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Hong Kong

January 01, 1970

"HK" redirects here. For other uses, see Hong Kong (disambiguation) and HK (disambiguation).

Hong Kong[d] is a special administrative region of the People's Republic of China. With 7.4 million residents of various nationalities[e] in a 1,104-square-kilometre (426 sq mi) territory, Hong Kong is one of the most densely populated territories in the world.

Hong Kong
香港
Special administrative region
Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China
Other official names

Flag

Emblem
Location of Hong Kong within China
Sovereign stateChina
British possession26 January 1841
Treaty of Nanking29 August 1842
Convention of Peking24 October 1860
New Territories lease9 June 1898
Imperial Japanese occupation25 December 1941 to 30 August 1945
Redesignated as a British Dependent Territory1 January 1981
Sino-British Joint Declaration19 December 1984
Handover to China1 July 1997
Administrative centreTamar
Largest district
by population		Sha Tin
Official languages
Regional language
Cantonese[a]
Official scripts
Traditional Chinese[b]
English alphabet
Ethnic groups
(2021)
91.6% Chinese
2.7% Filipino
1.9% Indonesian
0.8% White
0.6% Indian
0.4% Nepalese
2% other[6]
Demonym(s)Hongkonger
Hongkongese
GovernmentDevolved executive-led government within a unitary one-party state[7]
John Lee
Eric Chan
Andrew Leung
Andrew Cheung
LegislatureLegislative Council
National representation
• National People's Congress
36 deputies
• Chinese People's
Political Consultative
Conference
203 delegates[8]
Area
• Total
2,754.97[9] km2 (1,063.70 sq mi) (168th)
• Water (%)
59.70%
(1,640.62 km2;
633.45 sq mi)[9]
• Land
1,114.35 km2
(430.25 sq mi)[9]
Highest elevation
(Tai Mo Shan)
957 m (3,140 ft)
Lowest elevation
(South China Sea)
0 m (0 ft)
Population
• 2023 estimate
 7,498,100[10]
• 2021 census
 7,413,070[11]
• Density
6,801[12]/km2 (17,614.5/sq mi) (4th)
GDP (PPP)2023 estimate
• Total
 $548.999 billion[13] (45th)
• Per capita
 $72,861[13] (13th)
GDP (nominal)2023 estimate
• Total
 $385.546 billion[13] (40th)
• Per capita
 $51,168[13] (21st)
Gini (2016) 53.9[14]
high
HDI (2022) 0.956[15]
very high · 4th
CurrencyHong Kong dollar (HK$) (HKD)
Time zoneUTC+08:00 (HKT)
Date formatdd/mm/yyyy
yyyy年mm月dd日
Mains electricity220 V–50 Hz
Driving sideleft[c]
Calling code+852
ISO 3166 code
Internet TLD
Number plate prefixesNone for local vehicles, 粤Z for cross-boundary vehicles

Hong Kong was established as a colony of the British Empire after the Qing dynasty ceded Hong Kong Island in 1841–1842 as a consequence of losing the First Opium War. The colony expanded to the Kowloon Peninsula in 1860 and was further extended when the United Kingdom obtained a 99-year lease of the New Territories in 1898. Hong Kong was occupied by Japan from 1941 to 1945 during World War II. The territory was handed over from the United Kingdom to China in 1997. Hong Kong maintains separate governing and economic systems from that of mainland China under the principle of one country, two systems.[f]

Originally a sparsely populated area of farming and fishing villages,[18][19] the territory is now one of the world's most significant financial centres and commercial ports. Hong Kong is the world's fourth-ranked global financial centre, ninth-largest exporter, and eighth-largest importer. Its currency, the Hong Kong dollar, is the ninth most traded currency in the world. Home to the seventh-highest number of billionaires of any city in the world, Hong Kong has the largest number of ultra high-net-worth individuals.[20] Although the city has one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, severe income inequality exists among the population. Despite having the largest number of skyscrapers of any city in the world, housing in Hong Kong has been well-documented to experience a chronic persistent shortage.

Hong Kong is a highly developed territory and has a Human Development Index (HDI) of 0.956, ranking fourth in the world. The city has one of the highest life expectancies in the world, and a public transport rate exceeding 90 per cent.

Etymology

Hong Kong
 
"Hong Kong" in Chinese characters
Chinese香港
Jyutpinghoeng1 gong2
Cantonese Yale
Literal meaning"Fragrant Harbour"[21][22]
Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
Traditional Chinese
  • 香港特別行政區
  • (香港特區)
Simplified Chinese
  • 香港特别行政区
  • (香港特区)
Jyutping
  • hoeng1 gong2 dak6 bit6 hang4 zing3 keoi1
  • (hoeng1 gong2 dak6 keoi1)
Cantonese Yale
  • Hēunggóng Dahkbiht Hàhngjingkēui
  • (Hēunggóng Dahkkēui)
  • or
  • Hèunggóng Dahkbiht Hàhngjingkēui
  • (Hèunggóng Dahkkēui)
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin
  • Xiānggǎng Tèbié Xíngzhèngqū
  • (Xiānggǎng Tèqū)
Bopomofo
  • ㄒㄧㄤ   ㄍㄤˇ
  • ㄊㄜˋ   ㄅㄧㄝˊ
  • ㄒㄧㄥˊ   ㄓㄥˋ   ㄑㄩ
  • (ㄒㄧㄤ   ㄍㄤˇ   ㄊㄜˋ   ㄑㄩ)
Gwoyeu Romatzyh
  • Shianggaang Tehbye Shyngjenqchiu
  • (Shianggaang Tehchiu)
Wade–Giles
  • Hsiang1-kang3 Tʻe4-⁠pieh2 Hsing2-⁠cheng4-⁠chʻü1
  • (Hsiang1-kang3 Tʻe4-chʻü1)
Yale Romanization
  • Syāngggǎng Tèbyé Syíngjèngchyū
  • (Syānggǎng Tèchyū)
IPA
Wu
Romanization
  • shian平kaon上 deh入⁠bih入
  • ghan平⁠tsen去⁠chiu平
  • (shian平kaon上 deh入chiu平)
Hakka
Romanization{{unbulleted listHiong1gong3 Tet6⁠piet6 Hang2⁠zin4⁠ki1}}
Yue: Cantonese
Yale Romanization
  • Hēunggóng Dahkbiht Hàhngjingkēui
  • (Hēunggóng Dahkkēui)
  • or
  • Hèunggóng Dahkbiht Hàhngjingkēui
  • (Hèunggóng Dahkkēui)
Jyutping
  • hoeng1 gong2 dak6 bit6 hang4 zing3 keoi1
  • (hoeng1 gong2 dak6 keoi1)
Canton Romanization
  • Hêng1gong2 Deg6⁠bid6 Heng4⁠jing3⁠kêu1
IPA
Southern Min
Hokkien POJ
  • Hiong-kang Te̍k-⁠pia̍t Hêng-⁠chèng-⁠khu
  • (Hiong-kang Te̍k-khu)

The name of the territory, first romanised as "He-Ong-Kong" in 1780,[23] originally referred to a small inlet located between Aberdeen Island and the southern coast of Hong Kong Island. Aberdeen was an initial point of contact between British sailors and local fishermen.[24] Although the source of the romanised name is unknown, it is generally believed to be an early phonetic rendering of the Cantonese (or Tanka Cantonese) phrase hēung góng. The name translates as "fragrant harbour" or "incense harbour".[21][22][25] "Fragrant" may refer to the sweet taste of the harbour's freshwater influx from the Pearl River or to the odour from incense factories lining the coast of northern Kowloon. The incense was stored near Aberdeen Harbour for export before Victoria Harbour was developed.[25] Sir John Davis (the second colonial governor) offered an alternative origin; Davis said that the name derived from "Hoong-keang" ("red torrent"), reflecting the colour of soil over which a waterfall on the island flowed.[26]

The simplified name Hong Kong was frequently used by 1810.[27] The name was also commonly written as the single word Hongkong until 1926, when the government officially adopted the two-word name.[28] Some corporations founded during the early colonial era still keep this name, including Hongkong Land, Hongkong Electric Company, Hongkong and Shanghai Hotels and the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation (HSBC).[29][30]

History

Main article: History of Hong Kong
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Hong Kong history.

Prehistory and Imperial China

Earliest known human traces in what is now Hong Kong are dated by some to 35,000 and 39,000 years ago during the Paleolithic period. The claim is based on an archaeological investigation in Wong Tei Tung, Sai Kung in 2003. The archaeological works revealed knapped stone tools from deposits that were dated using optical luminescence dating.[31]

During the Middle Neolithic period, about 6,000 years ago, the region had been widely occupied by humans.[32] Neolithic to Bronze Age Hong Kong settlers were semi-coastal people. Early inhabitants are believed to be Austronesians in the Middle Neolithic period and later the Yue people.[32] As hinted by the archaeological works in Sha Ha, Sai Kung, rice cultivation had been introduced since Late Neolithic period.[33] Bronze Age Hong Kong featured coarse pottery, hard pottery, quartz and stone jewelry, as well as small bronze implements.[32]

The Qin dynasty incorporated the Hong Kong area into China for the first time in 214 BCE, after conquering the indigenous Baiyue.[34] The region was consolidated under the Nanyue kingdom (a predecessor state of Vietnam) after the Qin collapse[35] and recaptured by China after the Han conquest.[36] During the Mongol conquest of China in the 13th century, the Southern Song court was briefly located in modern-day Kowloon City (the Sung Wong Toi site) before its final defeat in the 1279 Battle of Yamen by the Yuan Dynasty.[37] By the end of the Yuan dynasty, seven large families had settled in the region and owned most of the land. Settlers from nearby provinces migrated to Kowloon throughout the Ming dynasty.[38]

The earliest European visitor was Portuguese explorer Jorge Álvares, who arrived in 1513.[39][40] Portuguese merchants established a trading post called Tamão in Hong Kong waters and began regular trade with southern China. Although the traders were expelled after military clashes in the 1520s,[41] Portuguese-Chinese trade relations were re-established by 1549. Portugal acquired a permanent lease for Macau in 1557.[42]

After the Qing conquest, maritime trade was banned under the Haijin policies. From 1661 to 1683, the population of most of the area forming present day Hong Kong was cleared under the Great Clearance, turning the region into a wasteland.[43] The Kangxi Emperor lifted the maritime trade prohibition, allowing foreigners to enter Chinese ports in 1684.[44] Qing authorities established the Canton System in 1757 to regulate trade more strictly, restricting non-Russian ships to the port of Canton.[45] Although European demand for Chinese commodities like tea, silk, and porcelain was high, Chinese interest in European manufactured goods was insignificant, so that Chinese goods could only be bought with precious metals. To reduce the trade imbalance, the British sold large amounts of Indian opium to China. Faced with a drug crisis, Qing officials pursued ever more aggressive actions to halt the opium trade.[46]

British colony

Main article: British Hong Kong
 
Hong Kong in 1868, photograph by John Thomson

In 1839, the Daoguang Emperor rejected proposals to legalise and tax opium and ordered imperial commissioner Lin Zexu to eradicate the opium trade. The commissioner destroyed opium stockpiles and halted all foreign trade,[47] triggering a British military response and the First Opium War. The Qing surrendered early in the war and ceded Hong Kong Island in the Convention of Chuenpi. British forces began controlling Hong Kong shortly after the signing of the convention, from 26 January 1841.[48] However, both countries were dissatisfied and did not ratify the agreement.[49] After more than a year of further hostilities, Hong Kong Island was formally ceded to the United Kingdom in the 1842 Treaty of Nanking.[50]

Administrative infrastructure was quickly built by early 1842, but piracy, disease, and hostile Qing policies initially prevented the government from attracting commerce. Conditions on the island improved during the Taiping Rebellion in the 1850s, when many Chinese refugees, including wealthy merchants, fled mainland turbulence and settled in the colony.[18] Further tensions between the British and Qing over the opium trade escalated into the Second Opium War. The Qing were again defeated and forced to give up Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutters Island in the Convention of Peking.[51] By the end of this war, Hong Kong had evolved from a transient colonial outpost into a major entrepôt. Rapid economic improvement during the 1850s attracted foreign investment, as potential stakeholders became more confident in Hong Kong's future.[52]

The colony was further expanded in 1898 when the United Kingdom obtained a 99-year lease of the New Territories.[53] The University of Hong Kong was established in 1911 as the territory's first institution of higher education.[54] Kai Tak Airport began operation in 1924, and the colony avoided a prolonged economic downturn after the 1925–26 Canton–Hong Kong strike.[55][56] At the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, Governor Geoffry Northcote declared Hong Kong a neutral zone to safeguard its status as a free port.[57] The colonial government prepared for a possible attack, evacuating all British women and children in 1940.[58] The Imperial Japanese Army attacked Hong Kong on 8 December 1941, the same morning as its attack on Pearl Harbor.[59] Hong Kong was occupied by Japan for almost four years before the British resumed control on 30 August 1945.[60]

 
The flag of British Hong Kong from 1959 to 1997

Its population rebounded quickly after the war, as skilled Chinese migrants fled from the Chinese Civil War and more refugees crossed the border when the Chinese Communist Party took control of mainland China in 1949.[61] Hong Kong became the first of the Four Asian Tiger economies to industrialise during the 1950s.[62] With a rapidly increasing population, the colonial government attempted reforms to improve infrastructure and public services. The public-housing estate programme, Independent Commission Against Corruption, and Mass Transit Railway were all established during the post-war decades to provide safer housing, integrity in the civil service, and more reliable transportation.[63][64]

Nevertheless, widespread public discontent resulted in multiple protests from the 1950s to 1980s, including pro-Republic of China and pro-Chinese Communist Party protests. In the 1967 Hong Kong riots, pro-PRC protestors clashed with the British colonial government. As many as 51 were killed and 802 were injured in the violence, including dozens killed by the Royal Hong Kong Police via beatings and shootings.[65]

Although the territory's competitiveness in manufacturing gradually declined because of rising labour and property costs, it transitioned to a service-based economy. By the early 1990s, Hong Kong had established itself as a global financial centre and shipping hub.[66]

Chinese special administrative region

Further information: Handover of Hong Kong

The colony faced an uncertain future as the end of the New Territories lease approached, and Governor Murray MacLehose raised the question of Hong Kong's status with Deng Xiaoping in 1979.[67] Diplomatic negotiations with China resulted in the 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration, in which the United Kingdom agreed the handover of the colony in 1997 and China would guarantee Hong Kong's economic and political systems for 50 years after the handover.[68] The impending handover triggered a wave of mass emigration as residents feared an erosion of civil rights, the rule of law, and quality of life.[69] Over half a million people left the territory during the peak migration period, from 1987 to 1996.[70] The Legislative Council became a fully elected legislature for the first time in 1995 and extensively expanded its functions and organisations throughout the last years of the colonial rule.[71] The handover of Hong Kong to China was at midnight on 1 July 1997, after 156 years of British rule.[72]

Immediately after the handover, Hong Kong was severely affected by several crises. The Hong Kong government was forced to use substantial foreign exchange reserves to maintain the Hong Kong dollar's currency peg during the 1997 Asian financial crisis,[61] and the recovery from this was muted by an H5N1 avian-flu outbreak[73] and a housing surplus.[74] This was followed by the 2003 SARS epidemic, during which the territory experienced its most serious economic downturn.[75]

Chinese communists portrayed the return of Hong Kong as key moment in the PRC's rise to great power status.[76]: 51 

Political debates after the handover have centred around the region's democratic development and the Chinese central government's adherence to the "one country, two systems" principle. After reversal of the last colonial era Legislative Council democratic reforms following the handover,[77] the regional government unsuccessfully attempted to enact national security legislation pursuant to Article 23 of the Basic Law.[78] The central government decision to implement nominee pre-screening before allowing chief executive elections triggered a series of protests in 2014 which became known as the Umbrella Revolution.[79] Discrepancies in the electoral registry and disqualification of elected legislators after the 2016 Legislative Council elections[80][81][82] and enforcement of national law in the West Kowloon high-speed railway station raised further concerns about the region's autonomy.[83] In June 2019, mass protests erupted in response to a proposed extradition amendment bill permitting the extradition of fugitives to mainland China. The protests are the largest in Hong Kong's history,[84] with organisers claiming to have attracted more than three million Hong Kong residents.

