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Vijayanagara Empire

January 01, 1970

This article is about the historical empire. For the capital city, see Vijayanagara. For the neighbourhood in Bangalore, see Vijayanagar, Bangalore.
"Vijayanagar" redirects here. For other uses, see Vijaynagar.

The Vijayanagara Empire (/vɪˌdʒəjəˈnɑːɡərə/; also called the Karnata Kingdom[4]) was a medieval Hindu empire that ruled much of southern India. It was established in 1336 by the brothers Harihara I and Bukka Raya I of the Sangama dynasty, members of a pastoralist cowherd community that claimed Yadava lineage.[5][6][note 1]

Vijayanagara Empire
1336–1646[1]
  Greatest extent of the Vijaynagar Empire, 15th Century, tributaries not shown
CapitalVijayanagara (1336–1565)
Penukonda (1565–1592)
Chandragiri (1592–1604)
Vellore (1604–1646)[2]
Common languagesKannada
Telugu
Tamil
Sanskrit[3]
Religion
Hinduism
GovernmentMonarchy
Emperor 
• 1336–1356
Harihara I (first)
• 1509–1529
Krishna Deva Raya
• 1642–1646
Sriranga III (last)
History 
• Established
18 April 1336
• Earliest records
1343
• Disestablished
1646[1]
CurrencyVaraha
Today part ofIndia

The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the southern powers to ward off Turco-Persian Muslim invasions by the end of the 13th century. At its peak, it conquered almost all of Southern India's ruling dynasties and pushed the Turco-Persian sultans of the Deccan beyond the Tungabhadra-Krishna River doab region, in addition to annexing Gajapati Empire (Odisha) up to the Krishna River, thus becoming a notable power.[7] It at its height ruled the lands of the modern states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Goa, and some parts of Telangana, Maharashtra and some parts of Sri Lanka.

The empire lasted until 1646, although its power greatly declined after a major military defeat in the Battle of Talikota in 1565 by the combined armies of the Deccan sultanates. The empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara, as Hampi was renamed, whose extensive ruins are now a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Karnataka. The wealth and fame of the empire inspired visits by and writings of medieval European travelers such as Domingo Paes, Fernão Nunes, and Niccolò de' Conti. These travelogues, contemporary literature and epigraphy in the local languages, and modern archeological excavations at Vijayanagara have provided ample information about the history and power of the empire.

The empire's legacy includes monuments spread over Southern India, the best known of which is the group at Hampi. Different temple building traditions in South and Central India were merged into the Vijayanagara architecture style. This synthesis inspired architectural innovations in the construction of Hindu temples. Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies to the region such as water management systems for irrigation. The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, and Sanskrit with topics such as astronomy, mathematics, medicine, fiction, musicology, historiography and theater gaining popularity. The classical music of Southern India, Carnatic music, evolved into its current form. The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in the history of Southern India that transcended regionalism by promoting Hinduism as a unifying factor. The colonettes of the Gadaladeniya Vihara temple, situated in Sri Lanka, match Vijayanagara style colonettes.

Vijayanagara ruins, 19th century
Krishna temple in 1868
Rama temple in 1868
Vitthala temple in 1880
King's balance in 1858

Alternative names edit

Karnata Rajya (Karnata Kingdom) was another name for the Vijayanagara Empire, used in some inscriptions[8] and literary works of the Vijayanagara times including the Sanskrit work Jambavati Kalyanam by King Krishnadevaraya and Telugu work Vasu Charitamu.[9] According to historians including Vasundhara Kavali-Filliozat, B. A. Saletore, P. B. Desai, and Ram Sharma, "although Robert Sewell mentioned in the body of the text that the empire was called "Karnataka", he chose "Vijayanagar" in the title because he knew Kannada and Telugu groups would fight if he called it "Karnataka"." As per existing historical records such as inscriptions from the historical ruins of the empire, it is referred to as Karnataka Samrajya (literally 'Karnataka Empire').[10][11][12]

Europeans referred to the Vijayanagara Empire as "The Kingdom of Narasinga",[13][14] a name derived from "Narasimha" by the Portuguese.[15] It is not clear whether the name was derived from Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya or Narasimha Raya II.

History edit

Background and origin theories edit

Main articles: Origin of the Vijayanagara Empire and Medieval City of Vijayanagara

Before the early 14th-century rise of the Vijayanagara Empire, the Hindu states of the Deccan – the Yadava Empire of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty of Warangal, and the Pandyan Empire of Madurai – were repeatedly raided and attacked by Muslims from the north. By 1336 the upper Deccan region (modern-day Maharashtra and Telangana) had been defeated by armies of Sultan Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad bin Tughluq of the Delhi Sultanate.[16][17]

Further south in the Deccan region, Hoysala commander Singeya Nayaka-III declared independence after the Muslim forces of the Delhi Sultanate defeated and captured the territories of the Yadava Empire in 1294 CE.[18][19] He created the Kampili kingdom near Gulbarga and Tungabhadra River in the northeastern parts of present-day Karnataka state.[20] The kingdom collapsed after a defeat by the armies of Delhi Sultanate and upon their defeat, the populace committed a jauhar (ritual mass suicide) in c. 1327–28.[21][22] The Vijayanagara Kingdom was founded in 1336 CE as a successor to the hitherto prosperous Hindu kingdoms of the Hoysalas, the Kakatiyas, and the Yadavas with the breakaway Kampili Kingdom adding a new dimension to the resistance to the Muslim invasion of South India.[19][23]

Two theories have been proposed regarding the linguistic origins of the Vijayanagara empire.[24] One is that Harihara I and Bukka I, the founders of the empire, were Kannadigas and commanders in the army of the Hoysala Empire stationed in the Tungabhadra region to ward off Muslim invasions from Northern India.[25][26][27][28] Another theory is that Harihara and Bukkaraya were Telugu people, first associated with the Kakatiya Kingdom, who took control of the northern parts of the Hoysala Empire during its decline. They were believed to have been captured by the army of Ulugh Khan at Warangal.[29] According to tradition, based on a Telugu-narrative, the founders were supported and inspired by Vidyaranya, a saint at the Sringeri monastery, to fight the Muslim invasion of South India,[16][30] but the role of Vidyaranya in the founding of the Vijayanagara Empire is not certain.[31]

Early years edit

See also: Bahmani-Vijayanagar War

In the first two decades after the founding of the empire, Harihara I gained control over most of the area south of the Tungabhadra River and earned the title of "master of the eastern and western seas" (Purvapaschima Samudradhishavara). By 1374 Bukka Raya I, successor to Harihara I, defeated the chiefdom of Arcot, the Reddys of Kondavidu, and the Sultan of Madurai, and had gained control over Goa in the west and the Tungabhadra-Krishna River doab in the north.[32][33][34] The original capital of the empire was in the principality of Anegondi on the northern banks of the Tungabhadra River in today's Karnataka. It was moved to Vijayanagara during Bukka Raya I's reign because it was easier to defend against the Muslim armies, who were persistently attacking from the northern lands.[35]

With the Vijayanagara Kingdom now imperial in stature, Harihara II, the second son of Bukka Raya I, further consolidated the kingdom beyond the Krishna River and South India was controlled by the Vijayanagara Empire.[36] The next ruler, Deva Raya I, was successful against the Gajapatis of Odisha and undertook works of fortification and irrigation.[37] Firuz Bahmani of Bahmani Sultanate entered into a treaty with Deva Raya I in 1407 that required the latter to pay Bahmani an annual tribute of "100,000 huns, five maunds of pearls and fifty elephants". The Sultanate invaded Vijayanagara in 1417 when the latter defaulted in paying the tribute. Such wars for tribute payment by Vijayanagara were repeated in the 15th century.[38]

Deva Raya II (eulogized in contemporary literature as Gajabetekara)[39] succeeded to the throne in 1424. He was possibly the most successful of the Sangama Dynasty rulers.[40] He quelled rebelling feudal lords and the Zamorin of Calicut and Quilon in the south. He invaded Sri Lanka and became overlord of the kings of Burma at Pegu and Tanasserim.[41][42] By 1436 the rebellious chiefs of Kondavidu and the Velama rulers were successfully dealt with and had to accept Vijayanagara overlordship.[43] After a few years of tranquility, wars broke out with the Bahamani Sultanate in 1443 with some successes and some reversals. The Persian visitor Firishta attributes Deva Raya II's war preparations, which included augmenting his armies with Muslim archers and cavalry, to be the cause of the conflict. Contemporary Persian ambassador Abdur Razzak attributes the war to the Bahamani Sultan capitalizing on the confusion caused by an internal revolt within the Vijayanagara Empire, including an attempt to assassinate the Raya by his brother.[44]

 
View of tower and mantapa at Ragunatha temple in Hampi

Deva Raya II was succeeded by his elder son Mallikarjuna Raya in 1446. The Gajapati king removed the Vijayanagara control over the Tamil country by occupying the Reddi kingdoms of Rajahmundry, Kondaveedu, Kanchipuram, and Tiruchirapalli. These defeats reduced the Vijayanagara Empire's prestige, described by an inscription which described the Gajapati king as "a yawning lion to the sheep of the Karnatak King".[45] Mallikarjuna's successor Virupaksha Raya II led a life of pleasure perusing wine and women leading to the loss of Goa and much of Karnataka to the Bahmani Sultanate. His governor Saluva Narasimha reduced the loss of territory by holding almost all of coastal Andhra Pradesh south of the Krishna river, Chittoor, the two Arcots and Kolar. Saluva Narashimha defeated the Gajapatis and held Udayagiri, drove out the Pandyas from Tanjore, and took procession of Machilipatnam and Kondaveedu. He later defeated Bahmani forces and recovered most of the empire's earlier losses.[46]

 
"Throne platform" or "Victory Platform" or "Mahanavami Dibba" or "Dussera Dibba". This surviving structure is in the Royal Enclosure.

After the death of Virupaksha Raya II in 1485, Saluva Narasimha led a coup that ended the dynastic rule while continuing to defend the empire from raids by the Sultanates created from the continuing disintegration of the Bahmani Sultanate in its north.[47] Saluva Narasimha left his two adolescent sons under the care of general Tuluva Narasa Nayaka who ably defended the kingdom from their traditional enemies, the Gajapati king and the Bahamani Sultan. He also subdued rebelling chiefs of the Chera, the Chola and the Pandya territories. Despite many attempts by nobles and members of the royal family to overthrow him, Narasa Nayaka retained control as a regent king till 1503.[48]

In 1503, Narasa Nayaka's son Vira Narasimha had prince Immadi Narasimha of the Saluva dynasty assassinated and took over the rule in a coup thus becoming the first of the Tuluva dynasty rulers. This did not go well with the nobles who revolted. Seeing internal troubles grow, the Gajapati king and the Bahamani Sultan began to encroach on the empire even as the governors of Ummattur, Adoni, and Talakad colluded to capture the Tungabhadra-Krishna river doab region from the empire.[49] The empire came under the rule of Krishna Deva Raya in 1509, another son of Tuluva Narasa Nayaka.[50] Initially Krishnadevaraya faced a many obstacles including dissatisfied nobles, the rebellious chief of Ummattur in the south, a resurgent Gajapati kingdom under King Prataparudra, a growing threat from the newly formed Adil Shahi Sultanate of Bijapur under Yusuf Adil Khan and Portuguese interest in controlling the west coast.[51] Not one to be unnerved by these pressures he strengthened and consolidated the empire, one victory at a time. He was an astute king who hired both Hindus and Muslims into his army.[52] In the following decades, the empire covered Southern India and successfully defeated invasions from the five established Deccan Sultanates to its north.[53][54]

Empire's peak edit

See also: Battle of Raichur and Battle of Pangal
 
 
The Garuda stone chariot and Vitthala temple gopuram in 1856 (left) and 2016.

The empire reached its peak during the rule of Krishna Deva Raya (circa 1509 to 1529) when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious.[55] The empire gained territory formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan, such as Raichur and Gulbarga from the Bahamani Sultanate, territories in the eastern Deccan from wars with Sultan Quli Qutb Shahi of Golkonda, and Kalinga region from the Gajapatis of Odisha. This was in addition to the already established presence in the southern Deccan.[56][57] Many important monuments were either completed or commissioned during the time of King Krishnadevaraya.[58]

Krishna Deva Raya was succeeded by his younger half-brother Achyuta Deva Raya in 1529. When Achyuta Deva Raya died in 1542, Sadashiva Raya, the teenage nephew of Achyuta Raya, was appointed king, and Rama Raya, Krishna Deva Raya's son-in-law, becoming the caretaker.[59] When Sadashiva Raya was old enough to assert his independent claim over the throne, Rama Raya made him a virtual prisoner and became the de facto ruler.[60] He hired Muslim generals in his army from his previous diplomatic connections with the Sultanates and called himself "Sultan of the World".[61] This included both Deccani Muslims recruited from anywhere in the Deccan or Westerners from beyond the Persian Gulf.[62] He was keenly interfering in the internal affairs of the various Sultanates and on playing off the Muslim powers against one another, while making himself the ruler of the most powerful and influential regional power. This worked for a while but eventually made him very unpopular among his people and the Muslim rulers.[63] He made a commercial treaty with the Portuguese to stop the supply of horses to Bijapur, then defeated the Bijapur ruler and inflicted humiliating defeats on Golconda and Ahmednagar.[64]

Defeat and decline edit

Main article: Deccan Sultanates-Vijayanagar Empire Wars
 
Panorama of the Battle of Talikota (1565). In the right panel, Husain Shah (riding a horse) orders the decapitation of Rama Raya (reigned 1542–65), the defeated ruler of Vijaianagara. Ta'rif-i Husain Shahi (Chronicle of Husain Shah).

Eventually the Deccan sultanates to the north of Vijayanagara united and attacked Rama Raya's army in January 1565 in the Battle of Talikota.[65] Regarding the Vijayanagara defeat in battle, Kamath opines that the Sultanate armies, though numerically disadvantaged, were better equipped and trained. Their artillery was manned by expert Turkish gunmen while the Vijayanagara army depended on European mercenaries using outdated artillery. The Sultanate cavalry rode fast moving Persian horses and used spears that were fifteen to sixteen feet long giving them a greater reach, and their archers used metal crossbows which enabled them to reach longer distances. In comparison, the Vijayanagara army depended on slow moving war elephants, a cavalry riding mostly locally bred weaker horses wielding shorter reach javelins, and their archers used traditional bamboo bows with a shorter range. Richard Eaton argues that Vijayanagara's inferiority was due to Krishna Raya's failure to invest in military technology in the years since Raichur because his victory against a technologically superior army led him to underestimate technology's value.[66]

Despite these disadvantages, Kamath, Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund concur that the vast Vijayanagara army appeared to have the upper hand until two Muslim generals (identified as the mercenary Gilani brothers according to Kamath) switched sides and joined forces with the Sultanates turning the tide decisively in favor of the Sultanates. The generals captured Rama Raya and beheaded him, and Sultan Hussain had the severed head stuffed with straw for display.[67][68][69] Rama Raya's beheading created confusion and havoc in the Vijayanagara army, which were then completely routed. The Sultanates' army plundered Hampi and reduced it to the ruinous state in which it remains today.[70]

After Rama Raya's death, Tirumala Deva Raya started the Aravidu dynasty, founded a new capital of Penukonda to replace the destroyed Hampi, and attempted to reconstitute the remains of Vijayanagara Empire.[71] Tirumala abdicated in 1572, dividing the remains of his kingdom to his three sons. The Aravidu dynasty successors ruled the region but the empire collapsed in 1614, and the final remains ended in 1646, from continued wars with the Bijapur sultanate and others.[72][73][74] During this period, more kingdoms in South India became independent and separate from Vijayanagara, including the Nayakas of Chitradurga, Keladi Nayaka, Mysore Kingdom, Nayak Kingdom of Gingee, Nayaks of Tanjore, and Nayaks of Madurai.[75]

Governance edit

 
Tourists on top of Mahanavami Platform in Royal Enclosure.
 
Corridor at Temple from Vijayanagara capital Hampi.
 
