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Lithium iron phosphate battery

January 09, 2023

The lithium iron phosphate battery (LFP (lithium ferro-phosphate), or Li-IP) is a type of lithium-ion battery using lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO
4) as the cathode material, and a graphitic carbon electrode with a metallic backing as the anode. Because of their lower cost, high safety, low toxicity, long cycle life and other factors, LFP batteries are finding a number of roles in vehicle use, utility-scale stationary applications, and backup power.[6] LFP batteries are cobalt-free.[7] As of September 2022, LFP type battery market share for EV's reached 31%, and of that, 68% was from Tesla and Chinese EV maker BYD production alone.[8] Chinese manufacturers currently hold a near monopoly of LFP battery type production,[9] however, with patents having started to expire in 2022 and the increased demand for cheaper EV batteries,[10] LFP type production is expected to rise further to surpass NMC type batteries in 2028.[11]

Lithium iron phosphate battery
Specific energy90–160 Wh/kg (320–580 J/g or kJ/kg)[1]
Energy density325 Wh/L (1200 kJ/L)[1]
Specific poweraround 200 W/kg[2]
Energy/consumer-price1-4 Wh/US$[3][4]
Time durability> 10 years
Cycle durability2,750–12,000[5] cycles
Nominal cell voltage3.2 V

The energy density of an LFP battery is lower than that of other common lithium ion battery types such as nickel manganese cobalt (NMC) and nickel cobalt aluminum (NCA), and also has a lower operating voltage; CATL's LFP batteries are currently at 125 watt hours (Wh) per kg, up to possibly 160 Wh/kg with improved packing technology, while BYD's LFP batteries are at 150 Wh/kg, compared to over 300 Wh/kg for the highest NMC batteries. Notably, the energy density of Panasonic’s “2170” NCA batteries used in 2020 in Tesla’s Model 3 is around 260 Wh/kg, which is 70% of its "pure chemicals" value.

History

Main article: lithium iron phosphate

LiFePO
4 is a natural mineral of the olivine family (triphylite). Arumugam Manthiram and John B. Goodenough first identified the polyanion class of cathode materials for lithium ion batteries.[12][13][14] LiFePO
4 was then identified as a cathode material belonging to the polyanion class for use in batteries in 1996 by Padhi et al.[15][16] Reversible extraction of lithium from LiFePO
4 and insertion of lithium into FePO
4 was demonstrated. Because of its low cost, non-toxicity, the natural abundance of iron, its excellent thermal stability, safety characteristics, electrochemical performance, and specific capacity (170 mA·h/g, or 610 C/g) it has gained considerable market acceptance.[17][18]

The chief barrier to commercialization was its intrinsically low electrical conductivity. This problem was overcome by reducing the particle size, coating the LiFePO
4 particles with conductive materials such as carbon nanotubes,[19][20] or both. This approach was developed by Michel Armand and his coworkers.[21] Another approach by Yet Ming Chiang's group consisted of doping[17] LFP with cations of materials such as aluminium, niobium, and zirconium.

Negative electrodes (anode, on discharge) made of petroleum coke were used in early lithium-ion batteries; later types used natural or synthetic graphite.[22]

Specifications

 
Multiple Lithium Iron Phosphate modules are wired in series and parallel to create a 2800Ah 52V battery module. Total battery capacity is 145.6 kWh. Note the large, solid tinned copper busbar connecting the modules together. This busbar is rated for 700 amps DC to accommodate the high currents generated in this 48 volt DC system.
 
Lithium Iron Phosphate modules, each 700Ah, 3.25V. Two modules are wired in parallel to create a single 3.25 V 1400 Ah battery pack with a capacity of 4.55 kWh.
  • Cell voltage
    • Minimum discharge voltage = 2.0-2.8 V[23][24][25]
    • Working voltage = 3.0 ~ 3.3 V
    • Maximum charge voltage = 3.60-3.65 V[26][27]
  • Volumetric energy density = 220 Wh/L (790 kJ/L)
  • Gravimetric energy density > 90 Wh/kg[28] (> 320 J/g). Up to 160 Wh/kg[1] (580 J/g).
  • Cycle life from 2,700 to more than 10,000 cycles depending on conditions.[5]

Advantages and disadvantages

The LFP battery uses a lithium-ion-derived chemistry and shares many advantages and disadvantages with other lithium-ion battery chemistries. However, there are significant differences.