The Hong Kong regional government and Chinese central government responded to the protests with a number of administrative measures to quell dissent. In June 2020, the Legislative Council passed the National Anthem Ordinance, which criminalised "insults to the national anthem of China".[85] The Chinese central government meanwhile enacted the Hong Kong national security law to help quell protests in the region.[86] Nine months later, in March 2021, the Chinese central government introduced amendments to Hong Kong's electoral system, which included the reduction of directly elected seats in the Legislative Council and the requirement that all candidates be vetted and approved by a Beijing-appointed Candidate Eligibility Review Committee.[87]

In May 2023, the Legislative Council also introduced legislation to reduce the number of directly elected seats in the district councils, and a District Council Eligibility Review Committee was similarly established to vet candidates.[88][89][90]

Government and politics

Main articles: Government of Hong Kong, Politics of Hong Kong, Elections in Hong Kong, and Separation of powers in Hong Kong
 
Since 2012, the legislature has met in the Tamar Legislative Council Complex.

Hong Kong is a special administrative region of China, with executive, legislative, and judicial powers devolved from the national government.[91] The Sino-British Joint Declaration provided for economic and administrative continuity through the handover,[68] resulting in an executive-led governing system largely inherited from the territory's history as a British colony.[92] Under these terms and the "one country, two systems" principle, the Basic Law of Hong Kong is the regional constitution.[93] The regional government is composed of three branches:

The chief executive is the head of government and serves for a maximum of two five-year terms. The State Council (led by the Premier of China) appoints the chief executive after nomination by the Election Committee, which is composed of 1500 business, community, and government leaders.[101][102][103]

The Legislative Council has 90 members, each serving a four-year term. Twenty are directly elected from geographical constituencies, thirty-five represent functional constituencies (FC), and forty are chosen by an election committee consisting of representatives appointed by the Chinese central government.[104] Thirty FC councillors are selected from limited electorates representing sectors of the economy or special interest groups,[105] and the remaining five members are nominated from sitting district council members and selected in region-wide double direct elections.[106] All popularly elected members are chosen by proportional representation. The 30 limited electorate functional constituencies fill their seats using first-past-the-post or instant-runoff voting.[105]

Twenty-two political parties had representatives elected to the Legislative Council in the 2016 election.[107] These parties have aligned themselves into three ideological groups: the pro-Beijing camp (the current government), the pro-democracy camp, and localist groups.[108] The Chinese Communist Party does not have an official political presence in Hong Kong, and its members do not run in local elections.[109] Hong Kong is represented in the National People's Congress by 36 deputies chosen through an electoral college and 203 delegates in the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference appointed by the central government.[8]

 
The Court of Final Appeal Building formerly housed the Supreme Court and the Legislative Council.

Chinese national law does not generally apply in the region, and Hong Kong is treated as a separate jurisdiction.[99] Its judicial system is based on common law, continuing the legal tradition established during British rule.[110] Local courts may refer to precedents set in English law and overseas jurisprudence.[111] However, mainland criminal procedure law applies to cases investigated by the Office for Safeguarding National Security of the CPG in the HKSAR.[112] Interpretative and amending power over the Basic Law and jurisdiction over acts of state lie with the central authority, making regional courts ultimately subordinate to the mainland's socialist civil law system.[113] Decisions made by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress override any territorial judicial process.[114] Furthermore, in circumstances where the Standing Committee declares a state of emergency in Hong Kong, the State Council may enforce national law in the region.[115]

The territory's jurisdictional independence is most apparent in its immigration and taxation policies. The Immigration Department issues passports for permanent residents which differ from those of the mainland or Macau,[116] and the region maintains a regulated border with the rest of the country. All travellers between Hong Kong and China and Macau must pass through border controls, regardless of nationality.[117] Mainland Chinese citizens do not have right of abode in Hong Kong and are subject to immigration controls.[118] Public finances are handled separately from the national government; taxes levied in Hong Kong do not fund the central authority.[119][120]

The Hong Kong Garrison of the People's Liberation Army is responsible for the region's defence.[121] Although the Chairman of the Central Military Commission is supreme commander of the armed forces,[122] the regional government may request assistance from the garrison.[123] Hong Kong residents are not required to perform military service, and current law has no provision for local enlistment, so its defence is composed entirely of non-Hongkongers.[124]

The central government and Ministry of Foreign Affairs handle diplomatic matters, but Hong Kong retains the ability to maintain separate economic and cultural relations with foreign nations.[125] The territory actively participates in the World Trade Organization, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, the International Olympic Committee, and many United Nations agencies.[126][127][128] The regional government maintains trade offices in Greater China and other nations.[129]

The imposition of the Hong Kong national security law by the central government in Beijing in June 2020 resulted in the suspension of bilateral extradition treaties by the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Finland, and Ireland.[130] The United States ended its preferential economic and trade treatment of Hong Kong in July 2020 because it was no longer able to distinguish Hong Kong as a separate entity from the People's Republic of China.[130][131] In 2024, the Safeguarding National Security Ordinance was passed by the Legislative Council to grant officials "even more powers to crack down on opposition to Beijing and the Hong Kong government" and includes penalties such as life imprisonment for political crimes such as treason and insurrection. Critics state that this expansion "will strike a lasting blow to the partial autonomy the city had been promised by China."[132]

Administrative divisions

Main articles: List of towns in Hong Kong and Districts of Hong Kong

The territory is divided into 18 districts, each represented by a district council. These advise the government on local issues such as public facility provisioning, community programme maintenance, cultural promotion, and environmental policy. As of 2019, there are a total of 479 district council seats, 452 of which are directly elected.[133] Rural committee chairmen, representing outlying villages and towns, fill the 27 non-elected seats.[134] In May 2023, the government proposed reforms to the District Council electoral system which further cut the number of directly elected seats from 452 to 88, and total seats from 479 to 470. A requirement that district council candidates be vetted and approved by the District Council Eligibility Review Committee was also proposed. The Legislative Council approved the reforms in July 2023.[88][89][90]


 New TerritoriesIslandsKwai TsingNorthSai KungSha TinTai PoTsuen WanTuen MunYuen LongKowloonKowloon CityKwun TongSham Shui PoWong Tai SinYau Tsim MongHong Kong IslandCentral and WesternEasternSouthernWan ChaiIslandsIslandsIslandsIslandsIslandsIslandsIslandsIslandsIslandsIslandsIslandsKwai TsingNorthSai KungSai KungSai KungSai KungSai KungSai KungSai KungSha TinTai PoTai PoTai PoTai PoTai PoTai PoTsuen WanTsuen WanTsuen WanTuen MunTuen MunTuen MunTuen MunYuen LongKowloon CityKwun TongSham Shui PoWong Tai SinYau Tsim MongCentral and WesternEasternSouthernSouthernWan Chai

Political reforms and sociopolitical issues

Main articles: Democratic development in Hong Kong and Human rights in Hong Kong
 
2019–2020 Hong Kong protests

Hong Kong is governed by a hybrid regime that is not fully representative of the population. Legislative Council members elected by functional constituencies composed of professional and special interest groups are accountable to these narrow corporate electorates and not the general public. This electoral arrangement has guaranteed a pro-establishment majority in the legislature since the handover. Similarly, the chief executive is selected by establishment politicians and corporate members of the Election Committee rather than directly elected.[135] Although universal suffrage for the chief executive and all Legislative Council elections are defined goals of Basic Law Articles 45 and 68,[136] the legislature is only partially directly elected, and the executive continues to be nominated by an unrepresentative body.[135] The government has been repeatedly petitioned to introduce direct elections for these positions.[137][138]

Ethnic minorities (except those of European ancestry) have marginal representation in government and often experience discrimination in housing, education, and employment.[139][140] Employment vacancies and public service appointments frequently have language requirements which minority job seekers do not meet, and language education resources remain inadequate for Chinese learners.[141][142] Foreign domestic helpers, predominantly women from the Philippines and Indonesia, have little protection under regional law. Although they live and work in Hong Kong, these workers are not treated as ordinary residents and do not have the right of abode in the territory.[143] Sex trafficking in Hong Kong is an issue. Local and foreign women and girls are often forced into prostitution in brothels, homes, and businesses in the city.[144][145][146][147]

The Joint Declaration guarantees the Basic Law of Hong Kong for 50 years after the handover.[68] It does not specify how Hong Kong will be governed after 2047, and the central government's role in determining the territory's future system of government is the subject of political debate and speculation. Hong Kong's political and judicial systems may be integrated with China's at that time, or the territory may continue to be administered separately.[148][149] However, in response to large-scale protests in 2019 and 2020, the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress passed the controversial Hong Kong national security law.[150] The law criminalises secession, subversion, terrorism and collusion with foreign elements and establishes the Office for Safeguarding National Security of the CPG in the HKSAR, an investigative office under Central People's Government authority immune from HKSAR jurisdiction. Some of the aforementioned acts were previously considered protected speech under Hong Kong law.[112][151] The United Kingdom considers the law to be a serious violation of the Joint Declaration.[152] In October 2020, Hong Kong police arrested seven pro-democracy politicians over tussles with pro-Beijing politicians in the Legislative Council in May. They were charged with contempt and interfering with members of the council, while none of the pro-Beijing lawmakers were detained.[153] Annual commemorations of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre were also cancelled amidst fears of violating the national security law.[154] In March 2021, the Chinese central government unilaterally changed Hong Kong's electoral system and established the Candidate Eligibility Review Committee, which would be tasked with screening and evaluating political candidates for their "patriotism".[87]

Geography

Main articles: Geography of Hong Kong and Environment of Hong Kong
 
Areas of urban development and vegetation are visible in this satellite image.

Hong Kong is on China's southern coast, 60 km (37 mi) east of Macau, on the east side of the mouth of the Pearl River estuary. It is surrounded by the South China Sea on all sides except the north, which neighbours the Guangdong city of Shenzhen along the Sham Chun River. The territory's 1,110.18 km2 (428.64 sq mi)[155] area (2,754.97 km2[155] if the maritime area is included) consists of Hong Kong Island, the Kowloon Peninsula, the New Territories, Lantau Island, and over 200 other islands. Of the total area, 1,073 km2 (414 sq mi) is land and 35 km2 (14 sq mi) is water.[156] The territory's highest point is Tai Mo Shan, 957 metres (3,140 ft) above sea level.[157] Urban development is concentrated on the Kowloon Peninsula, Hong Kong Island, and in new towns throughout the New Territories.[158] Much of this is built on reclaimed land; 70 km2 (27 sq mi) (6% of the total land or about 25% of developed space in the territory) is reclaimed from the sea.[159]

Undeveloped terrain is hilly to mountainous, with very little flat land, and consists mostly of grassland, woodland, shrubland, or farmland.[160][161] About 40% of the remaining land area is country parks and nature reserves.[162] The territory has a diverse ecosystem; over 3,000 species of vascular plants occur in the region (300 of which are native to Hong Kong), and thousands of insect, avian, and marine species.[163][164]

Climate

Hong Kong has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cwa), characteristic of southern China, despite being located south of the Tropic of Cancer, although closely bordering on a tropical climate. Summers are long, hot and humid, with occasional showers and thunderstorms and warm air from the southwest. The humid nature of Hong Kong exacerbates the warmth of summer. Typhoons occur most often then, sometimes resulting in floods or landslides. Winters are short, mild and usually sunny at the beginning, becoming cloudy towards February. Frequent cold fronts bring strong, cooling winds from the north and occasionally result in chilly weather. Autumn is the sunniest season, whilst spring is generally cloudy.[165] Snowfall has been extremely rare in Hong Kong; the last reported instance was on Tai Mo Shan in 1975.[166] Hong Kong averages 1,709 hours of sunshine per year.[167] Historic temperature extremes at the Hong Kong Observatory are 36.6 °C (97.9 °F) on 22 August 2017 and 0.0 °C (32.0 °F) on 18 January 1893.[168] The highest and lowest recorded temperatures in all of Hong Kong are 39.0 °C (102 °F) at Wetland Park on 22 August 2017,[169] and −6.0 °C (21.2 °F) at Tai Mo Shan on 24 January 2016.[170]

Climate data for Hong Kong (Hong Kong Observatory), normals 1991–2020,[g] extremes 1884–1939 and 1947–present
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 26.9
(80.4) 		28.3
(82.9) 		31.5
(88.7) 		33.4
(92.1) 		36.1
(97.0) 		35.6
(96.1) 		36.1
(97.0) 		36.6
(97.9) 		35.9
(96.6) 		34.6
(94.3) 		31.8
(89.2) 		28.7
(83.7) 		36.6
(97.9)
Mean maximum °C (°F) 24.0
(75.2) 		25.1
(77.2) 		27.5
(81.5) 		30.2
(86.4) 		32.3
(90.1) 		33.6
(92.5) 		34.1
(93.4) 		34.2
(93.6) 		33.4
(92.1) 		31.3
(88.3) 		28.4
(83.1) 		25.1
(77.2) 		34.7
(94.5)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 18.7
(65.7) 		19.4
(66.9) 		21.9
(71.4) 		25.6
(78.1) 		28.8
(83.8) 		30.7
(87.3) 		31.6
(88.9) 		31.3
(88.3) 		30.5
(86.9) 		28.1
(82.6) 		24.5
(76.1) 		20.4
(68.7) 		26.0
(78.8)
Daily mean °C (°F) 16.5
(61.7) 		17.1
(62.8) 		19.5
(67.1) 		23.0
(73.4) 		26.3
(79.3) 		28.3
(82.9) 		28.9
(84.0) 		28.7
(83.7) 		27.9
(82.2) 		25.7
(78.3) 		22.2
(72.0) 		18.2
(64.8) 		23.5
(74.3)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 14.6
(58.3) 		15.3
(59.5) 		17.6
(63.7) 		21.1
(70.0) 		24.5
(76.1) 		26.5
(79.7) 		26.9
(80.4) 		26.7
(80.1) 		26.1
(79.0) 		23.9
(75.0) 		20.3
(68.5) 		16.2
(61.2) 		21.6
(70.9)
Mean minimum °C (°F) 9.1
(48.4) 		10.2
(50.4) 		12.2
(54.0) 		16.3
(61.3) 		20.7
(69.3) 		23.6
(74.5) 		24.2
(75.6) 		24.3
(75.7) 		23.5
(74.3) 		20.1
(68.2) 		15.3
(59.5) 		10.1
(50.2) 		7.8
(46.0)
Record low °C (°F) 0.0
(32.0) 		2.4
(36.3) 		4.8
(40.6) 		9.9
(49.8) 		15.4
(59.7) 		19.2
(66.6) 		21.7
(71.1) 		21.6
(70.9) 		18.4
(65.1) 		13.5
(56.3) 		6.5
(43.7) 		4.3
(39.7) 		0.0
(32.0)
Average rainfall mm (inches) 33.2
(1.31) 		38.9
(1.53) 		75.3
(2.96) 		153.0
(6.02) 		290.6
(11.44) 		491.5
(19.35) 		385.8
(15.19) 		453.2
(17.84) 		321.4
(12.65) 		120.3
(4.74) 		39.3
(1.55) 		28.8
(1.13) 		2,431.2
(95.72)
Average rainy days (≥ 0.1 mm) 5.70 7.97 10.50 11.37 15.37 19.33 18.43 17.50 14.90 7.83 5.70 5.30 139.90
Average relative humidity (%) 74 79 82 83 83 82 81 81 78 73 72 70 78
Average dew point °C (°F) 11.7
(53.1) 		13.2
(55.8) 		16.1
(61.0) 		19.7
(67.5) 		23.0
(73.4) 		24.9
(76.8) 		25.2
(77.4) 		25.1
(77.2) 		23.6
(74.5) 		20.2
(68.4) 		16.7
(62.1) 		12.4
(54.3) 		19.3
(66.7)
Mean monthly sunshine hours 145.8 101.7 100.0 113.2 138.8 144.3 197.3 182.1 174.4 197.8 172.3 161.6 1,829.3
Percent possible sunshine 43 32 27 30 34 36 48 46 47 55 52 48 41
Source: Hong Kong Observatory[171][172][173]