Kannada inscription of King Krishnadeva Raya, dated 1509, at the Virupaksha temple in Hampi, describing his coronation and the construction of the large open mantapa

The rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire maintained the administrative methods developed by their predecessors, the Hoysala, Kakatiya and Pandya kingdoms.[76] The King, ministry, territory, fort, treasury, military, and ally formed the seven critical elements that influenced every aspect of governance.[77] The King was the ultimate authority, assisted by a cabinet of ministers (Pradhana) headed by the prime minister (Mahapradhana). Other important titles recorded were the chief secretary (Karyakartha or Rayaswami) and the imperial officers (Adhikari). All high-ranking ministers and officers were required to have military training.[78] A secretariat near the king's palace employed scribes and officers to maintain records made official by using a wax seal imprinted with the ring of the king.[79] At the lower administrative levels, wealthy feudal landlords (Gowdas) supervised accountants (Karanikas or Karnam) and guards (Kavalu). The palace administration was divided into 72 departments (Niyogas), each having several female attendants chosen for their youth and beauty (some imported or captured in victorious battles) who were trained to handle minor administrative matters and to serve men of nobility as courtesans or concubines.[80]

The empire was divided into five main provinces (Rajya), each under a commander (Dandanayaka or Dandanatha) and headed by a governor, often from the royal family, who used the native language for administrative purposes.[81] A Rajya was divided into regions (Vishaya, Vente or Kottam) and further divided into counties (Sime or Nadu), themselves subdivided into municipalities (Kampana or Sthala). Hereditary families ruled their respective territories and paid tribute to the empire, while some areas, such as Keladi and Madurai, came under the direct supervision of a commander.[82]

On the battlefield, the king's commanders led the troops. The empire's war strategy rarely involved massive invasions; more often it employed small-scale methods such as attacking and destroying individual forts. The empire was among the first in India to use long-range artillery, which were commonly manned by foreign gunners.[83] Army troops were of two types: the king's personal army directly recruited by the empire and the feudal army under each feudatory. King Krishnadevaraya's personal army consisted of 100,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalrymen, and over 900 elephants. The whole army was claimed to number over 1.1 million soldiers, with up to 2 million having been recorded, along with a navy led by a Navigadaprabhu (commander of the navy).[84] The army recruited from all classes of society, supported by the collection of additional feudal tributes from feudatory rulers, and consisted of archers and musketeers wearing quilted tunics, shieldmen with swords and poignards in their girdles, and soldiers carrying shields so large that armour was not necessary. The horses and elephants were fully armoured and the elephants had knives fastened to their tusks to do maximum damage in battle.[85]

The capital city was dependent on water supply systems constructed to channel and store water, ensuring a consistent supply throughout the year. The remains of these hydraulic systems have given historians a picture of the prevailing surface water distribution methods in use at that time in the semiarid regions of South India.[86] Contemporary records and notes of foreign travellers describe huge tanks constructed by labourers.[87] Excavations uncovered the remains of a well-connected water distribution system existing solely within the royal enclosure and the large temple complexes (suggesting it was for the exclusive use of royalty, and for special ceremonies) with sophisticated channels using gravity and siphons to transport water through pipelines.[88] In the fertile agricultural areas near the Tungabhadra River, canals were dug to guide the river water into irrigation tanks. These canals had sluices that were opened and closed to control the water flow. In other areas, the administration encouraged digging wells, which were monitored by administrative authorities. Large tanks in the capital city were constructed with royal patronage while smaller tanks were funded by wealthy individuals to gain social and religious merit.[89]

Economy edit

The economy of the empire was largely dependent on agriculture. Wheat, Sorghum (jowar), cotton, and pulse legumes grew in semi-arid regions, while sugarcane and rice thrived in rainy areas. Betel leaves, areca (for chewing), and coconut were the principal cash crops, and large-scale cotton production supplied the weaving centers of the empire's vibrant textile industry. Spices such as turmeric, pepper, cardamom, and ginger grew in the remote Malnad hill region and were transported to the city for trade. The empire's capital city was a thriving business centre that included a burgeoning market in large quantities of precious gems and gold. Prolific temple-building provided employment to thousands of masons, sculptors, and other skilled artisans.[90]

According to Abdur Razzak, much of the empire was fertile and well cultivated.[91] Most of the growers were tenant farmers and were given the right of part ownership of the land over time. Tax policies encouraging needed produce made distinctions between land use to determine tax levies. For example, the daily market availability of rose petals was important for perfumers, so cultivation of roses received a lower tax assessment.[92] Salt production and the manufacture of salt pans were controlled by similar means. The making of ghee (clarified butter), which was sold as an oil for human consumption and as a fuel for lighting lamps, was profitable.[93] Exports to China intensified and included cotton, spices, jewels, semi-precious stones, ivory, rhino horn, ebony, amber, coral, and aromatic products such as perfumes. Large vessels from China made frequent visits and brought Chinese products to the empire's 300 ports, large and small, on the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. The ports of Mangalore, Honavar, Bhatkal, Barkur, Cochin, Cannanore, Machilipatnam, and Dharmadam were important for they not only provided secure harbors for traders from Africa, Arabia, Aden, the Red sea, China and Bengal but some also served as ship building centers.[91]

When merchant ships docked, the merchandise was taken into official custody and taxes levied on all items sold. The security of the merchandise was guaranteed by the administration officials. Traders of many nationalities (Arabs, Persians, Guzerates, Khorassanians) settled in Calicut, drawn by the thriving trade business.[91] Ship building prospered and keeled ships between 1000 and 1200 bahares (burden) were built without decks by sewing the entire hull with ropes rather than fastening them with nails. Ships sailed to the Red Sea ports of Aden and Mecca with Vijayanagara goods sold as far away as Venice. The empire's principal exports were pepper, ginger, cinnamon, cardamom, myrobalan, tamarind timber, anafistula, precious and semi-precious stones, pearls, musk, ambergris, rhubarb, aloe, cotton cloth and porcelain.[91] Cotton yarn was shipped to Burma and indigo to Persia. Chief imports from Palestine were copper, quicksilver (mercury), vermilion, coral, saffron, coloured velvets, rose water, knives, colored camlets, gold and silver. Persian horses were imported to Cannanore before a two-week land trip to the capital. Silk arrived from China and sugar from Bengal.[94]

 
Raised water-channel or aqueduct for city.
 
Gajashaala or elephant's stable, built by the Vijayanagara rulers for their war elephants

East coast trade routes were busy, with goods arriving from Golkonda where rice, millet, pulses and tobacco were grown on a large scale. Dye crops of indigo and chay root were produced for the weaving industry. A mineral rich region, Machilipatnam was the gateway for high quality iron and steel exports. Diamond mining was active in the Kollur region.[95] The cotton weaving industry produced two types of cottons, plain calico and muslin (brown, bleached or dyed). Cloth printed with coloured patterns crafted by native techniques were exported to Java and the Far East. Golkonda specialised in plain cotton and Pulicat in printed. The main imports on the east coast were non-ferrous metals, camphor, porcelain, silk and luxury goods.[96]

Mahanavami festival marked the beginning of a financial year from when the state treasury accounted for and reconciled all outstanding dues within nine days. At this time, an updated annual assessment record of provincial dues, which included rents and taxes, paid on a monthly basis by each governor was created under royal decree.[77]

Temples were taxed for land ownership to cover military expenses. In the Telugu districts the temple tax was called Srotriyas, in the Tamil speaking districts it was called as Jodi. Taxes such as Durgavarthana, Dannayivarthana and Kavali Kanike were collected towards protection of movable and immovable wealth from robbery and invasions. Jeevadhanam was collected for cattle graze on non-private lands. Popular temple destinations charged visitor fees called Perayam or Kanike. Residential property taxes were called Illari.[97]

Culture edit

Social life edit

 
Horizontal friezes in relief on the outer wall enclosure of Hazara Rama temple, depicting life in the empire
Further information: Society of Vijayanagara empire

The Hindu social order was prevalent and it influenced daily life in the empire. The rulers who occupied the top of this hierarchy assumed the honorific Varnasramadharma (lit, "helpers of the four classes and four stages"). According to Talbot, caste was more importantly determined by occupation or the professional community people belonged to, although the family lineage (Gotra) and the broad distinction described in sacred Hindu texts were also factors. The structure also contained sub-castes and caste clusters ("Jati").[98] According to Vanina, caste as a social identity was not fixed and was constantly changed for reasons including polity, trade and commerce, and was usually determined by context. Identification of castes and sub-castes was made based on temple affiliations, lineage, family units, royal retinues, warrior clans, occupational groups, agricultural and trade groups, devotional networks, and even priestly cabals. It was also not impossible for a caste to lose its position and prestige and slip down the ladder while others rose up the same.[99] Epigraphy studies by Talbot suggests that members within a family could have different social status based on their occupation and the upward movement of a caste or sub-caste was not uncommon based on the breakthroughs achieved by an individual or a group of individuals from the community.[100]

Caste affiliation was closely tied to craft production and members of a common craft formed collective memberships. Often members of related crafts formed inter-caste communities. This helped them consolidate strength and gain political representation and trade benefits.[101] According to Talbot, terminology such as Setti was used to identify communities across merchant and artisan classes while Boya identified herders of all types.[102] Artisans consisted of blacksmiths, goldsmiths, brasssmiths and carpenters. These communities lived in separate sections of the city to avoid disputes, especially when it came to social privileges. Conquests led to large-scale migration of people leading to marginalisation of natives of a place. The Tottiyans were shepherds who later gained marginal ruling status (poligars), Saurashtrans were traders who came from present-day Gujarat and rivalled the Brahmins for some benefits, the Reddys were agriculturists and the Uppilia were salt farmers.[103]

According to Chopra et al., in addition to their monopoly over priestly duties, Brahmins occupied high positions in political and administrative fields. The Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes observed an increasing presence of Brahmins in the military.[104] The separation of the priestly class from material wealth and power made them ideal arbiters in local judicial matters, and the nobility and aristocracy ensured their presence in every town and village to maintain order.[105] Vanina notes that within the warrior class was a conglomerate of castes, kinship and clans that usually originated from landholding and pastoral communities. They ascended the social ladder by abandoning their original occupations and adopting to a martial code of living, ethics and practices. In South India they were loosely called the Nayakas.[106]

 
Nāga, snake worship in Hampi

Sati practice is evidenced in Vijayanagara ruins by several inscriptions known as Satikal (Sati stone) or Sati-virakal (Sati hero stone).[107] There are controversial views among historians regarding this practice including religious compulsion, marital affection, martyrdom or honor against subjugation by foreign intruders.[108][109][110]

The socio-religious movements that gained popularity in the previous centuries, such as Lingayatism, provided momentum for flexible social norms that helped the cause of women. By this time South Indian women had crossed most barriers and were actively involved in fields hitherto considered the monopoly of men such as administration, business, trade and the fine arts.[111] Tirumalamba Devi who wrote Varadambika Parinayam and Gangadevi the author of Madhuravijayam were among the notable women poets of the Sanskrit language.[32] Early Telugu women poets such as Tallapaka Timmakka and Atukuri Molla became popular. Further south the provincial Nayaks of Tanjore patronised several women poets. The Devadasi system, as well as legalized prostitution, existed and members of this community were relegated to a few streets in each city. The popularity of harems among men of the royalty and the existence of seraglio is well known from records.[112]

Well-to-do men wore the Petha or Kulavi, a tall turban made of silk and decorated with gold. As in most Indian societies, jewellery was used by men and women and records describe the use of anklets, bracelets, finger-rings, necklaces and ear rings of various types. During celebrations men and women adorned themselves with flower garlands and used perfumes made of rose water, civet musk, musk, or sandalwood.[112] In stark contrast to the commoners whose lives were modest, the lives of royalty were full of ceremonial pomp. Queens and princesses had numerous attendants who were lavishly dressed and adorned with fine jewellery. Their numbers ensured their daily duties were light.[113]

 
Painted ceiling from the Virupaksha temple depicting Hindu mythology, 14th century

Physical exercises were popular with men and wrestling was an important male preoccupation for sport and entertainment, and women wrestlers are also mentioned in records.[114] Gymnasiums have been discovered inside royal quarters and records mention regular physical training for commanders and their armies during peacetime.[115] Royal palaces and marketplaces had special arenas where royalty and common people amused themselves by watching sports such as cock fight, ram fight and female wrestling.[115] Excavations within the Vijayanagara city limits have revealed the existence of various community-based gaming activities. Engravings on boulders, rock platforms and temple floors indicate these were popular locations of casual social interaction. Some of these are gaming boards similar to the ones in use today and others are yet to be identified.[116]

Dowry was in practice and can be seen in both Hindu and Muslim royal families. When a sister of Sultan Adil Shah of Bijapur was married to Nizam Shah of Ahmednagar, the town of Sholapur was given to the bride by her family.[117] Ayyangar notes that when the Gajapati King of Kalinga gave his daughter in marriage honoring the victorious King Krishnadevaraya he included several villages as dowry.[118] Inscriptions of the 15th and 16th centuries record the practice of dowry among commoners as well. The practice of putting a price on the bride was a possible influence of the Islamic Mahr system.[119] To oppose this influence, in the year 1553, the Brahmin community passed a mandate under royal decree and popularized the kanyadana within the community. According to this practice money could not be paid or received during marriage and those who did were liable for punishment. There is a mention of Streedhana ("woman's wealth") in an inscription and that the villagers should not give away land as dowry. These inscriptions reinforce the theory that a system of social mandates within community groups existed and were widely practiced even though these practices did not find justification in the family laws described in the religious texts.[120]

Religion edit

Main article: Haridasa
 
Virupaksha Temple, Hampi

The Vijayanagara kings were tolerant of all religions and sects, as writings by foreign visitors show.[121] The kings used titles such as Gobrahamana Pratipalanacharya (literally, "protector of cows and Brahmins") that testified to their intention of protecting Hinduism, The Nāgarī script inscription at Hampi includes the term Hinduraya Suratrana, which Benjamin Lewis Rice translates as "the Suratrana of Hindu Rayas". Some scholars have interpreted this to mean "the Sultan among Hindu kings" and state this to be an evidence of some Islamic political traditions being adopted by Hindu kings,[122][123][note 2] as well as that Indian kingdoms recognized their religious identity of being Hindu and of Hinduism by early 14th century.[128] Majority Others interpret the term Hinduraya Suratrana to mean "protectors of the gods of (or among) the Hindu kings".[123][129][130] .Empire's founders, the Sangama brothers (Harihara I and Bukka Raya I) came from a pastoral cowherd background, possibly the Kuruba people, that claimed Yadava lineage.[5][6][note 1] The founders of the empire were devout Shaivas (worshippers of the Hindu god Shiva) but made grants to Vishnu temples. Their patron saint Vidyaranya was from the Advaita order at Sringeri. The Varaha (the boar avatar of Vishnu) was the emblem of the empire.[131] Over one-fourth of the archaeological dig found an "Islamic Quarter" not far from the "Royal Quarter". Nobles from Central Asia's Timurid kingdoms also came to Vijayanagara. The later Saluva and Tuluva kings were Vaishnava (followers of Vishnu) by faith, but also worshipped Venkateshwara (Vishnu) at Tirupati as well as Virupaksha (Shiva) at Hampi. A Sanskrit work, Jambavati Kalyanam by King Krishnadevaraya, refers to Virupaksha as Karnata Rajya Raksha Mani ("protective jewel of Karnata Empire").[132] The kings patronised the saints of the dvaita order (philosophy of dualism) of Madhvacharya at Udupi.[133] Endowments were made to temples in the form of land, cash, produce, jewellery and constructions.[134]

The Bhakti (devotional) movement was active during this time, and involved well known Haridasas (devotee saints) of that time. Like the Virashaiva movement of the 12th century, this movement presented another strong current of devotion, pervading the lives of millions. The Haridasas represented two groups, the Vyasakuta and Dasakuta, the former being required to be proficient in the Vedas, Upanishads and other Darshanas, while the Dasakuta merely conveyed the message of Madhvacharya through the Kannada language to the people in the form of devotional songs (Devaranamas and Kirthanas). The philosophy of Madhvacharya was spread by eminent disciples such as Naraharitirtha, Jayatirtha, Sripadaraya, Vyasatirtha, Vadirajatirtha and others.[135] Vyasatirtha, the guru (teacher) of Vadirajatirtha, Purandaradasa (Pitamaha or "Father of Carnatic music"[136][137]) and Kanakadasa[138] earned the devotion of King Krishnadevaraya.[139][140][141] The king considered the saint his Kuladevata (family deity) and honoured him in his writings.[142] During this time, another great composer of early carnatic music, Annamacharya composed hundreds of Kirthanas in Telugu at Tirupati in present-day Andhra Pradesh.[143]

