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Aluminium


Aluminium (aluminum in North American English) is a chemical element with the symbol Al and atomic number 13. Aluminium has a density lower than those of other common metals, at approximately one third that of steel. It has a great affinity towards oxygen, and forms a protective layer of oxide on the surface when exposed to air. Aluminium visually resembles silver, both in its color and in its great ability to reflect light. It is soft, non-magnetic and ductile. It has one stable isotope, 27Al; this isotope is very common, making aluminium the twelfth most common element in the Universe. The radioactivity of 26Al is used in radiodating.

Aluminium, 13Al
Aluminium
Pronunciation
Alternative namealuminum (U.S., Canada)
Appearancesilvery gray metallic
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Al)
  • 26.9815384±0.0000003
  • 26.982±0.001 (abridged)[2]
Aluminium in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
B

Al

Ga
magnesiumaluminiumsilicon
Atomic number (Z)13
Groupgroup 13 (boron group)
Periodperiod 3
Block  p-block
Electron configuration[Ne] 3s2 3p1
Electrons per shell2, 8, 3
Physical properties
Phase at STPsolid
Melting point933.47 K ​(660.32 °C, ​1220.58 °F)
Boiling point2743 K ​(2470 °C, ​4478 °F)
Density (near r.t.)2.70 g/cm3
when liquid (at m.p.)2.375 g/cm3
Heat of fusion10.71 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization284 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity24.20 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K) 1482 1632 1817 2054 2364 2790
Atomic properties
Oxidation states−2, −1, 0,[3] +1,[4] +2,[5] +3 (an amphoteric oxide)
ElectronegativityPauling scale: 1.61
Ionization energies
  • 1st: 577.5 kJ/mol
  • 2nd: 1816.7 kJ/mol
  • 3rd: 2744.8 kJ/mol
  • (more)
Atomic radiusempirical: 143 pm
Covalent radius121±4 pm
Van der Waals radius184 pm
Spectral lines of aluminium
Other properties
Natural occurrenceprimordial
Crystal structureface-centered cubic (fcc)
Speed of sound thin rod(rolled) 5000 m/s (at r.t.)
Thermal expansion23.1 µm/(m⋅K) (at 25 °C)
Thermal conductivity237 W/(m⋅K)
Electrical resistivity26.5 nΩ⋅m (at 20 °C)
Magnetic orderingparamagnetic[6]
Molar magnetic susceptibility+16.5×10−6 cm3/mol
Young's modulus70 GPa
Shear modulus26 GPa
Bulk modulus76 GPa
Poisson ratio0.35
Mohs hardness2.75
Vickers hardness160–350 MPa
Brinell hardness160–550 MPa
CAS Number7429-90-5
History
Namingfrom alumine, obsolete name for alumina
PredictionAntoine Lavoisier (1782)
DiscoveryHans Christian Ørsted (1824)
Named byHumphry Davy (1812[a])
Main isotopes of aluminium
Iso­tope Decay
abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
26Al trace 7.17×105 y β+ (85%) 26Mg
ε (15%) 26Mg
γ
27Al 100% stable
 Category: Aluminium
| references

Chemically, aluminium is a post-transition metal in the boron group; as is common for the group, aluminium forms compounds primarily in the +3 oxidation state. The aluminium cation Al3+ is small and highly charged; as such, it is polarizing, and bonds aluminium forms tend towards covalency. The strong affinity towards oxygen leads to aluminium's common association with oxygen in nature in the form of oxides; for this reason, aluminium is found on Earth primarily in rocks in the crust, where it is the third most abundant element after oxygen and silicon, rather than in the mantle, and virtually never as the free metal.

The discovery of aluminium was announced in 1825 by Danish physicist Hans Christian Ørsted. The first industrial production of aluminium was initiated by French chemist Henri Étienne Sainte-Claire Deville in 1856. Aluminium became much more available to the public with the Hall–Héroult process developed independently by French engineer Paul Héroult and American engineer Charles Martin Hall in 1886, and the mass production of aluminium led to its extensive use in industry and everyday life. In World Wars I and II, aluminium was a crucial strategic resource for aviation. In 1954, aluminium became the most produced non-ferrous metal, surpassing copper. In the 21st century, most aluminium was consumed in transportation, engineering, construction, and packaging in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan.

Despite its prevalence in the environment, no living organism is known to use aluminium salts metabolically, but aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals. Because of the abundance of these salts, the potential for a biological role for them is of interest, and studies continue.

Physical characteristics

Isotopes

Of aluminium isotopes, only 27
Al
is stable. This situation is common for elements with an odd atomic number.[b] It is the only primordial aluminium isotope, i.e. the only one that has existed on Earth in its current form since the formation of the planet. Nearly all aluminium on Earth is present as this isotope, which makes it a mononuclidic element and means that its standard atomic weight is virtually the same as that of the isotope. This makes aluminium very useful in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), as its single stable isotope has a high NMR sensitivity.[8] The standard atomic weight of aluminium is low in comparison with many other metals.[c]

All other isotopes of aluminium are radioactive. The most stable of these is 26Al: while it was present along with stable 27Al in the interstellar medium from which the Solar System formed, having been produced by stellar nucleosynthesis as well, its half-life is only 717,000 years and therefore a detectable amount has not survived since the formation of the planet.[10] However, minute traces of 26Al are produced from argon in the atmosphere by spallation caused by cosmic ray protons. The ratio of 26Al to 10Be has been used for radiodating of geological processes over 105 to 106 year time scales, in particular transport, deposition, sediment storage, burial times, and erosion.[11] Most meteorite scientists believe that the energy released by the decay of 26Al was responsible for the melting and differentiation of some asteroids after their formation 4.55 billion years ago.[12]

The remaining isotopes of aluminium, with mass numbers ranging from 22 to 43, all have half-lives well under an hour. Three metastable states are known, all with half-lives under a minute.[7]

Electron shell

An aluminium atom has 13 electrons, arranged in an electron configuration of [Ne] 3s2 3p1,[13] with three electrons beyond a stable noble gas configuration. Accordingly, the combined first three ionization energies of aluminium are far lower than the fourth ionization energy alone.[14] Such an electron configuration is shared with the other well-characterized members of its group, boron, gallium, indium, and thallium; it is also expected for nihonium. Aluminium can relatively easily surrender its three outermost electrons in many chemical reactions (see below). The electronegativity of aluminium is 1.61 (Pauling scale).[15]

 
High-resolution STEM-HAADF micrograph of Al atoms viewed along the [001] zone axis.

A free aluminium atom has a radius of 143 pm.[16] With the three outermost electrons removed, the radius shrinks to 39 pm for a 4-coordinated atom or 53.5 pm for a 6-coordinated atom.[16] At standard temperature and pressure, aluminium atoms (when not affected by atoms of other elements) form a face-centered cubic crystal system bound by metallic bonding provided by atoms' outermost electrons; hence aluminium (at these conditions) is a metal.[17] This crystal system is shared by many other metals, such as lead and copper; the size of a unit cell of aluminium is comparable to that of those other metals.[17] The system, however, is not shared by the other members of its group; boron has ionization energies too high to allow metallization, thallium has a hexagonal close-packed structure, and gallium and indium have unusual structures that are not close-packed like those of aluminium and thallium. The few electrons that are available for metallic bonding in aluminium metal are a probable cause for it being soft with a low melting point and low electrical resistivity.[18]

Bulk

Aluminium metal has an appearance ranging from silvery white to dull gray, depending on the surface roughness.[d] Aluminium mirrors are the most reflective of all metal mirrors for the near ultraviolet and far infrared light, and one of the most reflective in the visible spectrum, nearly on par with silver, and the two therefore look similar. Aluminium is also good at reflecting solar radiation, although prolonged exposure to sunlight in air adds wear to the surface of the metal; this may be prevented if aluminium is anodized, which adds a protective layer of oxide on the surface.

The density of aluminium is 2.70 g/cm3, about 1/3 that of steel, much lower than other commonly encountered metals, making aluminium parts easily identifiable through their lightness.[21] Aluminium's low density compared to most other metals arises from the fact that its nuclei are much lighter, while difference in the unit cell size does not compensate for this difference. The only lighter metals are the metals of groups 1 and 2, which apart from beryllium and magnesium are too reactive for structural use (and beryllium is very toxic).[22] Aluminium is not as strong or stiff as steel, but the low density makes up for this in the aerospace industry and for many other applications where light weight and relatively high strength are crucial.[23]

Pure aluminium is quite soft and lacking in strength. In most applications various aluminium alloys are used instead because of their higher strength and hardness.[24] The yield strength of pure aluminium is 7–11 MPa, while aluminium alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa.[25] Aluminium is ductile, with a percent elongation of 50-70%,[26] and malleable allowing it to be easily drawn and extruded.[27] It is also easily machined and cast.[27]

Aluminium is an excellent thermal and electrical conductor, having around 60% the conductivity of copper, both thermal and electrical, while having only 30% of copper's density.[28] Aluminium is capable of superconductivity, with a superconducting critical temperature of 1.2 kelvin and a critical magnetic field of about 100 gauss (10 milliteslas).[29] It is paramagnetic and thus essentially unaffected by static magnetic fields.[30] The high electrical conductivity, however, means that it is strongly affected by alternating magnetic fields through the induction of eddy currents.[31]

Chemistry

Aluminium combines characteristics of pre- and post-transition metals. Since it has few available electrons for metallic bonding, like its heavier group 13 congeners, it has the characteristic physical properties of a post-transition metal, with longer-than-expected interatomic distances.[18] Furthermore, as Al3+ is a small and highly charged cation, it is strongly polarizing and bonding in aluminium compounds tends towards covalency;[32] this behavior is similar to that of beryllium (Be2+), and the two display an example of a diagonal relationship.[33]

The underlying core under aluminium's valence shell is that of the preceding noble gas, whereas those of its heavier congeners gallium, indium, thallium, and nihonium also include a filled d-subshell and in some cases a filled f-subshell. Hence, the inner electrons of aluminium shield the valence electrons almost completely, unlike those of aluminium's heavier congeners. As such, aluminium is the most electropositive metal in its group, and its hydroxide is in fact more basic than that of gallium.[32][e] Aluminium also bears minor similarities to the metalloid boron in the same group: AlX3 compounds are valence isoelectronic to BX3 compounds (they have the same valence electronic structure), and both behave as Lewis acids and readily form adducts.[34] Additionally, one of the main motifs of boron chemistry is regular icosahedral structures, and aluminium forms an important part of many icosahedral quasicrystal alloys, including the Al–Zn–Mg class.[35]

Aluminium has a high chemical affinity to oxygen, which renders it suitable for use as a reducing agent in the thermite reaction. A fine powder of aluminium metal reacts explosively on contact with liquid oxygen; under normal conditions, however, aluminium forms a thin oxide layer (~5 nm at room temperature)[36] that protects the metal from further corrosion by oxygen, water, or dilute acid, a process termed passivation.[32][37] Because of its general resistance to corrosion, aluminium is one of the few metals that retains silvery reflectance in finely powdered form, making it an important component of silver-colored paints.[38] Aluminium is not attacked by oxidizing acids because of its passivation. This allows aluminium to be used to store reagents such as nitric acid, concentrated sulfuric acid, and some organic acids.[39]

In hot concentrated hydrochloric acid, aluminium reacts with water with evolution of hydrogen, and in aqueous sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide at room temperature to form aluminates—protective passivation under these conditions is negligible.[40] Aqua regia also dissolves aluminium.[39] Aluminium is corroded by dissolved chlorides, such as common sodium chloride, which is why household plumbing is never made from aluminium.[40] The oxide layer on aluminium is also destroyed by contact with mercury due to amalgamation or with salts of some electropositive metals.[32] As such, the strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion-resistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper,[25] and aluminium's corrosion resistance is greatly reduced by aqueous salts, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals.[18]

Aluminium reacts with most nonmetals upon heating, forming compounds such as aluminium nitride (AlN), aluminium sulfide (Al2S3), and the aluminium halides (AlX3). It also forms a wide range of intermetallic compounds involving metals from every group on the periodic table.[32]

Inorganic compounds

The vast majority of compounds, including all aluminium-containing minerals and all commercially significant aluminium compounds, feature aluminium in the oxidation state 3+. The coordination number of such compounds varies, but generally Al3+ is either six- or four-coordinate. Almost all compounds of aluminium(III) are colorless.[32]

 
Aluminium hydrolysis as a function of pH. Coordinated water molecules are omitted. (Data from Baes and Mesmer)[41]

In aqueous solution, Al3+ exists as the hexaaqua cation [Al(H2O)6]3+, which has an approximate Ka of 10−5.[8] Such solutions are acidic as this cation can act as a proton donor and progressively hydrolyze until a precipitate of aluminium hydroxide, Al(OH)3, forms. This is useful for clarification of water, as the precipitate nucleates on suspended particles in the water, hence removing them. Increasing the pH even further leads to the hydroxide dissolving again as aluminate, [Al(H2O)2(OH)4], is formed.