Architecture

Main article: Architecture of Hong Kong
 
A residential building in Quarry Bay

Hong Kong has the world's largest number of skyscrapers, with 554 towers taller than 150 metres (490 ft),[174] and the third-largest number of high-rise buildings in the world.[175] The lack of available space restricted development to high-density residential tenements and commercial complexes packed closely together on buildable land.[176] Single-family detached homes are uncommon and generally only found in outlying areas.[177] The International Commerce Centre and Two International Finance Centre are the tallest buildings in Hong Kong and are among the tallest in the Asia-Pacific region.[178] Other distinctive buildings lining the Hong Kong Island skyline include the HSBC Main Building, the anemometer-topped triangular Central Plaza, the circular Hopewell Centre, and the sharp-edged Bank of China Tower.[179][180]

Demand for new construction has contributed to frequent demolition of older buildings, freeing space for modern high-rises.[181] However, many examples of European and Lingnan architecture are still found throughout the territory. Older government buildings are examples of colonial architecture. The 1846 Flagstaff House, the former residence of the commanding British military officer, is the oldest Western-style building in Hong Kong.[182] Some (including the Court of Final Appeal Building and the Hong Kong Observatory) retain their original function, and others have been adapted and reused; the Former Marine Police Headquarters was redeveloped into a commercial and retail complex,[183] and Béthanie (built in 1875 as a sanatorium) houses the Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts.[184] The Tin Hau Temple, dedicated to the sea goddess Mazu (originally built in 1012 and rebuilt in 1266), is the territory's oldest existing structure.[185] The Ping Shan Heritage Trail has architectural examples of several imperial Chinese dynasties, including the Tsui Sing Lau Pagoda (Hong Kong's only remaining pagoda).[186]

Tong lau, mixed-use tenement buildings constructed during the colonial era, blended southern Chinese architectural styles with European influences. These were especially prolific during the immediate post-war period, when many were rapidly built to house large numbers of Chinese migrants.[187] Examples include Lui Seng Chun, the Blue House in Wan Chai, and the Shanghai Street shophouses in Mong Kok. Mass-produced public-housing estates, built since the 1960s, are mainly constructed in modernist style.[188]

 
The Hong Kong Island skyline, viewed from the Victoria Harbour waterfront
 
City view of Kowloon, Hong Kong Island, and the Hong Kong skyline

Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Hong Kong and Hong Kong people
Death rates (No. of Deaths per 100000 Population) by leading causes of death, based on ICD 10th Revision.[189] Red: increased compared with 2001. Deaths from dementia increased more than 5 times from 2001 to 2021.
Cause of Death 2001 2011 2021
1. Malignant neoplasms 169.9 187.2 203.8
2. Pneumonia 45.1 87.8 132.6
3. Diseases of heart 70 89.6 89
4. Cerebrovascular 46.6 47.2 42.2
5. External causes of
morbidity and mortality		 27.5 22.2 26.7
6. Nephritis, nephrotic
syndrome and nephrosis		 15.7 21.8 24
7. Dementia 3.8 10.6 20.2
8. Septicaemia 6.3 10.8 16.8
9. Chronic lower
respiratory diseases		 31.5 27.8 14.3
10. Diabetes mellitus 10.1 6.5 7.4
All other causes 69.7 85 118.1
All causes 496 596.6 695.2
 
2016 population pyramid

The Census and Statistics Department estimated Hong Kong's population at 7,413,070 in 2021. The overwhelming majority (91.6%) is Han Chinese,[6] most of whom are Taishanese, Teochew, Hakka, and other Cantonese peoples.[190][191][192] The remaining 8.4% are non-ethnic Chinese minorities, primarily Filipinos, Indonesians, and South Asians.[6][193] However, most Filipinos and Indonesians in Hong Kong are short-term workers. According to a 2021 thematic report by the Hong Kong government, after excluding foreign domestic helpers, the real number of non-Chinese ethnic minorities in the city was 301,344, or 4% of Hong Kong's population.[194] About half the population have some form of British nationality, a legacy of colonial rule; 3.4 million residents have British National (Overseas) status, and 260,000 British citizens live in the territory.[195] The vast majority also hold Chinese nationality, automatically granted to all ethnic Chinese residents at the handover.[196] Headline population density exceeds 7,060 people/km2, and is the fourth-highest in the world.[197]

The predominant language is Cantonese, a variety of Chinese originating in Guangdong. It is spoken by 93.7% of the population, 88.2% as a first language and 5.5% as a second language.[3] Slightly over half the population (58.7%) speaks English, the other official language;[2] 4.6% are native speakers, and 54.1% speak English as a second language.[3] Code-switching, mixing English and Cantonese in informal conversation, is common among the bilingual population.[198] Post-handover governments have promoted Mandarin, which is currently about as prevalent as English; 54.2% of the population speak Mandarin, with 2.3% native speakers and 51.9% as a second language.[3] Traditional Chinese characters are used in writing, rather than the simplified characters used in the mainland.[199]

 
Wong Tai Sin Temple is dedicated to the Taoist deity Wong Tai Sin.

Among the religious population, the traditional "three teachings" of China, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism, have the most adherents (20%), followed by Christianity (12%) and Islam (4%).[200] Followers of other religions, including Sikhism, Hinduism, and Judaism, generally originate from regions where their religion predominates.[200]

Life expectancy in Hong Kong was 81.3 years for males and 87.2 years for females in 2022, one of the highest in the world.[201][202] Cancer, pneumonia, heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, and accidents are the territory's five leading causes of death.[203] The universal public healthcare system is funded by general-tax revenue, and treatment is highly subsidised; on average, 95% of healthcare costs are covered by the government.[204]

The city has a severe amount of income inequality,[205] which has risen since the handover, as the region's ageing population has gradually added to the number of nonworking people.[206] Although median household income steadily increased during the decade to 2016, the wage gap remained high;[207] the 90th percentile of earners receive 41% of all income.[207] The city has the most billionaires per capita, with one billionaire per 109,657 people,[208] as well as the second-highest number of billionaires of any city in the world,[209] the highest number of billionaires of any city in Asia, and the largest concentration of ultra high-net-worth individuals of any city in the world.[210][211] Despite government efforts to reduce the growing disparity,[212] median income for the top 10% of earners is 44 times that of the bottom 10%.[213][214]

Economy

Main articles: Economy of Hong Kong and Tourism in Hong Kong
 
Hong Kong is one of the world's busiest container ports.

One of the world's most significant financial centres and commercial ports,[215] Hong Kong has a market economy focused on services, characterised by low taxation, minimal government market intervention, and an established international financial market.[216] It is the world's 35th-largest economy, with a nominal GDP of approximately US$373 billion.[13] Hong Kong's economy ranked at the top of the Heritage Foundation's economic freedom index between 1995 and 2021.[217][218] However, Hong Kong was removed from the index by the Heritage Foundation in 2021, with the Foundation citing a "loss of political freedom and autonomy ... [making Hong Kong] almost indistinguishable in many respects from other major Chinese commercial centers like Shanghai and Beijing".[219] Hong Kong is highly developed, and ranks fourth on the UN Human Development Index.[156] The Hong Kong Stock Exchange is the seventh-largest in the world, with a market capitalisation of HK$30.4 trillion (US$3.87 trillion) as of December 2018.[220] Hong Kong is ranked as the 17th most innovative territory in the Global Innovation Index in 2023,[221] and 3rd in the Global Financial Centres Index.[222] The city is sometimes referred to as "Silicon Harbor",[223] a nickname derived from Silicon Valley in California. Hong Kong hosts several high tech and innovation companies,[224] including several multinational companies.[225][226]

Hong Kong is the ninth largest trading entity in exports and eighth largest in imports (2021),[227][228] trading more goods in value than its gross domestic product.[227][228] Over half of its cargo throughput consists of transshipments (goods travelling through Hong Kong). Products from mainland China account for about 40% of that traffic.[229] The city's location allowed it to establish a transportation and logistics infrastructure which includes the world's seventh-busiest container port[230] and the busiest airport for international cargo.[231] The territory's largest export markets are mainland China and the United States.[156] Hong Kong is a key part of the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road.[232] It has little arable land and few natural resources, importing most of its food and raw materials. More than 90% of Hong Kong's food is imported, including nearly all of its meat and rice.[233] Agricultural activity is 0.1% of GDP and consists of growing premium food and flower varieties.[234]

Although the territory had one of Asia's largest manufacturing economies during the latter half of the colonial era, Hong Kong's economy is now dominated by the service sector. The sector generates 92.7% of economic output, with the public sector accounting for about 10%.[235] Between 1961 and 1997 Hong Kong's gross domestic product increased by a factor of 180, and per capita GDP increased by a factor of 87.[236][237] The territory's GDP relative to mainland China's peaked at 27% in 1993; it fell to less than 3% in 2017, as the mainland developed and liberalised its economy.[238] Economic and infrastructure integration with China has increased significantly since the 1978 start of market liberalisation on the mainland. Since resumption of cross-boundary train service in 1979, many rail and road links have been improved and constructed, facilitating trade between regions.[239][240] The Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement formalised a policy of free trade between the two areas, with each jurisdiction pledging to remove remaining obstacles to trade and cross-boundary investment.[241] A similar economic partnership with Macau details the liberalisation of trade between the special administrative regions.[242] Chinese companies have expanded their economic presence in the territory since the handover. Mainland firms represent over half of the Hang Seng Index value, up from 5% in 1997.[243][244]

 
Former trading floor of the Hong Kong Stock Exchange

As the mainland liberalised its economy, Hong Kong's shipping industry faced intense competition from other Chinese ports. Half of China's trade goods were routed through Hong Kong in 1997, dropping to about 13% by 2015.[245] The territory's minimal taxation, common law system, and civil service attract overseas corporations wishing to establish a presence in Asia.[245] The city has the second-highest number of corporate headquarters in the Asia-Pacific region.[246] Hong Kong is a gateway for foreign direct investment in China, giving investors open access to mainland Chinese markets through direct links with the Shanghai and Shenzhen stock exchanges. The territory was the first market outside mainland China for renminbi-denominated bonds, and is one of the largest hubs for offshore renminbi trading.[247] In November 2020, Hong Kong's Financial Services and the Treasury Bureau proposed a new law that will restrict cryptocurrency trading to professional investors only, leaving amateur traders (93% of Hong Kong's trading population) out of the market.[248] The Hong Kong dollar, the local currency, is the eighth most traded currency in the world.[249] Due to extremely compact house sizes and the extremely high housing density, the city has the most expensive housing market in the world.[250][251][252]

The government has had a passive role in the economy. Colonial governments had little industrial policy and implemented almost no trade controls. Under the doctrine of "positive non-interventionism", post-war administrations deliberately avoided the direct allocation of resources; active intervention was considered detrimental to economic growth.[253] While the economy transitioned to a service basis during the 1980s,[253] late colonial governments introduced interventionist policies. Post-handover administrations continued and expanded these programmes, including export-credit guarantees, a compulsory pension scheme, a minimum wage, anti-discrimination laws, and a state mortgage backer.[254]

Tourism is a major part of the economy, accounting for 5% of GDP.[183] In 2016, 26.6 million visitors contributed HK$258 billion (US$32.9 billion) to the territory, making Hong Kong the 14th most popular destination for international tourists. It is the most popular Chinese city for tourists, receiving over 70% more visitors than its closest competitor (Macau).[255] The city is ranked as one of the most expensive cities for expatriates.[256][257] However, since 2020, there has been a sharp decline in incoming visitors due to tight COVID-19 travel restrictions. Additionally, due to the closure of Russian airspace in 2022, multiple airlines decided to cease their operations in Hong Kong.[258] In an attempt to attract tourists back to Hong Kong, the Hong Kong government announced plans to give away 500,000 free airline tickets in 2023.[259]

 
Victoria Peak is a major tourist attraction that offers views of Central and Victoria Harbour.

