadricycles in Europe 14 History EditMain article History of the electric vehicle Early developments Edit Robert Anderson is often credited with inventing the first electric car some time between 1832 and 1839 15 The following experimental electric cars appeared during the 1880s In 1881 Gustave Trouve presented an electric car at the Exposition internationale d Electricite de Paris 16 In 1884 over 20 years before the Ford Model T Thomas Parker built an electric car in Wolverhampton using his own specially designed high capacity rechargeable batteries although the only documentation is a photograph from 1895 17 18 19 In 1888 the German Andreas Flocken designed the Flocken Elektrowagen regarded by some as the first real electric car 20 21 22 Electricity was among the preferred methods for automobile propulsion in the late 19th and early 20th centuries providing a level of comfort and an ease of operation that could not be achieved by the gasoline driven cars of the time 23 The electric vehicle fleet peaked at approximately 30 000 vehicles at the turn of the 20th century 24 In 1897 electric cars first found commercial use as taxis in Britain and in the United States In London Walter Bersey s electric cabs were the first self propelled vehicles for hire at a time when cabs were horse drawn 25 In New York City a fleet of twelve hansom cabs and one brougham based on the design of the Electrobat II formed part of a project funded in part by the Electric Storage Battery Company of Philadelphia 26 During the 20th century the main manufacturers of electric vehicles in the United States included Anthony Electric Baker Columbia Anderson Edison Riker Milburn Bailey Electric and Detroit Electric Their electric vehicles were quieter than gasoline powered ones and did not require gear changes 27 28 Six electric cars held the land speed record in the 19th century 29 The last of them was the rocket shaped La Jamais Contente driven by Camille Jenatzy which broke the 100 km h 62 mph speed barrier by reaching a top speed of 105 88 km h 65 79 mph in 1899 Electric cars remained popular until advances in internal combustion engine ICE cars and mass production of cheaper gasoline and diesel powered vehicles led to a decline ICE cars much quicker refueling times and cheaper production costs made them more popular However a decisive moment came with the introduction in 1912 of the electric starter motor 30 that replaced other often laborious methods of starting the ICE such as hand cranking Gustave Trouve s personal electric vehicle 1881 the world s first publicly presented full scale electric car Early electric car built by Thomas Parker photo from 1895 31 La Jamais Contente 1899 NASA s Lunar Roving Vehicles were battery driven The General Motors EV1 one of the cars introduced due to a California Air Resources Board CARB mandate had a range of 260 km 160 miles with NiMH batteries in 1999 The Tesla Roadster helped inspire the modern generation of electric vehicles Modern electric cars Edit In the early 1990s the California Air Resources Board CARB began a push for more fuel efficient lower emissions vehicles with the ultimate goal of a move to zero emissions vehicles such as electric vehicles 32 33 In response automakers developed electric models These early cars were eventually withdrawn from the U S market because of a massive campaign by the US automakers to discredit the idea of electric cars 34 California electric auto maker Tesla Motors began development in 2004 of what would become the Tesla Roadster first delivered to customers in 2008 The Roadster was the first highway legal all electric car to use lithium ion battery cells and the first production all electric car to travel more than 320 km 200 miles per charge 35 Better Place a venture backed company based in Palo Alto California but steered from Israel developed and sold battery charging and battery swapping services for electric cars The company was publicly launched on 29 October 2007 and announced deployment of electric vehicle networks in Israel Denmark and Hawaii in 2008 and 2009 The company planned to deploy the infrastructure on a country by country basis In January 2008 Better Place announced a memorandum of understanding with Renault Nissan to build the world s first Electric Recharge Grid Operator ERGO model for Israel Under the agreement Better Place would build the electric recharge grid and Renault Nissan would provide the electric vehicles Better Place filed for bankruptcy in Israel in May 2013 The company s financial difficulties were caused by mismanagement wasteful efforts to establish toeholds and run pilots in too many countries the high investment required to develop the