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Historiography

January 19, 2024

"Study of history" redirects here. For the book by Toynbee, see A Study of History.
"Historical school" redirects here. For the approach to economics, see Historical school of economics. For the movement in jurisprudence, see German Historical School.

Historiography is the study of the methods of historians in developing history as an academic discipline, and by extension is any body of historical work on a particular subject. The historiography of a specific topic covers how historians have studied that topic by using particular sources, techniques, and theoretical approaches. Scholars discuss historiography by topic—such as the historiography of the United Kingdom, that of WWII, the pre-Columbian Americas, early Islam, and China—and different approaches and genres, such as political history and social history. Beginning in the nineteenth century, with the development of academic history, there developed a body of historiographic literature. The extent to which historians are influenced by their own groups and loyalties—such as to their nation state—remains a debated question.[1][2]

Allegory on writing history by Jacob de Wit (1754). An almost naked Truth keeps an eye on the writer of history. Pallas Athena (Wisdom) on left gives advice.

In the ancient world, chronological annals were produced in civilizations such as ancient Egypt and Ancient Near East. The discipline of historiography was established in the 5th century BC with the Histories of Herodotus, the founder of historiography. The Roman statesman Cato the Elder produced the first Roman historiography, the Origines, in the 2nd century BCE. His near contemporaries Sima Tan and Sima Qian in the Han Empire of China established Chinese historiography, compiling the Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian). During the Middle Ages, medieval historiography included the works of chronicles in medieval Europe, Islamic histories by Muslim historians, and the Korean and Japanese historical writings based on the existing Chinese model. During the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment, historiography in the Western world was shaped and developed by figures such as Voltaire, David Hume, and Edward Gibbon, who among others set the foundations for the modern discipline. In the 19th-century historical studies became professionalized at universities and research centers along with a belief that history was like a science.[3] In the 20th-century historians incorporated social science dimensions like politics, economy, and culture in their historiography.[3]

The research interests of historians change over time, and there has been a shift away from traditional diplomatic, economic, and political history toward newer approaches, especially social and cultural studies. From 1975 to 1995 the proportion of professors of history in American universities identifying with social history increased from 31 to 41 percent, while the proportion of political historians decreased from 40 to 30 percent.[4] In 2007, of 5,723 faculty in the departments of history at British universities, 1,644 (29 percent) identified themselves with social history and 1,425 (25 percent) identified themselves with political history.[5] Since the 1980s there has been a special interest in the memories and commemoration of past events—the histories as remembered and presented for popular celebration.[6]

Terminology edit

In the early modern period, the term historiography meant "the writing of history", and historiographer meant "historian". In that sense certain official historians were given the title "Historiographer Royal" in Sweden (from 1618), England (from 1660), and Scotland (from 1681). The Scottish post is still in existence.

Historiography was more recently defined as "the study of the way history has been and is written—the history of historical writing", which means that, "When you study 'historiography' you do not study the events of the past directly, but the changing interpretations of those events in the works of individual historians."[7]

History edit

Antiquity edit

Further information: Ancient history

Understanding the past appears to be a universal human need, and the "telling of history" has emerged independently in civilizations around the world. What constitutes history is a philosophical question (see philosophy of history).

The earliest chronologies date back to Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, in the form of chronicles and annals. However, no historical writers in these early civilizations were known by name. By contrast, the term "historiography" is taken to refer to written history recorded in a narrative format for the purpose of informing future generations about events. In this limited sense, "ancient history" begins with the early historiography of Classical Antiquity, in about the 5th century BC.

Europe edit

Greece edit
Main article: Greek historiography
Further information: Ancient Greek literature
 
Reproduction of part of a tenth-century copy of Thucydides's History of the Peloponnesian War

The earliest known systematic historical thought emerged in ancient Greece, a development which would be an important influence on the writing of history elsewhere around the Mediterranean region. Greek historians greatly contributed to the development of historical methodology. The earliest known critical historical works were The Histories, composed by Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484–425 BC) who became known as the "father of history".[8] Herodotus attempted to distinguish between more and less reliable accounts, and personally conducted research by travelling extensively, giving written accounts of various Mediterranean cultures. Although Herodotus' overall emphasis lay on the actions and characters of men, he also attributed an important role to divinity in the determination of historical events.

 
Bust of Thucydides, Hellenistic copy of a 4th-century BC work

The generation following Herodotus witnessed a spate of local histories of the individual city-states (poleis), written by the first of the local historians who employed the written archives of city and sanctuary. Dionysius of Halicarnassus characterized these historians as the forerunners of Thucydides,[9] and these local histories continued to be written into Late Antiquity, as long as the city-states survived. Two early figures stand out: Hippias of Elis, who produced the lists of winners in the Olympic Games that provided the basic chronological framework as long as the pagan classical tradition lasted, and Hellanicus of Lesbos, who compiled more than two dozen histories from civic records, all of them now lost.

Thucydides largely eliminated divine causality in his account of the war between Athens and Sparta, establishing a rationalistic element which set a precedent for subsequent Western historical writings. He was also the first to distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event, while his successor Xenophon (c. 431 – 355 BC) introduced autobiographical elements and character studies in his Anabasis.

The proverbial Philippic attacks of the Athenian orator Demosthenes (384–322 BC) on Philip II of Macedon marked the height of ancient political agitation. The now lost history of Alexander's campaigns by the diadoch Ptolemy I (367–283 BC) may represent the first historical work composed by a ruler. Polybius (c. 203 – 120 BC) wrote on the rise of Rome to world prominence, and attempted to harmonize the Greek and Roman points of view.

The Chaldean priest Berossus (fl. 3rd century BC) composed a Greek-language History of Babylonia for the Seleucid king Antiochus I, combining Hellenistic methods of historiography and Mesopotamian accounts to form a unique composite. Reports exist of other near-eastern histories, such as that of the Phoenician historian Sanchuniathon; but he is considered semi-legendary and writings attributed to him are fragmentary, known only through the later historians Philo of Byblos and Eusebius, who asserted that he wrote before even the Trojan war.

Rome edit
Main article: Roman historiography
Further information: Latin literature
 
The Roman bust of historian Cato the Elder

The Romans adopted the Greek tradition, writing at first in Greek, but eventually chronicling their history in a freshly non-Greek language. While early Roman works were still written in Greek, the Origines, composed by the Roman statesman Cato the Elder (234–149 BC), was written in Latin, in a conscious effort to counteract Greek cultural influence. It marked the beginning of Latin historical writings. Hailed for its lucid style, Julius Caesar's (103–44 BC) de Bello Gallico exemplifies autobiographical war coverage. The politician and orator Cicero (106–43 BCE) introduced rhetorical elements in his political writings.

Strabo (63 BC – c. 24 AD) was an important exponent of the Greco-Roman tradition of combining geography with history, presenting a descriptive history of peoples and places known to his era. Livy (59 BC – 17 AD) records the rise of Rome from city-state to empire. His speculation about what would have happened if Alexander the Great had marched against Rome represents the first known instance of alternate history.[10]

Biography, although popular throughout antiquity, was introduced as a branch of history by the works of Plutarch (c. 45 – 125 CE) and Suetonius (c. 69 – after 130 CE) who described the deeds and characters of ancient personalities, stressing their human side. Tacitus (c. 56 – c. 117 CE) denounces Roman immorality by praising German virtues, elaborating on the topos of the Noble savage.

East Asia edit

China edit
Main articles: Chinese historiography and Twenty-Four Histories
Further information: Chinese literature
 
First page of the Shiji

The Han dynasty eunuch Sima Qian (around 100 BCE) was the first in China to lay the groundwork for professional historical writing. His work superseded the older style of the Spring and Autumn Annals, compiled in the 5th century BC, the Bamboo Annals and other court and dynastic annals that recorded history in a chronological form that abstained from analysis. Sima's Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian) pioneered the "Annals-biography" format, which would become the standard for prestige history writing in China. In this genre a history opens with a chronological outline of court affairs, and then continues with detailed biographies of prominent people who lived during the period in question.[11] The scope of his work extended as far back as the 16th century BC, and included many treatises on specific subjects and individual biographies of prominent people. He also explored the lives and deeds of commoners, both contemporary and those of previous eras.

Whereas Sima's had been a universal history from the beginning of time down to the time of writing, his successor Ban Gu wrote an annals-biography history limiting its coverage to only the Western Han dynasty, the Book of Han (96 AD). This established the notion of using dynastic boundaries as start- and end-points, and most later Chinese histories would focus on a single dynasty or group of dynasties.

The Records of the Grand Historian and Book of Han were eventually joined by the Book of the Later Han (488 CE) (replacing the earlier, and now only partially extant, Han Records from the Eastern Pavilion) and the Records of the Three Kingdoms (297 CE) to form the "Four Histories". These became mandatory reading for the Imperial Examinations and have therefore exerted an influence on Chinese culture comparable to the Confucian Classics. More annals-biography histories were written in subsequent dynasties, eventually bringing the number to between twenty-four and twenty-six, but none ever reached the popularity and impact of the first four.[12]

Traditional Chinese historiography describes history in terms of dynastic cycles. In this view, each new dynasty is founded by a morally righteous founder. Over time, the dynasty becomes morally corrupt and dissolute. Eventually, the dynasty becomes so weak as to allow its replacement by a new dynasty.[13]

In 281 AD the tomb of King Xiang of Wei (d. 296 BC) was opened, inside of which was found a historical text called the Bamboo Annals, after the writing material. It is similar in style to the Spring and Autumn Annals and covers the time from the Yellow Emperor to 299 BC. Opinions on the authenticity of the text has varied throughout the centuries, and in any event it was re-discovered too late to gain anything like the same status as the Spring and Autumn.[14]

Middle Ages to Renaissance edit

Christendom edit

See also: Christendom, Hagiography, Medieval literature, and Ethiopian historiography
 
A page of Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People

Christian historical writing arguably begins with the narrative sections of the New Testament, particularly Luke-Acts, which is the primary source for the Apostolic Age, though its historical reliability is disputed. The first tentative beginnings of a specifically Christian historiography can be seen in Clement of Alexandria in the second century.[15] The growth of Christianity and its enhanced status in the Roman Empire after Constantine I (see State church of the Roman Empire) led to the development of a distinct Christian historiography, influenced by both Christian theology and the nature of the Christian Bible, encompassing new areas of study and views of history. The central role of the Bible in Christianity is reflected in the preference of Christian historians for written sources, compared to the classical historians' preference for oral sources and is also reflected in the inclusion of politically unimportant people. Christian historians also focused on development of religion and society. This can be seen in the extensive inclusion of written sources in the Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius of Caesarea around 324 and in the subjects it covers.[16] Christian theology considered time as linear, progressing according to divine plan. As God's plan encompassed everyone, Christian histories in this period had a universal approach. For example, Christian writers often included summaries of important historical events prior to the period covered by the work.[17]

Writing history was popular among Christian monks and clergy in the Middle Ages. They wrote about the history of Jesus Christ, that of the Church and that of their patrons, the dynastic history of the local rulers. In the Early Middle Ages historical writing often took the form of annals or chronicles recording events year by year, but this style tended to hamper the analysis of events and causes.[18] An example of this type of writing is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which was the work of several different writers: it was started during the reign of Alfred the Great in the late 9th century, but one copy was still being updated in 1154. Some writers in the period did construct a more narrative form of history. These included Gregory of Tours and more successfully Bede, who wrote both secular and ecclesiastical history and who is known for writing the Ecclesiastical History of the English People.[16]

During the Renaissance, history was written about states or nations. The study of history changed during the Enlightenment and Romanticism. Voltaire described the history of certain ages that he considered important, rather than describing events in chronological order. History became an independent discipline. It was not called philosophia historiae anymore, but merely history (historia).

 
Autograph writing of Ibn Khaldun, pioneer of historiography, cultural history, and the philosophy of history

Islamic world edit

See also: Historiography of early Islam, Muqaddimah, and Muslim historians

Muslim historical writings first began to develop in the 7th century, with the reconstruction of the Prophet Muhammad's life in the centuries following his death. With numerous conflicting narratives regarding Muhammad and his companions from various sources, it was necessary to verify which sources were more reliable. In order to evaluate these sources, various methodologies were developed, such as the "science of biography", "science of hadith" and "Isnad" (chain of transmission). These methodologies were later applied to other historical figures in the Islamic civilization. Famous historians in this tradition include Urwah (d. 712), Wahb ibn Munabbih (d. 728), Ibn Ishaq (d. 761), al-Waqidi (745–822), Ibn Hisham (d. 834), Muhammad al-Bukhari (810–870) and Ibn Hajar (1372–1449).[19] Historians of the medieval Islamic world also developed an interest in world history.[20] Islamic historical writing eventually culminated in the works of the Arab Muslim historian Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406), who published his historiographical studies in the Muqaddimah (translated as Prolegomena) and Kitab al-I'bar (Book of Advice).[21][22] His work was forgotten until it was rediscovered in the late 19th century.[23]

East Asia edit

Japan edit
Main article: Historiography of Japan
Further information: Japanese literature

The earliest works of history produced in Japan were the Rikkokushi (Six National Histories), a corpus of six national histories covering the history of Japan from its mythological beginnings until the 9th century. The first of these works were the Nihon Shoki, compiled by Prince Toneri in 720.