Infrastructure

Transport

Main article: Transport in Hong Kong
 
Entrance to the Cross-Harbour Tunnel in Hung Hom, Kowloon

Hong Kong has a highly developed, sophisticated transport network. Over 90% of daily trips are made on public transport, the highest percentage in the world.[260] The Octopus card, a contactless smart payment card, is widely accepted on railways, trams, buses and ferries, and can be used for payment in most retail stores.[261]

The Peak Tram, Hong Kong's first public transport system, has provided funicular rail transport between Central and Victoria Peak since 1888.[262] The Central and Western District has an extensive system of escalators and moving pavements, including the Mid-Levels escalator (the world's longest outdoor covered escalator system).[263] Hong Kong Tramways covers a portion of Hong Kong Island. The Mass Transit Railway (MTR) is an extensive passenger rail network, connecting 93 metro stations throughout the territory.[264] With a daily ridership of almost five million, the system serves 41% of all public transit passengers in the city[265] and has an on-time rate of 99.9%.[266] Cross-boundary train service to Shenzhen is offered by the East Rail line, and longer-distance inter-city trains to Guangzhou, Shanghai, and Beijing are operated from Hung Hom station.[267] Connecting service to the national high-speed rail system is provided at West Kowloon railway station.[268]

Although public transport systems handle most passenger traffic, there are over 500,000 private vehicles registered in Hong Kong.[269] Automobiles drive on the left (unlike in mainland China), because of historical influence of the British Empire.[270] Vehicle traffic is extremely congested in urban areas, exacerbated by limited space to expand roads and an increasing number of vehicles.[271] More than 18,000 taxicabs, easily identifiable by their bright colour, are licensed to carry riders in the territory.[272] Bus services operate more than 700 routes across the territory,[265] with smaller public light buses (also known as minibuses) serving areas standard buses do not reach as frequently or directly.[273] Highways, organised with the Hong Kong Strategic Route and Exit Number System, connect all major areas of the territory.[274] The Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau Bridge provides a direct route to the western side of the Pearl River estuary.[240]

 
MTR train on the Tung Chung line

Hong Kong International Airport is the territory's primary airport. Over 100 airlines operate flights from the airport, including locally based Cathay Pacific (flag carrier), Hong Kong Airlines, low-cost airline HK Express and cargo airline Air Hong Kong.[275] It was the eighth-busiest airport by passenger traffic[276] pre-COVID and handles the most air-cargo traffic in the world.[277] Most private recreational aviation traffic flies through Shek Kong Airfield, under the supervision of the Hong Kong Aviation Club.[278]

The Star Ferry operates two lines across Victoria Harbour for its 53,000 daily passengers.[279] Ferries also serve outlying islands inaccessible by other means. Smaller kai-to boats serve the most remote coastal settlements.[280] Ferry travel to Macau and mainland China is also available.[281] Junks, once common in Hong Kong waters, are no longer widely available and are used privately and for tourism.[282] The large size of the port gives Hong Kong the classification of Large-Port Metropolis.[283]

Utilities

Main articles: Energy in Hong Kong, Electricity sector in Hong Kong, and Water supply and sanitation in Hong Kong

Hong Kong generates most of its electricity locally.[284] The vast majority of this energy comes from fossil fuels, with 46% from coal and 47% from petroleum.[285] The rest is from other imports, including nuclear energy generated in mainland China.[286] Renewable sources account for a negligible amount of energy generated for the territory.[287] Small-scale wind-power sources have been developed,[284] and a small number of private homes and public buildings have installed solar panels.[288]

With few natural lakes and rivers, high population density, inaccessible groundwater sources, and extremely seasonal rainfall, the territory does not have a reliable source of freshwater. The Dongjiang River in Guangdong supplies 70% of the city's water,[289] and the remaining demand is filled by harvesting rainwater.[290] Toilets in most built-up areas of the territory flush with seawater, greatly reducing freshwater use.[289]

Broadband Internet access is widely available, with 92.6% of households connected. Connections over fibre-optic infrastructure are increasingly prevalent,[291] contributing to the high regional average connection speed of 21.9 Mbit/s (the world's fourth-fastest).[292] Mobile-phone use is ubiquitous;[293] there are more than 18 million mobile-phone accounts,[294] more than double the territory's population.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Hong Kong
See also: Cantonese culture

Hong Kong is characterised as a hybrid of East and West. Traditional Chinese values emphasising family and education blend with Western ideals, including economic liberty and the rule of law.[295] Although the vast majority of the population is ethnically Chinese, Hong Kong has developed a distinct identity. The territory diverged from the mainland through its long period of colonial administration and a different pace of economic, social, and cultural development. Mainstream culture is derived from immigrants originating from various parts of China. This was influenced by British-style education, a separate political system, and the territory's rapid development during the late 20th century.[296][297] Most migrants of that era fled poverty and war, reflected in the prevailing attitude toward wealth; Hongkongers tend to link self-image and decision-making to material benefits.[298][299] Residents' sense of local identity has markedly increased post-handover: The majority of the population (52%) identifies as "Hongkongers", while 11% describe themselves as "Chinese". The remaining population purport mixed identities, 23% as "Hongkonger in China" and 12% as "Chinese in Hong Kong".[300]

Traditional Chinese family values, including family honour, filial piety, and a preference for sons, are prevalent.[301] Nuclear families are the most common households, although multi-generational and extended families are not unusual.[302] Spiritual concepts such as feng shui are observed; large-scale construction projects often hire consultants to ensure proper building positioning and layout. The degree of its adherence to feng shui is believed to determine the success of a business.[179] Bagua mirrors are regularly used to deflect evil spirits,[303] and buildings often lack floor numbers with a 4;[304] the number has a similar sound to the word for "die" in Cantonese.[305]

Cuisine

Main article: Hong Kong cuisine
 
 
Typical fare at a dim sum restaurant (left); cha chaan teng breakfast food with Hong Kong-style milk tea (right)

Food in Hong Kong is primarily based on Cantonese cuisine, despite the territory's exposure to foreign influences and its residents' varied origins. Rice is the staple food, and is usually served plain with other dishes.[306] Freshness of ingredients is emphasised. Poultry and seafood are commonly sold live at wet markets, and ingredients are used as quickly as possible.[307] There are five daily meals: breakfast, lunch, afternoon tea, dinner, and siu yeh.[308] Dim sum, as part of yum cha (brunch), is a dining-out tradition with family and friends. Dishes include congee, cha siu bao, siu yuk, egg tarts, and mango pudding. Local versions of Western food are served at cha chaan teng (Hong Kong-style cafes). Common cha chaan teng menu items include macaroni in soup, deep-fried French toast, and Hong Kong-style milk tea.[306]

Cinema

Main article: Cinema of Hong Kong
 
Statue of Bruce Lee on the Avenue of Stars, a tribute to the city's film industry

Hong Kong developed into a filmmaking hub during the late 1940s as a wave of Shanghai filmmakers migrated to the territory, and these movie veterans helped build the colony's entertainment industry over the next decade.[309] By the 1960s, the city was well known to overseas audiences through films such as The World of Suzie Wong.[310] When Bruce Lee's The Way of the Dragon was released in 1972, local productions became popular outside Hong Kong. During the 1980s, films such as A Better Tomorrow, As Tears Go By, and Zu Warriors from the Magic Mountain expanded global interest beyond martial arts films; locally made gangster films, romantic dramas, and supernatural fantasies became popular.[311]

Hong Kong cinema continued to be internationally successful over the following decade with critically acclaimed dramas such as Farewell My Concubine, To Live, and Chungking Express. The city's martial arts film roots are evident in the roles of the most prolific Hong Kong actors. Jackie Chan, Donnie Yen, Jet Li, Chow Yun-fat, and Michelle Yeoh frequently play action-oriented roles in foreign films. Hong Kong films have also grown popular in oversea markets such as Japan, South Korea, and Southeast Asia, earning the city the moniker "Hollywood of the East".[312] At the height of the local movie industry in the early 1990s, over 400 films were produced each year; since then, industry momentum shifted to mainland China. The number of films produced annually has declined to about 60 in 2017.[313]

Music

Main article: Music of Hong Kong
 
 
Leslie Cheung (left) is considered a pioneering Cantopop artist, and Andy Lau has been an icon of Hong Kong music and film for several decades as a member of the Four Heavenly Kings.

Cantopop is a genre of Cantonese popular music which emerged in Hong Kong during the 1970s. Evolving from Shanghai-style shidaiqu, it is also influenced by Cantonese opera and Western pop.[314] Local media featured songs by artists such as Sam Hui, Anita Mui, Leslie Cheung, and Alan Tam; during the 1980s, exported films and shows exposed Cantopop to a global audience.[315] The genre's popularity peaked in the 1990s, when the Four Heavenly Kings dominated Asian record charts.[316] Despite a general decline since late in the decade,[317] Cantopop remains dominant in Hong Kong; contemporary artists such as Eason Chan, Joey Yung, and Twins are popular in and beyond the territory.[318]

Western classical music has historically had a strong presence in Hong Kong and remains a large part of local musical education.[319] The publicly funded Hong Kong Philharmonic Orchestra, the territory's oldest professional symphony orchestra, frequently hosts musicians and conductors from overseas. The Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra, composed of classical Chinese instruments, is the leading Chinese ensemble and plays a significant role in promoting traditional music in the community.[320]

Hong Kong has never had a separate national anthem to the country that controlled it; its current official national anthem is therefore that of the People's Republic of China, March of the Volunteers. The song Glory to Hong Kong has been used by protestors as an unofficial anthem of the city.[321][322]

Sport and recreation

Main article: Sport in Hong Kong
 
The Hong Kong Sevens, considered the premier tournament of the World Rugby Sevens Series, is played each spring.

Despite its small area, the territory is home to a variety of sports and recreational facilities. The city has hosted numerous major sporting events, including the 2009 East Asian Games, the 2008 Summer Olympics equestrian events, and the 2007 Premier League Asia Trophy.[323] The territory regularly hosts the Hong Kong Sevens, Hong Kong Marathon, Hong Kong Tennis Classic and Lunar New Year Cup, and hosted the inaugural AFC Asian Cup and the 1995 Dynasty Cup.[324][325]

Hong Kong represents itself separately from mainland China, with its own sports teams in international competitions.[323] The territory has participated in almost every Summer Olympics since 1952 and has earned nine medals. Lee Lai-shan won the territory's first Olympic gold medal at the 1996 Atlanta Olympics,[326] and Cheung Ka Long won the second one in Tokyo 2020.[327] Hong Kong athletes have won 126 medals at the Paralympic Games and 17 at the Commonwealth Games. No longer part of the Commonwealth of Nations, the city's last appearance in the latter was in 1994.[328]

Dragon boat races originated as a religious ceremony conducted during the annual Tuen Ng Festival. The race was revived as a modern sport as part of the Tourism Board's efforts to promote Hong Kong's image abroad. The first modern competition was organised in 1976, and overseas teams began competing in the first international race in 1993.[329]

The Hong Kong Jockey Club, the territory's largest taxpayer,[330] has a monopoly on gambling and provides over 7% of government revenue.[331] Three forms of gambling are legal in Hong Kong: lotteries, horse racing, and football.[330]

Education

Main article: Education in Hong Kong
 
Old campus of St. Paul's College, the first school established in the colonial era

Education in Hong Kong is largely modelled on that of the United Kingdom, particularly the English system.[332] Children are required to attend school from age 6 until completion of secondary education, generally at age 18.[333][334] At the end of secondary schooling, all students take a public examination and are awarded the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education upon successful completion.[335]

Of residents aged 15 and older, 81% completed lower-secondary education, 66% graduated from an upper secondary school, 32% attended a non-degree tertiary program, and 24% earned a bachelor's degree or higher.[336]

Mandatory education has contributed to an adult literacy rate of 95.7%.[337] The literacy rate is lower than that of other developed economies because of the influx of refugees from mainland China during the post-war colonial era; much of the elderly population were not formally educated because of war and poverty.[338][339]

Comprehensive schools fall under three categories: public schools, which are government-run; subsidised schools, including government aid-and-grant schools; and private schools, often those run by religious organisations and that base admissions on academic merit. These schools are subject to the curriculum guidelines as provided by the Education Bureau. Private schools subsidised under the Direct Subsidy Scheme; international schools fall outside of this system and may elect to use differing curricula and teach using other languages.[334]

Medium of instruction

At primary and secondary school levels, the government maintains a policy of "mother tongue instruction"; most schools use Cantonese as the medium of instruction, with written education in both Chinese and English. Other languages being used as medium of instruction in non-international school education include English and Putonghua (Standard Mandarin Chinese). Secondary schools emphasise "bi-literacy and tri-lingualism", which has encouraged the proliferation of spoken Mandarin language education.[340]

English is the official medium of instruction and assessments for most university programmes in Hong Kong, although use of Cantonese is predominant in informal discussions among local students and professors.[341][342][343][344][345][346]

Tertiary education

 
University of Hong Kong main building

Hong Kong has eleven universities. The University of Hong Kong (HKU) was founded as the city's first institute of higher education during the early colonial period in 1911.[347] The Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK) was established in 1963 to fill the need for a university that taught using Chinese as its primary language of instruction.[348] Along with the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST) established in 1991, these universities are consistently ranked among the top 50 or top 100 universities worldwide.[349][350][351]

The Hong Kong Polytechnic University (PolyU)[352] and City University of Hong Kong (CityU), both granted university status in 1994, are consistently ranked among the top 100 or top 200 universities worldwide.[349][350][351] The Hong Kong Baptist University (HKBU) was granted university status in 1994[353] and is a liberal arts institution. Lingnan University,[354] Education University of Hong Kong,[355] Hong Kong Metropolitan University (formerly Open University of Hong Kong),[356] Hong Kong Shue Yan University[357] and Hang Seng University of Hong Kong all attained full university status in subsequent years.

Media

Main article: Media of Hong Kong
 
TVB City, headquarters of Hong Kong's first over-the-air television station

Most of the newspapers in Hong Kong are written in Chinese but there are also a few English-language newspapers. The major one is the South China Morning Post, with The Standard serving as a business-oriented alternative. A variety of Chinese-language newspapers are published daily; the most prominent are Ming Pao and Oriental Daily News. Local publications are often politically affiliated, with pro-Beijing or pro-democracy sympathies. The central government has a print-media presence in the territory through the state-owned Ta Kung Pao and Wen Wei Po.[358] Several international publications have regional operations in Hong Kong, including The Wall Street Journal, Financial Times, The New York Times International Edition, USA Today, Yomiuri Shimbun, and The Nikkei.[359]

Three free-to-air television broadcasters operate in the territory; TVB, HKTVE, and Hong Kong Open TV air eight digital channels.[360] TVB, Hong Kong's dominant television network, has an 80% viewer share.[361] Pay TV services operated by Cable TV Hong Kong and PCCW offer hundreds of additional channels and cater to a variety of audiences.[360] RTHK is the public broadcaster, providing seven radio channels and three television channels.[362] Ten non-domestic broadcasters air programming for the territory's foreign population.[360] Access to media and information over the Internet is not subject to mainland Chinese regulations, including the Great Firewall, yet local control applies.[363]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b No specific variety of Chinese is official in the territory. Residents predominantly speak Cantonese, the de facto regional standard.[1][2][3]
  2. ^ a b For all government use, documents written using Traditional Chinese characters are authoritative over ones inscribed with Simplified Chinese characters.[4] English shares equal status with Chinese in all official proceedings.[5]
  3. ^ Except for the Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge Hong Kong Link Road, which drives on the right.[16]
  4. ^
  5. ^ Hong Kong permanent residents can be of any nationality. A person without Chinese nationality who has entered Hong Kong with a valid travel document, has ordinarily resided there for a continuous period not less than seven years, and is permanently domiciled in the territory would be legally recognised as a Hongkonger.[17]
  6. ^ However, decisions made by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress override any territorial judicial process. Furthermore, the State Council may enforce national law in the region under specific circumstances.
  7. ^ Mean monthly maxima and minima (i.e. the expected highest and lowest temperature readings at any point during the year or given month) calculated based on data in Hong Kong from 1991 to 2020.