 
Ugra Narasimha monolith at Hampi

The defeat of the Jain Western Ganga Dynasty by the Cholas in the early 11th century and the rising numbers of followers of Vaishnava Hinduism and Virashaivism in the 12th century was mirrored by a decreased interest in Jainism.[144] Two notable locations of Jain worship in the Vijayanagara territory were Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli.[145]

Islamic contact with South India began as early as the seventh century, a result of trade between the Southern kingdoms and Arab lands. Jumma Masjids existed in the Rashtrakuta empire by the tenth century[146] and many mosques flourished on the Malabar coast by the early 14th century.[147] Muslim settlers married local women; their children were known as Mappillas (Moplahs) and were actively involved in horse trading and manning shipping fleets. The interactions between the Vijayanagara empire and the Bahamani Sultanates to the north increased the presence of Muslims in the south. In the early 15th century, Deva Raya built a mosque for the Muslims in Vijayanagara and placed a Quran before his throne.[148]

The introduction of Christianity began as early as the eighth century as shown by the finding of copper plates inscribed with land grants to Malabar Christians. Christian travelers wrote of the scarcity of Christians in South India in the Middle Ages, promoting its attractiveness to missionaries.[149] The arrival of the Portuguese in the 15th century and their connections through trade with the empire, the propagation of the faith by Saint Xavier (1545) and later the presence of Dutch settlements fostered the growth of Christianity in the south.[150]

Epigraphs, sources and monetization edit

 
Ornate pillars, Virupaksha temple Hampi
 
Wall panel relief in Hazare Rama Temple at Hampi

Stone inscriptions were the most common form of documents used on temple walls, boundary of properties and open places for public display. Another form of documentation was on copper plates that were meant for record keeping. Usually verbose inscriptions included information such as a salutation, a panegyric of the king or local ruler, the name of the donor, nature of the endowment (generally either cash or produce), the manner in which the grant would be used, obligations of the donee, share received by the donor and a concluding statement that officiated the entire donation and its obligations. Some inscriptions record an instance of victory in war or religious festival, and retribution or a curse on those who do not honor the grant.[151]

Most Vijayanagara empire inscriptions recovered so far are in Kannada, Telugu and Tamil, and a few in Sanskrit.[152] According to Suryanath U. Kamath about 7000 stone inscriptions, half of which are in Kannada, and about 300 copper plates which are mostly in Sanskrit, have been recovered.[153] Bilingual inscriptions had lost favor by the 14th century.[154] According to Mack, the majority of the inscriptions recovered are from the rule of the Tuluva dynasty (from 1503 to 1565) with the Saluva dynasty (from 1485 to 1503) inscribing the least in its brief control over the empire. The Sangama dynasty (from 1336 to 1485) which ruled the longest produced about one third of all epigraphs inscribed during the Tuluva period.[155] Despite the popularity of Telugu language as a literary medium, the majority of the epigraphs in the language were inscribed in the limited period from 1500 to 1649. Talbot explains this scenario as one of shifting political solidarity. The Vijayanagara empire was originally founded in Karnataka, with Andhra Pradesh serving as a province of the empire. After its defeat to the Sultanates in 1565 and the sacking of the royal capital Vijayanagara, the diminished empire moved its capital to Southern Andhra Pradesh, creating an enterprise dominated by Telugu language.[156]

In addition to epigraphs and coins, the sources of Vijayanagara history (its origin, social and political life and eventual defeat) are the accounts of foreign travelers and contemporary literary sources in Sanskrit, Kannada, Persian and Telugu. The Portuguese visitors to the empire were Domingo Paes (1522), Fernão Nunes (1537),[157] Duarte Barbosa (1516) and Barradas (1616), and Athanasius Nikitin (1470) came from Russia.[158] Niccolò de' Conti (1420),[159] Ludovico di Varthema (1505), Caesar Fredericci (1567) and Filippo Sassetti (1585)[160][94] were travelers from Italy and Abdur Razzak (1443)[161] visited from Persia. Contemporary Muslim writers who were either under the patronage of rival kingdoms (the Sultanates) or were visitors to Vijayanagara and accomplished valuable works are Ziauddin Barani (Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi, 1357), Isamy (Fatuhat us salatin), Syed Ali Tabatabai (Burhan-i-Maisar, 1596), Nisammuddin Bakshi, Firishta (Tarik-i-Firishta) and Rafiuddin Shirazi (Tazkirat ul Mulk, 1611).[162] Among writings by native authors, the important Sanskrit works that shed light on the empire are Vidyaranya Kalajnana, Dindima's Ramabhyudayam on the life of King Saluva Narasimha, Dindima II's Achyutabhyudayam and Tirumalamba's Varadambika Parinayam. Among Kannada literary works, Kumara Ramana Kathe by Nanjunda Kavi, Mohanatarangini by Kanakadasa, Keladiripavijayam by Linganna and the recently discovered Krishnadevarayana Dinachari are useful sources, and among Telugu works, Srinatha's Kashikanda, Mallayya and Singayya's Varahapuranamu, Vishvanatha Nayani's Rayavachakamu, Nandi Timmanna's Parijathapaharanamu, Durjati's Krishnaraja Vijayamu, Peddanna's Manucharitamu and King Krishnadevaraya's Amuktamalyada are important sources of information.[163][164]

The Persian visitor Abdur Razzak wrote in his travelogues that the empire enjoyed a high level of monetization. This is especially evident from the number of temple cash grants that were made. Coins were minted using gold, silver, copper and brass and their value depended on material weight. Coins were minted by the state, in the provinces and by merchant guilds. Foreign currency was in circulation. The highest denomination was the gold Varaha (or Hun/Honnu, Gadyana) weighted 50.65 – 53 grains. The Partab or Pratapa was valued at half a Varaha, the Fanam, Phanam or Hana, an alloy of gold and copper was the most common currency valued at a third of the Varaha. A Tar made of pure silver was a sixth of a Phanam and a Chital made of brass was a third of the Tar. Haga, Visa and Kasu were also coins of lower denominations.[165][166]

Literature edit

Main articles: Vijayanagara literature and Vijayanagara literature in Kannada

During the rule of the Vijayanagara Empire, poets, scholars and philosophers wrote primarily in Kannada, Telugu and Sanskrit, and also in other regional languages such as Tamil and covered such subjects as religion, biography, Prabandha (fiction), music, grammar, poetry, medicine and mathematics. The administrative and court languages of the Empire were Kannada and Telugu, the latter gained even more cultural and literary prominence during the reign of the last Vijayanagara kings, especially Krishnadevaraya.[167][168]

Most Sanskrit works were commentaries either on the Vedas or on the Ramayana and Mahabharata epics, written by well known figures such as Sayanacharya (who wrote a treatise on the Vedas called Vedartha Prakasha whose English translation by Max Muller appeared in 1856), and Vidyaranya that extolled the superiority of the Advaita philosophy over other rival Hindu philosophies.[169] Other writers were famous Dvaita saints of the Udupi order such as Jayatirtha (earning the title Tikacharya for his polemical writings), Vyasatirtha who wrote rebuttals to the Advaita philosophy and of the conclusions of earlier logicians, and Vadirajatirtha and Sripadaraya both of whom criticized the beliefs of Adi Sankara.[141] Apart from these saints, noted Sanskrit scholars adorned the courts of the Vijayanagara kings and their feudal chiefs. Some members of the royal family were writers of merit and authored important works such as Jambavati Kalyana by King Krishnadevaraya,[9] and Madura Vijayam (also known as Veerakamparaya Charita) by Princess Gangadevi, a daughter-in-law of King Bukka I, dwells on the conquest of the Madurai Sultanate by the Vijayanagara empire.[170]

 
Poetic inscription in Kannada by Vijayanagara poet Manjaraja (c.1398)

The Kannada poets and scholars of the empire produced important writings supporting the Vaishnava Bhakti movement heralded by the Haridasas (devotees of Vishnu), Brahminical and Veerashaiva (Lingayatism) literature. The Haridasa poets celebrated their devotion through songs called Devaranama (lyrical poems) in the native meters of Sangatya (quatrain), Suladi (beat based), Ugabhoga (melody based) and Mundige (cryptic).[171] Their inspirations were the teachings of Madhvacharya and Vyasatirtha. Purandaradasa and Kanakadasa are considered the foremost among many Dasas (devotees) by virtue of their immense contribution.[172] Kumara Vyasa, the most notable of Brahmin scholars wrote Gadugina Bharata, a translation of the epic Mahabharata. This work marks a transition of Kannada literature from old Kannada to modern Kannada.[173] Chamarasa was a famous Veerashaiva scholar and poet who had many debates with Vaishnava scholars in the court of Devaraya II. His Prabhulinga Leele, later translated into Telugu and Tamil, was a eulogy of Saint Allama Prabhu (the saint was considered an incarnation of Lord Ganapathi while Parvati took the form of a princess of Banavasi).[174][175]

At this peak of Telugu literature, the most famous writing in the Prabandha style was Manucharitamu. King Krishnadevaraya was an accomplished Telugu scholar and wrote the Amuktamalyada,[176] a story of the wedding of the god Vishnu to Andal, the Tamil Alvar saint poet and the daughter of Periyalvar at Srirangam.[177][178][179] In his court were eight famous scholars regarded as the pillars (Ashtadiggajas) of the literary assembly. The most famous among them were Allasani Peddana who held the honorific Andhrakavitapitamaha (lit, "father of Telugu poetry") and Tenali Ramakrishna, the court jester who authored several notable works.[180] The other six poets were Nandi Thimmana (Mukku Timmana), Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra, Madayyagari Mallana, Bhattu Murthi (Ramaraja Bhushana), Pingali Surana, and Dhurjati. Srinatha, who wrote books such as Marutratcharitamu and Salivahana-sapta-sati, was patronised by King Devaraya II and enjoyed the same status as important ministers in the court.[181]

Most Tamil literature from this period came from Tamil-speaking regions, which were ruled by the feudatory Pandya who gave particular attention to the cultivation of Tamil literature. Some poets were also patronised by the Vijayanagara kings. Svarupananda Desikar wrote an anthology of 2824 verses, Sivaprakasap-perundirattu, on the Advaita philosophy. His pupil the ascetic, Tattuvarayar, wrote a shorter anthology, Kurundirattu, that contained about half the number of verses. Krishnadevaraya patronised the Tamil Vaishnava poet Haridasa whose Irusamaya Vilakkam was an exposition of the two Hindu systems, Vaishnava and Shaiva, with a preference for the former.[182]

Notable among secular writings on music and medicine were Vidyaranya's Sangitsara, Praudha Raya's Ratiratnapradipika, Sayana's Ayurveda Sudhanidhi and Lakshmana Pandita's Vaidyarajavallabham.[183] The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics flourished during this period with scholars such as Madhava, who made important contributions to trigonometry and calculus, and Nilakantha Somayaji, who postulated on the orbitals of planets.[184]

Architecture edit

Main article: Vijayanagara architecture
See also: Vijayanagara, Hampi, and List of Vijayanagara era temples in Karnataka
 
Temple car at the Vittala temple in Hampi

Vijayanagara architecture, according to art critic Percy Brown is a vibrant combination and blossoming of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya and Chola styles, idioms that prospered in previous centuries.[185] Its legacy of sculpture, architecture and painting influenced the development of the arts long after the empire came to an end. Its stylistic hallmark is the ornate pillared Kalyanamantapa (marriage hall), Vasanthamantapa (open pillared halls) and the Rayagopura (tower). Artisans used the locally available hard granite because of its durability since the kingdom was under constant threat of invasion. An open-air theatre of monuments at its capital at Vijayanagara is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[186]

In the 14th century, the kings continued to build vesara or Deccan-style monuments but later incorporated Dravida-style gopuras to meet their ritualistic needs. The Prasanna Virupaksha temple (underground temple) of Bukka and the Hazare Rama temple of Deva Raya are examples of Deccan architecture.[187] The varied and intricate ornamentation of the pillars is a mark of their work.[188] At Hampi, the Vitthala and Hazara Ramaswamy temples are examples of their pillared Kalyanamantapa style.[189] A visible aspect of their style is their return to the simplistic and serene art developed by the Chalukya dynasty.[190] The Vitthala temple took several decades to complete during the reign of the Tuluva kings.[187]

 
Aerial view of the Meenakshi Temple, Madurai. The temple was rebuilt by the Nayaks rulers under the Vijayanagara Empire

Another element of the Vijayanagara style is the carving and consecration of large monoliths such as the Sasivekaalu (mustard) Ganesha and Kadalekaalu (ground nut) Ganesha at Hampi, the Gommateshwara (Bahubali) monoliths in Karkala and Venur, and the Nandi bull in Lepakshi. The Vijayanagara temples of Kolar, Kanakagiri, Sringeri and other towns of Karnataka; the temples of Tadpatri, Lepakshi, Ahobilam, Tirumala Venkateswara Temple and Srikalahasti in Andhra Pradesh; and the temples of Vellore, Kumbakonam, Kanchi and Srirangam in Tamil Nadu are examples of this style. Vijayanagara art includes wall-paintings such as the Dashavatara and Girijakalyana (marriage of Parvati, Shiva's consort) in the Virupaksha Temple at Hampi, the Shivapurana murals (tales of Shiva) at the Virabhadra temple at Lepakshi, and those at the Kamaakshi and Varadaraja temples at Kanchi. This mingling of the South Indian styles resulted in a new idiom of art not seen in earlier centuries, a focus on reliefs in addition to sculpture differing from that previously in India.[190]

An aspect of Vijayanagara architecture that shows the cosmopolitanism of the great city is the presence of many secular structures bearing Islamic features. While political history concentrates on the ongoing conflict between the Vijayanagara empire and the Deccan Sultanates, the architectural record reflects a more creative interaction. There are many arches, domes and vaults that show these influences. The concentration of structures like pavilions, stables and towers suggests they were for use by royalty.[191] The decorative details of these structures may have been absorbed into Vijayanagara architecture during the early 15th century, coinciding with the rule of Deva Raya I and Deva Raya II. These kings are known to have employed many Muslims in their army and court, some of whom may have been Muslim architects. This harmonious exchange of architectural ideas must have happened during rare periods of peace between the Hindu and Muslim kingdoms.[192] The "Great Platform" (Mahanavami Dibba) has relief carvings in which the figures seem to have the facial features of central Asian Turks who were known to have been employed as royal attendants.[193]

Travellers edit

class=notpageimage|
The Vijayanagara Empire and contemporary polities c. 1500
 
Sultan of Delhi (top, flag:  ) and King of Vijayanagara (bottom, with "Christian" flag:  ), named as "King of Colombo" after the city of Kollam. His caption reads: Here rules the king of Colombo, a Christian. He was mistakenly identified as Christian because of the Christian mission established in Kollam by Jordanus since 1329.[194][195] Detail of the Catalan Atlas of 1375.[196]

In the memoirs of Niccolò de' Conti, an Italian merchant and traveller who visited Hampi about 1420, the city had an estimated circumference of 60 miles (97 km) and it enclosed agriculture and settlements in its fortifications. In 1442, Abdul Razzaq, who visited from Persia, described it as a city with seven layers of forts, with outer layers for agriculture, crafts and residence, the inner third to seventh layers very crowded with shops and bazaars (markets).[197]

In 1520, Domingo Paes, a Portuguese traveller, visited Vijayanagara as a part of trade contingent from Portuguese Goa. He wrote his memoir as Chronica dos reis de Bisnaga, in which he stated Vijayanagara was "as large as Rome, and very beautiful to the sight ... the best provided city in the world".[198][199] According to Paes, "there are many groves within it, in the gardens of the houses, many conduits of water which flow into the midst of it, and in places there are lakes ...".[199]

Cesare Federici, an Italian merchant and traveller, visited a few decades after the 1565 defeat and collapse of the Vijayanagara Empire. According to Sinopoli, Johansen, and Morrison, Federici described it as a very different city. He wrote, "the citie of Bezeneger (Hampi-Vijayanagara) is not altogether destroyed, yet the houses stand still, but emptie, and there is dwelling in them nothing, as is reported, but Tygres and other wild beasts".[200]

The historian Will Durant, in his Our Oriental Heritage: The Story of Civilization recites the story of Vijayanagara and calls its conquest and destruction a discouraging tale. He writes, "its evident moral is that civilization is a precarious thing, whose delicate complex of order and liberty, culture and peace" may at any time be overthrown by war and ferocious violence.[201][note 3]