charging and swapping infrastructure and a market penetration far lower than originally predicted 36 The Mitsubishi i MiEV launched in 2009 in Japan was the first highway legal series production electric car 37 and also the first all electric car to sell more than 10 000 units Several months later the Nissan Leaf launched in 2010 surpassed the i MiEV as the best selling all electric car at that time 38 Starting in 2008 a renaissance in electric vehicle manufacturing occurred due to advances in batteries and the desire to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to improve urban air quality 39 During the 2010s the electric vehicle industry in China expanded greatly with government support 40 The subsidies introduced by the Chinese government will however be cut by 20 to 30 and phased out completely before 2023 Several automakers marked up the prices of their electric vehicles in anticipation of the subsidy adjustment including Tesla Volkswagen and Guangzhou based GAC Group which counts Fiat Honda Isuzu Mitsubishi and Toyota as foreign partners 41 In July 2019 US based Motor Trend magazine awarded the fully electric Tesla Model S the title ultimate car of the year 42 In March 2020 the Tesla Model 3 passed the Nissan Leaf to become the world s all time best selling electric car with more than 500 000 units delivered 10 it reached the milestone of 1 million global sales in June 2021 11 In the third quarter of 2021 the Alliance for Automotive Innovation reported that sales of electric vehicles had reached six percent of all US light duty automotive sales the highest volume of EV sales ever recorded at 187 000 vehicles This was an 11 sales increase as opposed to a 1 3 increase in gasoline and diesel powered units The report indicated that California was the US leader in EV with nearly 40 of US purchases followed by Florida 6 Texas 5 and New York 4 4 43 Electric companies from the Middle East have been designing electric cars Oman s Mays Motors have developed the Mays i E1 which is expected to begin production in 2023 Built from carbon fibre it has a range of about 560 km 350 miles and can accelerate from 0 130 km h 0 80 mph in about 4 secs 44 In Turkey the EV company Togg is starting production of its electric vehicles Batteries will be created in a joint venture with the Chinese company Farasis Energy 45 Economics EditManufacturing cost Edit The most expensive part of an electric car is its battery The price decreased from 605 per kWh in 2010 to 170 in 2017 to 100 in 2019 46 47 When designing an electric vehicle manufacturers may find that for low production converting existing platforms may be cheaper as development cost is lower however for higher production a dedicated platform may be preferred to optimize design and cost 48 Total cost of ownership Edit In the EU and US but not yet China the total cost of ownership of recent electric cars is cheaper than that of equivalent gasoline cars due to lower fueling and maintenance costs 2 3 49 The greater the distance driven per year the more likely the total cost of ownership for an electric car will be less than for an equivalent ICE car 50 The break even distance varies by country depending on the taxes subsidies and different costs of energy In some countries the comparison may vary by city as a type of car may have different charges to enter different cities for example in England London charges ICE cars more than Birmingham does 51 Purchase cost Edit Several national and local governments have established EV incentives to reduce the purchase price of electric cars and other plug ins 52 53 54 55 As of 2020 update the electric vehicle battery is more than a quarter of the total cost of the car 56 Purchase prices are expected to drop below those of new ICE cars when battery costs fall below US 100 per kWh which is forecast to be in the mid 2020s 57 58 Leasing or subscriptions are popular in some countries 59 60 depending somewhat on national taxes and subsidies 61 and end of lease cars are expanding the second hand market 62 In a June 2022 report by AlixPartners the cost for raw materials on an average EV rose from 3 381 in March 2020 to 8 255 in May 2022 The cost increase voice is attributed mainly to lithium nickel and cobalt 63 Running costs Edit Electricity almost always costs less than gasoline per kilometer travelled but the price of electricity often varies depending on where and what time of day the car is charged 64 65 Cost savings are also affected by the price of gasoline which can vary by location 66 Environmental aspects Edit The Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia is one of the largest known lithium reserves in the world 67 68 Main article