Resource availability

Iron and phosphates are very common in the Earth's crust. LFP contain neither nickel[29] nor cobalt, both of which are supply-constrained and expensive. As with lithium, human rights[30] and environmental[31] concerns have been raised concerning the use of cobalt. Environmental concerns have also been raised regarding the extraction of nickel.[32]

Cost

In 2020, the lowest reported LFP cell prices were $80/kWh (12.5Wh/$) .[33]

A 2020 report published by the Department of Energy compared the costs of large scale energy storage systems built with LFP vs NMC. It found that the cost per kWh of LFP batteries was about 6% less than NMC, and it projected that the LFP cells would last about 67% longer (more cycles). Because of differences between the cell's characteristics, the cost of some other components of the storage system would be somewhat higher for LFP, but in balance it still remains less costly per kWh than NMC.[34]

Better ageing and cycle-life characteristics

LFP chemistry offers a considerably longer cycle life than other lithium-ion chemistries. Under most conditions it supports more than 3,000 cycles, and under optimal conditions it supports more than 10,000 cycles. NMC batteries support about 1,000 to 2,300 cycles, depending on conditions.[5]

LFP cells experience a slower rate of capacity loss (a.k.a. greater calendar-life) than lithium-ion battery chemistries such as cobalt (LiCoO
2) or manganese spinel (LiMn
2O
4) lithium-ion polymer batteries (LiPo battery) or lithium-ion batteries.[35]

Viable alternative to lead-acid batteries

Because of the nominal 3.2 V output, four cells can be placed in series for a nominal voltage of 12.8 V. This comes close to the nominal voltage of six-cell lead-acid batteries. Along with the good safety characteristics of LFP batteries, this makes LFP a good potential replacement for lead-acid batteries in applications such as automotive and solar applications, provided the charging systems are adapted not to damage the LFP cells through excessive charging voltages (beyond 3.6 volts DC per cell while under charge), temperature-based voltage compensation, equalisation attempts or continuous trickle charging. The LFP cells must be at least balanced initially before the pack is assembled and a protection system also needs to be implemented to ensure no cell can be discharged below a voltage of 2.5 V or severe damage will occur in most instances, due to irreversible deintercalation of LiFePO4 into FePO4.[36]

Safety

One important advantage over other lithium-ion chemistries is thermal and chemical stability, which improves battery safety.[31] LiFePO
4 is an intrinsically safer cathode material than LiCoO
2 and manganese dioxide spinels through omission of the cobalt, with its negative temperature coefficient of resistance that can encourage thermal runaway. The P–O bond in the (PO
4)3−
 ion is stronger than the Co–O bond in the (CoO
2)−
 ion, so that when abused (short-circuited, overheated, etc.), the oxygen atoms are released more slowly. This stabilization of the redox energies also promotes faster ion migration.[37]

As lithium migrates out of the cathode in a LiCoO
2 cell, the CoO
2 undergoes non-linear expansion that affects the structural integrity of the cell. The fully lithiated and unlithiated states of LiFePO
4 are structurally similar which means that LiFePO
4 cells are more structurally stable than LiCoO
2 cells.[citation needed]

No lithium remains in the cathode of a fully charged LFP cell. In a LiCoO
2 cell, approximately 50% remains. LiFePO
4 is highly resilient during oxygen loss, which typically results in an exothermic reaction in other lithium cells.[18] As a result, LiFePO
4 cells are harder to ignite in the event of mishandling (especially during charge). The LiFePO
4 battery does not decompose at high temperatures.[31]

Lower energy density

The energy density (energy/volume) of a new LFP battery is some 14% lower than that of a new LiCoO
2 battery.[38] Since discharge rate is a percentage of battery capacity, a higher rate can be achieved by using a larger battery (more ampere hours) if low-current batteries must be used. Better yet, a high-current LFP cell (which will have a higher discharge rate than a lead acid or LiCoO
2 battery of the same capacity) can be used.