Korea edit
Main article: Historiography of Korea
Further information: Korean literature

The tradition of Korean historiography was established with the Samguk Sagi, a history of Korea from its allegedly earliest times. It was compiled by Goryeo court historian Kim Busik after its commission by King Injong of Goryeo (r. 1122–1146). It was completed in 1145 and relied not only on earlier Chinese histories for source material, but also on the Hwarang Segi written by the Silla historian Kim Daemun in the 8th century. The latter work is now lost.[24]

China edit

In 1084 the Song dynasty official Sima Guang completed the Zizhi Tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government), which laid out the entire history of China from the beginning of the Warring States period (403 BCE) to the end of the Five Dynasties period (959 CE) in chronological annals form, rather than in the traditional annals-biography form. This work is considered much more accessible than the "Official Histories" for the Six dynasties, Tang dynasty, and Five Dynasties, and in practice superseded those works in the mind of the general reader.[25]

The great Song Neo-Confucian Zhu Xi found the Mirror to be overly long for the average reader, as well as too morally nihilist, and therefore prepared a didactic summary of it called the Zizhi Tongjian Gangmu (Digest of the Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government), posthumously published in 1219. It reduced the original's 249 chapters to just 59, and for the rest of imperial Chinese history would be the first history book most people ever read.[26]

South East Asia edit

Philippines edit
Main article: Historiography of the Philippines
 
Laguna copperplate inscription

Historiography of the Philippines refers to the studies, sources, critical methods and interpretations used by scholars to study the history of the Philippines. It includes historical and archival research and writing on the history of the Philippine archipelago including the islands of Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao.[27][28] The Philippine archipelago was part of many empires before the Spanish Empire arrived in the 16th century.

Before the arrival of Spanish colonial powers, the Philippines did not actually exist. Southeast Asia is classified as part of the Indosphere[29][30] and the Sinosphere.[31][32] The archipelago had direct contact with China during the Song dynasty (960–1279),[33] and was a part of the Srivijaya and Majapahit empires.[34]

The pre-colonial Philippines widely used the abugida system in writing and seals on documents, though it was for communication and no recorded writings of early literature or history.[clarification needed][35] Ancient Filipinos usually wrote documents on bamboo, bark, and leaves, which did not survive, unlike inscriptions on clay, metal, and ivory did, such as the Laguna Copperplate Inscription and Butuan Ivory Seal. The discovery of the Butuan Ivory Seal also proves the use of paper documents in ancient Philippines.

The arrival of the Spanish colonizers, pre-colonial Filipino manuscripts and documents were gathered and burned to eliminate pagan beliefs. This has been the burden of historians in the accumulation of data and the development of theories that gave historians many aspects of Philippine history that were left unexplained.[36] The interplay of pre-colonial events and the use of secondary sources written by historians to evaluate the primary sources, do not provide a critical examination of the methodology of the early Philippine historical study.[37]

Enlightenment edit

 
Voltaire's works of history are an excellent example of Enlightenment era advances in accuracy.

During the Age of Enlightenment, the modern development of historiography through the application of scrupulous methods began. Among the many Italians who contributed to this were Leonardo Bruni (c. 1370–1444), Francesco Guicciardini (1483–1540), and Cesare Baronio (1538–1607).

Voltaire edit

French philosophe Voltaire (1694–1778) had an enormous influence on the development of historiography during the Age of Enlightenment through his demonstration of fresh new ways to look at the past. Guillaume de Syon argues:

Voltaire recast historiography in both factual and analytical terms. Not only did he reject traditional biographies and accounts that claim the work of supernatural forces, but he went so far as to suggest that earlier historiography was rife with falsified evidence and required new investigations at the source. Such an outlook was not unique in that the scientific spirit that 18th-century intellectuals perceived themselves as invested with. A rationalistic approach was key to rewriting history.[38]

Voltaire's best-known histories are The Age of Louis XIV (1751), and his Essay on the Customs and the Spirit of the Nations (1756). He broke from the tradition of narrating diplomatic and military events, and emphasized customs, social history and achievements in the arts and sciences. He was the first scholar to make a serious attempt to write the history of the world, eliminating theological frameworks, and emphasizing economics, culture and political history. Although he repeatedly warned against political bias on the part of the historian, he did not miss many opportunities to expose the intolerance and frauds of the church over the ages. Voltaire advised scholars that anything contradicting the normal course of nature was not to be believed. Although he found evil in the historical record, he fervently believed reason and educating the illiterate masses would lead to progress. Voltaire's History of Charles XII (1731) about the Swedish warrior king (Swedish: Karl XII) is also one of his most famous works. It is not least known as one of Napoleon's absolute favorite books.[39]

Voltaire explains his view of historiography in his article on "History" in Diderot's Encyclopédie: "One demands of modern historians more details, better ascertained facts, precise dates, more attention to customs, laws, mores, commerce, finance, agriculture, population." Already in 1739 he had written: "My chief object is not political or military history, it is the history of the arts, of commerce, of civilization—in a word—of the human mind."[40] Voltaire's histories used the values of the Enlightenment to evaluate the past. He helped free historiography from antiquarianism, Eurocentrism, religious intolerance and a concentration on great men, diplomacy, and warfare.[41] Peter Gay says Voltaire wrote "very good history", citing his "scrupulous concern for truths", "careful sifting of evidence", "intelligent selection of what is important", "keen sense of drama", and "grasp of the fact that a whole civilization is a unit of study".[42][43][full citation needed]

David Hume edit

At the same time, philosopher David Hume was having a similar effect on the study of history in Great Britain. In 1754 he published The History of England, a 6-volume work which extended "From the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution in 1688". Hume adopted a similar scope to Voltaire in his history; as well as the history of Kings, Parliaments, and armies, he examined the history of culture, including literature and science, as well. His short biographies of leading scientists explored the process of scientific change and he developed new ways of seeing scientists in the context of their times by looking at how they interacted with society and each other—he paid special attention to Francis Bacon, Robert Boyle, Isaac Newton and William Harvey.[44]

He also argued that the quest for liberty was the highest standard for judging the past, and concluded that after considerable fluctuation, England at the time of his writing had achieved "the most entire system of liberty, that was ever known amongst mankind".[45]

Edward Gibbon edit

 
Edward Gibbon's Decline of the Roman Empire (1776) was a masterpiece of late 18th-century history writing.

The apex of Enlightenment history was reached with Edward Gibbon's monumental six-volume work, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, published on 17 February 1776. Because of its relative objectivity and heavy use of primary sources, its methodology became a model for later historians. This has led to Gibbon being called the first "modern historian".[46] The book sold impressively, earning its author a total of about £9000. Biographer Leslie Stephen wrote that thereafter, "His fame was as rapid as it has been lasting."

Gibbon's work has been praised for its style, its piquant epigrams and its effective irony. Winston Churchill memorably noted, "I set out upon ... Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire [and] was immediately dominated both by the story and the style. ... I devoured Gibbon. I rode triumphantly through it from end to end and enjoyed it all."[47] Gibbon was pivotal in the secularizing and 'desanctifying' of history, remarking, for example, on the "want of truth and common sense" of biographies composed by Saint Jerome.[48] Unusually for an 18th-century historian, Gibbon was never content with secondhand accounts when the primary sources were accessible (though most of these were drawn from well-known printed editions). He said, "I have always endeavoured to draw from the fountain-head; that my curiosity, as well as a sense of duty, has always urged me to study the originals; and that, if they have sometimes eluded my search, I have carefully marked the secondary evidence, on whose faith a passage or a fact were reduced to depend."[49] In this insistence upon the importance of primary sources, Gibbon broke new ground in the methodical study of history:

In accuracy, thoroughness, lucidity, and comprehensive grasp of a vast subject, the 'History' is unsurpassable. It is the one English history which may be regarded as definitive. ... Whatever its shortcomings the book is artistically imposing as well as historically unimpeachable as a vast panorama of a great period.[50]

19th century edit

 
Japanese print depicting Thomas Carlyle's horror at the burning of his manuscript The French Revolution: A History

The tumultuous events surrounding the French Revolution inspired much of the historiography and analysis of the early 19th century. Interest in the 1688 Glorious Revolution was also rekindled by the Great Reform Act of 1832 in England. Nineteenth century historiography, especially among American historians, featured conflicting viewpoints that represented the times. According to 20th-century historian Richard Hofstadter:[51]

The historians of the nineteenth century worked under the pressure of two internal tensions: on one side there was the constant demand of society—whether through the nationstate, the church, or some special group or class interest—for memory mixed with myth, for the historical tale that would strengthen group loyalties or confirm national pride; and against this there were the demands of critical method, and even, after a time, the goal of writing "scientific" history.

Thomas Carlyle edit

Thomas Carlyle published his three-volume The French Revolution: A History, in 1837. The first volume was accidentally burned by John Stuart Mill's maid. Carlyle rewrote it from scratch.[52] Carlyle's style of historical writing stressed the immediacy of action, often using the present tense. He emphasised the role of forces of the spirit in history and thought that chaotic events demanded what he called 'heroes' to take control over the competing forces erupting within society. He considered the dynamic forces of history as being the hopes and aspirations of people that took the form of ideas, and were often ossified into ideologies. Carlyle's The French Revolution was written in a highly unorthodox style, far removed from the neutral and detached tone of the tradition of Gibbon. Carlyle presented the history as dramatic events unfolding in the present as though he and the reader were participants on the streets of Paris at the famous events. Carlyle's invented style was epic poetry combined with philosophical treatise. It is rarely read or cited in the last century.[53][54]

French historians: Michelet and Taine edit

 
Jules Michelet (1798–1874), later in his career
 
Hippolyte Taine (1828–1893)

In his main work Histoire de France (1855), French historian Jules Michelet (1798–1874) coined the term Renaissance (meaning "rebirth" in French), as a period in Europe's cultural history that represented a break from the Middle Ages, creating a modern understanding of humanity and its place in the world.[55] The 19-volume work covered French history from Charlemagne to the outbreak of the French Revolution. His inquiry into manuscript and printed authorities was most laborious, but his lively imagination, and his strong religious and political prejudices, made him regard all things from a singularly personal point of view.[56]

Michelet was one of the first historians to shift the emphasis of history to the common people, rather than the leaders and institutions of the country. He had a decisive impact on scholars. Gayana Jurkevich argues that led by Michelet:

19th-century French historians no longer saw history as the chronicling of royal dynasties, armies, treaties, and great men of state, but as the history of ordinary French people and the landscape of France.[57]

Hippolyte Taine (1828–1893), although unable to secure an academic position, was the chief theoretical influence of French naturalism, a major proponent of sociological positivism, and one of the first practitioners of historicist criticism. He pioneered the idea of "the milieu" as an active historical force which amalgamated geographical, psychological, and social factors. Historical writing for him was a search for general laws. His brilliant style kept his writing in circulation long after his theoretical approaches were passé.[58]

Cultural and constitutional history edit

One of the major progenitors of the history of culture and art, was the Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt.[59] Siegfried Giedion described Burckhardt's achievement in the following terms: "The great discoverer of the age of the Renaissance, he first showed how a period should be treated in its entirety, with regard not only for its painting, sculpture and architecture, but for the social institutions of its daily life as well."[60]

His most famous work was The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, published in 1860; it was the most influential interpretation of the Italian Renaissance in the nineteenth century and is still widely read. According to John Lukacs, he was the first master of cultural history, which seeks to describe the spirit and the forms of expression of a particular age, a particular people, or a particular place. His innovative approach to historical research stressed the importance of art and its inestimable value as a primary source for the study of history. He was one of the first historians to rise above the narrow nineteenth-century notion that "history is past politics and politics current history.[61]

By the mid-19th century, scholars were beginning to analyse the history of institutional change, particularly the development of constitutional government. William Stubbs's Constitutional History of England (3 vols., 1874–1878) was an important influence on this developing field. The work traced the development of the English constitution from the Teutonic invasions of Britain until 1485, and marked a distinct step in the advance of English historical learning.[62] He argued that the theory of the unity and continuity of history should not remove distinctions between ancient and modern history. He believed that, though work on ancient history is a useful preparation for the study of modern history, either may advantageously be studied apart. He was a good palaeographer, and excelled in textual criticism, in examination of authorship, and other such matters, while his vast erudition and retentive memory made him second to none in interpretation and exposition.[63]

Von Ranke and professionalization in Germany edit

Main article: Historiography of Germany
 
Ranke established history as a professional academic discipline in Germany.

The modern academic study of history and methods of historiography were pioneered in 19th-century German universities, especially the University of Göttingen. Leopold von Ranke (1795–1886) at Berlin was a pivotal influence in this regard, and was the founder of modern source-based history.[64][65] According to Caroline Hoefferle, "Ranke was probably the most important historian to shape historical profession as it emerged in Europe and the United States in the late 19th century."[66][67]

Specifically, he implemented the seminar teaching method in his classroom, and focused on archival research and analysis of historical documents. Beginning with his first book in 1824, the History of the Latin and Teutonic Peoples from 1494 to 1514, Ranke used an unusually wide variety of sources for a historian of the age, including "memoirs, diaries, personal and formal missives, government documents, diplomatic dispatches and first-hand accounts of eye-witnesses". Over a career that spanned much of the century, Ranke set the standards for much of later historical writing, introducing such ideas as reliance on primary sources, an emphasis on narrative history and especially international politics (Aussenpolitik).[68] Sources had to be solid, not speculations and rationalizations. His credo was to write history the way it was. He insisted on primary sources with proven authenticity.