Environmental aspects of the electric car Electric cars have several benefits when replacing ICE cars including a significant reduction of local air pollution as they do not emit exhaust pollutants such as volatile organic compounds hydrocarbons carbon monoxide ozone lead and various oxides of nitrogen 69 Similar to ICE vehicles electric cars emit particulates from tyre and brake wear 70 which may damage health 71 although regenerative braking in electric cars means less brake dust 72 More research is needed on non exhaust particulates 73 The sourcing of fossil fuels oil well to gasoline tank causes further damage as well as use of resources during the extraction and refinement processes Depending on the production process and the source of the electricity to charge the vehicle emissions may be partly shifted from cities to the plants that generate electricity and produce the car as well as to the transportation of material 32 The amount of carbon dioxide emitted depends on the emissions of the electricity source and the efficiency of the vehicle For electricity from the grid the life cycle emissions vary depending on the proportion of coal fired power but are always less than ICE cars 74 The cost of installing charging infrastructure has been estimated to be repaid by health cost savings in less than three years 75 According to a 2020 study balancing lithium supply and demand for the rest of the century will require good recycling systems vehicle to grid integration and lower lithium intensity of transportation 76 Some activists and journalists have raised concerns over the perceived lack of impact of electric cars in solving the climate change crisis 77 compared to other less popularized methods 78 These concerns have largely centered around the existence of less carbon intensive and more efficient forms of transportation such as active mobility 79 mass transit and e scooters and the continuation of a system designed for cars first 80 Public opinion Edit A 2022 survey found that 33 of car buyers in Europe will opt for a petrol or diesel car when purchasing a new vehicle 67 of the respondents mentioned opting for the hybrid or electric version 81 82 More specifically it found that electric cars are only preferred by 28 of Europeans making them the least preferred type of vehicle 39 of Europeans tend to prefer hybrid vehicles while 33 prefer petrol or diesel vehicles 83 84 44 Chinese car buyers on the other hand are the most likely to buy an electric car while 38 of Americans would opt for a hybrid car 33 would prefer petrol or diesel while only 29 would go for an electric car 83 85 Specifically for the EU 47 of car buyers over 65 years old are likely to purchase a hybrid vehicle while 31 of younger respondents do not consider hybrid vehicles a good option 35 would rather opt for a petrol or diesel vehicle and 24 for an electric car instead of a hybrid 83 86 In the EU only 13 of the total population do not plan on owning a vehicle at all 83 Performance EditAcceleration and drivetrain design Edit Typical skateboard layout with the battery as floor and a motor at one or both axles Electric motors can provide high power to weight ratios Batteries can be designed to supply the electrical current needed to support these motors Electric motors have a flat torque curve down to zero speed For simplicity and reliability most electric cars use fixed ratio gearboxes and have no clutch Many electric cars have faster acceleration than average ICE cars largely due to reduced drivetrain frictional losses and the more quickly available torque of an electric motor 87 However NEVs may have a low acceleration due to their relatively weak motors Electric vehicles can also use a motor in each wheel hub or next to the wheels this is rare but claimed to be safer 88 Electric vehicles that lack an axle differential or transmission can have less drivetrain inertia Some direct current motor equipped drag racer EVs have simple two speed manual transmissions to improve top speed 89 The concept electric supercar Rimac Concept One claims it can go from 0 97 km h 0 60 mph in 2 5 seconds Tesla claims the upcoming Tesla Roadster will go 0 60 mph 0 97 km h in 1 9 seconds 90 Energy efficiency EditMain article Electric car energy efficiency Energy efficiency of electric cars in towns and on motorways according to the DoE Internal combustion engines have thermodynamic limits on efficiency expressed as a fraction of energy used to propel the vehicle compared to energy produced by burning fuel Gasoline engines effectively use only 15 of the fuel energy content to move the vehicle or to power accessories diesel engines can reach on board efficiency of 20 electric vehicles