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Sources

Print

Legislation and case law
  • Amendment to the Basic Law Annex I (Instrument A111)
  • Basic Law Chapter II
  • Basic Law Chapter III
  • Basic Law Chapter IV
  • Basic Law Chapter V
  • Basic Law Chapter VII
  • Chief Executive of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region and Another v the President of the Legislative Council, HCAL 185/2016, at para. 20
  • Constitution of the People's Republic of China (Instrument A1)
  • District Councils Ordinance (Cap. 547) Schedule 3
  • Emergency Regulations Ordinance (Cap. 241)
  • Hong Kong Baptist University Ordinance (Cap. 1126)
  • Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Passports Ordinance (Cap. 539)
  • Lingnan University Ordinance (Cap. 1165)
  • Ng Ka Ling and Another v the Director of Immigration, FACV 14/1998, at para. 63
  • Official Languages Ordinance (Cap. 5) § 3(1)
  • Sino-British Joint Declaration (Instrument A301)
  • Standing Committee Interpretation Concerning Implementation of Chinese Nationality Law in Hong Kong (Instrument A204)
  • The Education University of Hong Kong Ordinance (Cap. 444)
  • The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Ordinance (Cap. 1075)
  • The Open University of Hong Kong Ordinance (Cap. 1145)

Academic publications

  • Chen, Li (2011). "Universalism and Equal Sovereignty as Contested Myths of International Law in the Sino-Western Encounter". Journal of the History of International Law. 13 (1): 75–116. doi:10.1163/157180511X552054.
  • Cheng, Edmund W. (June 2016). "Street Politics in a Hybrid Regime: The Diffusion of Political Activism in Post-colonial Hong Kong". The China Quarterly. 226: 383–406. doi:10.1017/S0305741016000394.
  • Cheng, Sheung-Tak; Lum, Terry; Lam, Linda C. W.; Fung, Helene H. (2013). "Hong Kong: Embracing a Fast Aging Society With Limited Welfare". The Gerontologist. 53 (4): 527–533. doi:10.1093/geront/gnt017. PMID 23528290.
  • Cullinane, S. (2002). "The relationship between car ownership and public transport provision: a case study of Hong Kong". Transport Policy. 9 (1): 29–39. doi:10.1016/S0967-070X(01)00028-2.
  • Fan, Shuh Ching (1974). "The Population of Hong Kong" (PDF). World Population Year: 1–2. OCLC 438716102.
  • Forrest, Ray; La Grange, Adrienne; Yip, Ngai-ming (2004). "Hong Kong as a Global City? Social Distance and Spatial Differentiation". Urban Studies. 41 (1): 207–227. Bibcode:2004UrbSt..41..207F. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.1032.5974. doi:10.1080/0042098032000155759. S2CID 154042413.
  • Fu, Poshek (2008). "Japanese Occupation, Shanghai Exiles, and Postwar Hong Kong Cinema". The China Quarterly. 194 (194): 380–394. doi:10.1017/S030574100800043X. JSTOR 20192203. S2CID 154730809.
  • Fulton Commission (1963). "Report of the Fulton Commission, 1963: Commission to Advise on the Creation of a Federal-Type Chinese University in Hong Kong". Minerva. 1 (4): 493–507. doi:10.1007/bf01107190. JSTOR 41821589. S2CID 189763965.
  • Jordan, Ann D. (1997). "Lost in the Translation: Two Legal Cultures, the Common Law Judiciary and the Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region". Cornell International Law Journal. 30 (2): 335–380.
  • Lee, John (2012). "A Corpus-Based Analysis of Mixed Code in Hong Kong Speech". 2012 International Conference on Asian Language Processing. pp. 165–168.
January 01, 1970
hong, kong, redirects, here, other, uses, disambiguation, disambiguation, special, administrative, region, people, republic, china, with, million, residents, various, nationalities, square, kilometre, territory, most, densely, populated, territories, world, 香港. HK redirects here For other uses see Hong Kong disambiguation and HK disambiguation Hong Kong d is a special administrative region of the People s Republic of China With 7 4 million residents of various nationalities e in a 1 104 square kilometre 426 sq mi territory Hong Kong is one of the most densely populated territories in the world Hong Kong香港Special administrative regionHong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People s Republic of China Other official names Chinese 中華人民共和國香港特別行政區Cantonese Yale romanisation Jung wah Yahnmahn Guhng wohgwok Heunggong Dahkbiht HahngjingkeuiCantonese Jyutping romanisation zung1 waa4 jan4 man4 gung6 wo4 gwok3 hoeng1 gong2 dak6 bit6 hang4 zing3 keoi1FlagEmblemLocation of Hong Kong within ChinaSovereign stateChinaBritish possession26 January 1841Treaty of Nanking29 August 1842Convention of Peking24 October 1860New Territories lease9 June 1898Imperial Japanese occupation25 December 1941 to 30 August 1945Redesignated as a British Dependent Territory1 January 1981Sino British Joint Declaration19 December 1984Handover to China1 July 1997Administrative centreTamarLargest districtby populationSha TinOfficial languagesChinese a English b Regional languageCantonese a Official scriptsTraditional Chinese b English alphabetEthnic groups 2021 91 6 Chinese2 7 Filipino1 9 Indonesian0 8 White0 6 Indian0 4 Nepalese2 other 6 Demonym s HongkongerHongkongeseGovernmentDevolved executive led government within a unitary one party state 7 Chief ExecutiveJohn Lee Chief SecretaryEric Chan Council PresidentAndrew Leung Chief JusticeAndrew CheungLegislatureLegislative CouncilNational representation National People s Congress36 deputies Chinese People sPolitical Consultative Conference203 delegates 8 Area Total2 754 97 9 km2 1 063 70 sq mi 168th Water 59 70 1 640 62 km2 633 45 sq mi 9 Land1 114 35 km2 430 25 sq mi 9 Highest elevation Tai Mo Shan 957 m 3 140 ft Lowest elevation South China Sea 0 m 0 ft Population 2023 estimate7 498 100 10 2021 census7 413 070 11 Density6 801 12 km2 17 614 5 sq mi 4th GDP PPP 2023 estimate Total 548 999 billion 13 45th Per capita 72 861 13 13th GDP nominal 2023 estimate Total 385 546 billion 13 40th Per capita 51 168 13 21st Gini 2016 53 9 14 highHDI 2022 0 956 15 very high 4thCurrencyHong Kong dollar HK HKD Time zoneUTC 08 00 HKT Date formatdd mm yyyyyyyy年mm月dd日Mains electricity220 V 50 HzDriving sideleft c Calling code 852ISO 3166 codeHKCN HKInternet TLD hk 香港Number plate prefixesNone for local vehicles 粤Z for cross boundary vehicles Hong Kong was established as a colony of the British Empire after the Qing dynasty ceded Hong Kong Island in 1841 1842 as a consequence of losing the First Opium War The colony expanded to the Kowloon Peninsula in 1860 and was further extended when the United Kingdom obtained a 99 year lease of the New Territories in 1898 Hong Kong was occupied by Japan from 1941 to 1945 during World War II The territory was handed over from the United Kingdom to China in 1997 Hong Kong maintains separate governing and economic systems from that of mainland China under the principle of one country two systems f Originally a sparsely populated area of farming and fishing villages 18 19 the territory is now one of the world s most significant financial centres and commercial ports Hong Kong is the world s fourth ranked global financial centre ninth largest exporter and eighth largest importer Its currency the Hong Kong dollar is the ninth most traded currency in the world Home to the seventh highest number of billionaires of any city in the world Hong Kong has the largest number of ultra high net worth individuals 20 Although the city has one of the highest per capita incomes in the world severe income inequality exists among the population Despite having the largest number of skyscrapers of any city in the world housing in Hong Kong has been well documented to experience a chronic persistent shortage Hong Kong is a highly developed territory and has a Human Development Index HDI of 0 956 ranking fourth in the world The city has one of the highest life expectancies in the world and a public transport rate exceeding 90 per cent Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2 1 Prehistory and Imperial China 2 2 British colony 2 3 Chinese special administrative region 3 Government and politics 3 1 Administrative divisions 3 2 Political reforms and sociopolitical issues 4 Geography 4 1 Climate 4 2 Architecture 5 Demographics 6 Economy 7 Infrastructure 7 1 Transport 7 2 Utilities 8 Culture 8 1 Cuisine 8 2 Cinema 8 3 Music 8 4 Sport and recreation 9 Education 9 1 Medium of instruction 9 2 Tertiary education 10 Media 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 13 1 Citations 13 2 Sources 13 2 1 Print 13 2 1 1 Legislation and case law 13 2 2 Academic publications 13 2 3 Institutional reports 13 2 4 News and magazine articles 13 2 5 Websites 14 External linksEtymologyHong Kong nbsp Hong Kong in Chinese charactersChinese香港Jyutpinghoeng1 gong2Cantonese YaleHeunggong orHeunggongLiteral meaning Fragrant Harbour 21 22 TranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinXianggǎngBopomofoㄒㄧㄤ ㄍㄤˇGwoyeu RomatzyhShianggaangWade GilesHsiang1 kang3Yale RomanizationSyanggǎngIPA ɕja ŋ ka ŋ WuRomanizationshian平kaon上HakkaRomanizationHiong1gong3Yue CantoneseYale RomanizationHeunggong orHeunggongJyutpinghoeng1 gong2Canton RomanizationHeng1gong2IPA hœ ːŋ kɔ ːŋ or hœ ːŋ kɔ ːŋ Southern MinHokkien POJHiong kangHong Kong Special Administrative RegionTraditional Chinese香港特別行政區 香港特區 Simplified Chinese香港特别行政区 香港特区 Jyutpinghoeng1 gong2 dak6 bit6 hang4 zing3 keoi1 hoeng1 gong2 dak6 keoi1 Cantonese YaleHeunggong Dahkbiht Hahngjingkeui Heunggong Dahkkeui orHeunggong Dahkbiht Hahngjingkeui Heunggong Dahkkeui TranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinXianggǎng Tebie Xingzhengqu Xianggǎng Tequ Bopomofoㄒㄧㄤ ㄍㄤˇㄊㄜˋ ㄅㄧㄝˊㄒㄧㄥˊ ㄓㄥˋ ㄑㄩ ㄒㄧㄤ ㄍㄤˇ ㄊㄜˋ ㄑㄩ Gwoyeu RomatzyhShianggaang Tehbye Shyngjenqchiu Shianggaang Tehchiu Wade GilesHsiang1 kang3 T ʻe4 pieh2 Hsing2 cheng4 ch ʻu1 Hsiang1 kang3 T ʻe4 ch ʻu1 Yale RomanizationSyangggǎng Tebye Syingjengchyu Syanggǎng Techyu IPA ɕja ŋ ka ŋ tʰɤ pje ɕi ŋ ʈʂe ŋ tɕʰy ɕja ŋ ka ŋ tʰɤ tɕʰu WuRomanizationshian平kaon上 deh入 bih入ghan平 tsen去 chiu平 shian平kaon上 deh入chiu平 HakkaRomanization unbulleted listHiong1gong3 Tet6 piet6 Hang2 zin4 ki1 Yue CantoneseYale RomanizationHeunggong Dahkbiht Hahngjingkeui Heunggong Dahkkeui orHeunggong Dahkbiht Hahngjingkeui Heunggong Dahkkeui Jyutpinghoeng1 gong2 dak6 bit6 hang4 zing3 keoi1 hoeng1 gong2 dak6 keoi1 Canton RomanizationHeng1gong2 Deg6 bid6 Heng4 jing3 keu1IPA hœ ːŋ kɔ ːŋ tɐ k piːt hɐ ŋ tseŋ kʰɵ y hœ ːŋ kɔ ːŋ tɐ k kʰɵ y or hœ ːŋ kɔ ːŋ tɐ k piːt hɐ ŋ tseŋ kʰɵ y hœ ːŋ kɔ ːŋ tɐ k kʰɵ y Southern MinHokkien POJHiong kang Te k pia t Heng cheng khu Hiong kang Te k khu The name of the territory first romanised as He Ong Kong in 1780 23 originally referred to a small inlet located between Aberdeen Island and the southern coast of Hong Kong Island Aberdeen was an initial point of contact between British sailors and local fishermen 24 Although the source of the romanised name is unknown it is generally believed to be an early phonetic rendering of the Cantonese or Tanka Cantonese phrase heung gong The name translates as fragrant harbour or incense harbour 21 22 25 Fragrant may refer to the sweet taste of the harbour s freshwater influx from the Pearl River or to the odour from incense factories lining the coast of northern Kowloon The incense was stored near Aberdeen Harbour for export before Victoria Harbour was developed 25 Sir John Davis the second colonial governor offered an alternative origin Davis said that the name derived from Hoong keang red torrent reflecting the colour of soil over which a waterfall on the island flowed 26 The simplified name Hong Kong was frequently used by 1810 27 The name was also commonly written as the single word Hongkong until 1926 when the government officially adopted the two word name 28 Some corporations founded during the early colonial era still keep this name including Hongkong Land Hongkong Electric Company Hongkong and Shanghai Hotels and the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation HSBC 29 30 HistoryMain article History of Hong Kong For a chronological guide see Timeline of Hong Kong history Prehistory and Imperial China Earliest known human traces in what is now Hong Kong are dated by some to 35 000 and 39 000 years ago during the Paleolithic period The claim is based on an archaeological investigation in Wong Tei Tung Sai Kung in 2003 The archaeological works revealed knapped stone tools from deposits that were dated using optical luminescence dating 31 During the Middle Neolithic period about 6 000 years ago the region had been widely occupied by humans 32 Neolithic to Bronze Age Hong Kong settlers were semi coastal people Early inhabitants are believed to be Austronesians in the Middle Neolithic period and later the Yue people 32 As hinted by the archaeological works in Sha Ha Sai Kung rice cultivation had been introduced since Late Neolithic period 33 Bronze Age Hong Kong featured coarse pottery hard pottery quartz and stone jewelry as well as small bronze implements 32 The Qin dynasty incorporated the Hong Kong area into China for the first time in 214 BCE after conquering the indigenous Baiyue 34 The region was consolidated under the Nanyue kingdom a predecessor state of Vietnam after the Qin collapse 35 and recaptured by China after the Han conquest 36 During the Mongol conquest of China in the 13th century the Southern Song court was briefly located in modern day Kowloon City the Sung Wong Toi site before its final defeat in the 1279 Battle of Yamen by the Yuan Dynasty 37 By the end of the Yuan dynasty seven large families had settled in the region and owned most of the land Settlers from nearby provinces migrated to Kowloon throughout the Ming dynasty 38 The earliest European visitor was Portuguese explorer Jorge Alvares who arrived in 1513 39 40 Portuguese merchants established a trading post called Tamao in Hong Kong waters and began regular trade with southern China Although the traders were expelled after military clashes in the 1520s 41 Portuguese Chinese trade relations were re established by 1549 Portugal acquired a permanent lease for Macau in 1557 42 After the Qing conquest maritime trade was banned under the Haijin policies From 1661 to 1683 the population of most of the area forming present day Hong Kong was cleared under the Great Clearance turning the region into a wasteland 43 The Kangxi Emperor lifted the maritime trade prohibition allowing foreigners to enter Chinese ports in 1684 44 Qing authorities established the Canton System in 1757 to regulate trade more strictly restricting non Russian ships to the port of Canton 45 Although European demand for Chinese commodities like tea silk and porcelain was high Chinese interest in European manufactured goods was insignificant so that Chinese goods could only be bought with precious metals To reduce the trade imbalance the British sold large amounts of Indian opium to China Faced with a drug crisis Qing officials pursued ever more aggressive actions to halt the opium trade 46 British colony Main article British Hong Kong nbsp Hong Kong in 1868 photograph by John Thomson In 1839 the Daoguang Emperor rejected proposals to legalise and tax opium and ordered imperial commissioner Lin Zexu to eradicate the opium trade The commissioner destroyed opium stockpiles and halted all foreign trade 47 triggering a British military response and the First Opium War The Qing surrendered early in the war and ceded Hong Kong Island in the Convention of Chuenpi British forces began controlling Hong Kong shortly after the signing of the convention from 26 January 1841 48 However both countries were dissatisfied and did not ratify the agreement 49 After more than a year of further hostilities Hong Kong Island was formally ceded to the United Kingdom in the 1842 Treaty of Nanking 50 Administrative infrastructure was quickly built by early 1842 but piracy disease and hostile Qing policies initially prevented the government from attracting commerce Conditions on the island improved during the Taiping Rebellion in the 1850s when many Chinese refugees including wealthy merchants fled mainland turbulence and settled in the colony 18 Further tensions between the British and Qing over the opium trade escalated into the Second Opium War The Qing were again defeated and forced to give up Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutters Island in the Convention of Peking 51 By the end of this war Hong Kong had evolved from a transient colonial outpost into a major entrepot Rapid economic improvement during the 1850s attracted foreign investment as potential stakeholders became more confident in Hong Kong s future 52 The colony was further expanded in 1898 when the United Kingdom obtained a 99 year lease of the New Territories 53 The University of Hong Kong was established in 1911 as the territory s first institution of higher education 54 Kai Tak Airport began operation in 1924 and the colony avoided a prolonged economic downturn after the 1925 26 Canton Hong Kong strike 55 56 At the start of the Second Sino Japanese War in 1937 Governor Geoffry Northcote declared Hong Kong a neutral zone to safeguard its status as a free port 57 The colonial government prepared for a possible attack evacuating all British women and children in 1940 58 The Imperial Japanese Army attacked Hong Kong on 8 December 1941 the same morning as its attack on Pearl Harbor 59 Hong Kong was occupied by Japan for almost four years before the British resumed control on 30 August 1945 60 nbsp The flag of British Hong Kong from 1959 to 1997 Its population rebounded quickly after the war as skilled Chinese migrants fled from the Chinese Civil War and more refugees crossed the border when the Chinese Communist Party took control of mainland China in 1949 61 Hong Kong became the first of the Four Asian Tiger economies to industrialise during the 1950s 62 With a rapidly increasing population the colonial government attempted reforms to improve infrastructure and public services The public housing estate programme Independent Commission Against Corruption and Mass Transit Railway were all established during the post war decades to provide safer housing integrity in the civil service and more reliable transportation 63 64 Nevertheless widespread public discontent