Ranke also rejected the 'teleological approach' to history, which traditionally viewed each period as inferior to the period which follows. In Ranke's view, the historian had to understand a period on its own terms, and seek to find only the general ideas which animated every period of history. In 1831 and at the behest of the Prussian government, Ranke founded and edited the first historical journal in the world, called Historisch-Politische Zeitschrift.

Another important German thinker was Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, whose theory of historical progress ran counter to Ranke's approach. In Hegel's own words, his philosophical theory of "World history ... represents the development of the spirit's consciousness of its own freedom and of the consequent realization of this freedom."[69] This realization is seen by studying the various cultures that have developed over the millennia, and trying to understand the way that freedom has worked itself out through them:

World history is the record of the spirit's efforts to attain knowledge of what it is in itself. The Orientals do not know that the spirit or man as such are free in themselves. And because they do not know that, they are not themselves free. They only know that One is free. ... The consciousness of freedom first awoke among the Greeks, and they were accordingly free; but, like the Romans, they only knew that Some, and not all men as such, are free. ... The Germanic nations, with the rise of Christianity, were the first to realize that All men are by nature free, and that freedom of spirit is his very essence.[70]

Karl Marx introduced the concept of historical materialism into the study of world historical development. In his conception, the economic conditions and dominant modes of production determined the structure of society at that point. In his view five successive stages in the development of material conditions would occur in Western Europe. The first stage was primitive communism where property was shared and there was no concept of "leadership". This progressed to a slave society where the idea of class emerged and the State developed. Feudalism was characterized by an aristocracy working in partnership with a theocracy and the emergence of the nation-state. Capitalism appeared after the bourgeois revolution when the capitalists (or their merchant predecessors) overthrew the feudal system and established a market economy, with private property and parliamentary democracy. Marx then predicted the eventual proletarian revolution that would result in the attainment of socialism, followed by communism, where property would be communally owned.

Previous historians had focused on cyclical events of the rise and decline of rulers and nations. Process of nationalization of history, as part of national revivals in the 19th century, resulted with separation of "one's own" history from common universal history by such way of perceiving, understanding and treating the past that constructed history as history of a nation.[71] A new discipline, sociology, emerged in the late 19th century and analyzed and compared these perspectives on a larger scale.

Macaulay and Whig history edit

 
Macaulay was the most influential exponent of the Whig history.

The term "Whig history", coined by Herbert Butterfield in his short book The Whig Interpretation of History in 1931, means the approach to historiography which presents the past as an inevitable progression towards ever greater liberty and enlightenment, culminating in modern forms of liberal democracy and constitutional monarchy. In general, Whig historians emphasized the rise of constitutional government, personal freedoms and scientific progress. The term has been also applied widely in historical disciplines outside of British history (the history of science, for example) to criticize any teleological (or goal-directed), hero-based, and transhistorical narrative.[72]

Paul Rapin de Thoyras's history of England, published in 1723, became "the classic Whig history" for the first half of the 18th century.[73] It was later supplanted by the immensely popular The History of England by David Hume. Whig historians emphasized the achievements of the Glorious Revolution of 1688. This included James Mackintosh's History of the Revolution in England in 1688, William Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England, and Henry Hallam's Constitutional History of England.[74]

The most famous exponent of 'Whiggery' was Thomas Babington Macaulay. His writings are famous for their ringing prose and for their confident, sometimes dogmatic, emphasis on a progressive model of British history, according to which the country threw off superstition, autocracy and confusion to create a balanced constitution and a forward-looking culture combined with freedom of belief and expression. This model of human progress has been called the Whig interpretation of history.[75] He published the first volumes of his most famous work of history, The History of England from the Accession of James II, in 1848. It proved an immediate success and replaced Hume's history to become the new orthodoxy.[76] His 'Whiggish convictions' are spelled out in his first chapter:

I shall relate how the new settlement was ... successfully defended against foreign and domestic enemies; how ... the authority of law and the security of property were found to be compatible with a liberty of discussion and of individual action never before known; how, from the auspicious union of order and freedom, sprang a prosperity of which the annals of human affairs had furnished no example; how our country, from a state of ignominious vassalage, rapidly rose to the place of umpire among European powers; how her opulence and her martial glory grew together; ... how a gigantic commerce gave birth to a maritime power, compared with which every other maritime power, ancient or modern, sinks into insignificance ... the history of our country during the last hundred and sixty years is eminently the history of physical, of moral, and of intellectual improvement.

His legacy continues to be controversial; Gertrude Himmelfarb wrote that "most professional historians have long since given up reading Macaulay, as they have given up writing the kind of history he wrote and thinking about history as he did."[77] However, J. R. Western wrote that: "Despite its age and blemishes, Macaulay's History of England has still to be superseded by a full-scale modern history of the period".[78]

The Whig consensus was steadily undermined during the post-World War I re-evaluation of European history, and Butterfield's critique exemplified this trend. Intellectuals no longer believed the world was automatically getting better and better. Subsequent generations of academic historians have similarly rejected Whig history because of its presentist and teleological assumption that history is driving toward some sort of goal.[79] Other criticized 'Whig' assumptions included viewing the British system as the apex of human political development, assuming that political figures in the past held current political beliefs (anachronism), considering British history as a march of progress with inevitable outcomes and presenting political figures of the past as heroes, who advanced the cause of this political progress, or villains, who sought to hinder its inevitable triumph. J. Hart says "a Whig interpretation requires human heroes and villains in the story."[80]

20th century edit

See also: Category:Historiography by country

20th-century historiography in major countries is characterized by a move to universities and academic research centers. Popular history continued to be written by self-educated amateurs, but scholarly history increasingly became the province of PhD's trained in research seminars at a university. The training emphasized working with primary sources in archives. Seminars taught graduate students how to review the historiography of the topics, so that they could understand the conceptual frameworks currently in use, and the criticisms regarding their strengths and weaknesses.[81][82] Western Europe and the United States took leading roles in this development. The emergence of area studies of other regions also developed historiographical practices.

France: Annales school edit

Main article: Annales school
 
The 20th century saw the creation of a huge variety of historiographical approaches; one was Marc Bloch's focus on social history rather than traditional political history.

The French Annales school radically changed the focus of historical research in France during the 20th century by stressing long-term social history, rather than political or diplomatic themes. The school emphasized the use of quantification and the paying of special attention to geography.[83][84]

The Annales d'histoire économique et sociale journal was founded in 1929 in Strasbourg by Marc Bloch and Lucien Febvre. These authors, the former a medieval historian and the latter an early modernist, quickly became associated with the distinctive Annales approach, which combined geography, history, and the sociological approaches of the Année Sociologique (many members of which were their colleagues at Strasbourg) to produce an approach which rejected the predominant emphasis on politics, diplomacy and war of many 19th and early 20th-century historians as spearheaded by historians whom Febvre called Les Sorbonnistes. Instead, they pioneered an approach to a study of long-term historical structures (la longue durée) over events and political transformations.[85] Geography, material culture, and what later Annalistes called mentalités, or the psychology of the epoch, are also characteristic areas of study. The goal of the Annales was to undo the work of the Sorbonnistes, to turn French historians away from the narrowly political and diplomatic toward the new vistas in social and economic history.[86] For early modern Mexican history, the work of Marc Bloch's student François Chevalier on the formation of landed estates (haciendas) from the sixteenth century to the seventeenth had a major impact on Mexican history and historiography,[87] setting off an important debate about whether landed estates were basically feudal or capitalistic.[88][89]

An eminent member of this school, Georges Duby, described his approach to history as one that

relegated the sensational to the sidelines and was reluctant to give a simple accounting of events, but strived on the contrary to pose and solve problems and, neglecting surface disturbances, to observe the long and medium-term evolution of economy, society and civilisation.

The Annalistes, especially Lucien Febvre, advocated a histoire totale, or histoire tout court, a complete study of a historical problem.

The second era of the school was led by Fernand Braudel and was very influential throughout the 1960s and 1970s, especially for his work on the Mediterranean region in the era of Philip II of Spain. Braudel developed the idea, often associated with Annalistes, of different modes of historical time: l'histoire quasi immobile (motionless history) of historical geography, the history of social, political and economic structures (la longue durée), and the history of men and events, in the context of their structures. His 'longue durée' approach stressed slow, and often imperceptible effects of space, climate and technology on the actions of human beings in the past. The Annales historians, after living through two world wars and major political upheavals in France, were deeply uncomfortable with the notion that multiple ruptures and discontinuities created history. They preferred to stress slow change and the longue durée. They paid special attention to geography, climate, and demography as long-term factors. They considered the continuities of the deepest structures were central to history, beside which upheavals in institutions or the superstructure of social life were of little significance, for history lies beyond the reach of conscious actors, especially the will of revolutionaries.[90]

Noting the political upheavals in Europe and especially in France in 1968, Eric Hobsbawm argued that "in France the virtual hegemony of Braudelian history and the Annales came to an end after 1968, and the international influence of the journal dropped steeply."[91] Multiple responses were attempted by the school. Scholars moved in multiple directions, covering in disconnected fashion the social, economic, and cultural history of different eras and different parts of the globe. By the time of crisis the school was building a vast publishing and research network reaching across France, Europe, and the rest of the world. Influence indeed spread out from Paris, but few new ideas came in. Much emphasis was given to quantitative data, seen as the key to unlocking all of social history.[92] However, the Annales ignored the developments in quantitative studies underway in the U.S. and Britain, which reshaped economic, political and demographic research.[93]

Marxist historiography edit

Main article: Marxist historiography
Further information: Communist Party Historians Group

Marxist historiography developed as a school of historiography influenced by the chief tenets of Marxism, including the centrality of social class and economic constraints in determining historical outcomes (historical materialism). Friedrich Engels wrote The Peasant War in Germany, which analysed social warfare in early Protestant Germany in terms of emerging capitalist classes. Although it lacked a rigorous engagement with archival sources, it indicated an early interest in history from below and class analysis, and it attempts a dialectical analysis. Another treatise of Engels, The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844, was salient in creating the socialist impetus in British politics from then on, e.g. the Fabian Society.

R. H. Tawney was an early historian working in this tradition. The Agrarian Problem in the Sixteenth Century (1912)[94] and Religion and the Rise of Capitalism (1926), reflected his ethical concerns and preoccupations in economic history. He was profoundly interested in the issue of the enclosure of land in the English countryside in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and in Max Weber's thesis on the connection between the appearance of Protestantism and the rise of capitalism. His belief in the rise of the gentry in the century before the outbreak of the Civil War in England provoked the 'Storm over the Gentry' in which his methods were subjected to severe criticisms by Hugh Trevor-Roper and John Cooper.

Historiography in the Soviet Union was greatly influenced by Marxist historiography, as historical materialism was extended into the Soviet version of dialectical materialism.

A circle of historians inside the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) formed in 1946 and became a highly influential cluster of British Marxist historians, who contributed to history from below and class structure in early capitalist society. While some members of the group (most notably Christopher Hill and E. P. Thompson) left the CPGB after the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, the common points of British Marxist historiography continued in their works. They placed a great emphasis on the subjective determination of history.

Christopher Hill's studies on 17th-century English history were widely acknowledged and recognised as representative of this school.[95] His books include Puritanism and Revolution (1958), Intellectual Origins of the English Revolution (1965 and revised in 1996), The Century of Revolution (1961), AntiChrist in 17th-century England (1971), The World Turned Upside Down (1972) and many others.

E. P. Thompson pioneered the study of history from below in his work, The Making of the English Working Class, published in 1963. It focused on the forgotten history of the first working-class political left in the world in the late-18th and early-19th centuries. In his preface to this book, Thompson set out his approach to writing history from below:

I am seeking to rescue the poor stockinger, the Luddite cropper, the "obsolete" hand-loom weaver, the "Utopian" artisan, and even the deluded follower of Joanna Southcott, from the enormous condescension of posterity. Their crafts and traditions may have been dying. Their hostility to the new industrialism may have been backward-looking. Their communitarian ideals may have been fantasies. Their insurrectionary conspiracies may have been foolhardy. But they lived through these times of acute social disturbance, and we did not. Their aspirations were valid in terms of their own experience; and, if they were casualties of history, they remain, condemned in their own lives, as casualties.

Thompson's work was also significant because of the way he defined "class". He argued that class was not a structure, but a relationship that changed over time. He opened the gates for a generation of labor historians, such as David Montgomery and Herbert Gutman, who made similar studies of the American working classes.

Other important Marxist historians included Eric Hobsbawm, C. L. R. James, Raphael Samuel, A. L. Morton and Brian Pearce.