have efficiencies of 69 72 when counted against stored chemical energy or around 59 62 when counted against required energy to recharge 91 92 Electric motors are more efficient than internal combustion engines in converting stored energy into driving a vehicle However they are not equally efficient at all speeds To allow for this some cars with dual electric motors have one electric motor with a gear optimised for city speeds and the second electric motor with a gear optimised for highway speeds The electronics select the motor that has the best efficiency for the current speed and acceleration 93 Regenerative braking which is most common in electric vehicles can recover as much as one fifth of the energy normally lost during braking 32 91 Cabin heating and cooling Edit While heating can be provided with an electric resistance heater higher efficiency and integral cooling can be obtained with a reversible heat pump such as on the Nissan Leaf 94 PTC junction cooling 95 is also attractive for its simplicity this kind of system is used for example in the 2008 Tesla Roadster To avoid using part of the battery s energy for heating and thus reducing the range some models allow the cabin to be heated while the car is plugged in For example the Nissan Leaf the Mitsubishi i MiEV Renault Zoe and Tesla cars can be pre heated while the vehicle is plugged in 96 97 98 Some electric cars for example the Citroen Berlingo Electrique use an auxiliary heating system for example gasoline fueled units manufactured by Webasto or Eberspacher but sacrifice green and Zero emissions credentials Cabin cooling can be augmented with solar power external batteries and USB fans or coolers or by automatically allowing outside air to flow through the car when parked two models of the 2010 Toyota Prius include this feature as an option 99 Safety Edit Side impact test of a Tesla Model X The safety issues of BEVs are largely dealt with by the international standard ISO 6469 This document is divided into three parts dealing with specific issues On board electrical energy storage i e the battery 100 Functional safety means and protection against failures 101 Protection of persons against electrical hazards 102 Heaviness Edit The weight of the batteries themselves usually makes an EV heavier than a comparable gasoline vehicle In a collision the occupants of a heavy vehicle will on average suffer fewer and less serious injuries than the occupants of a lighter vehicle therefore the additional weight brings safety benefits to the occupant 103 On average an accident will cause about 50 more injuries to the occupants of a 2 000 lb 900 kg vehicle than those in a 3 000 lb 1 400 kg vehicle 104 Heavier cars are more dangerous to people outside the car if they hit a pedestrian or another vehicle 105 Stability Edit The battery in skateboard configuration lowers the center of gravity increasing driving stability lowering the risk of an accident through loss of control 106 If there is a separate motor near or in each wheel this is claimed to be safer due to better handling 107 Risk of fire Edit Main article Plug in electric vehicle fire incidents Like their ICE counterparts electric vehicle batteries can catch fire after a crash or mechanical failure 108 Plug in electric vehicle fire incidents have occurred albeit fewer per distance traveled than ICE vehicles 109 Some cars high voltage systems are designed to shut down automatically in the event of an airbag deployment 110 111 and in case of failure firefighters may be trained for manual high voltage system shutdown 112 113 Much more water may be required than for ICE car fires and a thermal imaging camera is recommended to warn of possible re ignition of battery fires 114 115 Controls EditAs of 2018 update most electric cars have similar driving controls to that of a car with a conventional automatic transmission Even though the motor may be permanently connected to the wheels through a fixed ratio gear and no parking pawl may be present the modes P and N are often still provided on the selector In this case the motor is disabled in N and an electrically actuated hand brake provides the P mode In some cars the motor will spin slowly to provide a small amount of creep in D similar to a traditional automatic transmission car 116 When an internal combustion vehicle s accelerator is released it may slow by engine braking depending on the type of transmission and mode EVs are usually equipped with regenerative braking that slows the vehicle and recharges the battery somewhat 117 Regenerative braking systems also decrease the use of the conventional brakes similar to engine braking in an ICE vehicle reducing brake wear and maintenance