resulted in multiple protests from the 1950s to 1980s including pro Republic of China and pro Chinese Communist Party protests In the 1967 Hong Kong riots pro PRC protestors clashed with the British colonial government As many as 51 were killed and 802 were injured in the violence including dozens killed by the Royal Hong Kong Police via beatings and shootings 65 Although the territory s competitiveness in manufacturing gradually declined because of rising labour and property costs it transitioned to a service based economy By the early 1990s Hong Kong had established itself as a global financial centre and shipping hub 66 Chinese special administrative region Further information Handover of Hong Kong The colony faced an uncertain future as the end of the New Territories lease approached and Governor Murray MacLehose raised the question of Hong Kong s status with Deng Xiaoping in 1979 67 Diplomatic negotiations with China resulted in the 1984 Sino British Joint Declaration in which the United Kingdom agreed the handover of the colony in 1997 and China would guarantee Hong Kong s economic and political systems for 50 years after the handover 68 The impending handover triggered a wave of mass emigration as residents feared an erosion of civil rights the rule of law and quality of life 69 Over half a million people left the territory during the peak migration period from 1987 to 1996 70 The Legislative Council became a fully elected legislature for the first time in 1995 and extensively expanded its functions and organisations throughout the last years of the colonial rule 71 The handover of Hong Kong to China was at midnight on 1 July 1997 after 156 years of British rule 72 Immediately after the handover Hong Kong was severely affected by several crises The Hong Kong government was forced to use substantial foreign exchange reserves to maintain the Hong Kong dollar s currency peg during the 1997 Asian financial crisis 61 and the recovery from this was muted by an H5N1 avian flu outbreak 73 and a housing surplus 74 This was followed by the 2003 SARS epidemic during which the territory experienced its most serious economic downturn 75 Chinese communists portrayed the return of Hong Kong as key moment in the PRC s rise to great power status 76 51 Political debates after the handover have centred around the region s democratic development and the Chinese central government s adherence to the one country two systems principle After reversal of the last colonial era Legislative Council democratic reforms following the handover 77 the regional government unsuccessfully attempted to enact national security legislation pursuant to Article 23 of the Basic Law 78 The central government decision to implement nominee pre screening before allowing chief executive elections triggered a series of protests in 2014 which became known as the Umbrella Revolution 79 Discrepancies in the electoral registry and disqualification of elected legislators after the 2016 Legislative Council elections 80 81 82 and enforcement of national law in the West Kowloon high speed railway station raised further concerns about the region s autonomy 83 In June 2019 mass protests erupted in response to a proposed extradition amendment bill permitting the extradition of fugitives to mainland China The protests are the largest in Hong Kong s history 84 with organisers claiming to have attracted more than three million Hong Kong residents The Hong Kong regional government and Chinese central government responded to the protests with a number of administrative measures to quell dissent In June 2020 the Legislative Council passed the National Anthem Ordinance which criminalised insults to the national anthem of China 85 The Chinese central government meanwhile enacted the Hong Kong national security law to help quell protests in the region 86 Nine months later in March 2021 the Chinese central government introduced amendments to Hong Kong s electoral system which included the reduction of directly elected seats in the Legislative Council and the requirement that all candidates be vetted and approved by a Beijing appointed Candidate Eligibility Review Committee 87 In May 2023 the Legislative Council also introduced legislation to reduce the number of directly elected seats in the district councils and a District Council Eligibility Review Committee was similarly established to vet candidates 88 89 90 Government and politicsMain articles Government of Hong Kong Politics of Hong Kong Elections in Hong Kong and Separation of powers in Hong Kong nbsp Since 2012 the legislature has met in the Tamar Legislative Council Complex Hong Kong is a special administrative region of China with executive legislative and judicial powers devolved from the national government 91 The Sino British Joint Declaration provided for economic and administrative continuity through the handover 68 resulting in an executive led governing system largely inherited from the territory s history as a British colony 92 Under these terms and the one country two systems principle the Basic Law of Hong Kong is the regional constitution 93 The regional government is composed of three branches Executive The Chief Executive is responsible for enforcing regional law 92 can force reconsideration of legislation 94 and appoints Executive Council members and principal officials 95 Acting with the Executive Council the Chief Executive in Council can propose new bills issue subordinate legislation and has authority to dissolve the legislature 96 In states of emergency or public danger the Chief Executive in Council is further empowered to enact any regulation necessary to restore public order 97 Legislature The unicameral Legislative Council enacts regional law approves budgets and has the power to impeach a sitting chief executive 98 Judiciary The Court of Final Appeal and lower courts interpret laws and overturn those inconsistent with the Basic Law 99 Judges are appointed by the chief executive on the advice of a recommendation commission 100 The chief executive is the head of government and serves for a maximum of two five year terms The State Council led by the Premier of China appoints the chief executive after nomination by the Election Committee which is composed of 1500 business community and government leaders 101 102 103 The Legislative Council has 90 members each serving a four year term Twenty are directly elected from geographical constituencies thirty five represent functional constituencies FC and forty are chosen by an election committee consisting of representatives appointed by the Chinese central government 104 Thirty FC councillors are selected from limited electorates representing sectors of the economy or special interest groups 105 and the remaining five members are nominated from sitting district council members and selected in region wide double direct elections 106 All popularly elected members are chosen by proportional representation The 30 limited electorate functional constituencies fill their seats using first past the post or instant runoff voting 105 Twenty two political parties had representatives elected to the Legislative Council in the 2016 election 107 These parties have aligned themselves into three ideological groups the pro Beijing camp the current government the pro democracy camp and localist groups 108 The Chinese Communist Party does not have an official political presence in Hong Kong and its members do not run in local elections 109 Hong Kong is represented in the National People s Congress by 36 deputies chosen through an electoral college and 203 delegates in the Chinese People s Political Consultative Conference appointed by the central government 8 nbsp The Court of Final Appeal Building formerly housed the Supreme Court and the Legislative Council Chinese national law does not generally apply in the region and Hong Kong is treated as a separate jurisdiction 99 Its judicial system is based on common law continuing the legal tradition established during British rule 110 Local courts may refer to precedents set in English law and overseas jurisprudence 111 However mainland criminal procedure law applies to cases investigated by the Office for Safeguarding National Security of the CPG in the HKSAR 112 Interpretative and amending power over the Basic Law and jurisdiction over acts of state lie with the central authority making regional courts ultimately subordinate to the mainland s socialist civil law system 113 Decisions made by the Standing Committee of the National People s Congress override any territorial judicial process 114 Furthermore in circumstances where the Standing Committee declares a state of emergency in Hong Kong the State Council may enforce national law in the region 115 The territory s jurisdictional independence is most apparent in its immigration and taxation policies The Immigration Department issues passports for permanent residents which differ from those of the mainland or Macau 116 and the region maintains a regulated border with the rest of the country All travellers between Hong Kong and China and Macau must pass through border controls regardless of nationality 117 Mainland Chinese citizens do not have right of abode in Hong Kong and are subject to immigration controls 118 Public finances are handled separately from the national government taxes levied in Hong Kong do not fund the central authority 119 120 The Hong Kong Garrison of the People s Liberation Army is responsible for the region s defence 121 Although the Chairman of the Central Military Commission is supreme commander of the armed forces 122 the regional government may request assistance from the garrison 123 Hong Kong residents are not required to perform military service and current law has no provision for local enlistment so its defence is composed entirely of non Hongkongers 124 The central government and Ministry of Foreign Affairs handle diplomatic matters but Hong Kong retains the ability to maintain separate economic and cultural relations with foreign nations 125 The territory actively participates in the World Trade Organization the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation forum the International Olympic Committee and many United Nations agencies 126 127 128 The regional government maintains trade offices in Greater China and other nations 129 The imposition of the Hong Kong national security law by the central government in Beijing in June 2020 resulted in the suspension of bilateral extradition treaties by the United Kingdom Canada Australia New Zealand Finland and Ireland 130 The United States ended its preferential economic and trade treatment of Hong Kong in July 2020 because it was no longer able to distinguish Hong Kong as a separate entity from the People s Republic of China 130 131 In 2024 the Safeguarding National Security Ordinance was passed by the Legislative Council to grant officials even more powers to crack down on opposition to Beijing and the Hong Kong government and includes penalties such as life imprisonment for political crimes such as treason and insurrection Critics state that this expansion will strike a lasting blow to the partial autonomy the city had been promised by China 132 Administrative divisions Main articles List of towns in Hong Kong and Districts of Hong Kong The territory is divided into 18 districts each represented by a district council These advise the government on local issues such as public facility provisioning community programme maintenance cultural promotion and environmental policy As of 2019 update there are a total of 479 district council seats 452 of which are directly elected 133 Rural committee chairmen representing outlying villages and towns fill the 27 non elected seats 134 In May 2023 the government proposed reforms to the District Council electoral system which further cut the number of directly elected seats from 452 to 88 and total seats from 479 to 470 A requirement that district council candidates be vetted and approved by the District Council Eligibility Review Committee was also proposed The Legislative Council approved the reforms in July 2023 88 89 90 nbsp Political reforms and sociopolitical issues Main articles Democratic development in Hong Kong and Human rights in Hong Kong nbsp 2019 2020 Hong Kong protests Hong Kong is governed by a hybrid regime that is not fully representative of the population Legislative Council members elected by functional constituencies composed of professional and special interest groups are accountable to these narrow corporate electorates and not the general public This electoral arrangement has guaranteed a pro establishment majority in the legislature since the handover Similarly the chief executive is selected by establishment politicians and corporate members of the Election Committee rather than directly elected 135 Although universal suffrage for the chief executive and all Legislative Council elections are defined goals of Basic Law Articles 45 and 68 136 the legislature is only partially directly elected and the executive continues to be nominated by an unrepresentative body 135 The government has been repeatedly petitioned to introduce direct elections for these positions 137 138 Ethnic minorities except those of European ancestry have marginal representation in government and often experience discrimination in housing education and employment 139 140 Employment vacancies and public service appointments frequently have language requirements which minority job seekers do not meet and language education resources remain inadequate for Chinese learners 141 142 Foreign domestic helpers predominantly women from the Philippines and Indonesia have little protection under regional law Although they live and work in Hong Kong these workers are not treated as ordinary residents and do not have the right of abode in the territory 143 Sex trafficking in Hong Kong is an issue Local and foreign women and girls are often forced into prostitution in brothels homes and businesses in the city 144 145 146 147 The Joint Declaration guarantees the Basic Law of Hong Kong for 50 years after the handover 68 It does not specify how Hong Kong will be governed after 2047 and the central government s role in determining the territory s future system of government is the subject of political debate and speculation Hong Kong s political and judicial systems may be integrated with China s at that time or the territory may continue to be administered separately 148 149 However in response to large scale protests in 2019 and 2020 the Standing Committee of the National People s Congress passed the controversial Hong Kong national security law 150 The law criminalises secession subversion terrorism and collusion with foreign elements and establishes the Office for Safeguarding National Security of the CPG in the HKSAR an investigative office under Central People s Government authority immune from HKSAR jurisdiction Some of the aforementioned acts were previously considered protected speech under Hong Kong law 112 151 The United Kingdom considers the law to be a serious violation of the Joint Declaration 152 In October 2020 Hong Kong police arrested seven pro democracy politicians over tussles with pro Beijing politicians in the Legislative Council in May They were charged with contempt and interfering with members of the council while none of the pro Beijing lawmakers were detained 153 Annual commemorations of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre were also cancelled amidst fears of violating the national security law 154 In March 2021 the Chinese central government unilaterally changed Hong Kong s electoral system and established the Candidate Eligibility Review Committee which would be tasked with screening and evaluating political candidates for their patriotism 87 GeographyMain articles Geography of Hong Kong and Environment of Hong Kong nbsp Areas of urban development and vegetation are visible in this satellite image Hong Kong is on China s southern coast 60 km 37 mi east of Macau on the east side of the mouth of the Pearl River estuary It is surrounded by the South China Sea on all sides except the north which neighbours the Guangdong city of Shenzhen along the Sham Chun River The territory s 1 110 18 km2 428 64 sq mi 155 area 2 754 97 km2 155 if the maritime area is included consists of Hong Kong Island the Kowloon Peninsula the New Territories Lantau Island and over 200 other islands Of the total area 1 073 km2 414 sq mi is land and 35 km2 14 sq mi is water 156 The territory s highest point is Tai Mo Shan 957 metres 3 140 ft above sea level 157 Urban development is concentrated on the Kowloon Peninsula Hong Kong Island and in new towns throughout the New Territories 158 Much of this is built on reclaimed land 70 km2 27 sq mi 6 of the total land or about 25 of developed space in the territory is reclaimed from the sea 159 Undeveloped terrain is hilly to mountainous with very little flat land and consists mostly of grassland woodland shrubland or farmland 160 161 About 40 of the remaining land area is country parks and nature reserves 162 The territory has a diverse ecosystem over 3 000 species of vascular plants occur in the region 300 of which are native to Hong Kong and thousands of insect avian and marine species 163 164 Climate Hong Kong has a humid subtropical climate Koppen Cwa characteristic of southern China despite being located south of the Tropic of Cancer although closely bordering on a tropical climate Summers are long hot and humid with occasional showers and thunderstorms and warm air from the southwest The humid nature of Hong Kong exacerbates the warmth of summer Typhoons occur most often then sometimes resulting in floods or landslides Winters are short mild and usually sunny at the beginning becoming cloudy towards February Frequent cold fronts bring strong cooling winds from the north and occasionally result in chilly weather Autumn is the sunniest season whilst spring is generally cloudy 165 Snowfall has been extremely rare in Hong Kong the last reported instance was on Tai