Biography edit

Further information: Biography

Biography has been a major form of historiography since the days when Plutarch wrote the parallel lives of great Roman and Greek leaders. It is a field especially attractive to nonacademic historians, and often to the spouses or children of famous people, who have access to the trove of letters and documents. Academic historians tend to downplay biography because it pays too little attention to broad social, cultural, political and economic forces, and perhaps too much attention to popular psychology. The "Great Man" tradition in Britain originated in the multi-volume Dictionary of National Biography (which originated in 1882 and issued updates into the 1970s); it continues to this day in the new Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. In the United States, the Dictionary of American Biography was planned in the late 1920s and appeared with numerous supplements into the 1980s. It has now been displaced by the American National Biography as well as numerous smaller historical encyclopedias that give thorough coverage to Great Persons. Bookstores do a thriving business in biographies, which sell far more copies than the esoteric monographs based on post-structuralism, cultural, racial or gender history. Michael Holroyd says the last forty years "may be seen as a golden age of biography", but nevertheless calls it the "shallow end of history". Nicolas Barker argues that "more and more biographies command an ever larger readership", as he speculates that biography has come "to express the spirit of our age".[96]

Daniel R. Meister argues that:

Biography Studies is emerging as an independent discipline, especially in the Netherlands. This Dutch School of biography is moving biography studies away from the less scholarly life writing tradition and towards history by encouraging its practitioners to utilize an approach adapted from microhistory.[97]

British debates edit

Main article: Historiography of the United Kingdom

Marxist historian E. H. Carr developed a controversial theory of history in his 1961 book What Is History?, which proved to be one of the most influential books ever written on the subject.[98] He presented a middle-of-the-road position between the empirical or (Rankean) view of history and R. G. Collingwood's idealism, and rejected the empirical view of the historian's work being an accretion of "facts" that they have at their disposal as nonsense. He maintained that there is such a vast quantity of information that the historian always chooses the "facts" they decide to make use of. In Carr's famous example, he claimed that millions had crossed the Rubicon, but only Julius Caesar's crossing in 49 BC is declared noteworthy by historians.[99][100] For this reason, Carr argued that Leopold von Ranke's famous dictum wie es eigentlich gewesen (show what actually happened) was wrong because it presumed that the "facts" influenced what the historian wrote, rather than the historian choosing what "facts of the past" they intended to turn into "historical facts".[101] At the same time, Carr argued that the study of the facts may lead the historian to change his or her views. In this way, Carr argued that history was "an unending dialogue between the past and present".[99][102]

Carr is held by some critics to have had a deterministic outlook in history.[103] Others have modified or rejected this use of the label "determinist".[104] He took a hostile view of those historians who stress the workings of chance and contingency in the workings of history. In Carr's view, no individual is truly free of the social environment in which they live, but contended that within those limitations, there was room, albeit very narrow room for people to make decisions that affect history. Carr emphatically contended that history was a social science, not an art,[105] because historians like scientists seek generalizations that helped to broaden the understanding of one's subject.[105][106]

One of Carr's most forthright critics was Hugh Trevor-Roper, who argued that Carr's dismissal of the "might-have-beens of history" reflected a fundamental lack of interest in examining historical causation.[107] Trevor-Roper asserted that examining possible alternative outcomes of history was far from being a "parlour-game" was rather an essential part of the historians' work,[108] as only by considering all possible outcomes of a given situation could a historian properly understand the period.

The controversy inspired Sir Geoffrey Elton to write his 1967 book The Practice of History. Elton criticized Carr for his "whimsical" distinction between the "historical facts" and the "facts of the past", arguing that it reflected "...an extraordinarily arrogant attitude both to the past and to the place of the historian studying it".[109] Elton, instead, strongly defended the traditional methods of history and was also appalled by the inroads made by postmodernism.[110] Elton saw the duty of historians as empirically gathering evidence and objectively analyzing what the evidence has to say. As a traditionalist, he placed great emphasis on the role of individuals in history instead of abstract, impersonal forces. Elton saw political history as the highest kind of history. Elton had no use for those who seek history to make myths, to create laws to explain the past, or to produce theories such as Marxism.

U.S. approaches edit

Main article: Historiography of the United States

Classical and European history was part of the 19th-century grammar curriculum. American history became a topic later in the 19th century.[111]

In the historiography of the United States, there were a series of major approaches in the 20th century. In 2009–2012, there were an average of 16,000 new academic history books published in the U.S. every year.[112]

Progressive historians edit
Main article: Progressive historians

The Progressive historians were a group of 20th century historians of the United States associated with a historiographical tradition that embraced an economic interpretation of American history.[113][114] Most prominent among these was Charles A. Beard, who was influential in academia and with the general public.[113]

Consensus history edit
Main article: Consensus history

Consensus history emphasizes the basic unity of American values and downplays conflict as superficial. It was especially attractive in the 1950s and 1960s. Prominent leaders included Richard Hofstadter, Louis Hartz, Daniel Boorstin, Allan Nevins, Clinton Rossiter, Edmund Morgan, and David M. Potter.[115][116] In 1948 Hofstadter made a compelling statement of the consensus model of the U.S. political tradition:

The fierceness of the political struggles has often been misleading: for the range of vision embraced by the primary contestants in the major parties has always been bounded by the horizons of property and enterprise. However much at odds on specific issues, the major political traditions have shared a belief in the rights of property, the philosophy of economic individualism, the value of competition; they have accepted the economic virtues of capitalist culture as necessary qualities of man.[117]

New Left history edit

Consensus history was rejected by New Left viewpoints that attracted a younger generation of radical historians in the 1960s. These viewpoints stress conflict and emphasize the central roles of class, race and gender. The history of dissent, and the experiences of racial minorities and disadvantaged classes was central to the narratives produced by New Left historians.[118][119][120]

Quantification and new approaches to history edit
Main articles: Social history and Political history § United States: The new political history

Social history, sometimes called the "new social history", is a broad branch that studies the experiences of ordinary people in the past.[121][122] It had major growth as a field in the 1960s and 1970s, and still is well represented in history departments. However, after 1980 the "cultural turn" directed the next generation to new topics. In the two decades from 1975 to 1995, the proportion of professors of history in U.S. universities identifying with social history rose from 31 to 41 percent, while the proportion of political historians fell from 40 to 30 percent.[4]

The growth was enabled by the social sciences, computers, statistics, new data sources such as individual census information, and summer training programs at the Newberry Library and the University of Michigan. The New Political History saw the application of social history methods to politics, as the focus shifted from politicians and legislation to voters and elections.[123][124]

The Social Science History Association was formed in 1976 as an interdisciplinary group with a journal Social Science History and an annual convention. The goal was to incorporate in historical studies perspectives from all the social sciences, especially political science, sociology and economics. The pioneers shared a commitment to quantification. However, by the 1980s the first blush of quantification had worn off, as traditional historians counterattacked. Harvey J. Graff says:

The case against the new mixed and confused a lengthy list of ingredients, including the following: history's supposed loss of identity and humanity in the stain of social science, the fear of subordinating quality to quantity, conceptual and technical fallacies, violation of the literary character and biographical base of "good" history (rhetorical and aesthetic concern), loss of audiences, derogation of history rooted in "great men" and "great events", trivialization in general, a hodgepodge of ideological objections from all directions, and a fear that new historians were reaping research funds that might otherwise come to their detractors. To defenders of history as they knew it, the discipline was in crisis, and the pursuit of the new was a major cause.[125]

Meanwhile, "new" economic history became well-established. However, cliometrics has never been considered a historical field by the vast majority of historians so that cliometric articles have not been cited by historians.[126] [127] Economists mostly employed economic theories and econometric applications similar to typical economic papers. As a result, quantification remained central to demographic studies, but slipped behind in political and social history as traditional narrative approaches made a comeback.[128] Recently, as the newest approach in economic history "new history of capitalism" appeared. In the first article of the related journal, Marc Flandreau defined their purpose as "crossing border" to create a truly interdisciplinary field.[129]

Latin America edit

Further information: Historiography of Colonial Spanish America, Argentina, and Latin American studies

Latin America is the former Spanish American empire in the Western Hemisphere plus Portuguese Brazil. Professional historians pioneered the creation of this field, starting in the late nineteenth century.[130] The term "Latin America" did not come into general usage until the twentieth century and in some cases it was rejected.[131] The historiography of the field has been more fragmented than unified, with historians of Spanish America and Brazil generally remaining in separate spheres. Another standard division within the historiography is the temporal factor, with works falling into either the early modern period (or "colonial era") or the post-independence (or "national") period, from the early nineteenth onward. Relatively few works span the two eras and few works except textbooks unite Spanish America and Brazil. There is a tendency to focus on histories of particular countries or regions (the Andes, the Southern Cone, the Caribbean) with relatively little comparative work.

Historians of Latin America have contributed to various types of historical writing, but one major, innovative development in Spanish American history is the emergence of ethnohistory, the history of indigenous peoples, especially in Mexico based on alphabetic sources in Spanish or in indigenous languages.[132][133][134][135][136]

For the early modern period, the emergence of Atlantic history, based on comparisons and linkages of Europe, the Americas, and Africa from 1450 to 1850 that developed as a field in its own right has integrated early modern Latin American history into a larger framework.[137] For all periods, global or world history have focused on the connections between areas, likewise integrating Latin America into a larger perspective. Latin America's importance to world history is notable but often overlooked. "Latin America's central, and sometimes pioneering, role in the development of globalization and modernity did not cease with the end of colonial rule and the early modern period. Indeed, the region's political independence places it at the forefront of two trends that are regularly considered thresholds of the modern world. The first is the so-called liberal revolution, the shift from monarchies of the ancien régime, where inheritance legitimated political power, to constitutional republics... The second, and related, trend consistently considered a threshold of modern history that saw Latin America in the forefront is the development of nation-states."[138]

Historical research appears in a number of specialized journals. These include Hispanic American Historical Review (est. 1918), published by the Conference on Latin American History; The Americas, (est. 1944); Journal of Latin American Studies (1969); Canadian Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Studies,(est.1976)[139] Bulletin of Latin American Research, (est. 1981); Colonial Latin American Review (1992); and Colonial Latin American Historical Review (est. 1992). Latin American Research Review (est. 1969), published by the Latin American Studies Association, does not focus primarily on history, but it has often published historiographical essays on particular topics.

General works on Latin American history have appeared since the 1950s, when the teaching of Latin American history expanded in U.S. universities and colleges.[140] Most attempt full coverage of Spanish America and Brazil from the conquest to the modern era, focusing on institutional, political, social and economic history. An important, eleven volume treatment of Latin American history is The Cambridge History of Latin America, with separate volumes on the colonial era, nineteenth century, and the twentieth century.[141] There is a small number of general works that have gone through multiple editions.[142][143][144] Major trade publishers have also issued edited volumes on Latin American history[145] and historiography.[146] Reference works include the Handbook of Latin American Studies, which publishes articles by area experts, with annotated bibliographic entries, and the Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture.[147]

World history edit

World history, as a distinct field of historical study, emerged as an independent academic field in the 1980s. It focused on the examination of history from a global perspective and looked for common patterns that emerged across all cultures. The basic thematic approach of this field was to analyse two major focal points: integration—how processes of world history have drawn people of the world together, and difference—how patterns of world history reveal the diversity of the human experience.

Arnold J. Toynbee's ten-volume A Study of History, took an approach that was widely discussed in the 1930s and 1940s. By the 1960s his work was virtually ignored by scholars and the general public. He compared 26 independent civilizations and argued that they displayed striking parallels in their origin, growth, and decay. He proposed a universal model to each of these civilizations, detailing the stages through which they all pass: genesis, growth, time of troubles, universal state, and disintegration. The later volumes gave too much emphasis on spirituality to satisfy critics.[148]

Chicago historian William H. McNeill wrote The Rise of the West (1965) to show how the separate civilizations of Eurasia interacted from the very beginning of their history, borrowing critical skills from one another, and thus precipitating still further change as adjustment between traditional old and borrowed new knowledge and practice became necessary. He then discusses the dramatic effect of Western civilization on others in the past 500 years of history. McNeill took a broad approach organized around the interactions of peoples across the globe. Such interactions have become both more numerous and more continual and substantial in recent times. Before about 1500, the network of communication between cultures was that of Eurasia. The term for these areas of interaction differ from one world historian to another and include world-system and ecumene. His emphasis on cultural fusions influenced historical theory significantly.[149]

The cultural turn edit

The "cultural turn" of the 1980s and 1990s affected scholars in most areas of history.[150] Inspired largely by anthropology, it turned away from leaders, ordinary people and famous events to look at the use of language and cultural symbols to represent the changing values of society.[151]

The British historian Peter Burke finds that cultural studies has numerous spinoffs, or topical themes it has strongly influenced. The most important include gender studies and postcolonial studies, as well as memory studies, and film studies.[152]

Diplomatic historian Melvyn P. Leffler finds that the problem with the "cultural turn" is that the culture concept is imprecise, and may produce excessively broad interpretations, because it:

seems infinitely malleable and capable of giving shape to totally divergent policies; for example, to internationalism or isolationism in the United States, and to cooperative internationalism or race hatred in Japan. The malleability of culture suggest to me that in order to understand its effect on policy, one needs also to study the dynamics of political economy, the evolution of the international system, and the roles of technology and communication, among many other variables.[153]

Memory studies edit

See also: Social memory and Memory studies in historical Jesus research

Memory studies is a new field, focused on how nations and groups (and historians) construct and select their memories of the past in order to celebrate (or denounce) key features, thus making a statement of their current values and beliefs.[154][155] Historians have played a central role in shaping the memories of the past as their work is diffused through popular history books and school textbooks.[156] French sociologist Maurice Halbwachs, opened the field with La mémoire collective (Paris: 1950).[157]

Many historians examine how the memory of the past has been constructed, memorialized or distorted. Historians examine how legends are invented.[158][159] For example, there are numerous studies of the memory of atrocities from World War II, notably the Holocaust in Europe and Japanese war crimes in Asia.[160][161] British historian Heather Jones argues that the historiography of the First World War in recent years has been reinvigorated by the cultural turn. Scholars have raised entirely new questions regarding military occupation, radicalization of politics, race, and the male body.[162]

Representative of recent scholarship is a collection of studies on the "Dynamics of Memory and Identity in Contemporary Europe".[163] Sage has published the scholarly journal Memory Studies since 2008, and the book series "Memory Studies" was launched by Palgrave Macmillan in 2010 with 5–10 titles a year.[164]