Aluminium hydroxide forms both salts and aluminates and dissolves in acid and alkali, as well as on fusion with acidic and basic oxides.[32] This behavior of Al(OH)3 is termed amphoterism and is characteristic of weakly basic cations that form insoluble hydroxides and whose hydrated species can also donate their protons. One effect of this is that aluminium salts with weak acids are hydrolyzed in water to the aquated hydroxide and the corresponding nonmetal hydride: for example, aluminium sulfide yields hydrogen sulfide. However, some salts like aluminium carbonate exist in aqueous solution but are unstable as such; and only incomplete hydrolysis takes place for salts with strong acids, such as the halides, nitrate, and sulfate. For similar reasons, anhydrous aluminium salts cannot be made by heating their "hydrates": hydrated aluminium chloride is in fact not AlCl3·6H2O but [Al(H2O)6]Cl3, and the Al–O bonds are so strong that heating is not sufficient to break them and form Al–Cl bonds instead:[32]

2[Al(H2O)6]Cl3 heat  Al2O3 + 6 HCl + 9 H2O

All four trihalides are well known. Unlike the structures of the three heavier trihalides, aluminium fluoride (AlF3) features six-coordinate aluminium, which explains its involatility and insolubility as well as high heat of formation. Each aluminium atom is surrounded by six fluorine atoms in a distorted octahedral arrangement, with each fluorine atom being shared between the corners of two octahedra. Such {AlF6} units also exist in complex fluorides such as cryolite, Na3AlF6.[f] AlF3 melts at 1,290 °C (2,354 °F) and is made by reaction of aluminium oxide with hydrogen fluoride gas at 700 °C (1,300 °F).[42]

With heavier halides, the coordination numbers are lower. The other trihalides are dimeric or polymeric with tetrahedral four-coordinate aluminium centers.[g] Aluminium trichloride (AlCl3) has a layered polymeric structure below its melting point of 192.4 °C (378 °F) but transforms on melting to Al2Cl6 dimers. At higher temperatures those increasingly dissociate into trigonal planar AlCl3 monomers similar to the structure of BCl3. Aluminium tribromide and aluminium triiodide form Al2X6 dimers in all three phases and hence do not show such significant changes of properties upon phase change.[42] These materials are prepared by treating aluminium metal with the halogen. The aluminium trihalides form many addition compounds or complexes; their Lewis acidic nature makes them useful as catalysts for the Friedel–Crafts reactions. Aluminium trichloride has major industrial uses involving this reaction, such as in the manufacture of anthraquinones and styrene; it is also often used as the precursor for many other aluminium compounds and as a reagent for converting nonmetal fluorides into the corresponding chlorides (a transhalogenation reaction).[42]

Aluminium forms one stable oxide with the chemical formula Al2O3, commonly called alumina.[43] It can be found in nature in the mineral corundum, α-alumina;[44] there is also a γ-alumina phase.[8] Its crystalline form, corundum, is very hard (Mohs hardness 9), has a high melting point of 2,045 °C (3,713 °F), has very low volatility, is chemically inert, and a good electrical insulator, it is often used in abrasives (such as toothpaste), as a refractory material, and in ceramics, as well as being the starting material for the electrolytic production of aluminium metal. Sapphire and ruby are impure corundum contaminated with trace amounts of other metals.[8] The two main oxide-hydroxides, AlO(OH), are boehmite and diaspore. There are three main trihydroxides: bayerite, gibbsite, and nordstrandite, which differ in their crystalline structure (polymorphs). Many other intermediate and related structures are also known.[8] Most are produced from ores by a variety of wet processes using acid and base. Heating the hydroxides leads to formation of corundum. These materials are of central importance to the production of aluminium and are themselves extremely useful. Some mixed oxide phases are also very useful, such as spinel (MgAl2O4), Na-β-alumina (NaAl11O17), and tricalcium aluminate (Ca3Al2O6, an important mineral phase in Portland cement).[8]

The only stable chalcogenides under normal conditions are aluminium sulfide (Al2S3), selenide (Al2Se3), and telluride (Al2Te3). All three are prepared by direct reaction of their elements at about 1,000 °C (1,800 °F) and quickly hydrolyze completely in water to yield aluminium hydroxide and the respective hydrogen chalcogenide. As aluminium is a small atom relative to these chalcogens, these have four-coordinate tetrahedral aluminium with various polymorphs having structures related to wurtzite, with two-thirds of the possible metal sites occupied either in an orderly (α) or random (β) fashion; the sulfide also has a γ form related to γ-alumina, and an unusual high-temperature hexagonal form where half the aluminium atoms have tetrahedral four-coordination and the other half have trigonal bipyramidal five-coordination. [45]

Four pnictidesaluminium nitride (AlN), aluminium phosphide (AlP), aluminium arsenide (AlAs), and aluminium antimonide (AlSb) – are known. They are all III-V semiconductors isoelectronic to silicon and germanium, all of which but AlN have the zinc blende structure. All four can be made by high-temperature (and possibly high-pressure) direct reaction of their component elements.[45]

Aluminium alloys well with most other metals (with the exception of most alkali metals and group 13 metals) and over 150 intermetallics with other metals are known. Preparation involves heating fixed metals together in certain proportion, followed by gradual cooling and annealing. Bonding in them is predominantly metallic and the crystal structure primarily depends on efficiency of packing.[46]

There are few compounds with lower oxidation states. A few aluminium(I) compounds exist: AlF, AlCl, AlBr, and AlI exist in the gaseous phase when the respective trihalide is heated with aluminium, and at cryogenic temperatures.[42] A stable derivative of aluminium monoiodide is the cyclic adduct formed with triethylamine, Al4I4(NEt3)4. Al2O and Al2S also exist but are very unstable.[47] Very simple aluminium(II) compounds are invoked or observed in the reactions of Al metal with oxidants. For example, aluminium monoxide, AlO, has been detected in the gas phase after explosion[48] and in stellar absorption spectra.[49] More thoroughly investigated are compounds of the formula R4Al2 which contain an Al–Al bond and where R is a large organic ligand.[50]

Organoaluminium compounds and related hydrides

 
Structure of trimethylaluminium, a compound that features five-coordinate carbon.

A variety of compounds of empirical formula AlR3 and AlR1.5Cl1.5 exist.[51] The aluminium trialkyls and triaryls are reactive, volatile, and colorless liquids or low-melting solids. They catch fire spontaneously in air and react with water, thus necessitating precautions when handling them. They often form dimers, unlike their boron analogues, but this tendency diminishes for branched-chain alkyls (e.g. Pri, Bui, Me3CCH2); for example, triisobutylaluminium exists as an equilibrium mixture of the monomer and dimer.[52][53] These dimers, such as trimethylaluminium (Al2Me6), usually feature tetrahedral Al centers formed by dimerization with some alkyl group bridging between both aluminium atoms. They are hard acids and react readily with ligands, forming adducts. In industry, they are mostly used in alkene insertion reactions, as discovered by Karl Ziegler, most importantly in "growth reactions" that form long-chain unbranched primary alkenes and alcohols, and in the low-pressure polymerization of ethene and propene. There are also some heterocyclic and cluster organoaluminium compounds involving Al–N bonds.[52]

The industrially most important aluminium hydride is lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4), which is used in as a reducing agent in organic chemistry. It can be produced from lithium hydride and aluminium trichloride.[54] The simplest hydride, aluminium hydride or alane, is not as important. It is a polymer with the formula (AlH3)n, in contrast to the corresponding boron hydride that is a dimer with the formula (BH3)2.[54]

Natural occurrence

Space

Aluminium's per-particle abundance in the Solar System is 3.15 ppm (parts per million).[55][h] It is the twelfth most abundant of all elements and third most abundant among the elements that have odd atomic numbers, after hydrogen and nitrogen.[55] The only stable isotope of aluminium, 27Al, is the eighteenth most abundant nucleus in the Universe. It is created almost entirely after fusion of carbon in massive stars that will later become Type II supernovas: this fusion creates 26Mg, which, upon capturing free protons and neutrons becomes aluminium. Some smaller quantities of 27Al are created in hydrogen burning shells of evolved stars, where 26Mg can capture free protons.[56] Essentially all aluminium now in existence is 27Al. 26Al was present in the early Solar System with abundance of 0.005% relative to 27Al but its half-life of 728,000 years is too short for any original nuclei to survive; 26Al is therefore extinct.[56] Unlike for 27Al, hydrogen burning is the primary source of 26Al, with the nuclide emerging after a nucleus of 25Mg catches a free proton. However, the trace quantities of 26Al that do exist are the most common gamma ray emitter in the interstellar gas;[56] if the original 26Al were still present, gamma ray maps of the Milky Way would be brighter.[56]

Earth

 
Bauxite, a major aluminium ore. The red-brown color is due to the presence of iron oxide minerals.

Overall, the Earth is about 1.59% aluminium by mass (seventh in abundance by mass).[57] Aluminium occurs in greater proportion in the Earth's crust than in the Universe at large, because aluminium easily forms the oxide and becomes bound into rocks and stays in the Earth's crust, while less reactive metals sink to the core.[56] In the Earth's crust, aluminium is the most abundant metallic element (8.23% by mass[26]) and the third most abundant of all elements (after oxygen and silicon).[58] A large number of silicates in the Earth's crust contain aluminium.[59] In contrast, the Earth's mantle is only 2.38% aluminium by mass.[60] Aluminium also occurs in seawater at a concentration of 2 μg/kg.[26]

Because of its strong affinity for oxygen, aluminium is almost never found in the elemental state; instead it is found in oxides or silicates. Feldspars, the most common group of minerals in the Earth's crust, are aluminosilicates. Aluminium also occurs in the minerals beryl, cryolite, garnet, spinel, and turquoise.[61] Impurities in Al2O3, such as chromium and iron, yield the gemstones ruby and sapphire, respectively.[62] Native aluminium metal is extremely rare and can only be found as a minor phase in low oxygen fugacity environments, such as the interiors of certain volcanoes.[63] Native aluminium has been reported in cold seeps in the northeastern continental slope of the South China Sea. It is possible that these deposits resulted from bacterial reduction of tetrahydroxoaluminate Al(OH)4.[64]

Although aluminium is a common and widespread element, not all aluminium minerals are economically viable sources of the metal. Almost all metallic aluminium is produced from the ore bauxite (AlOx(OH)3–2x). Bauxite occurs as a weathering product of low iron and silica bedrock in tropical climatic conditions.[65] In 2017, most bauxite was mined in Australia, China, Guinea, and India.[66]

History

 
Friedrich Wöhler, the chemist who first thoroughly described metallic elemental aluminium

The history of aluminium has been shaped by usage of alum. The first written record of alum, made by Greek historian Herodotus, dates back to the 5th century BCE.[67] The ancients are known to have used alum as a dyeing mordant and for city defense.[67] After the Crusades, alum, an indispensable good in the European fabric industry,[68] was a subject of international commerce;[69] it was imported to Europe from the eastern Mediterranean until the mid-15th century.[70]

The nature of alum remained unknown. Around 1530, Swiss physician Paracelsus suggested alum was a salt of an earth of alum.[71] In 1595, German doctor and chemist Andreas Libavius experimentally confirmed this.[72] In 1722, German chemist Friedrich Hoffmann announced his belief that the base of alum was a distinct earth.[73] In 1754, German chemist Andreas Sigismund Marggraf synthesized alumina by boiling clay in sulfuric acid and subsequently adding potash.[73]

Attempts to produce aluminium metal date back to 1760.[74] The first successful attempt, however, was completed in 1824 by Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian Ørsted. He reacted anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium amalgam, yielding a lump of metal looking similar to tin.[75][76][77] He presented his results and demonstrated a sample of the new metal in 1825.[78][79] In 1827, German chemist Friedrich Wöhler repeated Ørsted's experiments but did not identify any aluminium.[80] (The reason for this inconsistency was only discovered in 1921.)[81] He conducted a similar experiment in the same year by mixing anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium and produced a powder of aluminium.[77] In 1845, he was able to produce small pieces of the metal and described some physical properties of this metal.[81] For many years thereafter, Wöhler was credited as the discoverer of aluminium.[82]

 
The statue of Anteros in Piccadilly Circus, London, was made in 1893 and is one of the first statues cast in aluminium.

As Wöhler's method could not yield great quantities of aluminium, the metal remained rare; its cost exceeded that of gold.[80] The first industrial production of aluminium was established in 1856 by French chemist Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville and companions.[83] Deville had discovered that aluminium trichloride could be reduced by sodium, which was more convenient and less expensive than potassium, which Wöhler had used.[84] Even then, aluminium was still not of great purity and produced aluminium differed in properties by sample.[85] Because of its electricity-conducting capacity, aluminium was used as the cap of the Washington Monument, completed in 1885. The tallest building in the world at the time, the non-corroding metal cap was intended to serve as a lightning rod peak.