Uses

Home energy storage

Enphase pioneered LFP home storage batteries for reasons of cost and fire safety, although the market remains split among competing chemistries.[39] Though lower energy density compared to other lithium chemistries adds mass and volume, both may be more tolerable in a static application. In 2021, there were several suppliers to the home end user market, including SonnenBatterie and Enphase. Tesla Motors continues to use NMC batteries in its home energy storage products, but in 2021 switched to LFP for its utility-scale battery product.[40] According to EnergySage the most frequently quoted home energy storage battery brand in the U.S. is Enphase, which in 2021 surpassed Tesla Motors and LG.[41]

Vehicles

Higher discharge rates needed for acceleration, lower weight and longer life makes this battery type ideal for forklifts, bicycles and electric cars. 12V LiFePO4 batteries are also gaining popularity as a second (house) battery for a caravan, motor-home or boat.[42]

Tesla Motors uses LFP batteries in all standard-range Models 3 and Y made since October 2021.[43]

As of September 2022, LFP batteries had increased its market share of the entire EV battery market to 31%. Of those, 68% were deployed by two companies, Tesla and BYD.[44]

Solar-powered lighting systems

Single "14500" (AA battery–sized) LFP cells are now used in some solar-powered landscape lighting instead of 1.2 V NiCd/NiMH.[citation needed]

LFP's higher (3.2 V) working voltage lets a single cell drive an LED without circuitry to step up the voltage. Its increased tolerance to modest overcharging (compared to other Li cell types) means that LiFePO
4 can be connected to photovoltaic cells without circuitry to halt the recharge cycle. The ability to drive an LED from a single LFP cell also obviates battery holders, and thus the corrosion, condensation and dirt issues associated with products using multiple removable rechargeable batteries.[citation needed]

By 2013, better solar-charged passive infrared security lamps emerged.[45] As AA-sized LFP cells have a capacity of only 600 mAh (while the lamp's bright LED may draw 60 mA), the units shine for at most 10 hours. However, if triggering is only occasional, such units may be satisfactory even charging in low sunlight, as lamp electronics ensure after-dark "idle" currents of under 1 mA.[citation needed]

Other uses

Some electronic cigarettes use these types of batteries. Other applications include marine electrical systems and propulsion, flashlights, radio-controlled models, portable motor-driven equipment, amateur radio equipment, industrial sensor systems[46] and emergency lighting.[47]