Mo Shan in 1975 166 Hong Kong averages 1 709 hours of sunshine per year 167 Historic temperature extremes at the Hong Kong Observatory are 36 6 C 97 9 F on 22 August 2017 and 0 0 C 32 0 F on 18 January 1893 168 The highest and lowest recorded temperatures in all of Hong Kong are 39 0 C 102 F at Wetland Park on 22 August 2017 169 and 6 0 C 21 2 F at Tai Mo Shan on 24 January 2016 170 Climate data for Hong Kong Hong Kong Observatory normals 1991 2020 g extremes 1884 1939 and 1947 present Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high C F 26 9 80 4 28 3 82 9 31 5 88 7 33 4 92 1 36 1 97 0 35 6 96 1 36 1 97 0 36 6 97 9 35 9 96 6 34 6 94 3 31 8 89 2 28 7 83 7 36 6 97 9 Mean maximum C F 24 0 75 2 25 1 77 2 27 5 81 5 30 2 86 4 32 3 90 1 33 6 92 5 34 1 93 4 34 2 93 6 33 4 92 1 31 3 88 3 28 4 83 1 25 1 77 2 34 7 94 5 Mean daily maximum C F 18 7 65 7 19 4 66 9 21 9 71 4 25 6 78 1 28 8 83 8 30 7 87 3 31 6 88 9 31 3 88 3 30 5 86 9 28 1 82 6 24 5 76 1 20 4 68 7 26 0 78 8 Daily mean C F 16 5 61 7 17 1 62 8 19 5 67 1 23 0 73 4 26 3 79 3 28 3 82 9 28 9 84 0 28 7 83 7 27 9 82 2 25 7 78 3 22 2 72 0 18 2 64 8 23 5 74 3 Mean daily minimum C F 14 6 58 3 15 3 59 5 17 6 63 7 21 1 70 0 24 5 76 1 26 5 79 7 26 9 80 4 26 7 80 1 26 1 79 0 23 9 75 0 20 3 68 5 16 2 61 2 21 6 70 9 Mean minimum C F 9 1 48 4 10 2 50 4 12 2 54 0 16 3 61 3 20 7 69 3 23 6 74 5 24 2 75 6 24 3 75 7 23 5 74 3 20 1 68 2 15 3 59 5 10 1 50 2 7 8 46 0 Record low C F 0 0 32 0 2 4 36 3 4 8 40 6 9 9 49 8 15 4 59 7 19 2 66 6 21 7 71 1 21 6 70 9 18 4 65 1 13 5 56 3 6 5 43 7 4 3 39 7 0 0 32 0 Average rainfall mm inches 33 2 1 31 38 9 1 53 75 3 2 96 153 0 6 02 290 6 11 44 491 5 19 35 385 8 15 19 453 2 17 84 321 4 12 65 120 3 4 74 39 3 1 55 28 8 1 13 2 431 2 95 72 Average rainy days 0 1 mm 5 70 7 97 10 50 11 37 15 37 19 33 18 43 17 50 14 90 7 83 5 70 5 30 139 90 Average relative humidity 74 79 82 83 83 82 81 81 78 73 72 70 78 Average dew point C F 11 7 53 1 13 2 55 8 16 1 61 0 19 7 67 5 23 0 73 4 24 9 76 8 25 2 77 4 25 1 77 2 23 6 74 5 20 2 68 4 16 7 62 1 12 4 54 3 19 3 66 7 Mean monthly sunshine hours 145 8 101 7 100 0 113 2 138 8 144 3 197 3 182 1 174 4 197 8 172 3 161 6 1 829 3 Percent possible sunshine 43 32 27 30 34 36 48 46 47 55 52 48 41 Source Hong Kong Observatory 171 172 173 Architecture Main article Architecture of Hong Kong nbsp A residential building in Quarry Bay Hong Kong has the world s largest number of skyscrapers with 554 towers taller than 150 metres 490 ft 174 and the third largest number of high rise buildings in the world 175 The lack of available space restricted development to high density residential tenements and commercial complexes packed closely together on buildable land 176 Single family detached homes are uncommon and generally only found in outlying areas 177 The International Commerce Centre and Two International Finance Centre are the tallest buildings in Hong Kong and are among the tallest in the Asia Pacific region 178 Other distinctive buildings lining the Hong Kong Island skyline include the HSBC Main Building the anemometer topped triangular Central Plaza the circular Hopewell Centre and the sharp edged Bank of China Tower 179 180 Demand for new construction has contributed to frequent demolition of older buildings freeing space for modern high rises 181 However many examples of European and Lingnan architecture are still found throughout the territory Older government buildings are examples of colonial architecture The 1846 Flagstaff House the former residence of the commanding British military officer is the oldest Western style building in Hong Kong 182 Some including the Court of Final Appeal Building and the Hong Kong Observatory retain their original function and others have been adapted and reused the Former Marine Police Headquarters was redeveloped into a commercial and retail complex 183 and Bethanie built in 1875 as a sanatorium houses the Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts 184 The Tin Hau Temple dedicated to the sea goddess Mazu originally built in 1012 and rebuilt in 1266 is the territory s oldest existing structure 185 The Ping Shan Heritage Trail has architectural examples of several imperial Chinese dynasties including the Tsui Sing Lau Pagoda Hong Kong s only remaining pagoda 186 Tong lau mixed use tenement buildings constructed during the colonial era blended southern Chinese architectural styles with European influences These were especially prolific during the immediate post war period when many were rapidly built to house large numbers of Chinese migrants 187 Examples include Lui Seng Chun the Blue House in Wan Chai and the Shanghai Street shophouses in Mong Kok Mass produced public housing estates built since the 1960s are mainly constructed in modernist style 188 nbsp The Hong Kong Island skyline viewed from the Victoria Harbour waterfront nbsp City view of Kowloon Hong Kong Island and the Hong Kong skylineDemographicsMain articles Demographics of Hong Kong and Hong Kong people Death rates No of Deaths per 100000 Population by leading causes of death based on ICD 10th Revision 189 Red increased compared with 2001 Deaths from dementia increased more than 5 times from 2001 to 2021 Cause of Death 2001 2011 2021 1 Malignant neoplasms 169 9 187 2 203 8 2 Pneumonia 45 1 87 8 132 6 3 Diseases of heart 70 89 6 89 4 Cerebrovascular 46 6 47 2 42 2 5 External causes of morbidity and mortality 27 5 22 2 26 7 6 Nephritis nephrotic syndrome and nephrosis 15 7 21 8 24 7 Dementia 3 8 10 6 20 2 8 Septicaemia 6 3 10 8 16 8 9 Chronic lower respiratory diseases 31 5 27 8 14 3 10 Diabetes mellitus 10 1 6 5 7 4 All other causes 69 7 85 118 1 All causes 496 596 6 695 2 nbsp 2016 population pyramid The Census and Statistics Department estimated Hong Kong s population at 7 413 070 in 2021 The overwhelming majority 91 6 is Han Chinese 6 most of whom are Taishanese Teochew Hakka and other Cantonese peoples 190 191 192 The remaining 8 4 are non ethnic Chinese minorities primarily Filipinos Indonesians and South Asians 6 193 However most Filipinos and Indonesians in Hong Kong are short term workers According to a 2021 thematic report by the Hong Kong government after excluding foreign domestic helpers the real number of non Chinese ethnic minorities in the city was 301 344 or 4 of Hong Kong s population 194 About half the population have some form of British nationality a legacy of colonial rule 3 4 million residents have British National Overseas status and 260 000 British citizens live in the territory 195 The vast majority also hold Chinese nationality automatically granted to all ethnic Chinese residents at the handover 196 Headline population density exceeds 7 060 people km2 and is the fourth highest in the world 197 The predominant language is Cantonese a variety of Chinese originating in Guangdong It is spoken by 93 7 of the population 88 2 as a first language and 5 5 as a second language 3 Slightly over half the population 58 7 speaks English the other official language 2 4 6 are native speakers and 54 1 speak English as a second language 3 Code switching mixing English and Cantonese in informal conversation is common among the bilingual population 198 Post handover governments have promoted Mandarin which is currently about as prevalent as English 54 2 of the population speak Mandarin with 2 3 native speakers and 51 9 as a second language 3 Traditional Chinese characters are used in writing rather than the simplified characters used in the mainland 199 nbsp Wong Tai Sin Temple is dedicated to the Taoist deity Wong Tai Sin Among the religious population the traditional three teachings of China Buddhism Confucianism and Taoism have the most adherents 20 followed by Christianity 12 and Islam 4 200 Followers of other religions including Sikhism Hinduism and Judaism generally originate from regions where their religion predominates 200 Life expectancy in Hong Kong was 81 3 years for males and 87 2 years for females in 2022 one of the highest in the world 201 202 Cancer pneumonia heart disease cerebrovascular disease and accidents are the territory s five leading causes of death 203 The universal public healthcare system is funded by general tax revenue and treatment is highly subsidised on average 95 of healthcare costs are covered by the government 204 The city has a severe amount of income inequality 205 which has risen since the handover as the region s ageing population has gradually added to the number of nonworking people 206 Although median household income steadily increased during the decade to 2016 the wage gap remained high 207 the 90th percentile of earners receive 41 of all income 207 The city has the most billionaires per capita with one billionaire per 109 657 people 208 as well as the second highest number of billionaires of any city in the world 209 the highest number of billionaires of any city in Asia and the largest concentration of ultra high net worth individuals of any city in the world 210 211 Despite government efforts to reduce the growing disparity 212 median income for the top 10 of earners is 44 times that of the bottom 10 213 214 EconomyMain articles Economy of Hong Kong and Tourism in Hong Kong nbsp Hong Kong is one of the world s busiest container ports One of the world s most significant financial centres and commercial ports 215 Hong Kong has a market economy focused on services characterised by low taxation minimal government market intervention and an established international financial market 216 It is the world s 35th largest economy with a nominal GDP of approximately US 373 billion 13 Hong Kong s economy ranked at the top of the Heritage Foundation s economic freedom index between 1995 and 2021 217 218 However Hong Kong was removed from the index by the Heritage Foundation in 2021 with the Foundation citing a loss of political freedom and autonomy making Hong Kong almost indistinguishable in many respects from other major Chinese commercial centers like Shanghai and Beijing 219 Hong Kong is highly developed and ranks fourth on the UN Human Development Index 156 The Hong Kong Stock Exchange is the seventh largest in the world with a market capitalisation of HK 30 4 trillion US 3 87 trillion as of December 2018 update 220 Hong Kong is ranked as the 17th most innovative territory in the Global Innovation Index in 2023 221 and 3rd in the Global Financial Centres Index 222 The city is sometimes referred to as Silicon Harbor 223 a nickname derived from Silicon Valley in California Hong Kong hosts several high tech and innovation companies 224 including several multinational companies 225 226 Hong Kong is the ninth largest trading entity in exports and eighth largest in imports 2021 227 228 trading more goods in value than its gross domestic product 227 228 Over half of its cargo throughput consists of transshipments goods travelling through Hong Kong Products from mainland China account for about 40 of that traffic 229 The city s location allowed it to establish a transportation and logistics infrastructure which includes the world s seventh busiest container port 230 and the busiest airport for international cargo 231 The territory s largest export markets are mainland China and the United States 156 Hong Kong is a key part of the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road 232 It has little arable land and few natural resources importing most of its food and raw materials More than 90 of Hong Kong s food is imported including nearly all of its meat and rice 233 Agricultural activity is 0 1 of GDP and consists of growing premium food and flower varieties 234 Although the territory had one of Asia s largest manufacturing economies during the latter half of the colonial era Hong Kong s economy is now dominated by the service sector The sector generates 92 7 of economic output with the public sector accounting for about 10 235 Between 1961 and 1997 Hong Kong s gross domestic product increased by a factor of 180 and per capita GDP increased by a factor of 87 236 237 The territory s GDP relative to mainland China s peaked at 27 in 1993 it fell to less than 3 in 2017 as the mainland developed and liberalised its economy 238 Economic and infrastructure integration with China has increased significantly since the 1978 start of market liberalisation on the mainland Since resumption of cross boundary train service in 1979 many rail and road links have been improved and constructed facilitating trade between regions 239 240 The Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement formalised a policy of free trade between the two areas with each jurisdiction pledging to remove remaining obstacles to trade and cross boundary investment 241 A similar economic partnership with Macau details the liberalisation of trade between the special administrative regions 242 Chinese companies have expanded their economic presence in the territory since the handover Mainland firms represent over half of the Hang Seng Index value up from 5 in 1997 243 244 nbsp Former trading floor of the Hong Kong Stock Exchange As the mainland liberalised its economy Hong Kong s shipping industry faced intense competition from other Chinese ports Half of China s trade goods were routed through Hong Kong in 1997 dropping to about 13 by 2015 245 The territory s minimal taxation common law system and civil service attract overseas corporations wishing to establish a presence in Asia 245 The city has the second highest number of corporate headquarters in the Asia Pacific region 246 Hong Kong is a gateway for foreign direct investment in China giving investors open access to mainland Chinese markets through direct links with the Shanghai and Shenzhen stock exchanges The territory was the first market outside mainland China for renminbi denominated bonds and is one of the largest hubs for offshore renminbi trading 247 In November 2020 Hong Kong s Financial Services and the Treasury Bureau proposed a new law that will restrict cryptocurrency trading to professional investors only leaving amateur traders 93 of Hong Kong s trading population out of the market 248 The Hong Kong dollar the local currency is the eighth most traded currency in the world 249 Due to extremely compact house sizes and the extremely high housing density the city has the most expensive housing market in the world 250 251 252 The government has had a passive role in the economy Colonial governments had little industrial policy and implemented almost no trade controls Under the doctrine of positive non interventionism post war administrations deliberately avoided the direct allocation of resources active intervention was considered detrimental to economic growth 253 While the economy transitioned to a service basis during the 1980s 253 late colonial governments introduced interventionist policies Post handover administrations continued and expanded these programmes including export credit guarantees a compulsory pension scheme a minimum wage anti discrimination laws and a state mortgage backer 254 Tourism is a major part of the economy accounting for 5 of GDP 183 In 2016 26 6 million visitors contributed HK 258 billion US 32 9 billion to the territory making Hong Kong the 14th most popular destination for international tourists It is the most popular Chinese city for tourists receiving over 70 more visitors than its closest competitor Macau 255 The city is ranked as one of the most expensive cities for expatriates 256 257 However since 2020 there has been a sharp decline in incoming visitors due to tight COVID 19 travel restrictions Additionally due to the closure of Russian airspace in 2022 multiple airlines decided to cease their operations in Hong Kong 258 In an attempt to attract tourists back to Hong Kong the Hong Kong government announced plans to give away 500 000 free airline tickets in 2023 259 nbsp Victoria Peak is a major tourist attraction that offers views of Central and Victoria Harbour InfrastructureTransport Main article Transport in Hong Kong nbsp Entrance to the Cross Harbour Tunnel in Hung Hom Kowloon Hong Kong has a highly developed sophisticated transport network Over 90 of daily trips are made on public transport the highest percentage in the world 260 The Octopus card a contactless smart payment card is widely accepted on railways trams buses and ferries and can be used for payment in most retail stores 261 The Peak Tram Hong Kong s first public transport system has provided funicular rail transport between Central and Victoria Peak since 1888 262 The Central and Western District has an extensive system of escalators and moving pavements including the Mid Levels escalator the world s longest outdoor covered escalator system 263 Hong Kong Tramways covers a portion of Hong Kong Island The Mass Transit Railway MTR is an extensive passenger rail network connecting 93 metro stations throughout the territory 264 With a daily ridership of almost five million the system serves 41 of all public transit passengers in the city 265 and has an on time rate of 99 9 266 Cross boundary train service to Shenzhen is offered by the East Rail line and longer distance inter city trains to Guangzhou Shanghai and Beijing are operated from Hung Hom station 267 Connecting service to the national high speed rail system is provided at West Kowloon railway station 268 Although public transport systems handle most passenger traffic there are over 500 000 private vehicles registered in Hong Kong 269 Automobiles drive on the left unlike in mainland China because of historical influence of the British Empire 270 Vehicle traffic is extremely congested in urban areas exacerbated by limited space to expand roads and an increasing number of vehicles 271 More than 18 000 taxicabs easily identifiable by their bright colour are licensed to carry riders in the territory 272 Bus services operate more than 700 routes across the territory 265 with smaller public light buses also known as minibuses serving areas standard buses do not reach as frequently or directly 273 Highways organised with the Hong Kong Strategic Route and Exit Number System connect all major areas of the territory 274 The Hong Kong Zhuhai