The first industrial large-scale production method was independently developed in 1886 by French engineer Paul Héroult and American engineer Charles Martin Hall; it is now known as the Hall–Héroult process.[86] The Hall–Héroult process converts alumina into metal. Austrian chemist Carl Joseph Bayer discovered a way of purifying bauxite to yield alumina, now known as the Bayer process, in 1889.[87] Modern production of the aluminium metal is based on the Bayer and Hall–Héroult processes.[88]

Prices of aluminium dropped and aluminium became widely used in jewelry, everyday items, eyeglass frames, optical instruments, tableware, and foil in the 1890s and early 20th century. Aluminium's ability to form hard yet light alloys with other metals provided the metal with many uses at the time.[89] During World War I, major governments demanded large shipments of aluminium for light strong airframes;[90] during World War II, demand by major governments for aviation was even higher.[91][92][93]

By the mid-20th century, aluminium had become a part of everyday life and an essential component of housewares.[94] In 1954, production of aluminium surpassed that of copper,[i] historically second in production only to iron,[97] making it the most produced non-ferrous metal. During the mid-20th century, aluminium emerged as a civil engineering material, with building applications in both basic construction and interior finish work,[98] and increasingly being used in military engineering, for both airplanes and land armor vehicle engines.[99] Earth's first artificial satellite, launched in 1957, consisted of two separate aluminium semi-spheres joined and all subsequent space vehicles have used aluminium to some extent.[88] The aluminium can was invented in 1956 and employed as a storage for drinks in 1958.[100]

 
World production of aluminium since 1900

Throughout the 20th century, the production of aluminium rose rapidly: while the world production of aluminium in 1900 was 6,800 metric tons, the annual production first exceeded 100,000 metric tons in 1916; 1,000,000 tons in 1941; 10,000,000 tons in 1971.[95] In the 1970s, the increased demand for aluminium made it an exchange commodity; it entered the London Metal Exchange, the oldest industrial metal exchange in the world, in 1978.[88] The output continued to grow: the annual production of aluminium exceeded 50,000,000 metric tons in 2013.[95]

The real price for aluminium declined from $14,000 per metric ton in 1900 to $2,340 in 1948 (in 1998 United States dollars).[95] Extraction and processing costs were lowered over technological progress and the scale of the economies. However, the need to exploit lower-grade poorer quality deposits and the use of fast increasing input costs (above all, energy) increased the net cost of aluminium;[101] the real price began to grow in the 1970s with the rise of energy cost.[102] Production moved from the industrialized countries to countries where production was cheaper.[103] Production costs in the late 20th century changed because of advances in technology, lower energy prices, exchange rates of the United States dollar, and alumina prices.[104] The BRIC countries' combined share in primary production and primary consumption grew substantially in the first decade of the 21st century.[105] China is accumulating an especially large share of the world's production thanks to an abundance of resources, cheap energy, and governmental stimuli;[106] it also increased its consumption share from 2% in 1972 to 40% in 2010.[107] In the United States, Western Europe, and Japan, most aluminium was consumed in transportation, engineering, construction, and packaging.[108] In 2021, prices for industrial metals such as aluminium have soared to near-record levels as energy shortages in China drive up costs for electricity.[109]

Etymology

The names aluminium and aluminum are derived from the word alumine, an obsolete term for alumina,[j] a naturally occurring oxide of aluminium.[111] Alumine was borrowed from French, which in turn derived it from alumen, the classical Latin name for alum, the mineral from which it was collected.[112] The Latin word alumen stems from the Proto-Indo-European root *alu- meaning "bitter" or "beer".[113]

 
1897 American advertisement featuring the aluminum spelling

Origins

British chemist Humphry Davy, who performed a number of experiments aimed to isolate the metal, is credited as the person who named the element. The first name proposed for the metal to be isolated from alum was alumium, which Davy suggested in an 1808 article on his electrochemical research, published in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.[114] It appeared that the name was created from the English word alum and the Latin suffix -ium; but it was customary then to give elements names originating in Latin, so that this name was not adopted universally. This name was criticized by contemporary chemists from France, Germany, and Sweden, who insisted the metal should be named for the oxide, alumina, from which it would be isolated.[115] The English name alum does not come directly from Latin, whereas alumine/alumina obviously comes from the Latin word alumen (upon declension, alumen changes to alumin-).

One example was Essai sur la Nomenclature chimique (July 1811), written in French by a Swedish chemist, Jöns Jacob Berzelius, in which the name aluminium is given to the element that would be synthesized from alum.[116][k] (Another article in the same journal issue also gives the name aluminium to the metal whose oxide is the basis of sapphire.)[118] A January 1811 summary of one of Davy's lectures at the Royal Society mentioned the name aluminium as a possibility.[119] The next year, Davy published a chemistry textbook in which he used the spelling aluminum.[120] Both spellings have coexisted since. Their usage is regional: aluminum dominates in the United States and Canada; aluminium, in the rest of the English-speaking world.[121]

Spelling

In 1812, a British scientist, Thomas Young,[122] wrote an anonymous review of Davy's book, in which he proposed the name aluminium instead of aluminum, which he thought had a "less classical sound".[123] This name did catch on: although the -um spelling was occasionally used in Britain, the American scientific language used -ium from the start.[124] Most scientists throughout the world used -ium in the 19th century;[121] and it was entrenched in many other European languages, such as French, German, and Dutch.[l] In 1828, an American lexicographer, Noah Webster, entered only the aluminum spelling in his American Dictionary of the English Language.[125] In the 1830s, the -um spelling gained usage in the United States; by the 1860s, it had become the more common spelling there outside science.[124] In 1892, Hall used the -um spelling in his advertising handbill for his new electrolytic method of producing the metal, despite his constant use of the -ium spelling in all the patents he filed between 1886 and 1903: it is unknown whether this spelling was introduced by mistake or intentionally; but Hall preferred aluminum since its introduction because it resembled platinum, the name of a prestigious metal.[126] By 1890, both spellings had been common in the United States, the -ium spelling being slightly more common; by 1895, the situation had reversed; by 1900, aluminum had become twice as common as aluminium; in the next decade, the -um spelling dominated American usage. In 1925, the American Chemical Society adopted this spelling.[121]

The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) adopted aluminium as the standard international name for the element in 1990.[127] In 1993, they recognized aluminum as an acceptable variant;[127] the most recent 2005 edition of the IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry also acknowledges this spelling.[128] IUPAC official publications use the -ium spelling as primary, and they list both where it is appropriate.[m]

Production and refinement

The production of aluminium starts with the extraction of bauxite rock from the ground. The bauxite is processed and transformed using the Bayer process into alumina, which is then processed using the Hall–Héroult process, resulting in the final aluminium metal.

Aluminium production is highly energy-consuming, and so the producers tend to locate smelters in places where electric power is both plentiful and inexpensive.[130] As of 2019, the world's largest smelters of aluminium are located in China, India, Russia, Canada, and the United Arab Emirates,[131] while China is by far the top producer of aluminium with a world share of fifty-five percent.

According to the International Resource Panel's Metal Stocks in Society report, the global per capita stock of aluminium in use in society (i.e. in cars, buildings, electronics, etc.) is 80 kg (180 lb). Much of this is in more-developed countries (350–500 kg (770–1,100 lb) per capita) rather than less-developed countries (35 kg (77 lb) per capita).[132]

Bayer process

Bauxite is converted to alumina by the Bayer process. Bauxite is blended for uniform composition and then is ground. The resulting slurry is mixed with a hot solution of sodium hydroxide; the mixture is then treated in a digester vessel at a pressure well above atmospheric, dissolving the aluminium hydroxide in bauxite while converting impurities into relatively insoluble compounds:[133]

Al(OH)3 + Na+ + OH → Na+ + [Al(OH)4]

After this reaction, the slurry is at a temperature above its atmospheric boiling point. It is cooled by removing steam as pressure is reduced. The bauxite residue is separated from the solution and discarded. The solution, free of solids, is seeded with small crystals of aluminium hydroxide; this causes decomposition of the [Al(OH)4] ions to aluminium hydroxide. After about half of aluminium has precipitated, the mixture is sent to classifiers. Small crystals of aluminium hydroxide are collected to serve as seeding agents; coarse particles are converted to alumina by heating; the excess solution is removed by evaporation, (if needed) purified, and recycled.[133]

Hall–Héroult process

 
Extrusion billets of aluminium

The conversion of alumina to aluminium metal is achieved by the Hall–Héroult process. In this energy-intensive process, a solution of alumina in a molten (950 and 980 °C (1,740 and 1,800 °F)) mixture of cryolite (Na3AlF6) with calcium fluoride is electrolyzed to produce metallic aluminium. The liquid aluminium metal sinks to the bottom of the solution and is tapped off, and usually cast into large blocks called aluminium billets for further processing.[39]

Anodes of the electrolysis cell are made of carbon—the most resistant material against fluoride corrosion—and either bake at the process or are prebaked. The former, also called Söderberg anodes, are less power-efficient and fumes released during baking are costly to collect, which is why they are being replaced by prebaked anodes even though they save the power, energy, and labor to prebake the cathodes. Carbon for anodes should be preferably pure so that neither aluminium nor the electrolyte is contaminated with ash. Despite carbon's resistivity against corrosion, it is still consumed at a rate of 0.4–0.5 kg per each kilogram of produced aluminium. Cathodes are made of anthracite; high purity for them is not required because impurities leach only very slowly. The cathode is consumed at a rate of 0.02–0.04 kg per each kilogram of produced aluminium. A cell is usually terminated after 2–6 years following a failure of the cathode.[39]

The Hall–Heroult process produces aluminium with a purity of above 99%. Further purification can be done by the Hoopes process. This process involves the electrolysis of molten aluminium with a sodium, barium, and aluminium fluoride electrolyte. The resulting aluminium has a purity of 99.99%.[39][134]

Electric power represents about 20 to 40% of the cost of producing aluminium, depending on the location of the smelter. Aluminium production consumes roughly 5% of electricity generated in the United States.[127] Because of this, alternatives to the Hall–Héroult process have been researched, but none has turned out to be economically feasible.[39]

Recycling

 
Common bins for recyclable waste along with a bin for unrecyclable waste. The bin with a yellow top is labeled "aluminum". Rhodes, Greece.

Recovery of the metal through recycling has become an important task of the aluminium industry. Recycling was a low-profile activity until the late 1960s, when the growing use of aluminium beverage cans brought it to public awareness.[135] Recycling involves melting the scrap, a process that requires only 5% of the energy used to produce aluminium from ore, though a significant part (up to 15% of the input material) is lost as dross (ash-like oxide).[136] An aluminium stack melter produces significantly less dross, with values reported below 1%.[137]

White dross from primary aluminium production and from secondary recycling operations still contains useful quantities of aluminium that can be extracted industrially. The process produces aluminium billets, together with a highly complex waste material. This waste is difficult to manage. It reacts with water, releasing a mixture of gases (including, among others, hydrogen, acetylene, and ammonia), which spontaneously ignites on contact with air;[138] contact with damp air results in the release of copious quantities of ammonia gas. Despite these difficulties, the waste is used as a filler in asphalt and concrete.[139]

Applications

 
Aluminium-bodied Austin A40 Sports (c. 1951)

Metal

The global production of aluminium in 2016 was 58.8 million metric tons. It exceeded that of any other metal except iron (1,231 million metric tons).[140][141]

Aluminium is almost always alloyed, which markedly improves its mechanical properties, especially when tempered. For example, the common aluminium foils and beverage cans are alloys of 92% to 99% aluminium.[142] The main alloying agents are copper, zinc, magnesium, manganese, and silicon (e.g., duralumin) with the levels of other metals in a few percent by weight.[143] Aluminium, both wrought and cast, has been alloyed with: manganese, silicon, magnesium, copper and zinc among others.[144] For example, the Kynal family of alloys was developed by the British chemical manufacturer Imperial Chemical Industries.