costs Batteries Edit Prototypes of 75 watt hour kilogram lithium ion polymer batteries Newer lithium ion cells can provide up to 280 W h kg and last through thousands of charging cycles Main article Electric vehicle battery Lithium ion based batteries are often used for their high power and energy density 118 Batteries with different chemical compositions are becoming more widely used such as lithium iron phosphate which is not dependant on nickel and cobalt so can be used to make cheaper batteries and thus cheaper cars 119 Range Edit Further information List of electric cars currently available The range of an electric car depends on the number and type of batteries used and as with all vehicles the aerodynamics weight and type of vehicle performance requirements and the weather 120 Cars marketed for mainly city use are often manufactured with a short range battery to keep them small and light 121 Most electric cars are fitted with a display of the expected range This may take into account how the vehicle is being used and what the battery is powering However since factors can vary over the route the estimate can vary from the actual range The display allows the driver to make informed choices about driving speed and whether to stop at a charging point en route Some roadside assistance organizations offer charge trucks to recharge electric cars in case of emergency 122 Comparison of EPA rated range for model year 2020 electric cars rated up until January 2020 123 NIO ES8 has a swappable battery pack Charging Edit BYD e6 is able to recharge to 80 in 15 minutes Connectors Edit Main article IEC 62196 Most electric cars use a wired connection to supply electricity for recharging Electric vehicle charging plugs are not universal throughout the world However vehicles using one type of plug are generally able to charge at other types of charging stations through the use of plug adapters 124 The Type 2 connector is the most common type of plug but different versions are used in China and Europe 125 126 The Type 1 also called SAE J1772 connector is common in North America 127 128 but rare elsewhere as it does not support three phase charging 129 Wireless charging either for stationary cars or as an electric road 130 is less common as of 2021 update but is used in some cities for taxis 131 132 Home charging Edit Electric cars are usually charged overnight from a home charging station sometimes known as a charging point wallbox charger or simply a charger in a garage or on the outside of a house 133 134 As of 2021 update typical home chargers are 7 kW but not all include smart charging 133 Compared to fossil fuel vehicles the need for charging using public infrastructure is diminished because of the opportunities for home charging vehicles can be plugged in and begin each day with a full charge 135 Charging from a standard outlet is also possible but very slow Public charging Edit Charging station at Rio de Janeiro Brazil This station is run by Petrobras and uses solar energy Main article Electric vehicle charging network Public charging stations are almost always faster than home chargers 136 with many supplying direct current to avoid the bottleneck of going through the car s AC to DC converter 137 as of 2021 update the fastest being 350 kW 138 Combined Charging System CCS is the most widespread charging standard 126 whereas the GB T 27930 standard is used in China and CHAdeMO in Japan The United States has no de facto standard with a mix of CCS Tesla Superchargers and CHAdeMO charging stations Charging an electric vehicle using public charging stations takes longer than refueling a fossil fuel vehicle The speed at which a vehicle can recharge depends on the charging station s charging speed and the vehicle s own capacity to receive a charge As of 2021 update some cars are 400 volt and some 800 volt 139 Connecting a vehicle that can accommodate very fast charging to a charging station with a very high rate of charge can refill the vehicle s battery to 80 in 15 minutes 140 Vehicles and charging stations with slower charging speeds may take as long as two hours to refill a battery to 80 As with a mobile phone the final 20 takes longer because the systems slow down to fill the battery safely and avoid damaging it Some companies are building battery swapping stations to substantially reduce the effective time to recharge 141 142 Some electric cars for example the BMW i3 have an optional gasoline range extender The system is intended as an emergency backup to extend range to the next recharging location and not for long distance travel 143 Electric roads Edit Electric road technologies which power and charge electric vehicles while driving