Family trees and List of rulers edit

Main article: List of Vijayanagara emperors

Fictional representations edit

See also edit

Vijayanagara dynasties
Related to the Vijayanagara Empire

Notes edit

  1. ^ a b Dhere 2011, p. 243: "We can deduce that Sangam must have become a Yadava through his pastoralist, cowherd community.",
  2. ^ The Hinduraya suratrana term in inscriptions has been coupled with long brocaded headdress (kullayi) and others shown in some royalty-related reliefs found in Hampi as additional support for the hypothesis that 'Islamicization of Hindu culture' in 14th-century.[124] The long headdress are also seen in the royalty-related and secular artwork in Pattadakal dated from the 7th and 8th century, about 5 centuries before the first Sultanate was formed in South Asia.[125] Similar conical headdress is seen in other sites such as the Ajanta Caves, Ellora Caves, Aihole and Badami, variously dated from the 2nd century CE to 10th century CE.[126][127]
  3. ^ Hampi's history, ruins and temples made it an early site for offbeat tourism in the 1960s and after. Tourists would gather on its hills and midst its ruins, to hold parties and spiritual retreats, and these have been called "Hampi Hippies" and Hampi as the "lost city" in some publications.[202][203]

References edit

  1. ^ Reddy, P. Bhaskar. "The Vijayanagara Empire".
  2. ^ Howes, Jennifer (1998). The Courts of Pre-colonial South India: Material Culture and Kingship. Psychology Press. p. 43. ISBN 978-07-0071-585-5.
  3. ^ Bridges, Elizabeth J. (2016). "Vijayanagara Empire". In Dalziel, N.; MacKenzie, J. M. (eds.). The Encyclopedia of Empire. pp. 1–5. doi:10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe424. ISBN 978-1118455074.
  4. ^ Stein 1989, p. 1.
  5. ^ a b Dhere 2011, p. 243.
  6. ^ a b Sewell 2011, pp. 22, 23, 420.
  7. ^ Stein 1989, p. xi
  8. ^ Nilakanta Sastri 1955, p. 268
  9. ^ a b Fritz & Michell 2001, p. 14.
  10. ^ "Karnataka: A name centuries in the making, stamped in '73". Hindustan Times. 7 November 2021. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
  11. ^ "When the south was one". Fountain Ink. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
  12. ^ "Book Review: 'Hampi' by Pierre-Sylvain Filliozat and Vasundhara Kavali-Filliozat is more than a coffee-table book on the Vijayanagar Empire". 9 January 2022.
  13. ^ "The Narasinga Kingdom". Deccan Herald. 21 April 2015. Retrieved 14 March 2023.
  14. ^ "Andrea Corsali. L'esploratore Amico Di Leonardo Da Vinci, Scomparso In Oriente". Gingko Edizioni. 21 April 2015. Retrieved 14 March 2023. ... Il regno di Paleacate confina per terra ferma col re di Narsinga, ch'è gentile e principal re di tutta l'India, ed è il più ricco signore che sia di questa banda fino al mar, Batticala, Onor e Brazabor; e lassando il paese de Malabari, ch'è giunto con la marina, s'estende per terra ferma fino al sino Gangetico, dove è il signor de Coromandel, e Paleacate, di là dal capo di Commari, detto Pelura anticamente. ...
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  16. ^ a b Nilakanta Sastri 1955, p. 216.
  17. ^ Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian 2003, Part II, p. 22
  18. ^ Stein 1989, pp. 18–19.
  19. ^ a b Gilmartin, David; Lawrence, Bruce B. (2000). Beyond Turk and Hindu: Rethinking Religious Identities in Islamicate South Asia. University Press of Florida. pp. 300–306, 321–322. ISBN 978-0-8130-3099-9.
  20. ^ Cynthia Talbot (2001). Precolonial India in Practice: Society, Region, and Identity in Medieval Andhra. Oxford University Press. pp. 281–282. ISBN 978-0-19-803123-9.
  21. ^ Mary Storm (2015). Head and Heart: Valour and Self-Sacrifice in the Art of India. Taylor & Francis. p. 311. ISBN 978-1-317-32556-7.
  22. ^ Srivastava, Kanhaiya L (1980). The position of Hindus under the Delhi Sultanate, 1206–1526. Munshiram Manoharlal. p. 202. ISBN 978-8121502245.
  23. ^ Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian 2003, part II, pp. 22–24
  24. ^ Jackson 2016, pp. 43–44
  25. ^ Historians such as P. B. Desai, Henry Heras, B.A. Saletore, G. S. Gai, William Coelho and Kamath in (Kamath 2001, pp. 157–160)
  26. ^ Karmarkar 1947, p. 30.
  27. ^ Kulke & Rothermund 2004, p. 188.
  28. ^ Rice 2001, p. 345.
  29. ^ Sewell 1901; Nilakanta Sastri 1955; N. Ventakaramanayya; B. Suryanarayana Rao in (Kamath 2001, pp. 157–160).
  30. ^ Kamath 2001, p. 160.
  31. ^ Goodding 2013, p. 87.
  32. ^ a b Kamath 2001, p. 162
  33. ^ Nilakanta Sastri 1955, p. 317
  34. ^ Sen, Sailendra (2013). A Textbook of Medieval Indian History. Primus Books. pp. 103–106. ISBN 978-93-80607-34-4.
  35. ^ Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian 2003, Part II, p. 24
  36. ^ Nilakanta Sastri 1955, p. 242
  37. ^ From the notes of Portuguese Nuniz. Robert Sewell notes that a big dam across was built the Tungabhadra and an aqueduct 15 miles (24 km) long was cut out of rock (Nilakanta Sastri 1955, p. 243).
  38. ^ Eaton 2006, pp. 89–90 with footnote 28.
  39. ^ Also deciphered as Gajaventekara, a metaphor for "great hunter of his enemies", or "hunter of elephants" (Kamath 2001, p. 163).
  40. ^ Nilakanta Sastri 1955, p. 244
  41. ^ From the notes of Persian Abdur Razzak. Writings of Nuniz confirms that the kings of Burma paid tributes to Vijayanagara empire Nilakanta Sastri 1955, p. 245
  42. ^ Kamath 2001, p. 164
  43. ^ Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian 2003, part II, p. 31
  44. ^ Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian 2003, part II, p. 2
  45. ^ Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian 2003, part II, p. 33
  46. ^ Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian 2003, part II, p. 34
  47. ^ Eaton 2006, pp. 86–87.
  48. ^ Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian 2003, part II, pp. 35–36
  49. ^ Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian 2003, part II, p. 36
  50. ^ Nilakanta Sastri 1955, p. 250
  51. ^ Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian 2003, part II, p. 37
  52. ^ Eaton 2006, pp. 87–88.
  53. ^ Nilakanta Sastri 1955, p. 239
  54. ^ Kamath 2001, p. 159
  55. ^ Eaton 2006, pp. 88–89.
  56. ^ The notes of Portuguese Barbosa confirms a very rich and well provided Vijayanagara city. (Kamath 2001, p. 186)
  57. ^ Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian 2003, part II, pp. 37–39
  58. ^ (Dallapiccola 2001, p. 66)
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  60. ^ Eaton 2006, p. 92.
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  146. ^ From the notes of Arab writer Al-Ishtakhri (Nilakanta Sastri 1955, p. 396)
  147. ^ From the notes of Ibn Batuta (Nilakanta Sastri 1955, p. 396)
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  154. ^ Thapar 2003, pp. 393–395
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  156. ^ Talbot 2002, pp. 25–28
  157. ^ Davison-Jenkins 2001, p. 63, 72, 98–99
  158. ^ Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian 2003, Introductory pp. ix–x
  159. ^ Sattar, Sharma & Pokharia 2010, p. 245
  160. ^ Savile 1996, p. 858
  161. ^ Sinopoli & Morrison 2001, pp. 101, 104
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  163. ^ Kamath 2001, pp. 157–158
  164. ^ Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian 2003, Introductory p. ix
  165. ^ Sinopoli 2003, p. 105
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  167. ^ Nagaraj 2003, p. 378
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    Royal patronage was also directed to the support of literature in several languages: Sanskrit (the pan-Indian literary language), Kannada (the language of the Vijayanagara home base in Karnataka), and Telugu (the language of Andhra). Works in all three languages were produced by poets assembled at the courts of the Vijayanagara kings

    The Telugu language became particularly prominent in the ruling circles by the early 16th century, because of the large number of warrior lords who were either from Andhra or had served the kingdom there

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External links edit

 
Wikiquote has quotations related to Vijayanagara Empire.
 