The major uses for aluminium metal are in:[145]

  • Transportation (automobiles, aircraft, trucks, railway cars, marine vessels, bicycles, spacecraft, etc.). Aluminium is used because of its low density;
  • Packaging (cans, foil, frame, etc.). Aluminium is used because it is non-toxic (see below), non-adsorptive, and splinter-proof;
  • Building and construction (windows, doors, siding, building wire, sheathing, roofing, etc.). Since steel is cheaper, aluminium is used when lightness, corrosion resistance, or engineering features are important;
  • Electricity-related uses (conductor alloys, motors, and generators, transformers, capacitors, etc.). Aluminium is used because it is relatively cheap, highly conductive, has adequate mechanical strength and low density, and resists corrosion;
  • A wide range of household items, from cooking utensils to furniture. Low density, good appearance, ease of fabrication, and durability are the key factors of aluminium usage;
  • Machinery and equipment (processing equipment, pipes, tools). Aluminium is used because of its corrosion resistance, non-pyrophoricity, and mechanical strength.
  • Portable computer cases. Currently rarely used without alloying,[146] but aluminium can be recycled and clean aluminium has residual market value: for example, the used beverage can (UBC) material was used to encase the electronic components of MacBook Air laptop, Pixel 5 smartphone or Summit Lite smartwatch.[147][148][149]

Compounds

The great majority (about 90%) of aluminium oxide is converted to metallic aluminium.[133] Being a very hard material (Mohs hardness 9),[150] alumina is widely used as an abrasive;[151] being extraordinarily chemically inert, it is useful in highly reactive environments such as high pressure sodium lamps.[152] Aluminium oxide is commonly used as a catalyst for industrial processes;[133] e.g. the Claus process to convert hydrogen sulfide to sulfur in refineries and to alkylate amines.[153][154] Many industrial catalysts are supported by alumina, meaning that the expensive catalyst material is dispersed over a surface of the inert alumina.[155] Another principal use is as a drying agent or absorbent.[133][156]

 
Laser deposition of alumina on a substrate

Several sulfates of aluminium have industrial and commercial application. Aluminium sulfate (in its hydrate form) is produced on the annual scale of several millions of metric tons.[157] About two-thirds is consumed in water treatment.[157] The next major application is in the manufacture of paper.[157] It is also used as a mordant in dyeing, in pickling seeds, deodorizing of mineral oils, in leather tanning, and in production of other aluminium compounds.[157] Two kinds of alum, ammonium alum and potassium alum, were formerly used as mordants and in leather tanning, but their use has significantly declined following availability of high-purity aluminium sulfate.[157] Anhydrous aluminium chloride is used as a catalyst in chemical and petrochemical industries, the dyeing industry, and in synthesis of various inorganic and organic compounds.[157] Aluminium hydroxychlorides are used in purifying water, in the paper industry, and as antiperspirants.[157] Sodium aluminate is used in treating water and as an accelerator of solidification of cement.[157]

Many aluminium compounds have niche applications, for example:

Aluminized substrates

Aluminizing is the process of coating a structure or material with a thin layer of aluminium. It is done to impart specific traits that the underlying substrate lacks, such as a certain chemical or physical property. Aluminized materials include:

Biology

 
Schematic of aluminium absorption by human skin.[168]

Despite its widespread occurrence in the Earth's crust, aluminium has no known function in biology.[39] At pH 6–9 (relevant for most natural waters), aluminium precipitates out of water as the hydroxide and is hence not available; most elements behaving this way have no biological role or are toxic.[169] Aluminium sulfate has an LD50 of 6207 mg/kg (oral, mouse), which corresponds to 435 grams for an 70 kg (150 lb) person.[39]

Toxicity

Aluminium is classified as a non-carcinogen by the United States Department of Health and Human Services.[170][n] A review published in 1988 said that there was little evidence that normal exposure to aluminium presents a risk to healthy adult,[173] and a 2014 multi-element toxicology review was unable to find deleterious effects of aluminium consumed in amounts not greater than 40 mg/day per kg of body mass.[170] Most aluminium consumed will leave the body in feces; most of the small part of it that enters the bloodstream, will be excreted via urine;[174] nevertheless some aluminium does pass the blood-brain barrier and is lodged preferentially in the brains of Alzheimer's patients.[175][176] Evidence published in 1989 indicates that, for Alzheimer's patients, aluminium may act by electrostatically crosslinking proteins, thus down-regulating genes in the superior temporal gyrus.[177]

Effects

Aluminium, although rarely, can cause vitamin D-resistant osteomalacia, erythropoietin-resistant microcytic anemia, and central nervous system alterations. People with kidney insufficiency are especially at a risk.[170] Chronic ingestion of hydrated aluminium silicates (for excess gastric acidity control) may result in aluminium binding to intestinal contents and increased elimination of other metals, such as iron or zinc; sufficiently high doses (>50 g/day) can cause anemia.[170]

 
There are five major aluminium forms absorbed by human body: the free solvated trivalent cation (Al3+(aq)); low-molecular-weight, neutral, soluble complexes (LMW-Al0(aq)); high-molecular-weight, neutral, soluble complexes (HMW-Al0(aq)); low-molecular-weight, charged, soluble complexes (LMW-Al(L)n+/−(aq)); nano and micro-particulates (Al(L)n(s)). They are transported across cell membranes or cell epi-/endothelia through five major routes: (1) paracellular; (2) transcellular; (3) active transport; (4) channels; (5) adsorptive or receptor-mediated endocytosis.[168]

During the 1988 Camelford water pollution incident people in Camelford had their drinking water contaminated with aluminium sulfate for several weeks. A final report into the incident in 2013 concluded it was unlikely that this had caused long-term health problems.[178]

Aluminium has been suspected of being a possible cause of Alzheimer's disease,[179] but research into this for over 40 years has found, as of 2018, no good evidence of causal effect.[180][181]

Aluminium increases estrogen-related gene expression in human breast cancer cells cultured in the laboratory.[182] In very high doses, aluminium is associated with altered function of the blood–brain barrier.[183] A small percentage of people[184] have contact allergies to aluminium and experience itchy red rashes, headache, muscle pain, joint pain, poor memory, insomnia, depression, asthma, irritable bowel syndrome, or other symptoms upon contact with products containing aluminium.[185]

Exposure to powdered aluminium or aluminium welding fumes can cause pulmonary fibrosis.[186] Fine aluminium powder can ignite or explode, posing another workplace hazard.[187][188]

Exposure routes

Food is the main source of aluminium. Drinking water contains more aluminium than solid food;[170] however, aluminium in food may be absorbed more than aluminium from water.[189] Major sources of human oral exposure to aluminium include food (due to its use in food additives, food and beverage packaging, and cooking utensils), drinking water (due to its use in municipal water treatment), and aluminium-containing medications (particularly antacid/antiulcer and buffered aspirin formulations).[190] Dietary exposure in Europeans averages to 0.2–1.5 mg/kg/week but can be as high as 2.3 mg/kg/week.[170] Higher exposure levels of aluminium are mostly limited to miners, aluminium production workers, and dialysis patients.[191]

Consumption of antacids, antiperspirants, vaccines, and cosmetics provide possible routes of exposure.[192] Consumption of acidic foods or liquids with aluminium enhances aluminium absorption,[193] and maltol has been shown to increase the accumulation of aluminium in nerve and bone tissues.[194]

Treatment

In case of suspected sudden intake of a large amount of aluminium, the only treatment is deferoxamine mesylate which may be given to help eliminate aluminium from the body by chelation.[195][196] However, this should be applied with caution as this reduces not only aluminium body levels, but also those of other metals such as copper or iron.[195]

Environmental effects

 
"Bauxite tailings" storage facility in Stade, Germany. The aluminium industry generates about 70 million tons of this waste annually.

High levels of aluminium occur near mining sites; small amounts of aluminium are released to the environment at the coal-fired power plants or incinerators.[197] Aluminium in the air is washed out by the rain or normally settles down but small particles of aluminium remain in the air for a long time.[197]

Acidic precipitation is the main natural factor to mobilize aluminium from natural sources[170] and the main reason for the environmental effects of aluminium;[198] however, the main factor of presence of aluminium in salt and freshwater are the industrial processes that also release aluminium into air.[170]

In water, aluminium acts as a toxiс agent on gill-breathing animals such as fish when the water is acidic, in which aluminium may precipitate on gills,[199] which causes loss of plasma- and hemolymph ions leading to osmoregulatory failure.[198] Organic complexes of aluminium may be easily absorbed and interfere with metabolism in mammals and birds, even though this rarely happens in practice.[198]

Aluminium is primary among the factors that reduce plant growth on acidic soils. Although it is generally harmless to plant growth in pH-neutral soils, in acid soils the concentration of toxic Al3+ cations increases and disturbs root growth and function.[200][201][202][203] Wheat has developed a tolerance to aluminium, releasing organic compounds that bind to harmful aluminium cations. Sorghum is believed to have the same tolerance mechanism.[204]

Aluminium production possesses its own challenges to the environment on each step of the production process. The major challenge is the greenhouse gas emissions.[191] These gases result from electrical consumption of the smelters and the byproducts of processing. The most potent of these gases are perfluorocarbons from the smelting process.[191] Released sulfur dioxide is one of the primary precursors of acid rain.[191]

Biodegradation of metallic aluminium is extremely rare; most aluminium-corroding organisms do not directly attack or consume the aluminium, but instead produce corrosive wastes.[205][206] The fungus Geotrichum candidum can consume the aluminium in compact discs.[207][208][209] The bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa and the fungus Cladosporium resinae are commonly detected in aircraft fuel tanks that use kerosene-based fuels (not avgas), and laboratory cultures can degrade aluminium.[210]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Davy's 1812 written usage of the word aluminum was predated by other authors' usage of aluminium. However, Davy is often mentioned as the person who named the element; he was the first to coin a name for aluminium: he used alumium in 1808. Other authors did not accept that name, choosing aluminium instead. See below for more details.
  2. ^ No elements with odd atomic numbers have more than two stable isotopes; even-numbered elements have multiple stable isotopes, with tin (element 50) having the highest number of stable isotopes of all elements, ten. The single exception is beryllium which is even-numbered but has only one stable isotope.[7] See Even and odd atomic nuclei for more details.
  3. ^ Most other metals have greater standard atomic weights: for instance, that of iron is 55.8; copper 63.5; lead 207.2.[9] which has consequences for the element's properties (see below)
  4. ^ The two sides of aluminium foil differ in their luster: one is shiny and the other is dull. The difference is due to the small mechanical damage on the surface of dull side arising from the technological process of aluminium foil manufacturing.[19] Both sides reflect similar amounts of visible light, but the shiny side reflects a far greater share of visible light specularly whereas the dull side almost exclusively diffuses light. Both sides of aluminium foil serve as good reflectors (approximately 86%) of visible light and an excellent reflector (as much as 97%) of medium and far infrared radiation.[20]
  5. ^ In fact, aluminium's electropositive behavior, high affinity for oxygen, and highly negative standard electrode potential are all better aligned with those of scandium, yttrium, lanthanum, and actinium, which like aluminium have three valence electrons outside a noble gas core; this series shows continuous trends whereas those of group 13 is broken by the first added d-subshell in gallium and the resulting d-block contraction and the first added f-subshell in thallium and the resulting lanthanide contraction.[32]
  6. ^ These should not be considered as [AlF6]3− complex anions as the Al–F bonds are not significantly different in type from the other M–F bonds.[42]
  7. ^ Such differences in coordination between the fluorides and heavier halides are not unusual, occurring in SnIV and BiIII, for example; even bigger differences occur between CO2 and SiO2.[42]
  8. ^ Abundances in the source are listed relative to silicon rather than in per-particle notation. The sum of all elements per 106 parts of silicon is 2.6682×1010 parts; aluminium comprises 8.410×104 parts.
  9. ^ Compare annual statistics of aluminium[95] and copper[96] production by USGS.
  10. ^ The spelling alumine comes from French, whereas the spelling alumina comes from Latin.[110]
  11. ^ Davy discovered several other elements, including those he named sodium and potassium, after the English words soda and potash. Berzelius referred to them as to natrium and kalium. Berzelius's suggestion was expanded in 1814[117] with his proposed system of one or two-letter chemical symbols, which are used up to the present day; sodium and potassium have the symbols Na and K, respectively, after their Latin names.
  12. ^ Some European languages, like Spanish or Italian, use a different suffix from the Latin -um/-ium to form a name of a metal, some, like Polish or Czech, have a different base for the name of the element, and some, like Russian or Greek, don't use the Latin script altogether.
  13. ^ For instance, see the November–December 2013 issue of Chemistry International: in a table of (some) elements, the element is listed as "aluminium (aluminum)".[129]
  14. ^ While aluminium per se is not carcinogenic, Söderberg aluminium production is, as is noted by the International Agency for Research on Cancer,[171] likely due to exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.[172]

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Bibliography

Further reading

  • Mimi Sheller, Aluminum Dream: The Making of Light Modernity. Cambridge, Mass.: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 2014.