Scholarly journals edit

The historical journal, a forum where academic historians could exchange ideas and publish newly discovered information, came into being in the 19th century. The early journals were similar to those for the physical sciences, and were seen as a means for history to become more professional. Journals also helped historians to establish various historiographical approaches, the most notable example of which was Annales. Économies, sociétés, civilisations, a publication of the Annales school in France. Journals now typically have one or more editors and associate editors, an editorial board, and a pool of scholars to whom articles that are submitted are sent for confidential evaluation. The editors will send out new books to recognized scholars for reviews that usually run 500 to 1000 words. The vetting and publication process often takes months or longer. Publication in a prestigious journal (which accept 10 percent or fewer of the articles submitted) is an asset in the academic hiring and promotion process. Publication demonstrates that the author is conversant with the scholarly field. Page charges and fees for publication are uncommon in history. Journals are subsidized by universities or historical societies, scholarly associations, and subscription fees from libraries and scholars. Increasingly they are available through library pools that allow many academic institutions to pool subscriptions to online versions. Most libraries have a system for obtaining specific articles through inter-library loan.[165]

Some major historical journals edit

See also: List of history journals § Ideas and historiography

Narrative edit

According to Lawrence Stone, narrative has traditionally been the main rhetorical device used by historians. In 1979, at a time when the new Social History was demanding a social-science model of analysis, Stone detected a move back toward the narrative. Stone defined narrative as follows: it is organized chronologically; it is focused on a single coherent story; it is descriptive rather than analytical; it is concerned with people not abstract circumstances; and it deals with the particular and specific rather than the collective and statistical. He reported that, "More and more of the 'new historians' are now trying to discover what was going on inside people's heads in the past, and what it was like to live in the past, questions which inevitably lead back to the use of narrative."[174]

Historians committed to a social science approach, however, have criticized the narrowness of narrative and its preference for anecdote over analysis, and its use of clever examples rather than statistically verified empirical regularities.[175]

Topics studied edit

Some of the common topics in historiography are:

Approaches edit

How a historian approaches historical events is one of the most important decisions within historiography. Historians commonly recognise that individual historical facts—dealing with names, dates and places—are not particularly meaningful in themselves. Such facts only become useful/informative when assembled with other historical evidence, and the process of assembling this evidence is understood[by whom?] as a particular historiographical approach.

Some of the most influential historiographical approaches include:

Related fields edit

Important related fields include:

See also edit

Methods edit

Topics edit

References edit

  1. ^ Ferro, Marc (2003). The Use and Abuse of History: Or How the Past Is Taught to Children. Routledge. ISBN 978-0415285926.
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  175. ^ J. Morgan Kousser, "The Revivalism of Narrative: A Response to Recent Criticisms of Quantitative History", Social Science History vol. 8, no. 2 (Spring 1984): 133–149; Eric H. Monkkonen, "The Dangers of Synthesis", American Historical Review 91, no. 5 (December 1986): 1146–1157. https://doi.org/10.2307/1170990
  176. ^ Nikolaĭ Onufrievich Losskiĭ – History of Russian Philosophy 1951. p. 245 "It must not be imagined, however, that history and metahistory are entirely separate: "Metahistory is continually present as the background of history. That which is metahistorical breaks up both the cosmic endless sequence of events and..."
  177. ^ The Visva-bharati Quarterly 1956. p. 118 "Sometimes the term Metahistory is also used. But it implies going beyond, a transcendence of history and in this sense it is equated with metaphysics and theology. Sometimes historical time is distinguished from metahistorical eternity."

Bibliography edit

Theory edit

  • Appleby, Joyce, Lynn Hunt & Margaret Jacob, Telling the Truth About History. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1994.
  • Bentley, Michael. Modern Historiography: An Introduction, 1999 ISBN 0-415-20267-1
  • Marc Bloch, The Historian's Craft (1940)
  • Burke, Peter. History and Social Theory, Polity Press, Oxford, 1992
  • David Cannadine (editor), What is History Now, Palgrave Macmillan, 2002
  • E. H. Carr, What is History? 1961, ISBN 0-394-70391-X
  • R.G. Collingwood, The Idea of History, 1936, ISBN 0-19-285306-6
  • Deluermoz, Quentin, and Singaravélou, Pierre: A Past of Possibilities: A History of What Could Have Been ISBN 978-0300227543 ; Yale University Press, 2021
  • Doran, Robert. ed. Philosophy of History After Hayden White. London: Bloomsbury, 2013.
  • Geoffrey Elton, The Practice of History, 1969, ISBN 0-631-22980-9
  • Richard J. Evans In Defence of History, 1997, ISBN 1-86207-104-7
  • Fischer, David Hackett. Historians' Fallacies: Towards a Logic of Historical Thought, Harper & Row, 1970
  • Gardiner, Juliet (ed) What is History Today...? London: MacMillan Education Ltd., 1988.
  • Harlaftis, Gelina, ed. The New Ways of History: Developments in Historiography (I.B. Tauris, 2010) 260 pp; trends in historiography since 1990
  • Hewitson, Mark, History and Causality, Palgrave Macmillan, 2014
  • Jenkins, Keith ed. The Postmodern History Reader (2006)
  • Jenkins, Keith. Rethinking History, 1991, ISBN 0-415-30443-1
  • Arthur Marwick, The New Nature of History: knowledge, evidence, language, Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001, ISBN 0-333-96447-0
  • Munslow, Alan. The Routledge Companion to Historical Studies (2000), an encyclopedia of concepts, methods and historians
  • Olstein, Diego. Thinking History Globally (2025), summary
  • Spalding, Roger & Christopher Parker, Historiography: An Introduction, 2008, ISBN 0-7190-7285-9
  • Sreedharan, E. (2004). A Textbook of Historiography, 500 B.C. to A.D. 2000. Orient Blackswan. ISBN 978-8125026570. from the original on 2023-01-13. Retrieved 2016-02-13.
  • ISBN 978-81-905928-0-2<ref>Sreedharan (2007). A Manual of Historical Research Methodology. South Indian Studies. ISBN 978-8190592802.
  • Tosh, John. The Pursuit of History, 2002, ISBN 0-582-77254-0
  • Tucker, Aviezer, ed. A Companion to the Philosophy of History and Historiography Malden: Blackwell, 2009
  • White, Hayden. The Fiction of Narrative: Essays on History, Literature, and Theory, 1957–2007, Johns Hopkins, 2010. Ed. Robert Doran

Guides to scholarship edit

  • The American Historical Association's Guide to Historical Literature, ed. by Mary Beth Norton and Pamela Gerardi (3rd ed. 2 vol, Oxford U.P. 1995) 2064 pages; annotated guide to 27,000 of the most important English language history books in all fields and topics vol 1 online, vol 2 online
    • Allison, William Henry et al. eds. A guide to historical literature (1931) comprehensive bibliography for scholarship to 1930 as selected by scholars from the American Historical Association online edition, free;
  • Backhouse, Roger E. and Philippe Fontaine, eds. A Historiography of the Modern Social Sciences (Cambridge University Press, 2014) pp. ix, 248; essays on the ways in which the histories of psychology, anthropology, sociology, economics, history, and political science have been written since 1945
  • Black, Jeremy. Clio's Battles: Historiography in Practice (Indiana University Press, 2015.) xvi, 323 pp.
  • Boyd, Kelly, ed. Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writers (2 Vol 1999), 1600 pp covering major historians and themes
  • Cline, Howard F. ed. Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources, Handbook of Middle American Indians (4 vols U of Texas Press 1973.
  • Gray, Wood. Historian's Handbook, 2nd ed. (Houghton-Miffin Co., cop. 1964), vii, 88 pp; a primer
  • Elton, G.R. Modern Historians on British History 1485–1945: A Critical Bibliography 1945–1969 (1969), annotated guide to 1000 history books on every major topic, plus book reviews and major scholarly articles. online
  • Loades, David, ed. Reader's Guide to British History (Routledge; 2 vol 2003) 1760 pp; highly detailed guide to British historiography excerpt and text search
  • Charles Oman (1906), Inaugural Lecture on The Study of History: delivered on Wednesday, February 7, 1906, Oxford: Oxford University Press, Wikidata Q26157365
  • Parish, Peter, ed. Reader's Guide to American History (Routledge, 1997), 880 pp; detailed guide to historiography of American topics excerpt and text search
  • Popkin, Jeremy D. From Herodotus to H-Net: The Story of Historiography (Oxford UP, 2015).
  • Woolf, Daniel et al. The Oxford History of Historical Writing (5 vol 2011–r12), covers all major historians since AD 600
    • The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 1: Beginnings to AD 600 online at doi:10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199218158.001.0001
    • The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 3: 1400–1800 online at doi:10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199219179.001.0001
    • The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 4: 1800–1945 online at doi:10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199533091.001.0001

Histories of historical writing edit

  • Arnold, John H. History: A Very Short Introduction (2000). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0192853523
  • Barnes, Harry Elmer. A history of historical writing (1962)
  • Barraclough, Geoffrey. History: Main Trends of Research in the Social and Human Sciences, (1978)
  • Bauer, Stefan. The Invention of Papal History: Onofrio Panvinio between Renaissance and Catholic Reform (Oxford University Press, 2020).
  • Bentley, Michael. ed., Companion to Historiography, Routledge, 1997, ISBN 0415285577, 39 chapters by experts
  • Boyd, Kelly, ed. Encyclopedia of historians and historical writing (2 vol. Taylor & Francis, 1999), 1562 pp
  • Breisach, Ernst. Historiography: Ancient, Medieval and Modern, 3rd ed., 2007, ISBN 0-226-07278-9
  • Budd, Adam, ed. The Modern Historiography Reader: Western Sources. (Routledge, 2009).
  • Cline, Howard F., ed.Latin American History: Essays on Its Study and Teaching, 1898–1965. 2 vols. Austin: University of Texas Press 1965.
  • Cohen, H. Floris The Scientific Revolution: A Historiographical Inquiry, (1994), ISBN 0-226-11280-2
  • Conrad, Sebastian. The Quest for the Lost Nation: Writing History in Germany and Japan in the American Century (2010)
  • Crymble, Adam. Technology and the Historian: Transformations in the Digital Age (University of Illinois, 2021), 241 pp
  • Fitzsimons, M.A. et al. eds. The development of historiography (1954) 471 pages; comprehensive global coverage; online free
  • Gilderhus, Mark T. History and Historians: A Historiographical Introduction, 2002, ISBN 0-13-044824-9
  • Iggers, Georg G. Historiography in the 20th Century: From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern Challenge (2005)
  • Kramer, Lloyd, and Sarah Maza, eds. A Companion to Western Historical Thought Blackwell 2006. 520 pp; ISBN 978-1-4051-4961-7.
  • Momigliano, Arnaldo. The Classical Foundation of Modern Historiography, 1990, ISBN 978-0-226-07283-8
  • The Oxford History of Historical Writing (5 vol 2011), Volume 1: Beginnings to AD 600; Volume 2: 600–1400; Volume 3: 1400–1800; Volume 4: 1800–1945; Volume 5: Historical Writing since 1945 catalog
  • Rahman, M. M. ed. Encyclopaedia of Historiography (2006) Excerpt and text search
  • Soffer, Reba. History, Historians, and Conservatism in Britain and America: From the Great War to Thatcher and Reagan (2009) excerpt and text search
  • Thompson, James Westfall. A History of Historical Writing. vol 1: From the earliest Times to the End of the 17th Century (1942); A History of Historical Writing. vol 2: The 18th and 19th Centuries (1942)
  • Woolf, Daniel, ed. A Global Encyclopedia of Historical Writing (2 vol. 1998)
  • Woolf, Daniel. "Historiography", in New Dictionary of the History of Ideas, ed. M.C. Horowitz, (2005), vol. I.
  • Woolf, Daniel. A Global History of History (Cambridge University Press, 2011)
  • Woolf, Daniel, ed. The Oxford History of Historical Writing. 5 vols. (Oxford University Press, 2011–12)
  • Woolf, Daniel, A Concise History Of History (Cambridge University Press, 2019)

Feminist historiography edit

National and regional studies edit

  • Berger, Stefan et al., eds. Writing National Histories: Western Europe Since 1800 (1999) excerpt and text search; how history has been used in Germany, France & Italy to legitimize the nation-state against socialist, communist and Catholic internationalism
  • Iggers, Georg G. A new Directions and European Historiography (1975)
  • LaCapra, Dominic, and Stephen L. Kaplan, eds. Modern European Intellectual History: Reappraisals and New Perspective (1982)

Asia and Africa edit

  • Cohen, Paul (1984). Preview of Discovering history in China: American historical writing on the recent Chinese past [WorldCat.org]. Columbia University Press - Studies of the East Asian Institute. ISBN 023152546X. OCLC 456728837.
  • R.C. Majumdar, Historiography in Modem India (Bombay, 1970) ISBN 978-2102227356
  • Marcinkowski, M. Ismail. Persian Historiography and Geography: Bertold Spuler on Major Works Produced in Iran, the Caucasus, Central Asia, India and Early Ottoman Turkey (Singapore: Pustaka Nasional, 2003)
  • Martin, Thomas R. Herodotus and Sima Qian: The First Great Historians of Greece and China: A Brief History with Documents (2009)
  • E. Sreedharan, A Textbook of Historiography, 500 B.C. to A.D. 2000 (2004)
  • Arvind Sharma, Hinduism and Its Sense of History (Oxford University Press, 2003) ISBN 978-0-19-566531-4
  • Shourie, Arun (2014). Eminent historians: Their technology, their line, their fraud. Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India : HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 978-9351365914
  • Yerxa, Donald A. Recent Themes in the History of Africa and the Atlantic World: Historians in Conversation (2008) excerpt and text search