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January 01, 1970
vijayanagara, empire, this, article, about, historical, empire, capital, city, vijayanagara, neighbourhood, bangalore, vijayanagar, bangalore, vijayanagar, redirects, here, other, uses, vijaynagar, ɑː, also, called, karnata, kingdom, medieval, hindu, empire, t. This article is about the historical empire For the capital city see Vijayanagara For the neighbourhood in Bangalore see Vijayanagar Bangalore Vijayanagar redirects here For other uses see Vijaynagar The Vijayanagara Empire v ɪ ˌ dʒ e j e ˈ n ɑː ɡ e r e also called the Karnata Kingdom 4 was a medieval Hindu empire that ruled much of southern India It was established in 1336 by the brothers Harihara I and Bukka Raya I of the Sangama dynasty members of a pastoralist cowherd community that claimed Yadava lineage 5 6 note 1 Vijayanagara Empire1336 1646 1 Greatest extent of the Vijaynagar Empire 15th Century tributaries not shownCapitalVijayanagara 1336 1565 Penukonda 1565 1592 Chandragiri 1592 1604 Vellore 1604 1646 2 Common languagesKannadaTeluguTamilSanskrit 3 ReligionHinduismGovernmentMonarchyEmperor 1336 1356Harihara I first 1509 1529Krishna Deva Raya 1642 1646Sriranga III last History Established18 April 1336 Earliest records1343 Disestablished1646 1 CurrencyVarahaToday part ofIndia The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the southern powers to ward off Turco Persian Muslim invasions by the end of the 13th century At its peak it conquered almost all of Southern India s ruling dynasties and pushed the Turco Persian sultans of the Deccan beyond the Tungabhadra Krishna River doab region in addition to annexing Gajapati Empire Odisha up to the Krishna River thus becoming a notable power 7 It at its height ruled the lands of the modern states of Karnataka Andhra Pradesh Tamil Nadu Kerala Goa and some parts of Telangana Maharashtra and some parts of Sri Lanka The empire lasted until 1646 although its power greatly declined after a major military defeat in the Battle of Talikota in 1565 by the combined armies of the Deccan sultanates The empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara as Hampi was renamed whose extensive ruins are now a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Karnataka The wealth and fame of the empire inspired visits by and writings of medieval European travelers such as Domingo Paes Fernao Nunes and Niccolo de Conti These travelogues contemporary literature and epigraphy in the local languages and modern archeological excavations at Vijayanagara have provided ample information about the history and power of the empire The empire s legacy includes monuments spread over Southern India the best known of which is the group at Hampi Different temple building traditions in South and Central India were merged into the Vijayanagara architecture style This synthesis inspired architectural innovations in the construction of Hindu temples Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies to the region such as water management systems for irrigation The empire s patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada Telugu Tamil and Sanskrit with topics such as astronomy mathematics medicine fiction musicology historiography and theater gaining popularity The classical music of Southern India Carnatic music evolved into its current form The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in the history of Southern India that transcended regionalism by promoting Hinduism as a unifying factor The colonettes of the Gadaladeniya Vihara temple situated in Sri Lanka match Vijayanagara style colonettes Vijayanagara ruins 19th centuryKrishna temple in 1868Rama temple in 1868Vitthala temple in 1880King s balance in 1858 Contents 1 Alternative names 2 History 2 1 Background and origin theories 2 2 Early years 2 3 Empire s peak 2 4 Defeat and decline 3 Governance 4 Economy 5 Culture 5 1 Social life 5 2 Religion 5 3 Epigraphs sources and monetization 5 4 Literature 5 5 Architecture 6 Travellers 7 Family trees and List of rulers 8 Fictional representations 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Sources 13 External linksAlternative names editKarnata Rajya Karnata Kingdom was another name for the Vijayanagara Empire used in some inscriptions 8 and literary works of the Vijayanagara times including the Sanskrit work Jambavati Kalyanam by King Krishnadevaraya and Telugu work Vasu Charitamu 9 According to historians including Vasundhara Kavali Filliozat B A Saletore P B Desai and Ram Sharma although Robert Sewell mentioned in the body of the text that the empire was called Karnataka he chose Vijayanagar in the title because he knew Kannada and Telugu groups would fight if he called it Karnataka As per existing historical records such as inscriptions from the historical ruins of the empire it is referred to as Karnataka Samrajya literally Karnataka Empire 10 11 12 Europeans referred to the Vijayanagara Empire as The Kingdom of Narasinga 13 14 a name derived from Narasimha by the Portuguese 15 It is not clear whether the name was derived from Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya or Narasimha Raya II History editBackground and origin theories edit Main articles Origin of the Vijayanagara Empire and Medieval City of Vijayanagara Before the early 14th century rise of the Vijayanagara Empire the Hindu states of the Deccan the Yadava Empire of Devagiri the Kakatiya dynasty of Warangal and the Pandyan Empire of Madurai were repeatedly raided and attacked by Muslims from the north By 1336 the upper Deccan region modern day Maharashtra and Telangana had been defeated by armies of Sultan Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad bin Tughluq of the Delhi Sultanate 16 17 Further south in the Deccan region Hoysala commander Singeya Nayaka III declared independence after the Muslim forces of the Delhi Sultanate defeated and captured the territories of the Yadava Empire in 1294 CE 18 19 He created the Kampili kingdom near Gulbarga and Tungabhadra River in the northeastern parts of present day Karnataka state 20 The kingdom collapsed after a defeat by the armies of Delhi Sultanate and upon their defeat the populace committed a jauhar ritual mass suicide in c 1327 28 21 22 The Vijayanagara Kingdom was founded in 1336 CE as a successor to the hitherto prosperous Hindu kingdoms of the Hoysalas the Kakatiyas and the Yadavas with the breakaway Kampili Kingdom adding a new dimension to the resistance to the Muslim invasion of South India 19 23 Two theories have been proposed regarding the linguistic origins of the Vijayanagara empire 24 One is that Harihara I and Bukka I the founders of the empire were Kannadigas and commanders in the army of the Hoysala Empire stationed in the Tungabhadra region to ward off Muslim invasions from Northern India 25 26 27 28 Another theory is that Harihara and Bukkaraya were Telugu people first associated with the Kakatiya Kingdom who took control of the northern parts of the Hoysala Empire during its decline They were believed to have been captured by the army of Ulugh Khan at Warangal 29 According to tradition based on a Telugu narrative the founders were supported and inspired by Vidyaranya a saint at the Sringeri monastery to fight the Muslim invasion of South India 16 30 but the role of Vidyaranya in the founding of the Vijayanagara Empire is not certain 31 Early years edit See also Bahmani Vijayanagar War In the first two decades after the founding of the empire Harihara I gained control over most of the area south of the Tungabhadra River and earned the title of master of the eastern and western seas Purvapaschima Samudradhishavara By 1374 Bukka Raya I successor to Harihara I defeated the chiefdom of Arcot the Reddys of Kondavidu and the Sultan of Madurai and had gained control over Goa in the west and the Tungabhadra Krishna River doab in the north 32 33 34 The original capital of the empire was in the principality of Anegondi on the northern banks of the Tungabhadra River in today s Karnataka It was moved to Vijayanagara during Bukka Raya I s reign because it was easier to defend against the Muslim armies who were persistently attacking from the northern lands 35 With the Vijayanagara Kingdom now imperial in stature Harihara II the second son of Bukka Raya I further consolidated the kingdom beyond the Krishna River and South India was controlled by the Vijayanagara Empire 36 The next ruler Deva Raya I was successful against the Gajapatis of Odisha and undertook works of fortification and irrigation 37 Firuz Bahmani of Bahmani Sultanate entered into a treaty with Deva Raya I in 1407 that required the latter to pay Bahmani an annual tribute of 100 000 huns five maunds of pearls and fifty elephants The Sultanate invaded Vijayanagara in 1417 when the latter defaulted in paying the tribute Such wars for tribute payment by Vijayanagara were repeated in the 15th century 38 Deva Raya II eulogized in contemporary literature as Gajabetekara 39 succeeded to the throne in 1424 He was possibly the most successful of the Sangama Dynasty rulers 40 He quelled rebelling feudal lords and the Zamorin of Calicut and Quilon in the south He invaded Sri Lanka and became overlord of the kings of Burma at Pegu and Tanasserim 41 42 By 1436 the rebellious chiefs of Kondavidu and the Velama rulers were successfully dealt with and had to accept Vijayanagara overlordship 43 After a few years of tranquility wars broke out with the Bahamani Sultanate in 1443 with some successes and some reversals The Persian visitor Firishta attributes Deva Raya II s war preparations which included augmenting his armies with Muslim archers and cavalry to be the cause of the conflict Contemporary Persian ambassador Abdur Razzak attributes the war to the Bahamani Sultan capitalizing on the confusion caused by an internal revolt within the Vijayanagara Empire including an attempt to assassinate the Raya by his brother 44 nbsp View of tower and mantapa at Ragunatha temple in Hampi Deva Raya II was succeeded by his elder son Mallikarjuna Raya in 1446 The Gajapati king removed the Vijayanagara control over the Tamil country by occupying the Reddi kingdoms of Rajahmundry Kondaveedu Kanchipuram and Tiruchirapalli These defeats reduced the Vijayanagara Empire s prestige described by an inscription which described the Gajapati king as a yawning lion to the sheep of the Karnatak King 45 Mallikarjuna s successor Virupaksha Raya II led a life of pleasure perusing wine and women leading to the loss of Goa and much of Karnataka to the Bahmani Sultanate His governor Saluva Narasimha reduced the loss of territory by holding almost all of coastal Andhra Pradesh south of the Krishna river Chittoor the two Arcots and Kolar Saluva Narashimha defeated the Gajapatis and held Udayagiri drove out the Pandyas from Tanjore and took procession of Machilipatnam and Kondaveedu He later defeated Bahmani forces and recovered most of the empire s earlier losses 46 nbsp Throne platform or Victory Platform or Mahanavami Dibba or Dussera Dibba This surviving structure is in the Royal Enclosure After the death of Virupaksha Raya II in 1485 Saluva Narasimha led a coup that ended the dynastic rule while continuing to defend the empire from raids by the Sultanates created from the continuing disintegration of the Bahmani Sultanate in its north 47 Saluva Narasimha left his two adolescent sons under the care of general Tuluva Narasa Nayaka who ably defended the kingdom from their traditional enemies the Gajapati king and the Bahamani Sultan He also subdued rebelling chiefs of the Chera the Chola and the Pandya territories Despite many attempts by nobles and members of the royal family to overthrow him Narasa Nayaka retained control as a regent king till 1503 48 In 1503 Narasa Nayaka s son Vira Narasimha had prince Immadi Narasimha of the Saluva dynasty assassinated and took over the rule in a coup thus becoming the first of the Tuluva dynasty rulers This did not go well with the nobles who revolted Seeing internal troubles grow the Gajapati king and the Bahamani Sultan began to encroach on the empire even as the governors of Ummattur Adoni and Talakad colluded to capture the Tungabhadra Krishna river doab region from the empire 49 The empire came under the rule of Krishna Deva Raya in 1509 another son of Tuluva Narasa Nayaka 50 Initially Krishnadevaraya faced a many obstacles including dissatisfied nobles the rebellious chief of Ummattur in the south a resurgent Gajapati kingdom under King Prataparudra a growing threat from the newly formed Adil Shahi Sultanate of Bijapur under Yusuf Adil Khan and Portuguese interest in controlling the west coast 51 Not one to be unnerved by these pressures he strengthened and consolidated the empire one victory at a time He was an astute king who hired both Hindus and Muslims into his army 52 In the following decades the empire covered Southern India and successfully defeated invasions from the five established Deccan Sultanates to its north 53 54 Empire s peak edit See also Battle of Raichur and Battle of Pangal nbsp nbsp The Garuda stone chariot and Vitthala temple gopuram in 1856 left and 2016 The empire reached its peak during the rule of Krishna Deva Raya circa 1509 to 1529 when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious 55 The empire gained territory formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan such as Raichur and Gulbarga from the Bahamani Sultanate territories in the eastern Deccan from wars with Sultan Quli Qutb Shahi of Golkonda and Kalinga region from the Gajapatis of Odisha This was in addition to the already established presence in the southern Deccan 56 57 Many important monuments were either completed or commissioned during the time of King Krishnadevaraya 58 Krishna Deva Raya was succeeded by his younger half brother Achyuta Deva Raya in 1529 When Achyuta Deva Raya died in 1542 Sadashiva Raya the teenage nephew of Achyuta Raya was appointed king and Rama Raya Krishna Deva Raya s son in law becoming the caretaker 59 When Sadashiva Raya was old enough to assert his independent claim over the throne Rama Raya made him a virtual prisoner and became the de facto ruler 60 He hired Muslim generals in his army from his previous diplomatic connections with the Sultanates and called himself Sultan of the World 61 This included both Deccani Muslims recruited from anywhere in the Deccan or Westerners from beyond the Persian Gulf 62 He was keenly interfering in the internal affairs of the various Sultanates and on playing off the Muslim powers against one another while making himself the ruler of the most powerful and influential regional power This worked for a while but eventually made him very unpopular among his people and the Muslim rulers 63 He made a commercial treaty with the Portuguese to stop the supply of horses to Bijapur then defeated the Bijapur ruler and inflicted humiliating defeats on Golconda and Ahmednagar 64 Defeat and decline edit Main article Deccan Sultanates Vijayanagar Empire Wars nbsp Panorama of the Battle of Talikota 1565 In the right panel Husain Shah riding a horse orders the decapitation of Rama Raya reigned 1542 65 the defeated ruler of Vijaianagara Ta rif i Husain Shahi Chronicle of Husain Shah Eventually the Deccan sultanates to the north of Vijayanagara united and attacked Rama Raya s army in January 1565 in the Battle of Talikota 65 Regarding the Vijayanagara defeat in battle Kamath opines that the Sultanate armies though numerically disadvantaged were better equipped and trained Their artillery was manned by expert Turkish gunmen while the Vijayanagara army depended on European mercenaries using outdated artillery The Sultanate cavalry rode fast moving Persian horses and used spears that were fifteen to sixteen feet long giving them a greater reach and their archers used metal crossbows which enabled them to reach longer distances In comparison the Vijayanagara army depended on slow moving war elephants a cavalry riding mostly locally bred weaker horses wielding shorter reach javelins and their archers used traditional bamboo bows with a shorter range Richard Eaton argues that Vijayanagara s inferiority was due to Krishna Raya s failure to invest in military technology in the years since Raichur because his victory against a technologically superior army led him to underestimate technology s value 66 Despite these disadvantages Kamath Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund concur that the vast Vijayanagara army appeared to have the upper hand until two Muslim generals identified as the mercenary Gilani brothers according to Kamath switched sides and joined forces with the Sultanates turning the tide decisively in favor of the Sultanates The generals captured Rama Raya and beheaded him and Sultan Hussain had the severed head stuffed with straw for display 67 68 69 Rama Raya s beheading created confusion and havoc in the Vijayanagara army which were then completely routed The Sultanates army plundered Hampi and reduced it to the ruinous state in which it remains today 70 After Rama Raya s death Tirumala Deva Raya started the Aravidu dynasty founded a new capital of Penukonda to replace the destroyed Hampi and attempted to reconstitute the remains of Vijayanagara Empire 71 Tirumala abdicated in 1572 dividing the remains of his kingdom to his three sons The Aravidu dynasty successors ruled the region but the empire collapsed in 1614 and the final remains ended in 1646 from continued wars with the Bijapur sultanate and others 72 73 74 During this period more kingdoms in South India became independent and separate from Vijayanagara including the Nayakas of Chitradurga Keladi Nayaka Mysore Kingdom Nayak Kingdom of Gingee Nayaks of Tanjore and Nayaks of Madurai 75 Governance edit nbsp Tourists on top of Mahanavami Platform in Royal Enclosure nbsp Corridor at Temple from Vijayanagara capital Hampi nbsp Kannada inscription of King Krishnadeva Raya dated 1509 at the Virupaksha temple in Hampi describing his coronation and the construction of the large open mantapa The rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire maintained the administrative methods developed by their predecessors the Hoysala Kakatiya and Pandya kingdoms 76 The King ministry territory fort treasury military and ally formed the seven critical elements that influenced every aspect of governance 77 The King was the ultimate authority assisted by a cabinet of ministers Pradhana headed by the prime minister Mahapradhana Other important titles recorded were the chief secretary Karyakartha or Rayaswami and the imperial officers Adhikari All high ranking ministers and officers were required to have military training 78 A secretariat near the king s palace employed scribes and officers to maintain records made official by using a wax seal imprinted with the ring of the king 79 At the lower administrative levels wealthy feudal landlords Gowdas supervised accountants Karanikas or Karnam and guards Kavalu The palace administration was divided into 72 departments Niyogas each having several female attendants chosen for their youth and beauty some imported or captured in victorious battles who were trained to handle minor administrative matters and to serve men of nobility as courtesans or concubines 80 The empire was divided into five main provinces Rajya each under a commander Dandanayaka or Dandanatha and headed by a governor often from the royal family who used the native language for administrative purposes 