External links

  • Aluminium at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
  • Toxic Substances Portal – Aluminum – from the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, United States Department of Health and Human Services
  • CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Aluminum
  • World production of primary aluminium, by country
  • Price history of aluminum, according to the IMF
  • – from the website of the International Aluminium Institute
  • Emedicine – Aluminium
  • The short film Aluminum is available for free download at the Internet Archive.

aluminium, other, uses, disambiguation, aluminum, north, american, english, chemical, element, with, symbol, atomic, number, density, lower, than, those, other, common, metals, approximately, third, that, steel, great, affinity, towards, oxygen, forms, protect. For other uses see Aluminium disambiguation Aluminium aluminum in North American English is a chemical element with the symbol Al and atomic number 13 Aluminium has a density lower than those of other common metals at approximately one third that of steel It has a great affinity towards oxygen and forms a protective layer of oxide on the surface when exposed to air Aluminium visually resembles silver both in its color and in its great ability to reflect light It is soft non magnetic and ductile It has one stable isotope 27Al this isotope is very common making aluminium the twelfth most common element in the Universe The radioactivity of 26Al is used in radiodating Aluminium 13AlAluminiumPronunciationaluminium ˌ ae l j ʊ ˈ m ɪ n i e m listen AL y uu MIN ee em aluminum e ˈ l u m e n e m listen 1 e LOO me nem Alternative namealuminum U S Canada Appearancesilvery gray metallicStandard atomic weight Ar Al 26 9815384 0 000000326 982 0 001 abridged 2 Aluminium in the periodic tableHydrogen HeliumLithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine NeonSodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine ArgonPotassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine KryptonRubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine XenonCaesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury element Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine RadonFrancium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson B Al Gamagnesium aluminium siliconAtomic number Z 13Groupgroup 13 boron group Periodperiod 3Block p blockElectron configuration Ne 3s2 3p1Electrons per shell2 8 3Physical propertiesPhase at STPsolidMelting point933 47 K 660 32 C 1220 58 F Boiling point2743 K 2470 C 4478 F Density near r t 2 70 g cm3when liquid at m p 2 375 g cm3Heat of fusion10 71 kJ molHeat of vaporization284 kJ molMolar heat capacity24 20 J mol K Vapor pressureP Pa 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 kat T K 1482 1632 1817 2054 2364 2790Atomic propertiesOxidation states 2 1 0 3 1 4 2 5 3 an amphoteric oxide ElectronegativityPauling scale 1 61Ionization energies1st 577 5 kJ mol2nd 1816 7 kJ mol3rd 2744 8 kJ mol more Atomic radiusempirical 143 pmCovalent radius121 4 pmVan der Waals radius184 pmSpectral lines of aluminiumOther propertiesNatural occurrenceprimordialCrystal structure face centered cubic fcc Speed of sound thin rod rolled 5000 m s at r t Thermal expansion23 1 µm m K at 25 C Thermal conductivity237 W m K Electrical resistivity26 5 nW m at 20 C Magnetic orderingparamagnetic 6 Molar magnetic susceptibility 16 5 10 6 cm3 molYoung s modulus70 GPaShear modulus26 GPaBulk modulus76 GPaPoisson ratio0 35Mohs hardness2 75Vickers hardness160 350 MPaBrinell hardness160 550 MPaCAS Number7429 90 5HistoryNamingfrom alumine obsolete name for aluminaPredictionAntoine Lavoisier 1782 DiscoveryHans Christian Orsted 1824 Named byHumphry Davy 1812 a Main isotopes of aluminiumveIso tope Decayabun dance half life t1 2 mode pro duct26Al trace 7 17 105 y b 85 26Mge 15 26Mgg 27Al 100 stable Category Aluminiumviewtalkedit referencesChemically aluminium is a post transition metal in the boron group as is common for the group aluminium forms compounds primarily in the 3 oxidation state The aluminium cation Al3 is small and highly charged as such it is polarizing and bonds aluminium forms tend towards covalency The strong affinity towards oxygen leads to aluminium s common association with oxygen in nature in the form of oxides for this reason aluminium is found on Earth primarily in rocks in the crust where it is the third most abundant element after oxygen and silicon rather than in the mantle and virtually never as the free metal The discovery of aluminium was announced in 1825 by Danish physicist Hans Christian Orsted The first industrial production of aluminium was initiated by French chemist Henri Etienne Sainte Claire Deville in 1856 Aluminium became much more available to the public with the Hall Heroult process developed independently by French engineer Paul Heroult and American engineer Charles Martin Hall in 1886 and the mass production of aluminium led to its extensive use in industry and everyday life In World Wars I and II aluminium was a crucial strategic resource for aviation In 1954 aluminium became the most produced non ferrous metal surpassing copper In the 21st century most aluminium was consumed in transportation engineering construction and packaging in the United States Western Europe and Japan Despite its prevalence in the environment no living organism is known to use aluminium salts metabolically but aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals Because of the abundance of these salts the potential for a biological role for them is of interest and studies continue Contents 1 Physical characteristics 1 1 Isotopes 1 2 Electron shell 1 3 Bulk 2 Chemistry 2 1 Inorganic compounds 2 2 Organoaluminium compounds and related hydrides 3 Natural occurrence 3 1 Space 3 2 Earth 4 History 5 Etymology 5 1 Origins 5 2 Spelling 6 Production and refinement 6 1 Bayer process 6 2 Hall Heroult process 6 3 Recycling 7 Applications 7 1 Metal 7 2 Compounds 8 Aluminized substrates 9 Biology 9 1 Toxicity 9 2 Effects 9 3 Exposure routes 9 4 Treatment 10 Environmental effects 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 14 Bibliography 15 Further reading 16 External linksPhysical characteristicsIsotopes Main article Isotopes of aluminium Of aluminium isotopes only 27 Al is stable This situation is common for elements with an odd atomic number b It is the only primordial aluminium isotope i e the only one that has existed on Earth in its current form since the formation of the planet Nearly all aluminium on Earth is present as this isotope which makes it a mononuclidic element and means that its standard atomic weight is virtually the same as that of the isotope This makes aluminium very useful in nuclear magnetic resonance NMR as its single stable isotope has a high NMR sensitivity 8 The standard atomic weight of aluminium is low in comparison with many other metals c All other isotopes of aluminium are radioactive The most stable of these is 26Al while it was present along with stable 27Al in the interstellar medium from which the Solar System formed having been produced by stellar nucleosynthesis as well its half life is only 717 000 years and therefore a detectable amount has not survived since the formation of the planet 10 However minute traces of 26Al are produced from argon in the atmosphere by spallation caused by cosmic ray protons The ratio of 26Al to 10Be has been used for radiodating of geological processes over 105 to 106 year time scales in particular transport deposition sediment storage burial times and erosion 11 Most meteorite scientists believe that the energy released by the decay of 26Al was responsible for the melting and differentiation of some asteroids after their formation 4 55 billion years ago 12 The remaining isotopes of aluminium with mass numbers ranging from 22 to 43 all have half lives well under an hour Three metastable states are known all with half lives under a minute 7 Electron shell An aluminium atom has 13 electrons arranged in an electron configuration of Ne 3s2 3p1 13 with three electrons beyond a stable noble gas configuration Accordingly the combined first three ionization energies of aluminium are far lower than the fourth ionization energy alone 14 Such an electron configuration is shared with the other well characterized members of its group boron gallium indium and thallium it is also expected for nihonium Aluminium can relatively easily surrender its three outermost electrons in many chemical reactions see below The electronegativity of aluminium is 1 61 Pauling scale 15 High resolution STEM HAADF micrograph of Al atoms viewed along the 001 zone axis A free aluminium atom has a radius of 143 pm 16 With the three outermost electrons removed the radius shrinks to 39 pm for a 4 coordinated atom or 53 5 pm for a 6 coordinated atom 16 At standard temperature and pressure aluminium atoms when not affected by atoms of other elements form a face centered cubic crystal system bound by metallic bonding provided by atoms outermost electrons hence aluminium at these conditions is a metal 17 This crystal system is shared by many other metals such as lead and copper the size of a unit cell of aluminium is comparable to that of those other metals 17 The system however is not shared by the other members of its group boron has ionization energies too high to allow metallization thallium has a hexagonal close packed structure and gallium and indium have unusual structures that are not close packed like those of aluminium and thallium The few electrons that are available for metallic bonding in aluminium metal are a probable cause for it being soft with a low melting point and low electrical resistivity 18 Bulk Aluminium metal has an appearance ranging from silvery white to dull gray depending on the surface roughness d Aluminium mirrors are the most reflective of all metal mirrors for the near ultraviolet and far infrared light and one of the most reflective in the visible spectrum nearly on par with silver and the two therefore look similar Aluminium is also good at reflecting solar radiation although prolonged exposure to sunlight in air adds wear to the surface of the metal this may be prevented if aluminium is anodized which adds a protective layer of oxide on the surface The density of aluminium is 2 70 g cm3 about 1 3 that of steel much lower than other commonly encountered metals making aluminium parts easily identifiable through their lightness 21 Aluminium s low density compared to most other metals arises from the fact that its nuclei are much lighter while difference in the unit cell size does not compensate for this difference The only lighter metals are the metals of groups 1 and 2 which apart from beryllium and magnesium are too reactive for structural use and beryllium is very toxic 22 Aluminium is not as strong or stiff as steel but the low density makes up for this in the aerospace industry and for many other applications where light weight and relatively high strength are crucial 23 Pure aluminium is quite soft and lacking in strength In most applications various aluminium alloys are used instead because of their higher strength and hardness 24 The yield strength of pure aluminium is 7 11 MPa while aluminium alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa 25 Aluminium is ductile with a percent elongation of 50 70 26 and malleable allowing it to be easily drawn and extruded 27 It is also easily machined and cast 27 Aluminium is an excellent thermal and electrical conductor having around 60 the conductivity of copper both thermal and electrical while having only 30 of copper s density 28 Aluminium is capable of superconductivity with a superconducting critical temperature of 1 2 kelvin and a critical magnetic field of about 100 gauss 10 milliteslas 29 It is paramagnetic and thus essentially unaffected by static magnetic fields 30 The high electrical conductivity however means that it is strongly affected by alternating magnetic fields through the induction of eddy currents 31 ChemistryMain article Compounds of aluminium Aluminium combines characteristics of pre and post transition metals Since it has few available electrons for metallic bonding like its heavier group 13 congeners it has the characteristic physical properties of a post transition metal with longer than expected interatomic distances 18 Furthermore as Al3 is a small and highly charged cation it is strongly polarizing and bonding in aluminium compounds tends towards covalency 32 this behavior is similar to that of beryllium Be2 and the two display an example of a diagonal relationship 33 The underlying core under aluminium s valence shell is that of the preceding noble gas whereas those of its heavier congeners gallium indium thallium and nihonium also include a filled d subshell and in some cases a filled f subshell Hence the inner electrons of aluminium shield the valence electrons almost completely unlike those of aluminium s heavier congeners As such aluminium is the most electropositive metal in its group and its hydroxide is in fact more basic than that of gallium 32 e Aluminium also bears minor similarities to the metalloid boron in the same group AlX3 compounds are valence isoelectronic to BX3 compounds they have the same valence electronic structure and both behave as Lewis acids and readily form adducts 34 Additionally one of the main motifs of boron chemistry is regular icosahedral structures and aluminium forms an important part of many icosahedral quasicrystal alloys including the Al Zn Mg class 35 Aluminium has a high chemical affinity to oxygen which renders it suitable for use as a reducing agent in the thermite reaction A fine powder of aluminium metal reacts explosively on contact with liquid oxygen under normal conditions however aluminium forms a thin oxide layer 5 nm at room temperature 36 that protects the metal from further corrosion by oxygen water or dilute acid a process termed passivation 32 37 Because of its general resistance to corrosion aluminium is one of the few metals that retains silvery reflectance in finely powdered form making it an important component of silver colored paints 38 Aluminium is not attacked by oxidizing acids because of its passivation This allows aluminium to be used to store reagents such as nitric acid concentrated sulfuric acid and some organic acids 39 In hot concentrated hydrochloric acid aluminium reacts with water with evolution of hydrogen and in aqueous sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide at room temperature to form aluminates protective passivation under these conditions is negligible 40 Aqua regia also dissolves aluminium 39 Aluminium is corroded by dissolved chlorides such as common sodium chloride which is why household plumbing is never made from aluminium 40 The oxide layer on aluminium is also destroyed by contact with mercury due to amalgamation or with salts of some electropositive metals 32 As such the strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion resistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper 25 and aluminium s corrosion resistance is greatly reduced by aqueous salts particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals 18 Aluminium reacts with most nonmetals upon heating forming compounds such as aluminium nitride AlN aluminium sulfide Al2S3 and the aluminium halides AlX3 It also forms a wide range of intermetallic compounds involving metals from every group on the periodic table 32 Inorganic compounds The vast majority of compounds including all aluminium containing minerals and all commercially significant aluminium compounds feature aluminium in the oxidation state 3 The coordination number of such compounds varies but generally Al3 is either six or four coordinate Almost