Britain edit

  • Bann, Stephen. Romanticism and the Rise of History (Twayne Publishers, 1995)
  • Bentley, Michael. Modernizing England's Past: English Historiography in the Age of Modernism, 1870–1970 (2006) excerpt and text search
  • Cannadine, David. In Churchill's Shadow: Confronting the Passed in Modern Britain (2003)
  • Furber, Elizabeth, ed. Changing Views on British History; Essays on Historical Writing Since 1939 (1966); 418pp; essays by scholars
  • Goldstein, Doris S. (1986). "The origins and early years of the English Historical Review". English Historical Review. 101 (398): 6–19. doi:10.1093/ehr/ci.cccxcviii.6.
  • Goldstein, Doris S. (1982). "The Organizational Development of the British Historical Profession, 1884–1921". Historical Research. 55 (132): 180–193. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2281.1982.tb01157.x.
  • Hale, John Rigby, ed. The evolution of British historiography: from Bacon to Namier (1967).
  • Hexter, J. H. On Historians: Reappraisals of some of the makers of modern history (1979); covers Carl Becker, Wallace Ferguson, Fernan Braudel, Lawrence Stone, Christopher Hill, and J.G.A. Pocock
  • Howsam, Leslie. "Academic Discipline or Literary Genre?: The Establishment of Boundaries in Historical Writing". Victorian Literature and Culture 32.02 (2004): 525–545. online
  • Jann, Rosemary. The Art and Science of Victorian History (1985)
  • Jann, Rosemary. "From Amateur to Professional: The Case of the Oxbridge Historians". Journal of British Studies (1983) 22#2 pp: 122–147.
  • Kenyon, John. The History Men: The Historical Profession in England since the Renaissance (1983)
  • Loades, David. Reader's Guide to British History (2 vol. 2003) 1700pp; 1600-word-long historiographical essays on about 1000 topics
  • Mitchell, Rosemary. Picturing the Past: English History in Text and Image 1830–1870 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2000)
  • Philips, Mark Salber. Society and Sentiment: Genres of Historical Writing in Britain, 1740–1820 (Princeton University Press, 2000).
  • Richardson, Roger Charles, ed. The debate on the English Revolution (2nd ed. Manchester University Press, 1998)
  • Schlatter, Richard, ed. Recent Views on British History: Essays on Historical Writing Since 1966 (1984) 525 pp; 13 topics essays by scholars
British Empire edit
  • Berger, Carl. Writing Canadian History: Aspects of English Canadian Historical Writing since 1900, (2nd ed. 1986)
  • Bhattacharjee, J. B. Historians and Historiography of North East India (2012)
  • Davison, Graeme. The Use and Abuse of Australian History (2000)
  • Farrell, Frank. Themes in Australian History: Questions, Issues and Interpretation in an Evolving Historiography (1990)
  • Gare, Deborah. "Britishness in Recent Australian Historiography", The Historical Journal, Vol. 43, No. 4 (Dec., 2000), pp. 1145–1155 in JSTOR
  • Guha, Ranajiit. Dominance Without Hegemony: History and Power in Colonial India (Harvard UP, 1998)
  • Granatstein, J. L. Who Killed Canadian History? (1998)
  • Mittal, S. C India distorted: A study of British historians on India (1995), on 19th century writers
  • Saunders, Christopher. The making of the South African past: major historians on race and class, (1988)
  • Winks, Robin, ed. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume V: Historiography (2001)

France edit

Further information: Historiography of the French Revolution, Annales school, and Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine
  • Burke, Peter. The French Historical Revolution: The Annales School 1929–2014 (John Wiley & Sons, 2015).
  • Clark, Stuart (1983). "French historians and early modern popular culture". Past & Present. 100: 62–99. doi:10.1093/past/100.1.62.
  • Daileader, Philip and Philip Whalen, eds. French Historians 1900–2000: New Historical Writing in Twentieth-Century France (2010) 40 long essays by experts. excerpt
  • Revel, Jacques, and Lynn Hunt, eds. Histories: French Constructions of the Past, (1995). 654pp; 65 essays by French historians
  • Stoianovich, Traian. French Historical Method: The Annales Paradigm (1976)

Germany edit

Further information: Historiography of Germany and Bielefeld School
  • Fletcher, Roger. "Recent developments in West German Historiography: the Bielefeld School and its critics". German Studies Review (1984): 451–480. in JSTOR
  • Hagemann, Karen, and Jean H. Quataert, eds. Gendering Modern German History: Rewriting Historiography (2008)
  • Iggers, Georg G. The German Conception of History: The National Tradition of Historical Thought from Herder to the Present (2nd ed. 1983)
  • Rüger, Jan, and Nikolaus Wachsmann, eds. Rewriting German history: new perspectives on modern Germany (Palgrave Macmillan, 2015). excerpt
  • Sheehan, James J. "What is German history? Reflections on the role of the nation in German history and historiography". Journal of Modern History (1981): 2–23. in JSTOR
  • Sperber, Jonathan. "Master Narratives of Nineteenth-century German History". Central European History (1991) 24#1: 69–91. online
  • Stuchtey, Benedikt, and Peter Wende, eds. British and German historiography, 1750–1950: traditions, perceptions, and transfers (2000).

Latin America edit

  • Adelman, Jeremy, ed. Colonial Legacies. New York: Routledge 1999.
  • Coatsworth, John. "Cliometrics and Mexican History", Historical Methods18:1 (Winter 1985)31–37.
  • Gootenberg, Paul (2004). "Between a Rock and a Softer Place: Reflections on Some Recent Economic History of Latin America". Latin American Research Review. 39 (2): 239–257. doi:10.1353/lar.2004.0031. S2CID 144339079.
  • Kuzensof; Oppenheimer, Robert (1985). "The Family and Society in Nineteenth-Century Latin America: An Historiographical Introduction". Journal of Family History. 10 (3): 215–234. doi:10.1177/036319908501000301. S2CID 145607701.
  • Lockhart, James. "The Social History of Early Latin America". Latin American Research Review 1972.
  • Moya, José C. The Oxford Handbook of Latin American History. New York: Oxford University Press 2011.
  • Russell-Wood, A. J. R. (2001). "Archives and the Recent Historiography on Colonial Brazil". Latin American Research Review. 36: 175–103. doi:10.1017/S0023879100018847. S2CID 252750152.
  • Van Young, Eric (1999). "The New Cultural History Comes to Old Mexico". The Hispanic American Historical Review. 79 (2): 211–248. doi:10.1215/00182168-79.2.211.

United States edit

  • Hofstadter, Richard. The Progressive Historians: Turner, Beard, Parrington (1968)
  • Novick, Peter. That Noble Dream: The "Objectivity Question" and the American Historical Profession (1988), ISBN 0-521-34328-3
  • Palmer, William W. "All Coherence Gone? A Cultural History of Leading History Departments in the United States, 1970–2010", Journal of The Historical Society (2012), 12: 111–153. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5923.2012.00360.x
  • Palmer, William. Engagement with the Past: The Lives and Works of the World War II Generation of Historians (2001)
  • Parish, Peter J., ed. Reader's Guide to American History (1997), historiographical overview of 600 topics
  • Wish, Harvey. The American Historian (1960), covers pre-1920

Themes, organizations, and teaching edit

  • Carlebach, Elishiva, et al. eds. Jewish History and Jewish Memory: Essays in Honor of Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi (1998) excerpt and text search
  • Charlton, Thomas L. History of Oral History: Foundations and Methodology (2007)
  • Darcy, R. and Richard C. Rohrs, A Guide to Quantitative History (1995)
  • Dawidowicz, Lucy S. The Holocaust and Historians. (1981).
  • Ernest, John. Liberation Historiography: African American Writers and the Challenge of History, 1794–1861. (2004)
  • Evans, Ronald W. The Hope for American School Reform: The Cold War Pursuit of Inquiry Learning in Social Studies(Palgrave Macmillan; 2011) 265 pages
  • Ferro, Marc, Cinema and History (1988)
  • Green, Anna, and Kathleeen Troup. The Houses of History: A Critical Reader in Twentieth Century History and Theory. 2 ed. Manchester University Press, 2016.
  • Hudson, Pat. History by Numbers: An Introduction to Quantitative Approaches (2002)
  • Jarzombek, Mark, A Prolegomenon to Critical Historiography, Journal of Architectural Education 52/4 (May 1999): 197-206 [2]
  • Keita, Maghan. Race and the Writing of History. Oxford UP (2000)
  • Leavy, Patricia. Oral History: Understanding Qualitative Research (2011) excerpt and text search
  • Loewen, James W. Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong, (1996)
  • Manning, Patrick, ed. World History: Global And Local Interactions (2006)
  • Maza, Sarah. Thinking About History. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2017. doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226109473.001.0001
  • Meister, Daniel R. "The biographical turn and the case for historical biography" History Compass (Dec. 2017) doi:10.1111/hic3.12436 abstract
  • Morris-Suzuki, Tessa. The Past Within Us: Media, Memory, History (2005), ISBN 1-85984-513-4
  • Ritchie, Donald A. The Oxford Handbook of Oral History (2010) excerpt and text search
  • Tröhler, Daniel "History and Historiography. Approaches to Historical Research in Education" T. Fitzgerald (ed.), Handbook of Historical Studies in Education (2019); [3]

External links edit

  • [4] short guide to Historiographical terms
  • Basic guide to historiography research for undergraduates
  • Cromohs – cyber review of modern historiography open-access electronic scholarly journal 2019-10-23 at the Wayback Machine