See also

References

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January 09, 2023
lithium, iron, phosphate, battery, lithium, iron, phosphate, battery, lithium, ferro, phosphate, type, lithium, battery, using, lithium, iron, phosphate, lifepo4, cathode, material, graphitic, carbon, electrode, with, metallic, backing, anode, because, their, . The lithium iron phosphate battery LFP lithium ferro phosphate or Li IP is a type of lithium ion battery using lithium iron phosphate LiFePO4 as the cathode material and a graphitic carbon electrode with a metallic backing as the anode Because of their lower cost high safety low toxicity long cycle life and other factors LFP batteries are finding a number of roles in vehicle use utility scale stationary applications and backup power 6 LFP batteries are cobalt free 7 As of September 2022 LFP type battery market share for EV s reached 31 and of that 68 was from Tesla and Chinese EV maker BYD production alone 8 Chinese manufacturers currently hold a near monopoly of LFP battery type production 9 however with patents having started to expire in 2022 and the increased demand for cheaper EV batteries 10 LFP type production is expected to rise further to surpass NMC type batteries in 2028 11 Lithium iron phosphate batterySpecific energy90 160 Wh kg 320 580 J g or kJ kg 1 Energy density325 Wh L 1200 kJ L 1 Specific poweraround 200 W kg 2 Energy consumer price1 4 Wh US 3 4 Time durability gt 10 yearsCycle durability2 750 12 000 5 cyclesNominal cell voltage3 2 VThe energy density of an LFP battery is lower than that of other common lithium ion battery types such as nickel manganese cobalt NMC and nickel cobalt aluminum NCA and also has a lower operating voltage CATL s LFP batteries are currently at 125 watt hours Wh per kg up to possibly 160 Wh kg with improved packing technology while BYD s LFP batteries are at 150 Wh kg compared to over 300 Wh kg for the highest NMC batteries Notably the energy density of Panasonic s 2170 NCA batteries used in 2020 in Tesla s Model 3 is around 260 Wh kg which is 70 of its pure chemicals value Contents 1 History 2 Specifications 3 Advantages and disadvantages 3 1 Resource availability 3 2 Cost 3 3 Better ageing and cycle life characteristics 3 4 Viable alternative to lead acid batteries 3 5 Safety 3 6 Lower energy density 4 Uses 4 1 Home energy storage 4 2 Vehicles 4 3 Solar powered lighting systems 4 4 Other uses 5 See also 6 ReferencesHistory EditMain article lithium iron phosphate LiFePO4 is a natural mineral of the olivine family triphylite Arumugam Manthiram and John B Goodenough first identified the polyanion class of cathode materials for lithium ion batteries 12 13 14 LiFePO4 was then identified as a cathode material belonging to the polyanion class for use in batteries in 1996 by Padhi et al 15 16 Reversible extraction of lithium from LiFePO4 and insertion of lithium into FePO4 was demonstrated Because of its low cost non toxicity the natural abundance of iron its excellent thermal stability safety characteristics electrochemical performance and specific capacity 170 mA h g or 610 C g it has gained considerable market acceptance 17 18 The chief barrier to commercialization was its intrinsically low electrical conductivity This problem was overcome by reducing the particle size coating the LiFePO4 particles with conductive materials such as carbon nanotubes 19 20 or both This approach was developed by Michel Armand and his coworkers 21 Another approach by Yet Ming Chiang s group consisted of doping 17 LFP with cations of materials such as aluminium niobium and zirconium Negative electrodes anode on discharge made of petroleum coke were used in early lithium ion batteries later types used natural or synthetic graphite 22 Specifications Edit Multiple Lithium Iron Phosphate modules are wired in series and parallel to create a 2800Ah 52V battery module Total battery capacity is 145 6 kWh Note the large solid tinned copper busbar connecting the modules together This busbar is rated for 700 amps DC to accommodate the high currents generated in this 48 volt DC system Lithium Iron Phosphate modules each 700Ah 3 25V Two modules are wired in parallel to create a single 3 25 V 1400 Ah battery pack with a capacity of 4 55 kWh Cell voltage Minimum discharge voltage 2 0 2 8 V 23 24 25 Working voltage 3 0 3 3 V Maximum charge voltage 3 60 3 65 V 26 27 Volumetric energy density 220 Wh L 790 kJ L Gravimetric energy density gt 90 Wh kg 28 gt 320 J g Up to 160 Wh kg 1 580 J g Cycle life from 2 700 to more than 10 000 cycles depending on conditions 5 Advantages and disadvantages EditThe LFP battery uses a lithium ion derived chemistry and shares many advantages and disadvantages with other lithium ion battery chemistries However there are significant differences Resource availability Edit Iron and phosphates are very common in the Earth s crust LFP contain neither nickel 29 nor cobalt both of which are supply constrained and expensive As with lithium human rights 30 and environmental 31 concerns have been raised concerning the use of cobalt Environmental concerns have also been raised regarding the extraction of nickel 32 Cost Edit In 2020 the lowest reported LFP cell prices were 80 kWh 12 5Wh 33 A 2020 report published by the Department of Energy compared the costs of large scale energy storage systems built with LFP vs NMC It found that the cost per kWh of LFP batteries was about 6 less than NMC and it projected that the LFP cells would last about 67 longer more cycles Because of differences between the cell s characteristics the cost of some other components of the storage system would be somewhat higher for LFP but in balance it still remains less costly per kWh than NMC 34 Better ageing and cycle life characteristics Edit LFP chemistry offers a considerably longer cycle life than other lithium ion chemistries Under most conditions it supports more than 3 000 cycles and under optimal conditions it supports more than 10 000 cycles NMC batteries support about 1 000 to 2 300 cycles depending on conditions 5 LFP cells experience a slower rate of capacity loss