all compounds of aluminium III are colorless 32 Aluminium hydrolysis as a function of pH Coordinated water molecules are omitted Data from Baes and Mesmer 41 In aqueous solution Al3 exists as the hexaaqua cation Al H2O 6 3 which has an approximate Ka of 10 5 8 Such solutions are acidic as this cation can act as a proton donor and progressively hydrolyze until a precipitate of aluminium hydroxide Al OH 3 forms This is useful for clarification of water as the precipitate nucleates on suspended particles in the water hence removing them Increasing the pH even further leads to the hydroxide dissolving again as aluminate Al H2O 2 OH 4 is formed Aluminium hydroxide forms both salts and aluminates and dissolves in acid and alkali as well as on fusion with acidic and basic oxides 32 This behavior of Al OH 3 is termed amphoterism and is characteristic of weakly basic cations that form insoluble hydroxides and whose hydrated species can also donate their protons One effect of this is that aluminium salts with weak acids are hydrolyzed in water to the aquated hydroxide and the corresponding nonmetal hydride for example aluminium sulfide yields hydrogen sulfide However some salts like aluminium carbonate exist in aqueous solution but are unstable as such and only incomplete hydrolysis takes place for salts with strong acids such as the halides nitrate and sulfate For similar reasons anhydrous aluminium salts cannot be made by heating their hydrates hydrated aluminium chloride is in fact not AlCl3 6H2O but Al H2O 6 Cl3 and the Al O bonds are so strong that heating is not sufficient to break them and form Al Cl bonds instead 32 2 Al H2O 6 Cl3 heat Al2O3 6 HCl 9 H2OAll four trihalides are well known Unlike the structures of the three heavier trihalides aluminium fluoride AlF3 features six coordinate aluminium which explains its involatility and insolubility as well as high heat of formation Each aluminium atom is surrounded by six fluorine atoms in a distorted octahedral arrangement with each fluorine atom being shared between the corners of two octahedra Such AlF6 units also exist in complex fluorides such as cryolite Na3AlF6 f AlF3 melts at 1 290 C 2 354 F and is made by reaction of aluminium oxide with hydrogen fluoride gas at 700 C 1 300 F 42 With heavier halides the coordination numbers are lower The other trihalides are dimeric or polymeric with tetrahedral four coordinate aluminium centers g Aluminium trichloride AlCl3 has a layered polymeric structure below its melting point of 192 4 C 378 F but transforms on melting to Al2Cl6 dimers At higher temperatures those increasingly dissociate into trigonal planar AlCl3 monomers similar to the structure of BCl3 Aluminium tribromide and aluminium triiodide form Al2X6 dimers in all three phases and hence do not show such significant changes of properties upon phase change 42 These materials are prepared by treating aluminium metal with the halogen The aluminium trihalides form many addition compounds or complexes their Lewis acidic nature makes them useful as catalysts for the Friedel Crafts reactions Aluminium trichloride has major industrial uses involving this reaction such as in the manufacture of anthraquinones and styrene it is also often used as the precursor for many other aluminium compounds and as a reagent for converting nonmetal fluorides into the corresponding chlorides a transhalogenation reaction 42 Aluminium forms one stable oxide with the chemical formula Al2O3 commonly called alumina 43 It can be found in nature in the mineral corundum a alumina 44 there is also a g alumina phase 8 Its crystalline form corundum is very hard Mohs hardness 9 has a high melting point of 2 045 C 3 713 F has very low volatility is chemically inert and a good electrical insulator it is often used in abrasives such as toothpaste as a refractory material and in ceramics as well as being the starting material for the electrolytic production of aluminium metal Sapphire and ruby are impure corundum contaminated with trace amounts of other metals 8 The two main oxide hydroxides AlO OH are boehmite and diaspore There are three main trihydroxides bayerite gibbsite and nordstrandite which differ in their crystalline structure polymorphs Many other intermediate and related structures are also known 8 Most are produced from ores by a variety of wet processes using acid and base Heating the hydroxides leads to formation of corundum These materials are of central importance to the production of aluminium and are themselves extremely useful Some mixed oxide phases are also very useful such as spinel MgAl2O4 Na b alumina NaAl11O17 and tricalcium aluminate Ca3Al2O6 an important mineral phase in Portland cement 8 The only stable chalcogenides under normal conditions are aluminium sulfide Al2S3 selenide Al2Se3 and telluride Al2Te3 All three are prepared by direct reaction of their elements at about 1 000 C 1 800 F and quickly hydrolyze completely in water to yield aluminium hydroxide and the respective hydrogen chalcogenide As aluminium is a small atom relative to these chalcogens these have four coordinate tetrahedral aluminium with various polymorphs having structures related to wurtzite with two thirds of the possible metal sites occupied either in an orderly a or random b fashion the sulfide also has a g form related to g alumina and an unusual high temperature hexagonal form where half the aluminium atoms have tetrahedral four coordination and the other half have trigonal bipyramidal five coordination 45 Four pnictides aluminium nitride AlN aluminium phosphide AlP aluminium arsenide AlAs and aluminium antimonide AlSb are known They are all III V semiconductors isoelectronic to silicon and germanium all of which but AlN have the zinc blende structure All four can be made by high temperature and possibly high pressure direct reaction of their component elements 45 Aluminium alloys well with most other metals with the exception of most alkali metals and group 13 metals and over 150 intermetallics with other metals are known Preparation involves heating fixed metals together in certain proportion followed by gradual cooling and annealing Bonding in them is predominantly metallic and the crystal structure primarily depends on efficiency of packing 46 There are few compounds with lower oxidation states A few aluminium I compounds exist AlF AlCl AlBr and AlI exist in the gaseous phase when the respective trihalide is heated with aluminium and at cryogenic temperatures 42 A stable derivative of aluminium monoiodide is the cyclic adduct formed with triethylamine Al4I4 NEt3 4 Al2O and Al2S also exist but are very unstable 47 Very simple aluminium II compounds are invoked or observed in the reactions of Al metal with oxidants For example aluminium monoxide AlO has been detected in the gas phase after explosion 48 and in stellar absorption spectra 49 More thoroughly investigated are compounds of the formula R4Al2 which contain an Al Al bond and where R is a large organic ligand 50 Organoaluminium compounds and related hydrides Main article Organoaluminium compound Structure of trimethylaluminium a compound that features five coordinate carbon A variety of compounds of empirical formula AlR3 and AlR1 5Cl1 5 exist 51 The aluminium trialkyls and triaryls are reactive volatile and colorless liquids or low melting solids They catch fire spontaneously in air and react with water thus necessitating precautions when handling them They often form dimers unlike their boron analogues but this tendency diminishes for branched chain alkyls e g Pri Bui Me3CCH2 for example triisobutylaluminium exists as an equilibrium mixture of the monomer and dimer 52 53 These dimers such as trimethylaluminium Al2Me6 usually feature tetrahedral Al centers formed by dimerization with some alkyl group bridging between both aluminium atoms They are hard acids and react readily with ligands forming adducts In industry they are mostly used in alkene insertion reactions as discovered by Karl Ziegler most importantly in growth reactions that form long chain unbranched primary alkenes and alcohols and in the low pressure polymerization of ethene and propene There are also some heterocyclic and cluster organoaluminium compounds involving Al N bonds 52 The industrially most important aluminium hydride is lithium aluminium hydride LiAlH4 which is used in as a reducing agent in organic chemistry It can be produced from lithium hydride and aluminium trichloride 54 The simplest hydride aluminium hydride or alane is not as important It is a polymer with the formula AlH3 n in contrast to the corresponding boron hydride that is a dimer with the formula BH3 2 54 Natural occurrenceSee also List of countries by bauxite production Space Aluminium s per particle abundance in the Solar System is 3 15 ppm parts per million 55 h It is the twelfth most abundant of all elements and third most abundant among the elements that have odd atomic numbers after hydrogen and nitrogen 55 The only stable isotope of aluminium 27Al is the eighteenth most abundant nucleus in the Universe It is created almost entirely after fusion of carbon in massive stars that will later become Type II supernovas this fusion creates 26Mg which upon capturing free protons and neutrons becomes aluminium Some smaller quantities of 27Al are created in hydrogen burning shells of evolved stars where 26Mg can capture free protons 56 Essentially all aluminium now in existence is 27Al 26Al was present in the early Solar System with abundance of 0 005 relative to 27Al but its half life of 728 000 years is too short for any original nuclei to survive 26Al is therefore extinct 56 Unlike for 27Al hydrogen burning is the primary source of 26Al with the nuclide emerging after a nucleus of 25Mg catches a free proton However the trace quantities of 26Al that do exist are the most common gamma ray emitter in the interstellar gas 56 if the original 26Al were still present gamma ray maps of the Milky Way would be brighter 56 Earth Bauxite a major aluminium ore The red brown color is due to the presence of iron oxide minerals Overall the Earth is about 1 59 aluminium by mass seventh in abundance by mass 57 Aluminium occurs in greater proportion in the Earth s crust than in the Universe at large because aluminium easily forms the oxide and becomes bound into rocks and stays in the Earth s crust while less reactive metals sink to the core 56 In the Earth s crust aluminium is the most abundant metallic element 8 23 by mass 26 and the third most abundant of all elements after oxygen and silicon 58 A large number of silicates in the Earth s crust contain aluminium 59 In contrast the Earth s mantle is only 2 38 aluminium by mass 60 Aluminium also occurs in seawater at a concentration of 2 mg kg 26 Because of its strong affinity for oxygen aluminium is almost never found in the elemental state instead it is found in oxides or silicates Feldspars the most common group of minerals in the Earth s crust are aluminosilicates Aluminium also occurs in the minerals beryl cryolite garnet spinel and turquoise 61 Impurities in Al2O3 such as chromium and iron yield the gemstones ruby and sapphire respectively 62 Native aluminium metal is extremely rare and can only be found as a minor phase in low oxygen fugacity environments such as the interiors of certain volcanoes 63 Native aluminium has been reported in cold seeps in the northeastern continental slope of the South China Sea It is possible that these deposits resulted from bacterial reduction of tetrahydroxoaluminate Al OH 4 64 Although aluminium is a common and widespread element not all aluminium minerals are economically viable sources of the metal Almost all metallic aluminium is produced from the ore bauxite AlOx OH 3 2x Bauxite occurs as a weathering product of low iron and silica bedrock in tropical climatic conditions 65 In 2017 most bauxite was mined in Australia China Guinea and India 66 HistoryMain article History of aluminium Friedrich Wohler the chemist who first thoroughly described metallic elemental aluminium The history of aluminium has been shaped by usage of alum The first written record of alum made by Greek historian Herodotus dates back to the 5th century BCE 67 The ancients are known to have used alum as a dyeing mordant and for city defense 67 After the Crusades alum an indispensable good in the European fabric industry 68 was a subject of international commerce 69 it was imported to Europe from the eastern Mediterranean until the mid 15th century 70 The nature of alum remained unknown Around 1530 Swiss physician Paracelsus suggested alum was a salt of an earth of alum 71 In 1595 German doctor and chemist Andreas Libavius experimentally confirmed this 72 In 1722 German chemist Friedrich Hoffmann announced his belief that the base of alum was a distinct earth 73 In 1754 German chemist Andreas Sigismund Marggraf synthesized alumina by boiling clay in sulfuric acid and subsequently adding potash 73 Attempts to produce aluminium metal date back to 1760 74 The first successful attempt however was completed in 1824 by Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian Orsted He reacted anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium amalgam yielding a lump of metal looking similar to tin 75 76 77 He presented his results and demonstrated a sample of the new metal in 1825 78 79 In 1827 German chemist Friedrich Wohler repeated Orsted s experiments but did not identify any aluminium 80 The reason for this inconsistency was only discovered in 1921 81 He conducted a similar experiment in the same year by mixing anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium and produced a powder of aluminium 77 In 1845 he was able to produce small pieces of the metal and described some physical properties of this metal 81 For many years thereafter Wohler was credited as the discoverer of aluminium 82 The statue of Anteros in Piccadilly Circus London was made in 1893 and is one of the first statues cast in aluminium As Wohler s method could not yield great quantities of aluminium the metal remained rare its cost exceeded that of gold 80 The first industrial production of aluminium was established in 1856 by French chemist Henri Etienne Sainte Claire Deville and companions 83 Deville had discovered that aluminium trichloride could be reduced by sodium which was more convenient and less expensive than potassium which Wohler had used 84 Even then aluminium was still not of great purity and produced aluminium differed in properties by sample 85 Because of its electricity conducting capacity aluminium was used as the cap of the Washington Monument completed in 1885 The tallest building in the world at the time the non corroding metal cap was intended to serve as a lightning rod peak The first industrial large scale production method was independently developed in 1886 by French engineer Paul Heroult and American engineer Charles Martin Hall it is now known as the Hall Heroult process 86 The Hall Heroult process converts alumina into metal Austrian chemist Carl Joseph Bayer discovered a way of purifying bauxite to yield alumina now known as the Bayer process in 1889 87 Modern production of the aluminium metal is based on the Bayer and Hall Heroult processes 88 Prices of aluminium dropped and aluminium became widely used in jewelry everyday items eyeglass frames optical instruments tableware and foil in the 1890s and early 20th century Aluminium s ability to form hard yet light alloys with other metals provided the metal with many uses at the time 89 During World War I major governments demanded large shipments of aluminium for light strong airframes 90 during World War II demand by major governments for aviation was even higher 91 92 93 By the mid 20th century aluminium had become a part of everyday life and an essential component of