were assessed in Sweden from 2013 144 12 The assessment was scheduled to conclude in 2022 145 The first standard for electrical equipment on board a vehicle powered by a rail electric road system ERS CENELEC Technical Standard 50717 has been approved in late 2022 146 Following standards encompassing full interoperability and a unified and interoperable solution for ground level power supply are scheduled to be published by the end 2024 detailing complete specifications for communication and power supply through conductive rails embedded in the road 147 148 The first permanent electric road in Sweden is planned to be completed by 2026 149 on a section of the E20 route between Hallsberg and Orebro followed by an expansion of further 3000 kilometers of electric roads by 2045 150 A working group of the French Ministry of Ecology considers ground level power supply technologies the most likely candidate for electric roads 151 and recommended adopting a European electric road standard formulated with Sweden Germany Italy the Netherlands Spain Poland and others 152 France plans to invest 30 to 40 billion euro by 2035 in an electric road system spanning 8 800 kilometers that recharges electric cars buses and trucks while driving Two tenders for assessment of electric road technologies are expected to be announced by 2023 151 Vehicle to grid uploading and grid buffering Edit Main article vehicle to grid During peak load periods when the cost of generation can be very high electric vehicles with vehicle to grid capabilities could contribute energy to the grid These vehicles can then be recharged during off peak hours at cheaper rates while helping to absorb excess night time generation The batteries in the vehicles serve as a distributed storage system to buffer power 153 Lifespan Edit Main article Rechargeable battery Lifespan and cycle stability As with all lithium ion batteries electric vehicle batteries may degrade over long periods of time especially if they are frequently charged to 100 however this may take at least several years before being noticeable 154 A typical warranty is 8 years or 100 000 mi 160 000 km 155 but they usually last much longer perhaps 15 to 20 years in the car and then more years in another use 156 Currently available electric cars EditHighway capable Edit Main article List of production battery electric vehicles Tesla became the world s leading electric vehicle manufacturer in December 2019 157 158 Its Model S was the world s top selling plug in electric car in 2015 and 2016 159 160 and its Model 3 has been the world s best selling plug in electric car for four consecutive years from 2018 to 2021 6 161 162 163 The Tesla Model 3 surpassed the Leaf in early 2020 to become the world s cumulative best selling electric car 10 Tesla produced its 1 millionth electric car in March 2020 becoming the first auto manufacturer to do so 164 and in June 2021 the Model 3 became the first electric car to pass 1 million sales 11 Tesla has been listed as the world s top selling plug in electric car manufacturer both as a brand and by automotive group for four years running from 2018 to 2021 6 165 166 167 161 At the end of 2021 Tesla s global cumulative sales since 2012 totaled 2 3 million units 168 with 936 222 of those delivered in 2021 169 As of December 2021 update the Renault Nissan Mitsubishi Alliance is listed as one of the world s leading all electric vehicle manufacturers with global all electric vehicle sales totaling over 1 million light duty electric vehicles including those manufactured by Mitsubishi Motors since 2009 170 171 Nissan leads global sales within the Alliance with about 500 000 cars and vans sold by April 2020 172 followed by the Groupe Renault with more than 397 000 electric vehicles sold worldwide through December 2020 including its Twizy heavy quadricycle 173 Mitsubishi s only all electric vehicle is the i MiEV with global sales of over 50 000 units by March 2015 accounting for all variants of the i MiEV including the two minicab versions sold in Japan 174 The Alliance s best selling Nissan Leaf was the world s top selling plug in electric car in 2013 and 2014 159 Until early 2020 the Nissan Leaf was the world s all time top selling highway legal electric car 10 and as of October 2021 update global sales totaled 550 000 units since inception 175 Other leading electric vehicles manufacturers are BAIC Motor with 480 000 units sold SAIC Motor with 314 000 units and Geely with 228 700 all cumulative sales in China as of December 2019 update 176 and Volkswagen 177 The following table lists the all time best selling highway capable all electric cars with cumulative global sales of over 200 000 units This