a k a greater calendar life than lithium ion battery chemistries such as cobalt LiCoO2 or manganese spinel LiMn2 O4 lithium ion polymer batteries LiPo battery or lithium ion batteries 35 Viable alternative to lead acid batteries Edit Because of the nominal 3 2 V output four cells can be placed in series for a nominal voltage of 12 8 V This comes close to the nominal voltage of six cell lead acid batteries Along with the good safety characteristics of LFP batteries this makes LFP a good potential replacement for lead acid batteries in applications such as automotive and solar applications provided the charging systems are adapted not to damage the LFP cells through excessive charging voltages beyond 3 6 volts DC per cell while under charge temperature based voltage compensation equalisation attempts or continuous trickle charging The LFP cells must be at least balanced initially before the pack is assembled and a protection system also needs to be implemented to ensure no cell can be discharged below a voltage of 2 5 V or severe damage will occur in most instances due to irreversible deintercalation of LiFePO4 into FePO4 36 Safety Edit One important advantage over other lithium ion chemistries is thermal and chemical stability which improves battery safety 31 LiFePO4 is an intrinsically safer cathode material than LiCoO2 and manganese dioxide spinels through omission of the cobalt with its negative temperature coefficient of resistance that can encourage thermal runaway The P O bond in the PO4 3 ion is stronger than the Co O bond in the CoO2 ion so that when abused short circuited overheated etc the oxygen atoms are released more slowly This stabilization of the redox energies also promotes faster ion migration 37 As lithium migrates out of the cathode in a LiCoO2 cell the CoO2 undergoes non linear expansion that affects the structural integrity of the cell The fully lithiated and unlithiated states of LiFePO4 are structurally similar which means that LiFePO4 cells are more structurally stable than LiCoO2 cells citation needed No lithium remains in the cathode of a fully charged LFP cell In a LiCoO2 cell approximately 50 remains LiFePO4 is highly resilient during oxygen loss which typically results in an exothermic reaction in other lithium cells 18 As a result LiFePO4 cells are harder to ignite in the event of mishandling especially during charge The LiFePO4 battery does not decompose at high temperatures 31 Lower energy density Edit The energy density energy volume of a new LFP battery is some 14 lower than that of a new LiCoO2 battery 38 Since discharge rate is a percentage of battery capacity a higher rate can be achieved by using a larger battery more ampere hours if low current batteries must be used Better yet a high current LFP cell which will have a higher discharge rate than a lead acid or LiCoO2 battery of the same capacity can be used Uses EditThis section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Lithium iron phosphate battery news newspapers books scholar JSTOR April 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message Home energy storage Edit Enphase pioneered LFP home storage batteries for reasons of cost and fire safety although the market remains split among competing chemistries 39 Though lower energy density compared to other lithium chemistries adds mass and volume both may be more tolerable in a static application In 2021 there were several suppliers to the home end user market including SonnenBatterie and Enphase Tesla Motors continues to use NMC batteries in its home energy storage products but in 2021 switched to LFP for its utility scale battery product 40 According to EnergySage the most frequently quoted home energy storage battery brand in the U S is Enphase which in 2021 surpassed Tesla Motors and LG 41 Vehicles Edit Higher discharge rates needed for acceleration lower weight and longer life makes this battery type ideal for forklifts bicycles and electric cars 12V LiFePO4 batteries are also gaining popularity as a second house battery for a caravan motor home or boat 42 Tesla Motors uses LFP batteries in all standard range Models 3 and Y made since October 2021 43 As of September 2022 LFP batteries had increased its market share of the entire EV battery market to 31 Of those 68 were deployed by two companies Tesla and BYD 44 Solar powered lighting systems Edit Single 14500 AA battery sized LFP cells are now used in some solar powered landscape lighting instead of 1 2 V NiCd NiMH citation needed LFP s higher 3 2 V working voltage lets a single cell drive an LED without circuitry to step up the voltage Its increased tolerance to modest overcharging compared to other Li cell types means that LiFePO4 can be connected to photovoltaic cells without circuitry to halt the recharge cycle The ability to drive an LED from a single LFP cell also obviates battery holders and thus the corrosion condensation and dirt issues associated with products using multiple removable rechargeable batteries citation needed By 2013 better solar charged passive infrared security lamps emerged 45 As AA sized LFP cells have a capacity of only 600 mAh while the lamp s bright LED may draw 60 mA the units shine for at most 10 hours However if triggering is only occasional such units may be satisfactory even charging in low sunlight as lamp electronics ensure after dark idle currents of under 1 mA citation needed Other uses Edit Some electronic cigarettes use these types of batteries Other applications include marine electrical systems and propulsion flashlights radio controlled models portable motor driven equipment amateur radio equipment industrial sensor systems 46 and emergency lighting 47 See also EditList of battery types List of battery sizes List of electric vehicle battery manufacturers Comparison of commercial battery types Lithium titanate battery Lithium air battery Lithium polymer battery Nanowire battery Phosphate Power to weight ratio Solid state battery Super iron battery Blade battery XPengReferences Edit a b c Great Power Group Square 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