81 A Rajya was divided into regions Vishaya Vente or Kottam and further divided into counties Sime or Nadu themselves subdivided into municipalities Kampana or Sthala Hereditary families ruled their respective territories and paid tribute to the empire while some areas such as Keladi and Madurai came under the direct supervision of a commander 82 On the battlefield the king s commanders led the troops The empire s war strategy rarely involved massive invasions more often it employed small scale methods such as attacking and destroying individual forts The empire was among the first in India to use long range artillery which were commonly manned by foreign gunners 83 Army troops were of two types the king s personal army directly recruited by the empire and the feudal army under each feudatory King Krishnadevaraya s personal army consisted of 100 000 infantry 20 000 cavalrymen and over 900 elephants The whole army was claimed to number over 1 1 million soldiers with up to 2 million having been recorded along with a navy led by a Navigadaprabhu commander of the navy 84 The army recruited from all classes of society supported by the collection of additional feudal tributes from feudatory rulers and consisted of archers and musketeers wearing quilted tunics shieldmen with swords and poignards in their girdles and soldiers carrying shields so large that armour was not necessary The horses and elephants were fully armoured and the elephants had knives fastened to their tusks to do maximum damage in battle 85 The capital city was dependent on water supply systems constructed to channel and store water ensuring a consistent supply throughout the year The remains of these hydraulic systems have given historians a picture of the prevailing surface water distribution methods in use at that time in the semiarid regions of South India 86 Contemporary records and notes of foreign travellers describe huge tanks constructed by labourers 87 Excavations uncovered the remains of a well connected water distribution system existing solely within the royal enclosure and the large temple complexes suggesting it was for the exclusive use of royalty and for special ceremonies with sophisticated channels using gravity and siphons to transport water through pipelines 88 In the fertile agricultural areas near the Tungabhadra River canals were dug to guide the river water into irrigation tanks These canals had sluices that were opened and closed to control the water flow In other areas the administration encouraged digging wells which were monitored by administrative authorities Large tanks in the capital city were constructed with royal patronage while smaller tanks were funded by wealthy individuals to gain social and religious merit 89 Economy editThe economy of the empire was largely dependent on agriculture Wheat Sorghum jowar cotton and pulse legumes grew in semi arid regions while sugarcane and rice thrived in rainy areas Betel leaves areca for chewing and coconut were the principal cash crops and large scale cotton production supplied the weaving centers of the empire s vibrant textile industry Spices such as turmeric pepper cardamom and ginger grew in the remote Malnad hill region and were transported to the city for trade The empire s capital city was a thriving business centre that included a burgeoning market in large quantities of precious gems and gold Prolific temple building provided employment to thousands of masons sculptors and other skilled artisans 90 According to Abdur Razzak much of the empire was fertile and well cultivated 91 Most of the growers were tenant farmers and were given the right of part ownership of the land over time Tax policies encouraging needed produce made distinctions between land use to determine tax levies For example the daily market availability of rose petals was important for perfumers so cultivation of roses received a lower tax assessment 92 Salt production and the manufacture of salt pans were controlled by similar means The making of ghee clarified butter which was sold as an oil for human consumption and as a fuel for lighting lamps was profitable 93 Exports to China intensified and included cotton spices jewels semi precious stones ivory rhino horn ebony amber coral and aromatic products such as perfumes Large vessels from China made frequent visits and brought Chinese products to the empire s 300 ports large and small on the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal The ports of Mangalore Honavar Bhatkal Barkur Cochin Cannanore Machilipatnam and Dharmadam were important for they not only provided secure harbors for traders from Africa Arabia Aden the Red sea China and Bengal but some also served as ship building centers 91 When merchant ships docked the merchandise was taken into official custody and taxes levied on all items sold The security of the merchandise was guaranteed by the administration officials Traders of many nationalities Arabs Persians Guzerates Khorassanians settled in Calicut drawn by the thriving trade business 91 Ship building prospered and keeled ships between 1000 and 1200 bahares burden were built without decks by sewing the entire hull with ropes rather than fastening them with nails Ships sailed to the Red Sea ports of Aden and Mecca with Vijayanagara goods sold as far away as Venice The empire s principal exports were pepper ginger cinnamon cardamom myrobalan tamarind timber anafistula precious and semi precious stones pearls musk ambergris rhubarb aloe cotton cloth and porcelain 91 Cotton yarn was shipped to Burma and indigo to Persia Chief imports from Palestine were copper quicksilver mercury vermilion coral saffron coloured velvets rose water knives colored camlets gold and silver Persian horses were imported to Cannanore before a two week land trip to the capital Silk arrived from China and sugar from Bengal 94 nbsp Raised water channel or aqueduct for city nbsp Gajashaala or elephant s stable built by the Vijayanagara rulers for their war elephants East coast trade routes were busy with goods arriving from Golkonda where rice millet pulses and tobacco were grown on a large scale Dye crops of indigo and chay root were produced for the weaving industry A mineral rich region Machilipatnam was the gateway for high quality iron and steel exports Diamond mining was active in the Kollur region 95 The cotton weaving industry produced two types of cottons plain calico and muslin brown bleached or dyed Cloth printed with coloured patterns crafted by native techniques were exported to Java and the Far East Golkonda specialised in plain cotton and Pulicat in printed The main imports on the east coast were non ferrous metals camphor porcelain silk and luxury goods 96 Mahanavami festival marked the beginning of a financial year from when the state treasury accounted for and reconciled all outstanding dues within nine days At this time an updated annual assessment record of provincial dues which included rents and taxes paid on a monthly basis by each governor was created under royal decree 77 Temples were taxed for land ownership to cover military expenses In the Telugu districts the temple tax was called Srotriyas in the Tamil speaking districts it was called as Jodi Taxes such as Durgavarthana Dannayivarthana and Kavali Kanike were collected towards protection of movable and immovable wealth from robbery and invasions Jeevadhanam was collected for cattle graze on non private lands Popular temple destinations charged visitor fees called Perayam or Kanike Residential property taxes were called Illari 97 Culture editSocial life edit nbsp Horizontal friezes in relief on the outer wall enclosure of Hazara Rama temple depicting life in the empire Further information Society of Vijayanagara empire The Hindu social order was prevalent and it influenced daily life in the empire The rulers who occupied the top of this hierarchy assumed the honorific Varnasramadharma lit helpers of the four classes and four stages According to Talbot caste was more importantly determined by occupation or the professional community people belonged to although the family lineage Gotra and the broad distinction described in sacred Hindu texts were also factors The structure also contained sub castes and caste clusters Jati 98 According to Vanina caste as a social identity was not fixed and was constantly changed for reasons including polity trade and commerce and was usually determined by context Identification of castes and sub castes was made based on temple affiliations lineage family units royal retinues warrior clans occupational groups agricultural and trade groups devotional networks and even priestly cabals It was also not impossible for a caste to lose its position and prestige and slip down the ladder while others rose up the same 99 Epigraphy studies by Talbot suggests that members within a family could have different social status based on their occupation and the upward movement of a caste or sub caste was not uncommon based on the breakthroughs achieved by an individual or a group of individuals from the community 100 Caste affiliation was closely tied to craft production and members of a common craft formed collective memberships Often members of related crafts formed inter caste communities This helped them consolidate strength and gain political representation and trade benefits 101 According to Talbot terminology such as Setti was used to identify communities across merchant and artisan classes while Boya identified herders of all types 102 Artisans consisted of blacksmiths goldsmiths brasssmiths and carpenters These communities lived in separate sections of the city to avoid disputes especially when it came to social privileges Conquests led to large scale migration of people leading to marginalisation of natives of a place The Tottiyans were shepherds who later gained marginal ruling status poligars Saurashtrans were traders who came from present day Gujarat and rivalled the Brahmins for some benefits the Reddys were agriculturists and the Uppilia were salt farmers 103 According to Chopra et al in addition to their monopoly over priestly duties Brahmins occupied high positions in political and administrative fields The Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes observed an increasing presence of Brahmins in the military 104 The separation of the priestly class from material wealth and power made them ideal arbiters in local judicial matters and the nobility and aristocracy ensured their presence in every town and village to maintain order 105 Vanina notes that within the warrior class was a conglomerate of castes kinship and clans that usually originated from landholding and pastoral communities They ascended the social ladder by abandoning their original occupations and adopting to a martial code of living ethics and practices In South India they were loosely called the Nayakas 106 nbsp Naga snake worship in Hampi Sati practice is evidenced in Vijayanagara ruins by several inscriptions known as Satikal Sati stone or Sati virakal Sati hero stone 107 There are controversial views among historians regarding this practice including religious compulsion marital affection martyrdom or honor against subjugation by foreign intruders 108 109 110 The socio religious movements that gained popularity in the previous centuries such as Lingayatism provided momentum for flexible social norms that helped the cause of women By this time South Indian women had crossed most barriers and were actively involved in fields hitherto considered the monopoly of men such as administration business trade and the fine arts 111 Tirumalamba Devi who wrote Varadambika Parinayam and Gangadevi the author of Madhuravijayam were among the notable women poets of the Sanskrit language 32 Early Telugu women poets such as Tallapaka Timmakka and Atukuri Molla became popular Further south the provincial Nayaks of Tanjore patronised several women poets The Devadasi system as well as legalized prostitution existed and members of this community were relegated to a few streets in each city The popularity of harems among men of the royalty and the existence of seraglio is well known from records 112 Well to do men wore the Petha or Kulavi a tall turban made of silk and decorated with gold As in most Indian societies jewellery was used by men and women and records describe the use of anklets bracelets finger rings necklaces and ear rings of various types During celebrations men and women adorned themselves with flower garlands and used perfumes made of rose water civet musk musk or sandalwood 112 In stark contrast to the commoners whose lives were modest the lives of royalty were full of ceremonial pomp Queens and princesses had numerous attendants who were lavishly dressed and adorned with fine jewellery Their numbers ensured their daily duties were light 113 nbsp Painted ceiling from the Virupaksha temple depicting Hindu mythology 14th century Physical exercises were popular with men and wrestling was an important male preoccupation for sport and entertainment and women wrestlers are also mentioned in records 114 Gymnasiums have been discovered inside royal quarters and records mention regular physical training for commanders and their armies during peacetime 115 Royal palaces and marketplaces had special arenas where royalty and common people amused themselves by watching sports such as cock fight ram fight and female wrestling 115 Excavations within the Vijayanagara city limits have revealed the existence of various community based gaming activities Engravings on boulders rock platforms and temple floors indicate these were popular locations of casual social interaction Some of these are gaming boards similar to the ones in use today and others are yet to be identified 116 Dowry was in practice and can be seen in both Hindu and Muslim royal families When a sister of Sultan Adil Shah of Bijapur was married to Nizam Shah of Ahmednagar the town of Sholapur was given to the bride by her family 117 Ayyangar notes that when the Gajapati King of Kalinga gave his daughter in marriage honoring the victorious King Krishnadevaraya he included several villages as dowry 118 Inscriptions of the 15th and 16th centuries record the practice of dowry among commoners as well The practice of putting a price on the bride was a possible influence of the Islamic Mahr system 119 To oppose this influence in the year 1553 the Brahmin community passed a mandate under royal decree and popularized the kanyadana within the community According to this practice money could not be paid or received during marriage and those who did were liable for punishment There is a mention of Streedhana woman s wealth in an inscription and that the villagers should not give away land as dowry These inscriptions reinforce the theory that a system of social mandates within community groups existed and were widely practiced even though these practices did not find justification in the family laws described in the religious texts 120 Religion edit Main article Haridasa nbsp Virupaksha Temple Hampi The Vijayanagara kings were tolerant of all religions and sects as writings by foreign visitors show 121 The kings used titles such as Gobrahamana Pratipalanacharya literally protector of cows and Brahmins that testified to their intention of protecting Hinduism The Nagari script inscription at Hampi includes the term Hinduraya Suratrana which Benjamin Lewis Rice translates as the Suratrana of Hindu Rayas Some scholars have interpreted this to mean the Sultan among Hindu kings and state this to be an evidence of some Islamic political traditions being adopted by Hindu kings 122 123 note 2 as well as that Indian kingdoms recognized their religious identity of being Hindu and of Hinduism by early 14th century 128 Majority Others interpret the term Hinduraya Suratrana to mean protectors of the gods of or among the Hindu kings 123 129 130 Empire s founders the Sangama brothers Harihara I and Bukka Raya I came from a pastoral cowherd background possibly the Kuruba people that claimed Yadava lineage 5 6 note 1 The founders of the empire were devout Shaivas worshippers of the Hindu god Shiva but made grants to Vishnu temples Their patron saint Vidyaranya was from the Advaita order at Sringeri The Varaha the boar avatar of Vishnu was the emblem of the empire 131 Over one fourth of the archaeological dig found an Islamic Quarter not far from the Royal Quarter Nobles from Central Asia s Timurid kingdoms also came to Vijayanagara The later Saluva and Tuluva kings were Vaishnava followers of Vishnu by faith but also worshipped Venkateshwara Vishnu at Tirupati as well as Virupaksha Shiva at Hampi A Sanskrit work Jambavati Kalyanam by King Krishnadevaraya refers to Virupaksha as Karnata Rajya Raksha Mani protective jewel of Karnata Empire 132 The kings patronised the saints of the dvaita order philosophy of dualism of Madhvacharya at Udupi 133 Endowments were made to temples in the form of land cash produce jewellery and constructions 134 The Bhakti devotional movement was active during this time and involved well known Haridasas devotee saints of that time Like the Virashaiva movement of the 12th century this movement presented another strong current of devotion pervading the lives of millions The Haridasas represented two groups the Vyasakuta and Dasakuta the former being required to be proficient in the Vedas Upanishads and other Darshanas while the Dasakuta merely conveyed the message of Madhvacharya through the Kannada language to the people in the form of devotional songs Devaranamas and Kirthanas The philosophy of Madhvacharya was spread by eminent disciples such as Naraharitirtha Jayatirtha Sripadaraya Vyasatirtha Vadirajatirtha and others 135 Vyasatirtha the guru teacher of Vadirajatirtha Purandaradasa Pitamaha or Father of Carnatic music 136 137 and Kanakadasa 138 earned the devotion of King Krishnadevaraya 139 140 141 The king considered the saint his Kuladevata family deity and honoured him in his writings 142 During this time another great composer of early carnatic music Annamacharya composed hundreds of Kirthanas in Telugu at Tirupati in present day Andhra Pradesh 143 nbsp Ugra Narasimha monolith at Hampi The defeat of the Jain Western Ganga Dynasty by the Cholas in the early 11th century and the rising numbers of followers of Vaishnava Hinduism and Virashaivism in the 12th century was mirrored by a decreased interest in Jainism 144 Two notable locations of Jain worship in the Vijayanagara territory were Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli 145 Islamic contact with South India began as early as the seventh century a result of trade between the Southern kingdoms and Arab lands Jumma Masjids existed in the Rashtrakuta empire by the tenth century 146 and many mosques flourished on the Malabar coast by the early 14th century 147 Muslim settlers married local women their children were known as Mappillas Moplahs and were actively involved in horse trading and manning shipping fleets The interactions between the Vijayanagara empire and the Bahamani Sultanates to the north increased the presence of Muslims in the south In the early 15th century Deva Raya built a mosque for the Muslims in Vijayanagara and placed a Quran before his throne 148 The introduction of Christianity began as early as the eighth century as shown by the finding of copper plates inscribed with land grants to Malabar Christians Christian travelers wrote of the scarcity of