January 19, 2024
historiography, study, history, redirects, here, book, toynbee, study, history, historical, school, redirects, here, approach, economics, historical, school, economics, movement, jurisprudence, german, historical, school, study, methods, historians, developing. Study of history redirects here For the book by Toynbee see A Study of History Historical school redirects here For the approach to economics see Historical school of economics For the movement in jurisprudence see German Historical School Historiography is the study of the methods of historians in developing history as an academic discipline and by extension is any body of historical work on a particular subject The historiography of a specific topic covers how historians have studied that topic by using particular sources techniques and theoretical approaches Scholars discuss historiography by topic such as the historiography of the United Kingdom that of WWII the pre Columbian Americas early Islam and China and different approaches and genres such as political history and social history Beginning in the nineteenth century with the development of academic history there developed a body of historiographic literature The extent to which historians are influenced by their own groups and loyalties such as to their nation state remains a debated question 1 2 Allegory on writing history by Jacob de Wit 1754 An almost naked Truth keeps an eye on the writer of history Pallas Athena Wisdom on left gives advice In the ancient world chronological annals were produced in civilizations such as ancient Egypt and Ancient Near East The discipline of historiography was established in the 5th century BC with the Histories of Herodotus the founder of historiography The Roman statesman Cato the Elder produced the first Roman historiography the Origines in the 2nd century BCE His near contemporaries Sima Tan and Sima Qian in the Han Empire of China established Chinese historiography compiling the Shiji Records of the Grand Historian During the Middle Ages medieval historiography included the works of chronicles in medieval Europe Islamic histories by Muslim historians and the Korean and Japanese historical writings based on the existing Chinese model During the 18th century Age of Enlightenment historiography in the Western world was shaped and developed by figures such as Voltaire David Hume and Edward Gibbon who among others set the foundations for the modern discipline In the 19th century historical studies became professionalized at universities and research centers along with a belief that history was like a science 3 In the 20th century historians incorporated social science dimensions like politics economy and culture in their historiography 3 The research interests of historians change over time and there has been a shift away from traditional diplomatic economic and political history toward newer approaches especially social and cultural studies From 1975 to 1995 the proportion of professors of history in American universities identifying with social history increased from 31 to 41 percent while the proportion of political historians decreased from 40 to 30 percent 4 In 2007 of 5 723 faculty in the departments of history at British universities 1 644 29 percent identified themselves with social history and 1 425 25 percent identified themselves with political history 5 Since the 1980s there has been a special interest in the memories and commemoration of past events the histories as remembered and presented for popular celebration 6 Contents 1 Terminology 2 History 2 1 Antiquity 2 1 1 Europe 2 1 1 1 Greece 2 1 1 2 Rome 2 1 2 East Asia 2 1 2 1 China 2 2 Middle Ages to Renaissance 2 2 1 Christendom 2 2 2 Islamic world 2 2 3 East Asia 2 2 3 1 Japan 2 2 3 2 Korea 2 2 3 3 China 2 2 4 South East Asia 2 2 4 1 Philippines 2 3 Enlightenment 2 3 1 Voltaire 2 3 2 David Hume 2 3 3 Edward Gibbon 2 4 19th century 2 4 1 Thomas Carlyle 2 4 2 French historians Michelet and Taine 2 4 3 Cultural and constitutional history 2 4 4 Von Ranke and professionalization in Germany 2 4 5 Macaulay and Whig history 2 5 20th century 2 5 1 France Annales school 2 5 2 Marxist historiography 2 5 3 Biography 2 5 4 British debates 2 5 5 U S approaches 2 5 5 1 Progressive historians 2 5 5 2 Consensus history 2 5 5 3 New Left history 2 5 5 4 Quantification and new approaches to history 2 5 6 Latin America 2 5 7 World history 2 5 8 The cultural turn 2 5 9 Memory studies 3 Scholarly journals 3 1 Some major historical journals 4 Narrative 5 Topics studied 6 Approaches 6 1 Related fields 7 See also 7 1 Methods 7 2 Topics 8 References 9 Bibliography 9 1 Theory 9 2 Guides to scholarship 9 3 Histories of historical writing 9 4 Feminist historiography 9 5 National and regional studies 9 5 1 Asia and Africa 9 5 2 Britain 9 5 2 1 British Empire 9 5 3 France 9 5 4 Germany 9 5 5 Latin America 9 5 6 United States 9 6 Themes organizations and teaching 10 External linksTerminology editIn the early modern period the term historiography meant the writing of history and historiographer meant historian In that sense certain official historians were given the title Historiographer Royal in Sweden from 1618 England from 1660 and Scotland from 1681 The Scottish post is still in existence Historiography was more recently defined as the study of the way history has been and is written the history of historical writing which means that When you study historiography you do not study the events of the past directly but the changing interpretations of those events in the works of individual historians 7 History editAntiquity edit Further information Ancient history Understanding the past appears to be a universal human need and the telling of history has emerged independently in civilizations around the world What constitutes history is a philosophical question see philosophy of history The earliest chronologies date back to Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt in the form of chronicles and annals However no historical writers in these early civilizations were known by name By contrast the term historiography is taken to refer to written history recorded in a narrative format for the purpose of informing future generations about events In this limited sense ancient history begins with the early historiography of Classical Antiquity in about the 5th century BC Europe edit Greece edit Main article Greek historiography Further information Ancient Greek literature nbsp Reproduction of part of a tenth century copy of Thucydides s History of the Peloponnesian WarThe earliest known systematic historical thought emerged in ancient Greece a development which would be an important influence on the writing of history elsewhere around the Mediterranean region Greek historians greatly contributed to the development of historical methodology The earliest known critical historical works were The Histories composed by Herodotus of Halicarnassus 484 425 BC who became known as the father of history 8 Herodotus attempted to distinguish between more and less reliable accounts and personally conducted research by travelling extensively giving written accounts of various Mediterranean cultures Although Herodotus overall emphasis lay on the actions and characters of men he also attributed an important role to divinity in the determination of historical events nbsp Bust of Thucydides Hellenistic copy of a 4th century BC workThe generation following Herodotus witnessed a spate of local histories of the individual city states poleis written by the first of the local historians who employed the written archives of city and sanctuary Dionysius of Halicarnassus characterized these historians as the forerunners of Thucydides 9 and these local histories continued to be written into Late Antiquity as long as the city states survived Two early figures stand out Hippias of Elis who produced the lists of winners in the Olympic Games that provided the basic chronological framework as long as the pagan classical tradition lasted and Hellanicus of Lesbos who compiled more than two dozen histories from civic records all of them now lost Thucydides largely eliminated divine causality in his account of the war between Athens and Sparta establishing a rationalistic element which set a precedent for subsequent Western historical writings He was also the first to distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event while his successor Xenophon c 431 355 BC introduced autobiographical elements and character studies in his Anabasis The proverbial Philippic attacks of the Athenian orator Demosthenes 384 322 BC on Philip II of Macedon marked the height of ancient political agitation The now lost history of Alexander s campaigns by the diadoch Ptolemy I 367 283 BC may represent the first historical work composed by a ruler Polybius c 203 120 BC wrote on the rise of Rome to world prominence and attempted to harmonize the Greek and Roman points of view The Chaldean priest Berossus fl 3rd century BC composed a Greek language History of Babylonia for the Seleucid king Antiochus I combining Hellenistic methods of historiography and Mesopotamian accounts to form a unique composite Reports exist of other near eastern histories such as that of the Phoenician historian Sanchuniathon but he is considered semi legendary and writings attributed to him are fragmentary known only through the later historians Philo of Byblos and Eusebius who asserted that he wrote before even the Trojan war Rome edit Main article Roman historiography Further information Latin literature nbsp The Roman bust of historian Cato the ElderThe Romans adopted the Greek tradition writing at first in Greek but eventually chronicling their history in a freshly non Greek language While early Roman works were still written in Greek the Origines composed by the Roman statesman Cato the Elder 234 149 BC was written in Latin in a conscious effort to counteract Greek cultural influence It marked the beginning of Latin historical writings Hailed for its lucid style Julius Caesar s 103 44 BC de Bello Gallico exemplifies autobiographical war coverage The politician and orator Cicero 106 43 BCE introduced rhetorical elements in his political writings Strabo 63 BC c 24 AD was an important exponent of the Greco Roman tradition of combining geography with history presenting a descriptive history of peoples and places known to his era Livy 59 BC 17 AD records the rise of Rome from city state to empire His speculation about what would have happened if Alexander the Great had marched against Rome represents the first known instance of alternate history 10 Biography although popular throughout antiquity was introduced as a branch of history by the works of Plutarch c 45 125 CE and Suetonius c 69 after 130 CE who described the deeds and characters of ancient personalities stressing their human side Tacitus c 56 c 117 CE denounces Roman immorality by praising German virtues elaborating on the topos of the Noble savage East Asia edit China edit Main articles Chinese historiography and Twenty Four Histories Further information Chinese literature nbsp First page of the ShijiThe Han dynasty eunuch Sima Qian around 100 BCE was the first in China to lay the groundwork for professional historical writing His work superseded the older style of the Spring and Autumn Annals compiled in the 5th century BC the Bamboo Annals and other court and dynastic annals that recorded history in a chronological form that abstained from analysis Sima s Shiji Records of the Grand Historian pioneered the Annals biography format which would become the standard for prestige history writing in China In this genre a history opens with a chronological outline of court affairs and then continues with detailed biographies of prominent people who lived during the period in question 11 The scope of his work extended as far back as the 16th century BC and included many treatises on specific subjects and individual biographies of prominent people He also explored the lives and deeds of commoners both contemporary and those of previous eras Whereas Sima s had been a universal history from the beginning of time down to the time of writing his successor Ban Gu wrote an annals biography history limiting its coverage to only the Western Han dynasty the Book of Han 96 AD This established the notion of using dynastic boundaries as start and end points and most later Chinese histories would focus on a single dynasty or group of dynasties The Records of the Grand Historian and Book of Han were eventually joined by the Book of the Later Han 488 CE replacing the earlier and now only partially extant Han Records from the Eastern Pavilion and the Records of the Three Kingdoms 297 CE to form the Four Histories These became mandatory reading for the Imperial Examinations and have therefore exerted an influence on Chinese culture comparable to the Confucian Classics More annals biography histories were written in subsequent dynasties eventually bringing the number to between twenty four and twenty six but none ever reached the popularity and impact of the first four 12 Traditional Chinese historiography describes history in terms of dynastic cycles In this view each new dynasty is founded by a morally righteous founder Over time the dynasty becomes morally corrupt and dissolute Eventually the dynasty becomes so weak as to allow its replacement by a new dynasty 13 In 281 AD the tomb of King Xiang of Wei d 296 BC was opened inside of which was found a historical text called the Bamboo Annals after the writing material It is similar in style to the Spring and Autumn Annals and covers the time from the Yellow Emperor to 299 BC Opinions on the authenticity of the text has varied throughout the centuries and in any event it was re discovered too late to gain anything like the same status as the Spring and Autumn 14 Middle Ages to Renaissance edit Christendom edit See also Christendom Hagiography Medieval literature and Ethiopian historiography nbsp A page of Bede s Ecclesiastical History of the English PeopleChristian historical writing arguably begins with the narrative sections of the New Testament particularly Luke Acts which is the primary source for the Apostolic Age though its historical reliability is disputed The first tentative beginnings of a specifically Christian historiography can be seen in Clement of Alexandria in the second century 15 The growth of Christianity and its enhanced status in the Roman Empire after Constantine I see State church of the Roman Empire led to the development of a distinct Christian historiography influenced by both Christian theology and the nature of the Christian Bible encompassing new areas of study and views of history The central role of the Bible in Christianity is reflected in the preference of Christian historians for written sources compared to the classical historians preference for oral sources and is also reflected in the inclusion of politically unimportant people Christian historians also focused on development of religion and society This can be seen in the extensive inclusion of written sources in the Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius of Caesarea around 324 and in the subjects it covers 16 Christian theology considered time as linear progressing according to divine plan As God s plan encompassed everyone Christian histories in this period had a universal approach For example Christian writers often included summaries of important historical events prior to the period covered by the work 17 Writing history was popular among Christian monks and clergy in the Middle Ages They wrote about the history of Jesus Christ that of the Church and that of their patrons the dynastic history of the local rulers In the Early Middle Ages historical writing often took the form of annals or chronicles recording events year by year but this style tended to hamper the analysis of events and causes 18 An example of this type of writing is the Anglo Saxon Chronicle which was the work of several different writers it was started during the reign of Alfred the Great in the late 9th century but one copy was still being updated in 1154 Some writers in the period did construct a more narrative form of history These included Gregory of Tours and more successfully Bede who wrote both secular and ecclesiastical history and who is known for writing the Ecclesiastical History of the English People 16 During the Renaissance history was written about states or nations The study of history changed during the Enlightenment and Romanticism Voltaire described the history of certain ages that he considered important rather than describing events in chronological order History became an independent discipline It was not called philosophia historiae anymore but merely history historia nbsp Autograph writing of Ibn Khaldun pioneer of historiography cultural history and the philosophy of historyIslamic world edit See also Historiography of early Islam Muqaddimah and Muslim historians Muslim historical writings first began to develop in the 7th century with the reconstruction of the Prophet Muhammad s life in the centuries following his death With numerous conflicting narratives regarding Muhammad and his companions from various sources it was necessary to verify which sources were more reliable In order to evaluate these sources various methodologies were developed such as the science of biography science of hadith and Isnad chain of transmission These methodologies were later applied to other historical figures in the Islamic civilization Famous historians in this tradition include Urwah d 712 Wahb ibn Munabbih d 728 Ibn Ishaq d 761 al Waqidi 745 822 Ibn Hisham d 834 Muhammad al Bukhari 810 870 and Ibn Hajar 1372 1449 19 Historians of the medieval Islamic world also developed an interest in world history 20 Islamic historical writing eventually culminated in the works of the Arab Muslim historian Ibn Khaldun 1332 1406 who published his historiographical studies in the Muqaddimah translated as Prolegomena and Kitab al I bar Book of Advice 21 22 His work was forgotten until it was rediscovered in the late 19th century 23 East Asia edit Japan edit Main article Historiography of Japan Further information Japanese literature The earliest works of history produced in Japan were the Rikkokushi Six National Histories a corpus of six national histories covering the history of Japan from its mythological beginnings until the 9th century The first of these works were the Nihon Shoki compiled by Prince Toneri in 720 Korea edit Main article Historiography of Korea Further information Korean literature The tradition of Korean historiography was established with the Samguk Sagi a history of Korea from its allegedly earliest times It was compiled by Goryeo court historian Kim Busik after its commission by King Injong of Goryeo r 1122 1146 It was completed in 1145 and relied not only on earlier Chinese histories for source material but also on the Hwarang Segi written by the Silla historian Kim Daemun in the 8th century The latter work is now lost 24 China edit In 1084 the Song dynasty official Sima Guang completed the Zizhi Tongjian Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government which laid out the entire history of China from the beginning of the Warring States period 403 BCE to the end of the Five Dynasties period 959 CE in chronological annals form rather than in the traditional annals biography form This work is considered much more accessible than the Official Histories for the Six dynasties Tang dynasty and Five Dynasties and in practice superseded those works in the mind of the general reader 25 The great Song Neo Confucian Zhu Xi found the Mirror to be overly long for the average reader as well as too morally nihilist and therefore prepared a didactic summary of it called the Zizhi Tongjian Gangmu Digest of the Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government posthumously published in 1219 It reduced the original s 249 chapters to just 59 and for the rest of imperial Chinese history would be the first history book most people ever read 26 South East Asia edit Philippines edit Main article Historiography of the Philippines nbsp Laguna copperplate inscriptionHistoriography of the Philippines refers to the studies sources critical methods and interpretations used by scholars to study