section needs to be updated Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information January 2023 All time top selling highway capable 1 all electric passenger cars Company Model Market launch Image Annual global sales Total global sales Total sales through Ref Tesla Inc Tesla Model 3 2017 07 500 713 2021 1 3 million 2021 12 6 178 Nissan Nissan Leaf 2010 12 64 201 2021 564 201 2021 12 6 179 SAIC GM Wuling Wuling Hongguang Mini EV 2020 07 424 138 2021 551 789 2 2021 12 6 180 Tesla Inc Tesla Model Y 2020 03 410 517 2021 490 000 2021 12 6 181 Renault Renault Zoe 2012 12 77 529 2021 362 329 2021 12 173 182 Tesla Inc Tesla Model S 2012 06 10 900 3Q 2021 319 600 2021 09 183 184 Volkswagen Volkswagen ID 4 2020 09 174 092 2022 295 723 2022 12 185 186 Chery Chery eQ 2014 11 68 821 2021 243 000 2021 12 6 187 188 GAC Group Aion S 2019 09 115 663 2022 232 481 2022 12 189 190 191 BMW BMW i3 2013 11 28 216 2021 220 000 3 2021 12 192 193 BAIC BAIC EU Series 2016 01 19 794 2021 218 228 2 2021 12 194 BAIC BAIC EC Series 2016 12 454 2021 206 079 2 2021 12 195 BYD BYD dolphin 2021 08 180 461 2022 210 059 2022 12 196 197 BYD BYD Yuan Plus Atto 3 2022 01 201 744 2022 201 744 2022 12 198 Notes 1 Vehicles are considered highway capable if able to achieve at least a top speed of 100 km h 62 mph 2 Sales in mainland China only 3 BMW i3 sales includes the REx variant split is not available 4 BYD Yuan plus called Atto 3 in markets outside of china Electric cars by country Edit Main article electric car use by country In the year of 2021 the total number of electric cars on the world s roads went to about 16 5 million The sales of electric cars in the first quarter of 2022 went up to 2 million 199 China has the largest all electric car fleet in use with 2 58 million at the end of 2019 more than half 53 9 of the world s electric car stock All electric cars have oversold plug in hybrids since 2012 200 162 163 Annual sales of plug in electric passenger cars in the world s top markets between 2011 and 2021 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 Evolution of the ratio between global sales of BEVs and PHEVs between 2011 and 2021 200 162 163 209 Government policies and incentives Edit A dedicated electric car free charging and parking lot in Oslo Main article government incentives for plug in electric vehicles See also Phase out of fossil fuel vehicles Four out of ten Europeans interviewed for the European Investment Bank climate survey thought subsidies for electric cars should be a priority to fight climate change Several national provincial and local governments around the world have introduced policies to support the mass market adoption of plug in electric vehicles A variety of policies have been established to provide financial support to consumers and manufacturers non monetary incentives subsidies for the deployment of charging infrastructure and long term regulations with specific targets 201 210 Timeline of national targetsfor full ICE phase out or100 ZEV car sales 201 211 Selected countries YearNorway 100 ZEV sales 2025Denmark 2030IcelandIrelandNetherlands 100 ZEV sales SwedenUnited Kingdom 100 ZEV sales 2035France 2040Canada 100 ZEV sales SingaporeGermany 100 ZEV sales 2050U S 10 ZEV states Japan 100 HEV PHEV ZEV sales Financial incentives for consumers are aiming to make electric car purchase price competitive with conventional cars due to the higher upfront cost of electric vehicles Depending on battery size there are one time purchase incentives such as grants and tax credits exemptions from import duties exemptions from road tolls and congestion charges and exemption of registration and annual fees All electric car on a bus lane in Oslo Among the non monetary incentives there are several perks such allowing plug in vehicles access to bus lanes and high occupancy vehicle lanes free parking and free charging 210 Some countries or cities that restrict private car ownership for example a purchase quota system for new vehicles or have implemented permanent driving restrictions for example no drive days have these schemes exclude electric vehicles to promote their adoption 212 213 214 215 216 217 Some government have also established long term regulatory signals with specific targets such as zero emissions vehicle ZEV mandates national or regional CO2 emission regulations stringent fuel economy standards and the phase out of internal combustion engine vehicle sales 201 210 For example Norway set a national goal that by 2025 all new car sales should be ZEVs battery electric or hydrogen 218 219 While these incentives aim to facilitate a quicker transition from internal combustion cars they have been criticized by some economists for