Macau Bridge provides a direct route to the western side of the Pearl River estuary 240 nbsp MTR train on the Tung Chung line Hong Kong International Airport is the territory s primary airport Over 100 airlines operate flights from the airport including locally based Cathay Pacific flag carrier Hong Kong Airlines low cost airline HK Express and cargo airline Air Hong Kong 275 It was the eighth busiest airport by passenger traffic 276 pre COVID and handles the most air cargo traffic in the world 277 Most private recreational aviation traffic flies through Shek Kong Airfield under the supervision of the Hong Kong Aviation Club 278 The Star Ferry operates two lines across Victoria Harbour for its 53 000 daily passengers 279 Ferries also serve outlying islands inaccessible by other means Smaller kai to boats serve the most remote coastal settlements 280 Ferry travel to Macau and mainland China is also available 281 Junks once common in Hong Kong waters are no longer widely available and are used privately and for tourism 282 The large size of the port gives Hong Kong the classification of Large Port Metropolis 283 Utilities Main articles Energy in Hong Kong Electricity sector in Hong Kong and Water supply and sanitation in Hong Kong Hong Kong generates most of its electricity locally 284 The vast majority of this energy comes from fossil fuels with 46 from coal and 47 from petroleum 285 The rest is from other imports including nuclear energy generated in mainland China 286 Renewable sources account for a negligible amount of energy generated for the territory 287 Small scale wind power sources have been developed 284 and a small number of private homes and public buildings have installed solar panels 288 With few natural lakes and rivers high population density inaccessible groundwater sources and extremely seasonal rainfall the territory does not have a reliable source of freshwater The Dongjiang River in Guangdong supplies 70 of the city s water 289 and the remaining demand is filled by harvesting rainwater 290 Toilets in most built up areas of the territory flush with seawater greatly reducing freshwater use 289 Broadband Internet access is widely available with 92 6 of households connected Connections over fibre optic infrastructure are increasingly prevalent 291 contributing to the high regional average connection speed of 21 9 Mbit s the world s fourth fastest 292 Mobile phone use is ubiquitous 293 there are more than 18 million mobile phone accounts 294 more than double the territory s population CultureMain article Culture of Hong Kong See also Cantonese culture Hong Kong is characterised as a hybrid of East and West Traditional Chinese values emphasising family and education blend with Western ideals including economic liberty and the rule of law 295 Although the vast majority of the population is ethnically Chinese Hong Kong has developed a distinct identity The territory diverged from the mainland through its long period of colonial administration and a different pace of economic social and cultural development Mainstream culture is derived from immigrants originating from various parts of China This was influenced by British style education a separate political system and the territory s rapid development during the late 20th century 296 297 Most migrants of that era fled poverty and war reflected in the prevailing attitude toward wealth Hongkongers tend to link self image and decision making to material benefits 298 299 Residents sense of local identity has markedly increased post handover The majority of the population 52 identifies as Hongkongers while 11 describe themselves as Chinese The remaining population purport mixed identities 23 as Hongkonger in China and 12 as Chinese in Hong Kong 300 Traditional Chinese family values including family honour filial piety and a preference for sons are prevalent 301 Nuclear families are the most common households although multi generational and extended families are not unusual 302 Spiritual concepts such as feng shui are observed large scale construction projects often hire consultants to ensure proper building positioning and layout The degree of its adherence to feng shui is believed to determine the success of a business 179 Bagua mirrors are regularly used to deflect evil spirits 303 and buildings often lack floor numbers with a 4 304 the number has a similar sound to the word for die in Cantonese 305 Cuisine Main article Hong Kong cuisine nbsp nbsp Typical fare at a dim sum restaurant left cha chaan teng breakfast food with Hong Kong style milk tea right Food in Hong Kong is primarily based on Cantonese cuisine despite the territory s exposure to foreign influences and its residents varied origins Rice is the staple food and is usually served plain with other dishes 306 Freshness of ingredients is emphasised Poultry and seafood are commonly sold live at wet markets and ingredients are used as quickly as possible 307 There are five daily meals breakfast lunch afternoon tea dinner and siu yeh 308 Dim sum as part of yum cha brunch is a dining out tradition with family and friends Dishes include congee cha siu bao siu yuk egg tarts and mango pudding Local versions of Western food are served at cha chaan teng Hong Kong style cafes Common cha chaan teng menu items include macaroni in soup deep fried French toast and Hong Kong style milk tea 306 Cinema Main article Cinema of Hong Kong nbsp Statue of Bruce Lee on the Avenue of Stars a tribute to the city s film industry Hong Kong developed into a filmmaking hub during the late 1940s as a wave of Shanghai filmmakers migrated to the territory and these movie veterans helped build the colony s entertainment industry over the next decade 309 By the 1960s the city was well known to overseas audiences through films such as The World of Suzie Wong 310 When Bruce Lee s The Way of the Dragon was released in 1972 local productions became popular outside Hong Kong During the 1980s films such as A Better Tomorrow As Tears Go By and Zu Warriors from the Magic Mountain expanded global interest beyond martial arts films locally made gangster films romantic dramas and supernatural fantasies became popular 311 Hong Kong cinema continued to be internationally successful over the following decade with critically acclaimed dramas such as Farewell My Concubine To Live and Chungking Express The city s martial arts film roots are evident in the roles of the most prolific Hong Kong actors Jackie Chan Donnie Yen Jet Li Chow Yun fat and Michelle Yeoh frequently play action oriented roles in foreign films Hong Kong films have also grown popular in oversea markets such as Japan South Korea and Southeast Asia earning the city the moniker Hollywood of the East 312 At the height of the local movie industry in the early 1990s over 400 films were produced each year since then industry momentum shifted to mainland China The number of films produced annually has declined to about 60 in 2017 313 Music Main article Music of Hong Kong nbsp nbsp Leslie Cheung left is considered a pioneering Cantopop artist and Andy Lau has been an icon of Hong Kong music and film for several decades as a member of the Four Heavenly Kings Cantopop is a genre of Cantonese popular music which emerged in Hong Kong during the 1970s Evolving from Shanghai style shidaiqu it is also influenced by Cantonese opera and Western pop 314 Local media featured songs by artists such as Sam Hui Anita Mui Leslie Cheung and Alan Tam during the 1980s exported films and shows exposed Cantopop to a global audience 315 The genre s popularity peaked in the 1990s when the Four Heavenly Kings dominated Asian record charts 316 Despite a general decline since late in the decade 317 Cantopop remains dominant in Hong Kong contemporary artists such as Eason Chan Joey Yung and Twins are popular in and beyond the territory 318 Western classical music has historically had a strong presence in Hong Kong and remains a large part of local musical education 319 The publicly funded Hong Kong Philharmonic Orchestra the territory s oldest professional symphony orchestra frequently hosts musicians and conductors from overseas The Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra composed of classical Chinese instruments is the leading Chinese ensemble and plays a significant role in promoting traditional music in the community 320 Hong Kong has never had a separate national anthem to the country that controlled it its current official national anthem is therefore that of the People s Republic of China March of the Volunteers The song Glory to Hong Kong has been used by protestors as an unofficial anthem of the city 321 322 Sport and recreation Main article Sport in Hong Kong nbsp The Hong Kong Sevens considered the premier tournament of the World Rugby Sevens Series is played each spring Despite its small area the territory is home to a variety of sports and recreational facilities The city has hosted numerous major sporting events including the 2009 East Asian Games the 2008 Summer Olympics equestrian events and the 2007 Premier League Asia Trophy 323 The territory regularly hosts the Hong Kong Sevens Hong Kong Marathon Hong Kong Tennis Classic and Lunar New Year Cup and hosted the inaugural AFC Asian Cup and the 1995 Dynasty Cup 324 325 Hong Kong represents itself separately from mainland China with its own sports teams in international competitions 323 The territory has participated in almost every Summer Olympics since 1952 and has earned nine medals Lee Lai shan won the territory s first Olympic gold medal at the 1996 Atlanta Olympics 326 and Cheung Ka Long won the second one in Tokyo 2020 327 Hong Kong athletes have won 126 medals at the Paralympic Games and 17 at the Commonwealth Games No longer part of the Commonwealth of Nations the city s last appearance in the latter was in 1994 328 Dragon boat races originated as a religious ceremony conducted during the annual Tuen Ng Festival The race was revived as a modern sport as part of the Tourism Board s efforts to promote Hong Kong s image abroad The first modern competition was organised in 1976 and overseas teams began competing in the first international race in 1993 329 The Hong Kong Jockey Club the territory s largest taxpayer 330 has a monopoly on gambling and provides over 7 of government revenue 331 Three forms of gambling are legal in Hong Kong lotteries horse racing and football 330 EducationMain article Education in Hong Kong nbsp Old campus of St Paul s College the first school established in the colonial era Education in Hong Kong is largely modelled on that of the United Kingdom particularly the English system 332 Children are required to attend school from age 6 until completion of secondary education generally at age 18 333 334 At the end of secondary schooling all students take a public examination and are awarded the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education upon successful completion 335 Of residents aged 15 and older 81 completed lower secondary education 66 graduated from an upper secondary school 32 attended a non degree tertiary program and 24 earned a bachelor s degree or higher 336 Mandatory education has contributed to an adult literacy rate of 95 7 337 The literacy rate is lower than that of other developed economies because of the influx of refugees from mainland China during the post war colonial era much of the elderly population were not formally educated because of war and poverty 338 339 Comprehensive schools fall under three categories public schools which are government run subsidised schools including government aid and grant schools and private schools often those run by religious organisations and that base admissions on academic merit These schools are subject to the curriculum guidelines as provided by the Education Bureau Private schools subsidised under the Direct Subsidy Scheme international schools fall outside of this system and may elect to use differing curricula and teach using other languages 334 Medium of instruction At primary and secondary school levels the government maintains a policy of mother tongue instruction most schools use Cantonese as the medium of instruction with written education in both Chinese and English Other languages being used as medium of instruction in non international school education include English and Putonghua Standard Mandarin Chinese Secondary schools emphasise bi literacy and tri lingualism which has encouraged the proliferation of spoken Mandarin language education 340 English is the official medium of instruction and assessments for most university programmes in Hong Kong although use of Cantonese is predominant in informal discussions among local students and professors 341 342 343 344 345 346 Tertiary education nbsp University of Hong Kong main building Hong Kong has eleven universities The University of Hong Kong HKU was founded as the city s first institute of higher education during the early colonial period in 1911 347 The Chinese University of Hong Kong CUHK was established in 1963 to fill the need for a university that taught using Chinese as its primary language of instruction 348 Along with the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology HKUST established in 1991 these universities are consistently ranked among the top 50 or top 100 universities worldwide 349 350 351 The Hong Kong Polytechnic University PolyU 352 and City University of Hong Kong CityU both granted university status in 1994 are consistently ranked among the top 100 or top 200 universities worldwide 349 350 351 The Hong Kong Baptist University HKBU was granted university status in 1994 353 and is a liberal arts institution Lingnan University 354 Education University of Hong Kong 355 Hong Kong Metropolitan University formerly Open University of Hong Kong 356 Hong Kong Shue Yan University 357 and Hang Seng University of Hong Kong all attained full university status in subsequent years MediaMain article Media of Hong Kong nbsp TVB City headquarters of Hong Kong s first over the air television station Most of the newspapers in Hong Kong are written in Chinese but there are also a few English language newspapers The major one is the South China Morning Post with The Standard serving as a business oriented alternative A variety of Chinese language newspapers are published daily the most prominent are Ming Pao and Oriental Daily News Local publications are often politically affiliated with pro Beijing or pro democracy sympathies The central government has a print media presence in the territory through the state owned Ta Kung Pao and Wen Wei Po 358 Several international publications have regional operations in Hong Kong including The Wall Street Journal Financial Times The New York Times International Edition USA Today Yomiuri Shimbun and The Nikkei 359 Three free to air television broadcasters operate in the territory TVB HKTVE and Hong Kong Open TV air eight digital channels 360 TVB Hong Kong s dominant television network has an 80 viewer share 361 Pay TV services operated by Cable TV Hong Kong and PCCW offer hundreds of additional channels and cater to a variety of audiences 360 RTHK is the public broadcaster providing seven radio channels and three television channels 362 Ten non domestic broadcasters air programming for the territory s foreign population 360 Access to media and information over the Internet is not subject to mainland Chinese regulations including the Great Firewall yet local control applies 363 See also nbsp Hong Kong portal nbsp China portal Index of articles related to Hong Kong Outline of Hong KongNotes a b No specific variety of Chinese is official in the territory Residents predominantly speak Cantonese the de facto regional standard 1 2 3 a b For all government use documents written using Traditional Chinese characters are authoritative over ones inscribed with Simplified Chinese characters 4 English shares equal status with Chinese in all official proceedings 5 Except for the Hong Kong Zhuhai Macao Bridge Hong Kong Link Road which drives on the right 16 US ˈ h ɒ ŋ k ɒ ŋ or UK h ɒ ŋ ˈ k ɒ ŋ Chinese 香港 Jyutping Hoeng1 gong2 Cantonese Yale Heunggong Cantonese hœ ːŋ kɔ ːŋ Officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People s Republic of China abbr Hong Kong SAR or HKSAR Chinese 中華人民共和國香港特別行政區 Cantonese Yale Heunggong Dahkbiht Hahngjingkeui Hong Kong permanent residents can be of any nationality A person without Chinese nationality who has entered Hong Kong with a valid travel document has ordinarily resided there for a continuous period not less than seven years and is permanently domiciled in the territory would be legally recognised as a Hongkonger 17 However decisions made by the Standing Committee of the National People s Congress override any territorial judicial process Furthermore the State Council may enforce national law in the region under specific circumstances Mean monthly maxima and minima i e the expected highest and lowest temperature readings at any point during the year or given month calculated based on data in Hong Kong from 1991 to 2020 ReferencesCitations Leung 2016 a b Official Languages Ordinance a b c d Population By Census 2021 pp 31 51 52 Legislative Council Disclaimer and Copyright Notice Use of Chinese in Court Proceedings 2011 a b c Population By Census 2021 p 46 China People s Republic of 1982 rev 2004 Constitute project Archived from the original on 17 July 2015 Retrieved 25 August 2019 a b Cheung 2017 a b c Survey and Mapping Office Circulars and Publications Survey and Mapping Office Archived from the original on 31 March 2023 Retrieved 20 October 2020 Mid year population for 2023 Press release Census and Statistics Department 15 August 2023 Archived from the original on 15 November 2023 Retrieved 15 November 2023 Key statistics of the 2021 and 2011 Population Census PDF census2021 gov hk Archived PDF from the original on 13 March 2022 Retrieved 15 March 2022 Main Tables 2021 Population Census census2021 gov hk Archived from the original on 14 November 2022 Retrieved 15 March 2022 a b c d e 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