Christians in South India in the Middle Ages promoting its attractiveness to missionaries 149 The arrival of the Portuguese in the 15th century and their connections through trade with the empire the propagation of the faith by Saint Xavier 1545 and later the presence of Dutch settlements fostered the growth of Christianity in the south 150 Epigraphs sources and monetization edit nbsp Ornate pillars Virupaksha temple Hampi nbsp Wall panel relief in Hazare Rama Temple at Hampi Stone inscriptions were the most common form of documents used on temple walls boundary of properties and open places for public display Another form of documentation was on copper plates that were meant for record keeping Usually verbose inscriptions included information such as a salutation a panegyric of the king or local ruler the name of the donor nature of the endowment generally either cash or produce the manner in which the grant would be used obligations of the donee share received by the donor and a concluding statement that officiated the entire donation and its obligations Some inscriptions record an instance of victory in war or religious festival and retribution or a curse on those who do not honor the grant 151 Most Vijayanagara empire inscriptions recovered so far are in Kannada Telugu and Tamil and a few in Sanskrit 152 According to Suryanath U Kamath about 7000 stone inscriptions half of which are in Kannada and about 300 copper plates which are mostly in Sanskrit have been recovered 153 Bilingual inscriptions had lost favor by the 14th century 154 According to Mack the majority of the inscriptions recovered are from the rule of the Tuluva dynasty from 1503 to 1565 with the Saluva dynasty from 1485 to 1503 inscribing the least in its brief control over the empire The Sangama dynasty from 1336 to 1485 which ruled the longest produced about one third of all epigraphs inscribed during the Tuluva period 155 Despite the popularity of Telugu language as a literary medium the majority of the epigraphs in the language were inscribed in the limited period from 1500 to 1649 Talbot explains this scenario as one of shifting political solidarity The Vijayanagara empire was originally founded in Karnataka with Andhra Pradesh serving as a province of the empire After its defeat to the Sultanates in 1565 and the sacking of the royal capital Vijayanagara the diminished empire moved its capital to Southern Andhra Pradesh creating an enterprise dominated by Telugu language 156 In addition to epigraphs and coins the sources of Vijayanagara history its origin social and political life and eventual defeat are the accounts of foreign travelers and contemporary literary sources in Sanskrit Kannada Persian and Telugu The Portuguese visitors to the empire were Domingo Paes 1522 Fernao Nunes 1537 157 Duarte Barbosa 1516 and Barradas 1616 and Athanasius Nikitin 1470 came from Russia 158 Niccolo de Conti 1420 159 Ludovico di Varthema 1505 Caesar Fredericci 1567 and Filippo Sassetti 1585 160 94 were travelers from Italy and Abdur Razzak 1443 161 visited from Persia Contemporary Muslim writers who were either under the patronage of rival kingdoms the Sultanates or were visitors to Vijayanagara and accomplished valuable works are Ziauddin Barani Tarikh i Firuz Shahi 1357 Isamy Fatuhat us salatin Syed Ali Tabatabai Burhan i Maisar 1596 Nisammuddin Bakshi Firishta Tarik i Firishta and Rafiuddin Shirazi Tazkirat ul Mulk 1611 162 Among writings by native authors the important Sanskrit works that shed light on the empire are Vidyaranya Kalajnana Dindima s Ramabhyudayam on the life of King Saluva Narasimha Dindima II s Achyutabhyudayam and Tirumalamba s Varadambika Parinayam Among Kannada literary works Kumara Ramana Kathe by Nanjunda Kavi Mohanatarangini by Kanakadasa Keladiripavijayam by Linganna and the recently discovered Krishnadevarayana Dinachari are useful sources and among Telugu works Srinatha s Kashikanda Mallayya and Singayya s Varahapuranamu Vishvanatha Nayani s Rayavachakamu Nandi Timmanna s Parijathapaharanamu Durjati s Krishnaraja Vijayamu Peddanna s Manucharitamu and King Krishnadevaraya s Amuktamalyada are important sources of information 163 164 The Persian visitor Abdur Razzak wrote in his travelogues that the empire enjoyed a high level of monetization This is especially evident from the number of temple cash grants that were made Coins were minted using gold silver copper and brass and their value depended on material weight Coins were minted by the state in the provinces and by merchant guilds Foreign currency was in circulation The highest denomination was the gold Varaha or Hun Honnu Gadyana weighted 50 65 53 grains The Partab or Pratapa was valued at half a Varaha the Fanam Phanam or Hana an alloy of gold and copper was the most common currency valued at a third of the Varaha A Tar made of pure silver was a sixth of a Phanam and a Chital made of brass was a third of the Tar Haga Visa and Kasu were also coins of lower denominations 165 166 Literature edit Main articles Vijayanagara literature and Vijayanagara literature in Kannada During the rule of the Vijayanagara Empire poets scholars and philosophers wrote primarily in Kannada Telugu and Sanskrit and also in other regional languages such as Tamil and covered such subjects as religion biography Prabandha fiction music grammar poetry medicine and mathematics The administrative and court languages of the Empire were Kannada and Telugu the latter gained even more cultural and literary prominence during the reign of the last Vijayanagara kings especially Krishnadevaraya 167 168 Most Sanskrit works were commentaries either on the Vedas or on the Ramayana and Mahabharata epics written by well known figures such as Sayanacharya who wrote a treatise on the Vedas called Vedartha Prakasha whose English translation by Max Muller appeared in 1856 and Vidyaranya that extolled the superiority of the Advaita philosophy over other rival Hindu philosophies 169 Other writers were famous Dvaita saints of the Udupi order such as Jayatirtha earning the title Tikacharya for his polemical writings Vyasatirtha who wrote rebuttals to the Advaita philosophy and of the conclusions of earlier logicians and Vadirajatirtha and Sripadaraya both of whom criticized the beliefs of Adi Sankara 141 Apart from these saints noted Sanskrit scholars adorned the courts of the Vijayanagara kings and their feudal chiefs Some members of the royal family were writers of merit and authored important works such as Jambavati Kalyana by King Krishnadevaraya 9 and Madura Vijayam also known as Veerakamparaya Charita by Princess Gangadevi a daughter in law of King Bukka I dwells on the conquest of the Madurai Sultanate by the Vijayanagara empire 170 nbsp Poetic inscription in Kannada by Vijayanagara poet Manjaraja c 1398 The Kannada poets and scholars of the empire produced important writings supporting the Vaishnava Bhakti movement heralded by the Haridasas devotees of Vishnu Brahminical and Veerashaiva Lingayatism literature The Haridasa poets celebrated their devotion through songs called Devaranama lyrical poems in the native meters of Sangatya quatrain Suladi beat based Ugabhoga melody based and Mundige cryptic 171 Their inspirations were the teachings of Madhvacharya and Vyasatirtha Purandaradasa and Kanakadasa are considered the foremost among many Dasas devotees by virtue of their immense contribution 172 Kumara Vyasa the most notable of Brahmin scholars wrote Gadugina Bharata a translation of the epic Mahabharata This work marks a transition of Kannada literature from old Kannada to modern Kannada 173 Chamarasa was a famous Veerashaiva scholar and poet who had many debates with Vaishnava scholars in the court of Devaraya II His Prabhulinga Leele later translated into Telugu and Tamil was a eulogy of Saint Allama Prabhu the saint was considered an incarnation of Lord Ganapathi while Parvati took the form of a princess of Banavasi 174 175 At this peak of Telugu literature the most famous writing in the Prabandha style was Manucharitamu King Krishnadevaraya was an accomplished Telugu scholar and wrote the Amuktamalyada 176 a story of the wedding of the god Vishnu to Andal the Tamil Alvar saint poet and the daughter of Periyalvar at Srirangam 177 178 179 In his court were eight famous scholars regarded as the pillars Ashtadiggajas of the literary assembly The most famous among them were Allasani Peddana who held the honorific Andhrakavitapitamaha lit father of Telugu poetry and Tenali Ramakrishna the court jester who authored several notable works 180 The other six poets were Nandi Thimmana Mukku Timmana Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra Madayyagari Mallana Bhattu Murthi Ramaraja Bhushana Pingali Surana and Dhurjati Srinatha who wrote books such as Marutratcharitamu and Salivahana sapta sati was patronised by King Devaraya II and enjoyed the same status as important ministers in the court 181 Most Tamil literature from this period came from Tamil speaking regions which were ruled by the feudatory Pandya who gave particular attention to the cultivation of Tamil literature Some poets were also patronised by the Vijayanagara kings Svarupananda Desikar wrote an anthology of 2824 verses Sivaprakasap perundirattu on the Advaita philosophy His pupil the ascetic Tattuvarayar wrote a shorter anthology Kurundirattu that contained about half the number of verses Krishnadevaraya patronised the Tamil Vaishnava poet Haridasa whose Irusamaya Vilakkam was an exposition of the two Hindu systems Vaishnava and Shaiva with a preference for the former 182 Notable among secular writings on music and medicine were Vidyaranya s Sangitsara Praudha Raya s Ratiratnapradipika Sayana s Ayurveda Sudhanidhi and Lakshmana Pandita s Vaidyarajavallabham 183 The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics flourished during this period with scholars such as Madhava who made important contributions to trigonometry and calculus and Nilakantha Somayaji who postulated on the orbitals of planets 184 Architecture edit Main article Vijayanagara architecture See also Vijayanagara Hampi and List of Vijayanagara era temples in Karnataka nbsp Temple car at the Vittala temple in Hampi Vijayanagara architecture according to art critic Percy Brown is a vibrant combination and blossoming of the Chalukya Hoysala Pandya and Chola styles idioms that prospered in previous centuries 185 Its legacy of sculpture architecture and painting influenced the development of the arts long after the empire came to an end Its stylistic hallmark is the ornate pillared Kalyanamantapa marriage hall Vasanthamantapa open pillared halls and the Rayagopura tower Artisans used the locally available hard granite because of its durability since the kingdom was under constant threat of invasion An open air theatre of monuments at its capital at Vijayanagara is a UNESCO World Heritage Site 186 In the 14th century the kings continued to build vesara or Deccan style monuments but later incorporated Dravida style gopuras to meet their ritualistic needs The Prasanna Virupaksha temple underground temple of Bukka and the Hazare Rama temple of Deva Raya are examples of Deccan architecture 187 The varied and intricate ornamentation of the pillars is a mark of their work 188 At Hampi the Vitthala and Hazara Ramaswamy temples are examples of their pillared Kalyanamantapa style 189 A visible aspect of their style is their return to the simplistic and serene art developed by the Chalukya dynasty 190 The Vitthala temple took several decades to complete during the reign of the Tuluva kings 187 nbsp Aerial view of the Meenakshi Temple Madurai The temple was rebuilt by the Nayaks rulers under the Vijayanagara Empire Another element of the Vijayanagara style is the carving and consecration of large monoliths such as the Sasivekaalu mustard Ganesha and Kadalekaalu ground nut Ganesha at Hampi the Gommateshwara Bahubali monoliths in Karkala and Venur and the Nandi bull in Lepakshi The Vijayanagara temples of Kolar Kanakagiri Sringeri and other towns of Karnataka the temples of Tadpatri Lepakshi Ahobilam Tirumala Venkateswara Temple and Srikalahasti in Andhra Pradesh and the temples of Vellore Kumbakonam Kanchi and Srirangam in Tamil Nadu are examples of this style Vijayanagara art includes wall paintings such as the Dashavatara and Girijakalyana marriage of Parvati Shiva s consort in the Virupaksha Temple at Hampi the Shivapurana murals tales of Shiva at the Virabhadra temple at Lepakshi and those at the Kamaakshi and Varadaraja temples at Kanchi This mingling of the South Indian styles resulted in a new idiom of art not seen in earlier centuries a focus on reliefs in addition to sculpture differing from that previously in India 190 An aspect of Vijayanagara architecture that shows the cosmopolitanism of the great city is the presence of many secular structures bearing Islamic features While political history concentrates on the ongoing conflict between the Vijayanagara empire and the Deccan Sultanates the architectural record reflects a more creative interaction There are many arches domes and vaults that show these influences The concentration of structures like pavilions stables and towers suggests they were for use by royalty 191 The decorative details of these structures may have been absorbed into Vijayanagara architecture during the early 15th century coinciding with the rule of Deva Raya I and Deva Raya II These kings are known to have employed many Muslims in their army and court some of whom may have been Muslim architects This harmonious exchange of architectural ideas must have happened during rare periods of peace between the Hindu and Muslim kingdoms 192 The Great Platform Mahanavami Dibba has relief carvings in which the figures seem to have the facial features of central Asian Turks who were known to have been employed as royal attendants 193 Travellers edit nbsp 1500MOGHULISTANPHAGMODRUPASCHAM PASIBIR KHANATECRIMEANKHANATELITHUANIAGRAND DUCHYKHAZANKHANATEASTRA KHANMUSCOVYNOGAISKAZAKH KHANATEMINGDYNASTYFOUROIRATSNORTHERN YUANWHITE SHEEPTURKSVIJAYA NAGARASHAYBA NIDSTIMURIDEMPIREDELHISULTANATETungusAVALANXANGOTTOMANEMPIREMAMLUKSULTANATEJO SEONMALACCA class notpageimage The Vijayanagara Empire and contemporary polities c 1500 nbsp Sultan of Delhi top flag nbsp and King of Vijayanagara bottom with Christian flag nbsp named as King of Colombo after the city of Kollam His caption reads Here rules the king of Colombo a Christian He was mistakenly identified as Christian because of the Christian mission established in Kollam by Jordanus since 1329 194 195 Detail of the Catalan Atlas of 1375 196 In the memoirs of Niccolo de Conti an Italian merchant and traveller who visited Hampi about 1420 the city had an estimated circumference of 60 miles 97 km and it enclosed agriculture and settlements in its fortifications In 1442 Abdul Razzaq who visited from Persia described it as a city with seven layers of forts with outer layers for agriculture crafts and residence the inner third to seventh layers very crowded with shops and bazaars markets 197 In 1520 Domingo Paes a Portuguese traveller visited Vijayanagara as a part of trade contingent from Portuguese Goa He wrote his memoir as Chronica dos reis de Bisnaga in which he stated Vijayanagara was as large as Rome and very beautiful to the sight the best provided city in the world 198 199 According to Paes there are many groves within it in the gardens of the houses many conduits of water which flow into the midst of it and in places there are lakes 199 Cesare Federici an Italian merchant and traveller visited a few decades after the 1565 defeat and collapse of the Vijayanagara Empire According to Sinopoli Johansen and Morrison Federici described it as a very different city He wrote the citie of Bezeneger Hampi Vijayanagara is not altogether destroyed yet the houses stand still but emptie and there is dwelling in them nothing as is reported but Tygres and other wild beasts 200 The historian Will Durant in his Our Oriental Heritage The Story of Civilization recites the story of Vijayanagara and calls its conquest and destruction a discouraging tale He writes its evident moral is that civilization is a precarious thing whose delicate complex of order and liberty culture and peace may at any time be overthrown by war and ferocious violence 201 note 3 Family trees and List of rulers editMain article List of Vijayanagara emperorsFictional representations editVijayanagara is a key inspiration for the fictional city and empire of Bisnaga in Salman Rushdie s novel Victory City 204 See also edit nbsp India portal nbsp History portal Vijayanagara Hampi Vidyaranya Krishnadevaraya Ashtadiggajas Amuktamalyada Gajapati Empire Bahmani Sultanate History of India History of South India Deccan Sultanates Vijayanagar Empire Wars Political history of medieval Karnataka Vijayanagara dynasties Sangama dynasty Saluva dynasty Tuluva dynasty Aravidu dynasty Related to the Vijayanagara Empire Vijayanagara architecture Vijayanagara literature Vijayanagara military Origin of the Vijayanagara Empire Society of Vijayanagara empire Vijayanagara metropolitan area List of Vijayanagara emperors Medieval City of Vijayanagara Vijayanagara literature in Kannada List of Vijayanagara era temples in KarnatakaNotes edit a b Dhere 2011 p 243 We can deduce that Sangam must have become a Yadava through his pastoralist cowherd community The Hinduraya suratrana term in inscriptions has been coupled with long brocaded headdress kullayi and others shown in some royalty related reliefs found in Hampi as additional support for the hypothesis that Islamicization of Hindu culture in 14th century 124 The long headdress are also seen in the royalty related and secular artwork in Pattadakal dated from the 7th and 8th century about 5 centuries before the first Sultanate was formed in South Asia 125 Similar conical headdress is seen in other sites such as the Ajanta Caves Ellora Caves Aihole and Badami variously dated from the 2nd century CE to 10th century CE 126 127 Hampi s history ruins and temples made it an early site for offbeat tourism in the 1960s and after Tourists would gather on its hills and midst its ruins to hold parties and spiritual retreats and these have been called Hampi Hippies and Hampi as the lost city in some publications 202 203 References edit Reddy P Bhaskar The Vijayanagara Empire Howes Jennifer 1998 The Courts of Pre colonial South India Material Culture and Kingship Psychology Press p 43 ISBN 978 07 0071 585 5 Bridges Elizabeth J 2016 Vijayanagara Empire In Dalziel N MacKenzie J M eds The Encyclopedia of Empire pp 1 5 doi 10 1002 9781118455074 wbeoe424 ISBN 978 1118455074 Stein 1989 p 1 a b Dhere 2011 p 243 a b Sewell 2011 pp 22 23 420 Stein 1989 p xi Nilakanta Sastri 1955 p 268 a b Fritz amp Michell 2001 p 14 Karnataka A name centuries in the making stamped in 73 Hindustan Times 7 November 2021 Retrieved 4 September 2022 When the south was one Fountain Ink Retrieved 4 September 2022 Book Review Hampi by Pierre Sylvain Filliozat and Vasundhara Kavali Filliozat is more than a coffee table book on the Vijayanagar Empire 9 January 2022 The Narasinga Kingdom Deccan Herald 21 April 2015 Retrieved 14 March 2023 Andrea Corsali L esploratore Amico Di Leonardo Da Vinci Scomparso In Oriente Gingko Edizioni 21 April 2015 Retrieved 14 March 2023 Il regno di Paleacate confina per terra ferma col re di Narsinga ch e gentile e principal re di tutta l India ed e il piu ricco signore che sia di questa