housewares 94 In 1954 production of aluminium surpassed that of copper i historically second in production only to iron 97 making it the most produced non ferrous metal During the mid 20th century aluminium emerged as a civil engineering material with building applications in both basic construction and interior finish work 98 and increasingly being used in military engineering for both airplanes and land armor vehicle engines 99 Earth s first artificial satellite launched in 1957 consisted of two separate aluminium semi spheres joined and all subsequent space vehicles have used aluminium to some extent 88 The aluminium can was invented in 1956 and employed as a storage for drinks in 1958 100 World production of aluminium since 1900 Throughout the 20th century the production of aluminium rose rapidly while the world production of aluminium in 1900 was 6 800 metric tons the annual production first exceeded 100 000 metric tons in 1916 1 000 000 tons in 1941 10 000 000 tons in 1971 95 In the 1970s the increased demand for aluminium made it an exchange commodity it entered the London Metal Exchange the oldest industrial metal exchange in the world in 1978 88 The output continued to grow the annual production of aluminium exceeded 50 000 000 metric tons in 2013 95 The real price for aluminium declined from 14 000 per metric ton in 1900 to 2 340 in 1948 in 1998 United States dollars 95 Extraction and processing costs were lowered over technological progress and the scale of the economies However the need to exploit lower grade poorer quality deposits and the use of fast increasing input costs above all energy increased the net cost of aluminium 101 the real price began to grow in the 1970s with the rise of energy cost 102 Production moved from the industrialized countries to countries where production was cheaper 103 Production costs in the late 20th century changed because of advances in technology lower energy prices exchange rates of the United States dollar and alumina prices 104 The BRIC countries combined share in primary production and primary consumption grew substantially in the first decade of the 21st century 105 China is accumulating an especially large share of the world s production thanks to an abundance of resources cheap energy and governmental stimuli 106 it also increased its consumption share from 2 in 1972 to 40 in 2010 107 In the United States Western Europe and Japan most aluminium was consumed in transportation engineering construction and packaging 108 In 2021 prices for industrial metals such as aluminium have soared to near record levels as energy shortages in China drive up costs for electricity 109 EtymologyThe names aluminium and aluminum are derived from the word alumine an obsolete term for alumina j a naturally occurring oxide of aluminium 111 Alumine was borrowed from French which in turn derived it from alumen the classical Latin name for alum the mineral from which it was collected 112 The Latin word alumen stems from the Proto Indo European root alu meaning bitter or beer 113 1897 American advertisement featuring the aluminum spelling Origins British chemist Humphry Davy who performed a number of experiments aimed to isolate the metal is credited as the person who named the element The first name proposed for the metal to be isolated from alum was alumium which Davy suggested in an 1808 article on his electrochemical research published in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 114 It appeared that the name was created from the English word alum and the Latin suffix ium but it was customary then to give elements names originating in Latin so that this name was not adopted universally This name was criticized by contemporary chemists from France Germany and Sweden who insisted the metal should be named for the oxide alumina from which it would be isolated 115 The English name alum does not come directly from Latin whereas alumine alumina obviously comes from the Latin word alumen upon declension alumen changes to alumin One example was Essai sur la Nomenclature chimique July 1811 written in French by a Swedish chemist Jons Jacob Berzelius in which the name aluminium is given to the element that would be synthesized from alum 116 k Another article in the same journal issue also gives the name aluminium to the metal whose oxide is the basis of sapphire 118 A January 1811 summary of one of Davy s lectures at the Royal Society mentioned the name aluminium as a possibility 119 The next year Davy published a chemistry textbook in which he used the spelling aluminum 120 Both spellings have coexisted since Their usage is regional aluminum dominates in the United States and Canada aluminium in the rest of the English speaking world 121 Spelling In 1812 a British scientist Thomas Young 122 wrote an anonymous review of Davy s book in which he proposed the name aluminium instead of aluminum which he thought had a less classical sound 123 This name did catch on although the um spelling was occasionally used in Britain the American scientific language used ium from the start 124 Most scientists throughout the world used ium in the 19th century 121 and it was entrenched in many other European languages such as French German and Dutch l In 1828 an American lexicographer Noah Webster entered only the aluminum spelling in his American Dictionary of the English Language 125 In the 1830s the um spelling gained usage in the United States by the 1860s it had become the more common spelling there outside science 124 In 1892 Hall used the um spelling in his advertising handbill for his new electrolytic method of producing the metal despite his constant use of the ium spelling in all the patents he filed between 1886 and 1903 it is unknown whether this spelling was introduced by mistake or intentionally but Hall preferred aluminum since its introduction because it resembled platinum the name of a prestigious metal 126 By 1890 both spellings had been common in the United States the ium spelling being slightly more common by 1895 the situation had reversed by 1900 aluminum had become twice as common as aluminium in the next decade the um spelling dominated American usage In 1925 the American Chemical Society adopted this spelling 121 The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry IUPAC adopted aluminium as the standard international name for the element in 1990 127 In 1993 they recognized aluminum as an acceptable variant 127 the most recent 2005 edition of the IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry also acknowledges this spelling 128 IUPAC official publications use the ium spelling as primary and they list both where it is appropriate m Production and refinementSee also List of countries by primary aluminium production The production of aluminium starts with the extraction of bauxite rock from the ground The bauxite is processed and transformed using the Bayer process into alumina which is then processed using the Hall Heroult process resulting in the final aluminium metal Aluminium production is highly energy consuming and so the producers tend to locate smelters in places where electric power is both plentiful and inexpensive 130 As of 2019 the world s largest smelters of aluminium are located in China India Russia Canada and the United Arab Emirates 131 while China is by far the top producer of aluminium with a world share of fifty five percent According to the International Resource Panel s Metal Stocks in Society report the global per capita stock of aluminium in use in society i e in cars buildings electronics etc is 80 kg 180 lb Much of this is in more developed countries 350 500 kg 770 1 100 lb per capita rather than less developed countries 35 kg 77 lb per capita 132 Bayer process Main article Bayer process See also List of countries by bauxite production Bauxite is converted to alumina by the Bayer process Bauxite is blended for uniform composition and then is ground The resulting slurry is mixed with a hot solution of sodium hydroxide the mixture is then treated in a digester vessel at a pressure well above atmospheric dissolving the aluminium hydroxide in bauxite while converting impurities into relatively insoluble compounds 133 Al OH 3 Na OH Na Al OH 4 After this reaction the slurry is at a temperature above its atmospheric boiling point It is cooled by removing steam as pressure is reduced The bauxite residue is separated from the solution and discarded The solution free of solids is seeded with small crystals of aluminium hydroxide this causes decomposition of the Al OH 4 ions to aluminium hydroxide After about half of aluminium has precipitated the mixture is sent to classifiers Small crystals of aluminium hydroxide are collected to serve as seeding agents coarse particles are converted to alumina by heating the excess solution is removed by evaporation if needed purified and recycled 133 Hall Heroult process Extrusion billets of aluminium Main articles Hall Heroult process and Aluminium smelting See also List of countries by aluminium oxide production The conversion of alumina to aluminium metal is achieved by the Hall Heroult process In this energy intensive process a solution of alumina in a molten 950 and 980 C 1 740 and 1 800 F mixture of cryolite Na3AlF6 with calcium fluoride is electrolyzed to produce metallic aluminium The liquid aluminium metal sinks to the bottom of the solution and is tapped off and usually cast into large blocks called aluminium billets for further processing 39 Anodes of the electrolysis cell are made of carbon the most resistant material against fluoride corrosion and either bake at the process or are prebaked The former also called Soderberg anodes are less power efficient and fumes released during baking are costly to collect which is why they are being replaced by prebaked anodes even though they save the power energy and labor to prebake the cathodes Carbon for anodes should be preferably pure so that neither aluminium nor the electrolyte is contaminated with ash Despite carbon s resistivity against corrosion it is still consumed at a rate of 0 4 0 5 kg per each kilogram of produced aluminium Cathodes are made of anthracite high purity for them is not required because impurities leach only very slowly The cathode is consumed at a rate of 0 02 0 04 kg per each kilogram of produced aluminium A cell is usually terminated after 2 6 years following a failure of the cathode 39 The Hall Heroult process produces aluminium with a purity of above 99 Further purification can be done by the Hoopes process This process involves the electrolysis of molten aluminium with a sodium barium and aluminium fluoride electrolyte The resulting aluminium has a purity of 99 99 39 134 Electric power represents about 20 to 40 of the cost of producing aluminium depending on the location of the smelter Aluminium production consumes roughly 5 of electricity generated in the United States 127 Because of this alternatives to the Hall Heroult process have been researched but none has turned out to be economically feasible 39 Recycling Common bins for recyclable waste along with a bin for unrecyclable waste The bin with a yellow top is labeled aluminum Rhodes Greece Main article Aluminium recycling Recovery of the metal through recycling has become an important task of the aluminium industry Recycling was a low profile activity until the late 1960s when the growing use of aluminium beverage cans brought it to public awareness 135 Recycling involves melting the scrap a process that requires only 5 of the energy used to produce aluminium from ore though a significant part up to 15 of the input material is lost as dross ash like oxide 136 An aluminium stack melter produces significantly less dross with values reported below 1 137 White dross from primary aluminium production and from secondary recycling operations still contains useful quantities of aluminium that can be extracted industrially The process produces aluminium billets together with a highly complex waste material This waste is difficult to manage It reacts with water releasing a mixture of gases including among others hydrogen acetylene and ammonia which spontaneously ignites on contact with air 138 contact with damp air results in the release of copious quantities of ammonia gas Despite these difficulties the waste is used as a filler in asphalt and concrete 139 Applications Aluminium bodied Austin A40 Sports c 1951 Metal See also Aluminium alloy The global production of aluminium in 2016 was 58 8 million metric tons It exceeded that of any other metal except iron 1 231 million metric tons 140 141 Aluminium is almost always alloyed which markedly improves its mechanical properties especially when tempered For example the common aluminium foils and beverage cans are alloys of 92 to 99 aluminium 142 The main alloying agents are copper zinc magnesium manganese and silicon e g duralumin with the levels of other metals in a few percent by weight 143 Aluminium both wrought and cast has been alloyed with manganese silicon magnesium copper and zinc among others 144 For example the Kynal family of alloys was developed by the British chemical manufacturer Imperial Chemical Industries Aluminium can The major uses for aluminium metal are in 145 Transportation automobiles aircraft trucks railway cars marine vessels bicycles spacecraft etc Aluminium is used because of its low density Packaging cans foil frame etc Aluminium is used because it is non toxic see below non adsorptive and splinter proof Building and construction windows doors siding building wire sheathing roofing etc Since steel is cheaper aluminium is used when lightness corrosion resistance or engineering features are important Electricity related uses conductor alloys motors and generators transformers capacitors etc Aluminium is used because it is relatively cheap highly conductive has adequate mechanical strength and low density and resists corrosion A wide range of household items from cooking utensils to furniture Low density good appearance ease of fabrication and durability are the key factors of aluminium usage Machinery and equipment processing equipment pipes tools Aluminium is used because of its corrosion resistance non pyrophoricity and mechanical strength Portable computer cases Currently rarely used without alloying 146 but aluminium can be recycled and clean aluminium has residual market value for example the used beverage can UBC material was used to encase the electronic components of MacBook Air laptop Pixel 5 smartphone or Summit Lite smartwatch 147 148 149 Compounds The great majority about 90 of aluminium oxide is converted to metallic aluminium 133 Being a very hard material Mohs hardness 9 150 alumina is widely used as an abrasive 151 being extraordinarily chemically inert it is useful in highly reactive environments such as high pressure sodium lamps 152 Aluminium oxide is commonly used as a catalyst for industrial processes 133 e g the Claus process to convert hydrogen sulfide to sulfur in refineries and to alkylate amines 153 154 Many industrial catalysts are supported by alumina meaning that the expensive catalyst material is dispersed over a surface of the inert alumina 155 Another principal use is as a drying agent or absorbent 133 156 Laser deposition of alumina on a substrate Several sulfates of aluminium have industrial and commercial application Aluminium sulfate in its hydrate form is produced on the annual scale of several millions of metric tons 157 About two thirds is consumed in water treatment 157 The next major application is in the manufacture of paper 157 It is also used as a mordant in dyeing in pickling seeds deodorizing of mineral oils in leather tanning and in production of other aluminium compounds 157 Two kinds of alum ammonium alum and potassium alum were formerly