In a 2022 climate survey European and American car buyers state that would opt for hybrid or petrol or diesel cars while Chinese respondents favour fully electric cars 220 creating excess deadweight loss in the electric car market which may partially counteract environmental gains 221 222 223 EV plans from major manufacturers Edit Volkswagen ID 3 Mazda MX 30 Ford Mustang Mach EThe examples and perspective in this section deal primarily with outside China and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject You may improve this section discuss the issue on the talk page or create a new section as appropriate August 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message As of Manufacturer Investment InvestmentTimeframe EVs YearGoal Notes2020 11 Volkswagen 86 billion 2025 27 2022 Plans 27 electric vehicles by 2022 on a dedicated EV platform dubbed Modular Electric Toolkit and initialed as MEB 224 In November 2020 it announced the intention to invest 86 billion in the following five years aimed at developing EVs and increasing its share in the EV market Total capital expenditure will include digital factories automotive software and self driving cars 225 2020 11 GM 27 billion 30 2035 226 Announced that it s boosting its EV and self driving investment from 20 billion to 27 billion and it currently plans to have 30 EVs on the market by the end of 2025 including the Hummer EV the Cadillac Lyriq SUV Buick GMC and Chevrolet EVs and a Chevy compact crossover EV 227 CEO Barra said 40 of the vehicles GM will offer in the United States will be battery electric vehicles by the end of 2025 228 GM s BEV3 next generation electric vehicle platform is designed to be flexible for use in many different vehicle types such as front rear and all wheel drive configurations 229 2019 01 Mercedes 23 billion 2030 10 2022 Plans to increase their electric car manufacturing to 50 in global sales by 2030 Additionally relying on the Nissan Leaf for many of their processing needs 230 2019 07 Ford 29 billion 231 2025 Will use Volkswagen s Modular Electric Toolkit MEB to design and build its own fully electric vehicles starting in 2023 232 The Ford Mustang Mach E is an electric crossover that will reach up to 480 km 300 miles 233 Ford is planning to release an electric F 150 in the 2021 time frame 234 235 2019 03 BMW 12 2025 Plans 12 all electric vehicles by 2025 using a fifth generation electric powertrain architecture which will save weight and cost and increase capacity 236 BMW has ordered 10 billion worth of battery cells for the period from 2021 through 2030 237 238 239 2020 01 Hyundai 23 2025 Announced that it plans 23 pure electric cars by 2025 240 Hyundai will announce its next generation electric vehicle platform named e GMP in 2021 241 2019 06 Toyota Has developed a global EV platform named e TNGA that can accommodate a three row SUV sporty sedan small crossover or a boxy compact 242 Toyota and Subaru will release a new EV on a shared platform 243 it will be about the size of a Toyota RAV4 or a Subaru Forester 2019 04 29 automakers 300 billion 2029 A Reuters analysis of 29 global automakers concluded that automakers are planning on spending 300 billion over the next 5 to 10 years on electric cars with 45 of that investment projected to occur in China 244 2020 10 Fiat Launched its new electric version of the New 500 for sale in Europe starting in early 2021 245 246 2020 11 Nissan Announced the intention to sell only electric and hybrid cars in China from 2025 introducing nine new models Nissan other plans includes manufacturing by 2035 half zero emission vehicles and half gasoline electric hybrid vehicles 247 In 2018 Infiniti the luxury brand of Nissan announced that by 2021 all newly introduced vehicles will be electric or hybrid 248 2020 12 Audi 35 billion 2021 2025 20 2025 30 new electrified models by 2025 of which 20 PEV 249 By 2030 2035 Audi intends to offer just electric vehicles 250 Forecasts EditTotal global EV sales in 2030 were predicted to reach 31 1 million by Deloitte 251 The International Energy Agency predicted that the total global stock of EVs would reach almost 145 million by 2030 under current policies or 230 million if Sustainable Development policies were adopted 252 See also EditEco Grand Prix Electric vehicle Battery electric vehicle Plug in electric vehicle Plug in hybrid electric vehicle Electric bus Solar car Electric aircraft Electric boat Electric car energy efficiency Electric motorcycles and scooters Electric motorsport Electric vehicle warning sounds fake engine sound generated for pedestrian safety Formula E List of electric cars currently available Phase out 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