banda fino al mar Batticala Onor e Brazabor e lassando il paese de Malabari ch e giunto con la marina s estende per terra ferma fino al sino Gangetico dove e il signor de Coromandel e Paleacate di la dal capo di Commari detto Pelura anticamente The Rayas of Vijayanagar Notes on Indian History 7 October 2013 Retrieved 14 March 2023 a b Nilakanta Sastri 1955 p 216 Chopra Ravindran amp Subrahmanian 2003 Part II p 22 Stein 1989 pp 18 19 a b Gilmartin David Lawrence Bruce B 2000 Beyond Turk and Hindu Rethinking Religious Identities in Islamicate South Asia University Press of Florida pp 300 306 321 322 ISBN 978 0 8130 3099 9 Cynthia Talbot 2001 Precolonial India in Practice Society Region and Identity in Medieval Andhra Oxford University Press pp 281 282 ISBN 978 0 19 803123 9 Mary Storm 2015 Head and Heart Valour and Self Sacrifice in the Art of India Taylor amp Francis p 311 ISBN 978 1 317 32556 7 Srivastava Kanhaiya L 1980 The position of Hindus under the Delhi Sultanate 1206 1526 Munshiram Manoharlal p 202 ISBN 978 8121502245 Chopra Ravindran amp Subrahmanian 2003 part II pp 22 24 Jackson 2016 pp 43 44 Historians such as P B Desai Henry Heras B A Saletore G S Gai William Coelho and Kamath in Kamath 2001 pp 157 160 Karmarkar 1947 p 30 Kulke amp Rothermund 2004 p 188 Rice 2001 p 345 Sewell 1901 Nilakanta Sastri 1955 N Ventakaramanayya B Suryanarayana Rao in Kamath 2001 pp 157 160 Kamath 2001 p 160 Goodding 2013 p 87 a b Kamath 2001 p 162 Nilakanta Sastri 1955 p 317 Sen Sailendra 2013 A Textbook of Medieval Indian History Primus Books pp 103 106 ISBN 978 93 80607 34 4 Chopra Ravindran amp Subrahmanian 2003 Part II p 24 Nilakanta Sastri 1955 p 242 From the notes of Portuguese Nuniz Robert Sewell notes that a big dam across was built the Tungabhadra and an aqueduct 15 miles 24 km long was cut out of rock Nilakanta Sastri 1955 p 243 Eaton 2006 pp 89 90 with footnote 28 Also deciphered as Gajaventekara a metaphor for great hunter of his enemies or hunter of elephants Kamath 2001 p 163 Nilakanta Sastri 1955 p 244 From the notes of Persian Abdur Razzak Writings of Nuniz confirms that the kings of Burma paid tributes to Vijayanagara empire Nilakanta Sastri 1955 p 245 Kamath 2001 p 164 Chopra Ravindran amp Subrahmanian 2003 part II p 31 Chopra Ravindran amp Subrahmanian 2003 part II p 2 Chopra Ravindran amp Subrahmanian 2003 part II p 33 Chopra Ravindran amp Subrahmanian 2003 part II p 34 Eaton 2006 pp 86 87 Chopra Ravindran amp Subrahmanian 2003 part II pp 35 36 Chopra Ravindran amp Subrahmanian 2003 part II p 36 Nilakanta Sastri 1955 p 250 Chopra Ravindran amp Subrahmanian 2003 part II p 37 Eaton 2006 pp 87 88 Nilakanta Sastri 1955 p 239 Kamath 2001 p 159 Eaton 2006 pp 88 89 The notes of Portuguese Barbosa confirms a very rich and well provided Vijayanagara city Kamath 2001 p 186 Chopra Ravindran amp Subrahmanian 2003 part II pp 37 39 Dallapiccola 2001 p 66 Eaton 2006 p 79 Eaton 2006 p 92 Eaton 2006 pp 93 101 Eaton 17 November 2005 A Social History of the Deccan 1300 1761 Eight Indian Lives Part 1 Volume 8 Cambridge University Press p 87 ISBN 9780521254847 Pillai Manu S 2020 Rebel Sultans The Deccan from Khilji to Shivaji New Delhi Juggernaut Books pp 116 118 ISBN 978 9353451066 Chopra Ravindran amp Subrahmanian 2003 part II p 43 Eaton 2006 pp 96 98 Eaton Richard 2019 The Deccan and the South 1400 1650 India in the Persianate Age 1000 1765 Penguin Books pp 168 172 Kulke amp Rothermund 2004 p 191 Eaton 2006 p 98 Kamath 2001 pp 172 173 Eaton 2006 pp 98 101 Eaton 2006 pp 100 101 Kamath 2001 p 174 Vijaya Ramaswamy 2007 Historical Dictionary of the Tamils Scarecrow Press pp 11 12 ISBN 978 0 8108 6445 0 Eaton 2006 pp 101 115 Kamath 2001 pp 220 226 234 K M Panikkar in Kamath 2001 p 174 a b Svamin Amatya Janapada Durga Kosa Daiufa Mitra respectively Mahalingam T V 1940 Administration and social life under Vijayanagara Madras University Historical Series No 15 University of Madras pp 9 101 160 239 244 246 260 From the notes of Persian Abdur Razzak and research by B A Saletore Kamath 2001 p 175 From the notes of Nuniz Kamath 2001 p 175 Nilakanta Sastri 1955 p 286 From the notes of Duarte Barbosa Kamath 2001 p 176 However the kingdom may have had nine provinces T V Mahalingam in Kamath 2001 p 176 Kamath 2001 pp 176 177 Nilakanta Sastri 1955 p 287 From the notes of Abdur Razzaq and Paes Kamath 2001 p 176 From the notes of Nuniz Nilakanta Sastri 1955 p 288 Davison Jenkins 2001 p 89 From the notes of Domingo Paes and Nuniz Davison Jenkins 2001 p 98 Davison Jenkins 2001 p 90 Davison Jenkins 2001 pp 88 99 From the notes of Duarte Barbosa Kamath 2001 p 181 a b c d From the notes of Abdur Razzak in Nilakanta Sastri 1955 p 304 From the notes of Abdur Razzak in Nilakanta Sastri 1955 p 298 From the notes of Abdur Razzak in Nilakanta Sastri 1955 p 299 a b Nilakanta Sastri 1955 pp 304 305 Nilakanta Sastri 1955 p 305 Nilakanta Sastri 1955 p 306 Reddy Soma Taxation of Hindu Temples in the Telugu districts of the Vijayanagara Empire 1978 Proceedings of the Indian History Congress 39 503 508 JSTOR 44139388 Sinopoli 2003 pp 98 99 Vanina 2012 pp 129 130 Vanina 2012 pp 131 132 Sinopoli 2003 pp 21 22 98 Sinopoli 2003 p 99 Chopra Ravindran amp Subrahmanian 2003 part II pp 155 156 Chopra Ravindran amp Subrahmanian 2003 part II p 156 Nilakanta Sastri 1955 p 289 Vanina 2012 p 140 Verghese 2001 p 41 John Stratton Hawley 1994 Sati the Blessing and the Curse The Burning of Wives in India Oxford University Press pp 150 151 ISBN 978 0 19 536022 6 Lindsey Harlan 2018 Religion and Rajput Women The Ethic of Protection in Contemporary Narratives University of California Press p 200 ISBN 978 0520301757 H G Rekha 2019 Sati Memorial Stones of Vijayanagara Period A Study History Research Journal 5 6 210 B A Saletore in Kamath 2001 p 179 a b Kamath 2001 p 180 From the writings of Portuguese Domingo Paes Nilakanta Sastri 1955 p 296 Kamath 2001 p 179 a b Nilakanta Sastri 1955 p 296 Mack 2001 p 39 Babu Dr M Bosu 2018 Material Background to the Vijayanagara Empire A Study with Special reference To Southern Andhradesa From A D 1300 To 1500 K Y Publications p 189 ISBN 978 9387769427 Ayyangar Krishnaswami 2019 Sources of Vijayanagar History Alpha Editions p 116 ISBN 978 9353605902 Dr B S Chandrababu and Dr L Thilagavathi 2009 Woman Her History and Her Struggle for Emancipation Bharathi Puthakalayam p 266 ISBN 978 8189909970 Mahalingam T V 1940 Administration and Social Life under Vijayanagar Madras University of Madras Historical Series No 15 pp 255 256 From the notes of Duarte Barbosa Kamath 2001 p 178 Rajat Kanta Ray 2003 The Felt Community Commonalty and Mentality Before the Emergence of Indian Nationalism Oxford University Press p 30 ISBN 978 0 19 565863 7 a b Pollock Sheldon 1993 Ramayana and Political Imagination in India The Journal of Asian Studies 52 2 Cambridge University Press 284 285 doi 10 2307 2059648 JSTOR 2059648 S2CID 154215656 Wagoner Phillip B 1996 Sultan among Hindu Kings Dress Titles and the Islamicization of Hindu Culture at Vijayanagara The Journal of Asian Studies 55 4 Cambridge University Press CUP 853 doi 10 2307 2646526 ISSN 0021 9118 JSTOR 2646526 S2CID 163090404 George Michell 2002 Pattadakal Oxford University Press pp 65 68 54 73 ISBN 978 0 19 565651 0 Lisa Owen 2012 Carving Devotion in the Jain Caves at Ellora BRILL Academic pp 68 71 ISBN 978 90 04 20630 4 Walter M Spink 2005 Cave by Cave Brill Academic pp 38 40 78 79 225 227 ISBN 90 04 15644 5 David Lorenzen 2017 J E Llewellyn ed Defining Hinduism A Reader Taylor amp Francis pp 73 75 ISBN 978 1 315 47563 9 Habib Irfan 1999 The Envisioning of a Nation A Defence of the Idea of India Social Scientist 27 9 10 18 29 doi 10 2307 3518100 JSTOR 3518100 A R Kulkarni 1970 Social Relations in the Maratha Country in the Medieval Period Proceedings of the Indian History Congress Vol 32 Issue 1 pp 231 268 Quote Suratrana has been interpreted by some as the protector of gods Kamath 2001 p 177 Wagoner 2001 p 14 Kamath 2001 pp 177 178 Naik Reddy Krishna Ramajulu 2007 Impact of endowments on society during the Vijayanagara period A study of the Rayalaseema region 1336 1556 Proceedings of the Indian History Congress 68 286 294 JSTOR 44147838 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Shiva Prakash 1997 pp 192 194 196 Iyer 2006 p 93 Narayan 2010 Introduction p 3 Shiva Prakash 1997 p 196 Shiva Prakash 1997 p 195 Kamath 2001 p 178 a b Nilakanta Sastri 1955 p 324 Sinha Madhubala 2009 Encyclopaedia of South Indian Literature Volume 2 New Delhi Anmol Publications p 271 ISBN 978 8126137404 Kamath 2001 p 185 Kamath 2001 pp 112 132 Kamath 2001 pp 197 Bang amp Kolodziejczyk 2012 p D23 From the notes of Arab writer Al Ishtakhri Nilakanta Sastri 1955 p 396 From the notes of Ibn Batuta Nilakanta Sastri 1955 p 396 Rice 2001 p 479 From the notes of Jordanus in 1320 21 Nilakanta Sastri 1955 p 397 Doss M Christhu 1 November 2018 Indian Christians and The Making of Composite Culture in South India South Asia Research 38 3 247 267 doi 10 1177 0262728018798982 ISSN 0262 7280 S2CID 149596320 Mack 2002 pp 77 78 Mack 2002 p 79 Kamath 2001 pp 10 157 Thapar 2003 pp 393 395 Mack 2002 pp 81 82 Talbot 2002 pp 25 28 Davison Jenkins 2001 p 63 72 98 99 Chopra Ravindran amp Subrahmanian 2003 Introductory pp ix x Sattar Sharma amp Pokharia 2010 p 245 Savile 1996 p 858 Sinopoli amp Morrison 2001 pp 101 104 Chopra Ravindran amp Subrahmanian 2003 Introductory ix part II p 9 Kamath 2001 pp 157 158 Chopra Ravindran amp Subrahmanian 2003 Introductory p ix Sinopoli 2003 p 105 Kamath 2001 p 176 Nagaraj 2003 p 378 Royal patronage was also directed to the support of literature in several languages Sanskrit the pan Indian literary language Kannada the language of the Vijayanagara home base in Karnataka and Telugu the language of Andhra Works in all three languages were produced by poets assembled at the courts of the Vijayanagara kingsThe Telugu language became particularly prominent in the ruling circles by the early 16th century because of the large number of warrior lords who were either from Andhra or had served the kingdom there Asher amp Talbot 2006 pp 74 75 Nilakanta Sastri 1955 p 321 Devi Ganga 1924 Sastri G Harihara Sastri V Srinivasa eds Madhura Vijaya or Veerakamparaya Charita An Historical Kavya Trivandrum British India Sridhara Power Press Retrieved 21 June 2016 Ayyappapanicker in Shiva Prakash 1997 pp 164 193 194 203 Nilakanta Sastri 1955 p 365 Nilakanta Sastri 1955 p 364 Nilakanta Sastri 1955 p 363 Rice 2001 p 68 During the rule of Krishnadevaraya encouragement was given to the creation of original Prabandhas stories from Puranic themes Nilakanta Sastri 1955 p 372 Rao Pappu Venugopala 22 June 2010 A masterpiece in Telugu literature The Hindu No Chennai Retrieved 9 June 2016 Krishnadevaraya 2010 Reddy Srinivas ed Giver of the Worn Garland Krishnadevaraya s Amuktamalyada Penguin UK ISBN 978 8184753059 Retrieved 9 June 2016 Krishnadevaraya 1907 Amuktamalyada London Telugu Collection for the British Library Retrieved 9 June 2016 Nilakanta Sastri 1955 p 372 Nilakanta Sastri 1955 p 370 Nilakanta Sastri 1955 p 347 Durga Prasad 1988 pp 268 270 Kak Subhash 2010 Sengupta Pradip Kumar ed History of Science and Philosophy of Science A Historical Perspective of the Evolution of Ideas in Science vol XIII part 6 Pearson Longman p 91 ISBN 978 81 317 1930 5 Kamath 2001 p 182 Group of Monuments at Hampi Cultural Sites UNESCO World Heritage Centre Paris 1986 Retrieved 27 April 2021 a b Fritz amp Michell 2001 p 9 Nilakanta Sastri about the importance of pillars in the Vijayanagar style in Kamath 2001 p 183 Hampi Travel Guide New Delhi Eicher Goodearth supported by Department of Tourism Government of India 2003 p 77 ISBN 978 81 87780 17 5 LCCN 2003334582 a b Kamath 2001 p 184 Fritz amp Michell 2001 p 10 Philon 2001 p 87 Dallapiccola 2001 p 69 Liscak Vladimir 2017 Mapa mondi Catalan Atlas of 1375 Majorcan cartographic school and 14th century Asia PDF International Cartographic Association 1 5 Bibcode 2018PrICA 1 69L doi 10 5194 ica proc 1 69 2018 Several of the location names too are accurate in Cartography between Christian Europe and the Arabic Islamic World 1100 1500 Divergent Traditions Brill 2021 p 176 ISBN 978 90 04 44603 8 Massing Jean Michel Albuquerque Luis de Brown Jonathan Gonzalez J J Martin 1991 Circa 1492 Art in the Age of Exploration Yale University Press ISBN 978 0 300 05167 4 Carla M Sinopoli 2003 The Political Economy of Craft Production Crafting Empire in South India c 1350 1650 Cambridge University Press pp 146 149 ISBN 978 1 139 44074 5 Arnold P Kaminsky Roger D Long 2016 Nationalism and Imperialism in South and Southeast Asia Essays Presented to Damodar R SarDesai Taylor amp Francis p 66 ISBN 978 1 351 99743 0 a b Tapan Raychaudhuri Irfan Habib Dharma Kumar 1982 The Cambridge Economic History of India Volume 1 c 1200 c 1750 Cambridge University Press p 122 ISBN 978 0 521 22692 9 Carla Sinopoli Peter Johansen Kathleen Morrison 2009 Steven E Falconer and Charles L Redman ed Polities and Power Archaeological Perspectives on the Landscapes of Early States University of Arizona Press p 37 ISBN 978 0 8165 2603 1 Will Durant 2011 Our Oriental Heritage The Story of Civilization Simon and Schuster p 579 ISBN 978 1 4516 4668 9 Bill Aitken 1999 Divining the Deccan A Motorbike to the Heart of India Oxford University Press pp 219 221 ISBN 978 0 19 564711 2 David Hatcher Childress 1985 Lost Cities of China Central Asia and India A Traveler s Guide Adventures pp 186 187 ISBN 978 0 932813 00 8 Salman Rushdie s new novel is an ode to storytelling and freedom The Economist ISSN 0013 0613 Retrieved 11 February 2023 Sources editAsher Catherine B Talbot Cynthia 2006 Creation of Pan South Indian Culture India Before Europe Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 00539 5 Bang Peter Fibiger Kolodziejczyk Dariusz eds 2012 Ideologies of state building in Vijayanagara India Universal Empire A Comparative Approach to Imperial Culture and Representation in Eurasian History Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 107 02267 6 Chopra P N Ravindran T K Subrahmanian N 2003 Medieval Period History of South India New Delhi Rajendra Ravindra Printers ISBN 81 219 0153 7 Dallapiccola Anna L 2001 Relief carvings on the great platform In Fritz John M Michell George eds New Light on Hampi Recent Research at Vijayanagara Mumbai MARG ISBN 978 81 85026 53 4 Davison Jenkins Dominic J 2001 The Greater Metropolitan Region In Fritz John M Michell George eds New Light on Hampi Recent Research at Vijayanagara Mumbai MARG ISBN 978 81 85026 53 4 Dhere Ramchandra 2011 Rise of a Folk God Vitthal of Pandharpur South Asia Research Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0199777648 Durga Prasad J 1988 History of the Andhras up to 1565 A D PDF Guntur P G Publisher Archived from the original PDF on 22 April 2006 Retrieved 27 January 2007 Eaton Richard M 2006 A social history of the Deccan 1300 1761 eight Indian lives Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 71627 7 Fritz John M Michell George 2001 Introduction New Light on Hampi Recent Research at Vijayanagara Mumbai MARG ISBN 978 81 85026 53 4 Goodding Robert A 2013 A Theologian in a South Indian Kingdom The Historical Context of the Jivanmuktiviveka of Vidyaranya in Lindquist Steven E ed Religion and Identity in South Asia and Beyond Essays in Honor of Patrick Olivelle Anthem Press Iyer Panchapakesa A S 2006 Karnataka Sangeeta Sastra Chennai Zion Printers Jackson William 2016 Reflections on Vidyaranya and the Hinduness of Islamicate Vijayanagara Vijayanagara Voices Exploring South Indian History and Hindu Literature New York Routledge ISBN 9780 7546 3950 3 Kamath Suryanath U 2001 1980 A concise history of Karnataka from pre historic times to the present Bangalore Jupiter books LCCN 80905179 OCLC 7796041 Karmarkar A P 1947 Cultural history of Karnataka ancient and medieval Dharwad Karnataka Vidyavardhaka Sangha OCLC 8221605 Kulke Hermann Rothermund Dietmar 2004 A History of India 4th ed Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 32919 4 Mack Alexandra 2001 The temple district of Vitthalapura In John M Fritz George Michell eds New Light on Hampi Recent Research at Vijayanagara Mumbai MARG ISBN 978 81 85026 53 4 Mack Alexandra 2002 Vijayanagara Inscriptions as History and Archeology Spiritual Journey Imperial City Pilgrimage to the temples of Vijayanagara New Delhi Vedams ISBN 81 7936 004 0 Nagaraj D R 2003 Tensions in Kannada Literary Culture In Pollock Sheldon ed Literary Cultures in History Reconstructions from South Asia Berkeley and Los Angeles University of California ISBN 978 0 520 22821 4 Narayan M K V 2010 Lyrical Musings on Indian Culture A Sociological Study of the Songs of Sant Purandaradasa New Delhi Readworthy ISBN 978 93 80009 31 5 Nilakanta Sastri K A 1955 reissued 2002 A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar New Delhi Indian Branch Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 560686 7 Philon Helen 2001 Plaster decoration on Sultanate styled courtly buildings In Fritz John M Michell George eds New Light on Hampi Recent Research at Vijayanagara Mumbai MARG ISBN 978 81 85026 53 4 Rice B Lewis 2001 1897 Mysore Gazetteer Compiled for Government Vol 1 New Delhi Madras Asian Educational Services ISBN 978 81 206 0977 8 Sattar Mofarahus Sharma S D Pokharia Anil K 2010 Sharma D S ed Rice Origin Antiquity and History Boca Raton Florida Science Publishers CRC Press ISBN 978 1 4398 4056 6 Savile Charles 1996 vol 5 Asia amp Oceania In Schellinger Paul E Salkin Robert M eds International Dictionary of Historical Places New York Routledge ISBN 1 884964 04 4 Sewell Robert 1901 A Forgotten Empire Vijayanagar A Contribution to the History of India Shiva Prakash H S 1997 Kannada In Ayyappapanicker ed Medieval Indian Literature An Anthology Sahitya Akademi ISBN 978 81 260 0365 5 Sewell Robert 2011 A Forgotten Empire Vijayanagar New Delhi Asian Educational Services ISBN 978 8120601253 Sinopoli Carla M Morrison Kathleen D 2001 Hydraulic works In Fritz John M Michell George eds New Light on Hampi Recent Research at Vijayanagara Mumbai MARG ISBN 978 81 85026 53 4 Sinopoli Carla M 2003 The Political Economy of Craft Production Crafting Empire in South India c 1350 1650 Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1139440745 Stein Burton 1989 The New Cambridge History of India Vijayanagara Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 26693 2 Thapar Romila 2003 The Penguin History of Early India New Delhi Penguin Books ISBN 978 0 14 302989 2 Talbot Cynthia 2002 Precolonial India in Practice Society Region and Identity in Medieval Andhra New York Oxford University Press ISBN 0 19 513661 6 Vanina Eugenia 2012 Medieval Indian Landscapes Space Time Society Man Delhi Primus Books ISBN 978 93 80607 19 1 Verghese Anila 2001 Memorial stones In Fritz John M Michell George eds New Light on Hampi Recent Research at Vijayanagara Mumbai MARG ISBN 978 81 85026 53 4 Wagoner Phillip 2001 Architecture and Royal Authority under the Early Sangamas In John M Fritz George Michell eds New Light on Hampi Recent Research at Vijayanagara Mumbai MARG ISBN 978 81 85026 53 4 External links edit nbsp Wikiquote has quotations related to Vijayanagara Empire nbsp Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica article Vijayanagar nbsp Media related to Vijayanagara Empire at Wikimedia Commons Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Vijayanagara Empire amp oldid 1223506729, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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