used as mordants and in leather tanning but their use has significantly declined following availability of high purity aluminium sulfate 157 Anhydrous aluminium chloride is used as a catalyst in chemical and petrochemical industries the dyeing industry and in synthesis of various inorganic and organic compounds 157 Aluminium hydroxychlorides are used in purifying water in the paper industry and as antiperspirants 157 Sodium aluminate is used in treating water and as an accelerator of solidification of cement 157 Many aluminium compounds have niche applications for example Aluminium acetate in solution is used as an astringent 158 Aluminium phosphate is used in the manufacture of glass ceramic pulp and paper products cosmetics paints varnishes and in dental cement 159 Aluminium hydroxide is used as an antacid and mordant it is used also in water purification the manufacture of glass and ceramics and in the waterproofing of fabrics 160 161 Lithium aluminium hydride is a powerful reducing agent used in organic chemistry 162 163 Organoaluminiums are used as Lewis acids and co catalysts 164 Methylaluminoxane is a co catalyst for Ziegler Natta olefin polymerization to produce vinyl polymers such as polyethene 165 Aqueous aluminium ions such as aqueous aluminium sulfate are used to treat against fish parasites such as Gyrodactylus salaris 166 In many vaccines certain aluminium salts serve as an immune adjuvant immune response booster to allow the protein in the vaccine to achieve sufficient potency as an immune stimulant 167 Aluminized substratesAluminizing is the process of coating a structure or material with a thin layer of aluminium It is done to impart specific traits that the underlying substrate lacks such as a certain chemical or physical property Aluminized materials include Aluminized steel for corrosion resistance and other properties Aluminized screen for display devices Aluminized cloth to reflect heat Aluminized mylar to reflect heatBiology Schematic of aluminium absorption by human skin 168 Despite its widespread occurrence in the Earth s crust aluminium has no known function in biology 39 At pH 6 9 relevant for most natural waters aluminium precipitates out of water as the hydroxide and is hence not available most elements behaving this way have no biological role or are toxic 169 Aluminium sulfate has an LD50 of 6207 mg kg oral mouse which corresponds to 435 grams for an 70 kg 150 lb person 39 Toxicity Aluminium is classified as a non carcinogen by the United States Department of Health and Human Services 170 n A review published in 1988 said that there was little evidence that normal exposure to aluminium presents a risk to healthy adult 173 and a 2014 multi element toxicology review was unable to find deleterious effects of aluminium consumed in amounts not greater than 40 mg day per kg of body mass 170 Most aluminium consumed will leave the body in feces most of the small part of it that enters the bloodstream will be excreted via urine 174 nevertheless some aluminium does pass the blood brain barrier and is lodged preferentially in the brains of Alzheimer s patients 175 176 Evidence published in 1989 indicates that for Alzheimer s patients aluminium may act by electrostatically crosslinking proteins thus down regulating genes in the superior temporal gyrus 177 Effects Aluminium although rarely can cause vitamin D resistant osteomalacia erythropoietin resistant microcytic anemia and central nervous system alterations People with kidney insufficiency are especially at a risk 170 Chronic ingestion of hydrated aluminium silicates for excess gastric acidity control may result in aluminium binding to intestinal contents and increased elimination of other metals such as iron or zinc sufficiently high doses gt 50 g day can cause anemia 170 There are five major aluminium forms absorbed by human body the free solvated trivalent cation Al3 aq low molecular weight neutral soluble complexes LMW Al0 aq high molecular weight neutral soluble complexes HMW Al0 aq low molecular weight charged soluble complexes LMW Al L n aq nano and micro particulates Al L n s They are transported across cell membranes or cell epi endothelia through five major routes 1 paracellular 2 transcellular 3 active transport 4 channels 5 adsorptive or receptor mediated endocytosis 168 During the 1988 Camelford water pollution incident people in Camelford had their drinking water contaminated with aluminium sulfate for several weeks A final report into the incident in 2013 concluded it was unlikely that this had caused long term health problems 178 Aluminium has been suspected of being a possible cause of Alzheimer s disease 179 but research into this for over 40 years has found as of 2018 update no good evidence of causal effect 180 181 Aluminium increases estrogen related gene expression in human breast cancer cells cultured in the laboratory 182 In very high doses aluminium is associated with altered function of the blood brain barrier 183 A small percentage of people 184 have contact allergies to aluminium and experience itchy red rashes headache muscle pain joint pain poor memory insomnia depression asthma irritable bowel syndrome or other symptoms upon contact with products containing aluminium 185 Exposure to powdered aluminium or aluminium welding fumes can cause pulmonary fibrosis 186 Fine aluminium powder can ignite or explode posing another workplace hazard 187 188 Exposure routes Food is the main source of aluminium Drinking water contains more aluminium than solid food 170 however aluminium in food may be absorbed more than aluminium from water 189 Major sources of human oral exposure to aluminium include food due to its use in food additives food and beverage packaging and cooking utensils drinking water due to its use in municipal water treatment and aluminium containing medications particularly antacid antiulcer and buffered aspirin formulations 190 Dietary exposure in Europeans averages to 0 2 1 5 mg kg week but can be as high as 2 3 mg kg week 170 Higher exposure levels of aluminium are mostly limited to miners aluminium production workers and dialysis patients 191 Consumption of antacids antiperspirants vaccines and cosmetics provide possible routes of exposure 192 Consumption of acidic foods or liquids with aluminium enhances aluminium absorption 193 and maltol has been shown to increase the accumulation of aluminium in nerve and bone tissues 194 Treatment In case of suspected sudden intake of a large amount of aluminium the only treatment is deferoxamine mesylate which may be given to help eliminate aluminium from the body by chelation 195 196 However this should be applied with caution as this reduces not only aluminium body levels but also those of other metals such as copper or iron 195 Environmental effects Bauxite tailings storage facility in Stade Germany The aluminium industry generates about 70 million tons of this waste annually High levels of aluminium occur near mining sites small amounts of aluminium are released to the environment at the coal fired power plants or incinerators 197 Aluminium in the air is washed out by the rain or normally settles down but small particles of aluminium remain in the air for a long time 197 Acidic precipitation is the main natural factor to mobilize aluminium from natural sources 170 and the main reason for the environmental effects of aluminium 198 however the main factor of presence of aluminium in salt and freshwater are the industrial processes that also release aluminium into air 170 In water aluminium acts as a toxis agent on gill breathing animals such as fish when the water is acidic in which aluminium may precipitate on gills 199 which causes loss of plasma and hemolymph ions leading to osmoregulatory failure 198 Organic complexes of aluminium may be easily absorbed and interfere with metabolism in mammals and birds even though this rarely happens in practice 198 Aluminium is primary among the factors that reduce plant growth on acidic soils Although it is generally harmless to plant growth in pH neutral soils in acid soils the concentration of toxic Al3 cations increases and disturbs root growth and function 200 201 202 203 Wheat has developed a tolerance to aluminium releasing organic compounds that bind to harmful aluminium cations Sorghum is believed to have the same tolerance mechanism 204 Aluminium production possesses its own challenges to the environment on each step of the production process The major challenge is the greenhouse gas emissions 191 These gases result from electrical consumption of the smelters and the byproducts of processing The most potent of these gases are perfluorocarbons from the smelting process 191 Released sulfur dioxide is one of the primary precursors of acid rain 191 Biodegradation of metallic aluminium is extremely rare most aluminium corroding organisms do not directly attack or consume the aluminium but instead produce corrosive wastes 205 206 The fungus Geotrichum candidum can consume the aluminium in compact discs 207 208 209 The bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa and the fungus Cladosporium resinae are commonly detected in aircraft fuel tanks that use kerosene based fuels not avgas and laboratory cultures can degrade aluminium 210 See alsoAluminium granules Aluminium joining Aluminium air battery Panel edge staining Quantum clockNotes Davy s 1812 written usage of the word aluminum was predated by other authors usage of aluminium However Davy is often mentioned as the person who named the element he was the first to coin a name for aluminium he used alumium in 1808 Other authors did not accept that name choosing aluminium instead See below for more details No elements with odd atomic numbers have more than two stable isotopes even numbered elements have multiple stable isotopes with tin element 50 having the highest number of stable isotopes of all elements ten The single exception is beryllium which is even numbered but has only one stable isotope 7 See Even and odd atomic nuclei for more details Most other metals have greater standard atomic weights for instance that of iron is 55 8 copper 63 5 lead 207 2 9 which has consequences for the element s properties see below The two sides of aluminium foil differ in their luster one is shiny and the other is dull The difference is due to the small mechanical damage on the surface of dull side arising from the technological process of aluminium foil manufacturing 19 Both sides reflect similar amounts of visible light but the shiny side reflects a far greater share of visible light specularly whereas the dull side almost exclusively diffuses light Both sides of aluminium foil serve as good reflectors approximately 86 of visible light and an excellent reflector as much as 97 of medium and far infrared radiation 20 In fact aluminium s electropositive behavior high affinity for oxygen and highly negative standard electrode potential are all better aligned with those of scandium yttrium lanthanum and actinium which like aluminium have three valence electrons outside a noble gas core this series shows continuous trends whereas those of group 13 is broken by the first added d subshell in gallium and the resulting d block contraction and the first added f subshell in thallium and the resulting lanthanide contraction 32 These should not be considered as AlF6 3 complex anions as the Al F bonds are not significantly different in type from the other M F bonds 42 Such differences in coordination between the fluorides and heavier halides are not unusual occurring in SnIV and BiIII for example even bigger differences occur between CO2 and SiO2 42 Abundances in the source are listed relative to silicon rather than in per particle notation The sum of all elements per 106 parts of silicon is 2 6682 1010 parts aluminium comprises 8 410 104 parts Compare annual statistics of aluminium 95 and copper 96 production by USGS The spelling alumine comes from French whereas the spelling alumina comes from Latin 110 Davy discovered several other elements including those he named sodium and potassium after the English words soda and potash Berzelius referred to them as to natrium and kalium Berzelius s suggestion was expanded in 1814 117 with his proposed system of one or two letter chemical symbols which are used up to the present day sodium and potassium have the symbols Na and K respectively after their Latin names Some European languages like Spanish or Italian use a different suffix from the Latin um ium to form a name of a metal some like Polish or Czech have a different base for the name of the element and some like Russian or Greek don t use the Latin script altogether For instance see the November December 2013 issue of Chemistry International in a table of some elements the element is listed as aluminium aluminum 129 While aluminium per se is not carcinogenic Soderberg aluminium production is as is noted by the International Agency for Research on Cancer 171 likely due to exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 172 References aluminum Oxford English Dictionary Online ed Oxford University Press Subscription or participating institution membership required Standard Atomic Weights Aluminium CIAAW 2017 Unstable carbonyl of Al 0 has been detected in reaction of Al2 CH3 6 with carbon monoxide see Sanchez Ramiro Arrington Caleb Arrington Jr C A 1 December 1989 Reaction of trimethylaluminum with carbon monoxide in low temperature matrixes American Chemical Society 111 25 9110 9111 doi 10 1021 ja00207a023 Dohmeier C Loos D Schnockel H 1996 Aluminum I and Gallium I Compounds Syntheses Structures and 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Vries Part I The Problem of Microbial Contamination of Aviation Fuels Tuatara 19 1 29 Archived from the original on 13 December 2013 BibliographyDavis J R 1999 Corrosion of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys ASM International ISBN 978 1 61503 238 9 Dean J A 1999 Lange s handbook of chemistry 15 ed McGraw Hill ISBN 978 0 07 016384 3 OCLC 40213725 Drozdov A 2007 Aluminium The Thirteenth Element RUSAL Library ISBN 978 5 91523 002 5 Greenwood N N Earnshaw A 1997 Chemistry of the Elements 2nd ed Butterworth Heinemann ISBN 978 0 08 037941 8 King R B 1995 Inorganic Chemistry of Main Group Elements Wiley VCH ISBN 978 0 471 18602 1 Lide D R ed 2004 Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 84 ed CRC Press ISBN 978 0 8493 0566 5 Nappi C 2013 The global aluminium industry 40 years from 1972 PDF Report International Aluminium Institute Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Richards J W 1896 Aluminium Its history occurrence properties metallurgy and applications including its alloys 3 ed Henry Carey Baird amp Co Schmitz C 2006 Handbook of Aluminium Recycling Vulkan Verlag GmbH ISBN 978 3 8027 2936 2 Further readingMimi Sheller Aluminum Dream The Making of Light Modernity Cambridge Mass Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press 2014 External linksAluminium at Wikipedia s sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons Texts from Wikisource Resources from Wikiversity Aluminium at The Periodic Table of Videos University of Nottingham Toxic Substances Portal Aluminum from the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry United States Department of Health and Human Services CDC NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards Aluminum World production of primary aluminium by country Price history of aluminum according to the IMF History of Aluminium from the website of the International Aluminium Institute Emedicine Aluminium The short film Aluminum is available for free download at the Internet Archive Portal Chemistry Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title 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