the history of the Philippines It includes historical and archival research and writing on the history of the Philippine archipelago including the islands of Luzon Visayas and Mindanao 27 28 The Philippine archipelago was part of many empires before the Spanish Empire arrived in the 16th century Before the arrival of Spanish colonial powers the Philippines did not actually exist Southeast Asia is classified as part of the Indosphere 29 30 and the Sinosphere 31 32 The archipelago had direct contact with China during the Song dynasty 960 1279 33 and was a part of the Srivijaya and Majapahit empires 34 The pre colonial Philippines widely used the abugida system in writing and seals on documents though it was for communication and no recorded writings of early literature or history clarification needed 35 Ancient Filipinos usually wrote documents on bamboo bark and leaves which did not survive unlike inscriptions on clay metal and ivory did such as the Laguna Copperplate Inscription and Butuan Ivory Seal The discovery of the Butuan Ivory Seal also proves the use of paper documents in ancient Philippines The arrival of the Spanish colonizers pre colonial Filipino manuscripts and documents were gathered and burned to eliminate pagan beliefs This has been the burden of historians in the accumulation of data and the development of theories that gave historians many aspects of Philippine history that were left unexplained 36 The interplay of pre colonial events and the use of secondary sources written by historians to evaluate the primary sources do not provide a critical examination of the methodology of the early Philippine historical study 37 Enlightenment edit nbsp Voltaire s works of history are an excellent example of Enlightenment era advances in accuracy During the Age of Enlightenment the modern development of historiography through the application of scrupulous methods began Among the many Italians who contributed to this were Leonardo Bruni c 1370 1444 Francesco Guicciardini 1483 1540 and Cesare Baronio 1538 1607 Voltaire edit French philosophe Voltaire 1694 1778 had an enormous influence on the development of historiography during the Age of Enlightenment through his demonstration of fresh new ways to look at the past Guillaume de Syon argues Voltaire recast historiography in both factual and analytical terms Not only did he reject traditional biographies and accounts that claim the work of supernatural forces but he went so far as to suggest that earlier historiography was rife with falsified evidence and required new investigations at the source Such an outlook was not unique in that the scientific spirit that 18th century intellectuals perceived themselves as invested with A rationalistic approach was key to rewriting history 38 Voltaire s best known histories are The Age of Louis XIV 1751 and his Essay on the Customs and the Spirit of the Nations 1756 He broke from the tradition of narrating diplomatic and military events and emphasized customs social history and achievements in the arts and sciences He was the first scholar to make a serious attempt to write the history of the world eliminating theological frameworks and emphasizing economics culture and political history Although he repeatedly warned against political bias on the part of the historian he did not miss many opportunities to expose the intolerance and frauds of the church over the ages Voltaire advised scholars that anything contradicting the normal course of nature was not to be believed Although he found evil in the historical record he fervently believed reason and educating the illiterate masses would lead to progress Voltaire s History of Charles XII 1731 about the Swedish warrior king Swedish Karl XII is also one of his most famous works It is not least known as one of Napoleon s absolute favorite books 39 Voltaire explains his view of historiography in his article on History in Diderot s Encyclopedie One demands of modern historians more details better ascertained facts precise dates more attention to customs laws mores commerce finance agriculture population Already in 1739 he had written My chief object is not political or military history it is the history of the arts of commerce of civilization in a word of the human mind 40 Voltaire s histories used the values of the Enlightenment to evaluate the past He helped free historiography from antiquarianism Eurocentrism religious intolerance and a concentration on great men diplomacy and warfare 41 Peter Gay says Voltaire wrote very good history citing his scrupulous concern for truths careful sifting of evidence intelligent selection of what is important keen sense of drama and grasp of the fact that a whole civilization is a unit of study 42 43 full citation needed David Hume edit At the same time philosopher David Hume was having a similar effect on the study of history in Great Britain In 1754 he published The History of England a 6 volume work which extended From the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution in 1688 Hume adopted a similar scope to Voltaire in his history as well as the history of Kings Parliaments and armies he examined the history of culture including literature and science as well His short biographies of leading scientists explored the process of scientific change and he developed new ways of seeing scientists in the context of their times by looking at how they interacted with society and each other he paid special attention to Francis Bacon Robert Boyle Isaac Newton and William Harvey 44 He also argued that the quest for liberty was the highest standard for judging the past and concluded that after considerable fluctuation England at the time of his writing had achieved the most entire system of liberty that was ever known amongst mankind 45 Edward Gibbon edit nbsp Edward Gibbon s Decline of the Roman Empire 1776 was a masterpiece of late 18th century history writing The apex of Enlightenment history was reached with Edward Gibbon s monumental six volume work The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire published on 17 February 1776 Because of its relative objectivity and heavy use of primary sources its methodology became a model for later historians This has led to Gibbon being called the first modern historian 46 The book sold impressively earning its author a total of about 9000 Biographer Leslie Stephen wrote that thereafter His fame was as rapid as it has been lasting Gibbon s work has been praised for its style its piquant epigrams and its effective irony Winston Churchill memorably noted I set out upon Gibbon s Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire and was immediately dominated both by the story and the style I devoured Gibbon I rode triumphantly through it from end to end and enjoyed it all 47 Gibbon was pivotal in the secularizing and desanctifying of history remarking for example on the want of truth and common sense of biographies composed by Saint Jerome 48 Unusually for an 18th century historian Gibbon was never content with secondhand accounts when the primary sources were accessible though most of these were drawn from well known printed editions He said I have always endeavoured to draw from the fountain head that my curiosity as well as a sense of duty has always urged me to study the originals and that if they have sometimes eluded my search I have carefully marked the secondary evidence on whose faith a passage or a fact were reduced to depend 49 In this insistence upon the importance of primary sources Gibbon broke new ground in the methodical study of history In accuracy thoroughness lucidity and comprehensive grasp of a vast subject the History is unsurpassable It is the one English history which may be regarded as definitive Whatever its shortcomings the book is artistically imposing as well as historically unimpeachable as a vast panorama of a great period 50 19th century edit nbsp Japanese print depicting Thomas Carlyle s horror at the burning of his manuscript The French Revolution A HistoryThe tumultuous events surrounding the French Revolution inspired much of the historiography and analysis of the early 19th century Interest in the 1688 Glorious Revolution was also rekindled by the Great Reform Act of 1832 in England Nineteenth century historiography especially among American historians featured conflicting viewpoints that represented the times According to 20th century historian Richard Hofstadter 51 The historians of the nineteenth century worked under the pressure of two internal tensions on one side there was the constant demand of society whether through the nationstate the church or some special group or class interest for memory mixed with myth for the historical tale that would strengthen group loyalties or confirm national pride and against this there were the demands of critical method and even after a time the goal of writing scientific history Thomas Carlyle edit Thomas Carlyle published his three volume The French Revolution A History in 1837 The first volume was accidentally burned by John Stuart Mill s maid Carlyle rewrote it from scratch 52 Carlyle s style of historical writing stressed the immediacy of action often using the present tense He emphasised the role of forces of the spirit in history and thought that chaotic events demanded what he called heroes to take control over the competing forces erupting within society He considered the dynamic forces of history as being the hopes and aspirations of people that took the form of ideas and were often ossified into ideologies Carlyle s The French Revolution was written in a highly unorthodox style far removed from the neutral and detached tone of the tradition of Gibbon Carlyle presented the history as dramatic events unfolding in the present as though he and the reader were participants on the streets of Paris at the famous events Carlyle s invented style was epic poetry combined with philosophical treatise It is rarely read or cited in the last century 53 54 French historians Michelet and Taine edit nbsp Jules Michelet 1798 1874 later in his career nbsp Hippolyte Taine 1828 1893 In his main work Histoire de France 1855 French historian Jules Michelet 1798 1874 coined the term Renaissance meaning rebirth in French as a period in Europe s cultural history that represented a break from the Middle Ages creating a modern understanding of humanity and its place in the world 55 The 19 volume work covered French history from Charlemagne to the outbreak of the French Revolution His inquiry into manuscript and printed authorities was most laborious but his lively imagination and his strong religious and political prejudices made him regard all things from a singularly personal point of view 56 Michelet was one of the first historians to shift the emphasis of history to the common people rather than the leaders and institutions of the country He had a decisive impact on scholars Gayana Jurkevich argues that led by Michelet 19th century French historians no longer saw history as the chronicling of royal dynasties armies treaties and great men of state but as the history of ordinary French people and the landscape of France 57 Hippolyte Taine 1828 1893 although unable to secure an academic position was the chief theoretical influence of French naturalism a major proponent of sociological positivism and one of the first practitioners of historicist criticism He pioneered the idea of the milieu as an active historical force which amalgamated geographical psychological and social factors Historical writing for him was a search for general laws His brilliant style kept his writing in circulation long after his theoretical approaches were passe 58 Cultural and constitutional history edit One of the major progenitors of the history of culture and art was the Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt 59 Siegfried Giedion described Burckhardt s achievement in the following terms The great discoverer of the age of the Renaissance he first showed how a period should be treated in its entirety with regard not only for its painting sculpture and architecture but for the social institutions of its daily life as well 60 His most famous work was The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy published in 1860 it was the most influential interpretation of the Italian Renaissance in the nineteenth century and is still widely read According to John Lukacs he was the first master of cultural history which seeks to describe the spirit and the forms of expression of a particular age a particular people or a particular place His innovative approach to historical research stressed the importance of art and its inestimable value as a primary source for the study of history He was one of the first historians to rise above the narrow nineteenth century notion that history is past politics and politics current history 61 By the mid 19th century scholars were beginning to analyse the history of institutional change particularly the development of constitutional government William Stubbs s Constitutional History of England 3 vols 1874 1878 was an important influence on this developing field The work traced the development of the English constitution from the Teutonic invasions of Britain until 1485 and marked a distinct step in the advance of English historical learning 62 He argued that the theory of the unity and continuity of history should not remove distinctions between ancient and modern history He believed that though work on ancient history is a useful preparation for the study of modern history either may advantageously be studied apart He was a good palaeographer and excelled in textual criticism in examination of authorship and other such matters while his vast erudition and retentive memory made him second to none in interpretation and exposition 63 Von Ranke and professionalization in Germany edit Main article Historiography of Germany nbsp Ranke established history as a professional academic discipline in Germany The modern academic study of history and methods of historiography were pioneered in 19th century German universities especially the University of Gottingen Leopold von Ranke 1795 1886 at Berlin was a pivotal influence in this regard and was the founder of modern source based history 64 65 According to Caroline Hoefferle Ranke was probably the most important historian to shape historical profession as it emerged in Europe and the United States in the late 19th century 66 67 Specifically he implemented the seminar teaching method in his classroom and focused on archival research and analysis of historical documents Beginning with his first book in 1824 the History of the Latin and Teutonic Peoples from 1494 to 1514 Ranke used an unusually wide variety of sources for a historian of the age including memoirs diaries personal and formal missives government documents diplomatic dispatches and first hand accounts of eye witnesses Over a career that spanned much of the century Ranke set the standards for much of later historical writing introducing such ideas as reliance on primary sources an emphasis on narrative history and especially international politics Aussenpolitik 68 Sources had to be solid not speculations and rationalizations His credo was to write history the way it was He insisted on primary sources with proven authenticity Ranke also rejected the teleological approach to history which traditionally viewed each period as inferior to the period which follows In Ranke s view the historian had to understand a period on its own terms and seek to find only the general ideas which animated every period of history In 1831 and at the behest of the Prussian government Ranke founded and edited the first historical journal in the world called Historisch Politische Zeitschrift Another important German thinker was Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel whose theory of historical progress ran counter to Ranke s approach In Hegel s own words his philosophical theory of World history represents the development of the spirit s consciousness of its own freedom and of the consequent realization of this freedom 69 This realization is seen by studying the various cultures that have developed over the millennia and trying to understand the way that freedom has worked itself out through them World history is the record of the spirit s efforts to attain knowledge of what it is in itself The Orientals do not know that the spirit or man as such are free in themselves And because they do not know that they are not themselves free They only know that One is free The consciousness of freedom first awoke among the Greeks and they were accordingly free but like the Romans they only knew that Some and not all men as such are free The Germanic nations with the rise of Christianity were the first to realize that All men are by nature free and that freedom of spirit is his very essence 70 Karl Marx introduced the concept of historical materialism into the study of world historical development In his conception the economic conditions and dominant modes of production determined the structure of society at that point In his view five successive stages in the development of material conditions would occur in Western Europe The first stage was primitive communism where property was shared and there was no concept of leadership This progressed to a slave society where the idea of class emerged and the State developed Feudalism was characterized by an aristocracy working in partnership with a theocracy and the emergence of the nation state Capitalism appeared after the bourgeois revolution when the capitalists or their merchant predecessors overthrew the feudal system and established a market economy with private property and parliamentary democracy Marx then predicted the eventual proletarian revolution that would result in the attainment of socialism followed by communism where property would be communally owned Previous historians had focused on cyclical events of the rise and decline of rulers and nations Process of nationalization of history as part of national revivals in the 19th century resulted with separation of one s own history from common universal history by such way of perceiving understanding and treating the past that constructed history as history of a nation 71 A new discipline sociology emerged in the late 19th century and analyzed and compared these perspectives on a larger scale Macaulay and Whig history edit nbsp Macaulay was the most influential exponent of the Whig history The term Whig history coined by Herbert Butterfield in his short book The Whig Interpretation of History in 1931 means the approach to historiography which presents the past as an inevitable progression towards ever greater liberty and enlightenment culminating in modern forms of liberal democracy and constitutional monarchy In general Whig historians emphasized the rise of constitutional government personal freedoms and scientific progress The term has been also applied widely in historical disciplines outside of British history the history of science for example to criticize any teleological or goal directed hero based and transhistorical narrative 72 Paul Rapin de Thoyras s history of England published in 1723 became the classic Whig history for the first half of the 18th century 73 It was later supplanted by the immensely popular The History of England by David Hume Whig historians emphasized the achievements of the Glorious Revolution of 1688 This included James Mackintosh s History of the Revolution in England in 1688 William Blackstone s Commentaries on the Laws of England and Henry Hallam s Constitutional History of England 74 The most famous exponent of Whiggery was Thomas Babington Macaulay His writings are famous for their ringing prose and for their confident sometimes dogmatic emphasis on a progressive model of British history according to which the country threw off superstition autocracy and confusion to create a balanced constitution and a forward looking culture combined with freedom of belief and expression This model of human progress has been called the Whig interpretation of history 75 He published the first volumes of his most famous work of history The History of England from the Accession of James II in 1848 It proved an immediate success and replaced Hume s history to become the new orthodoxy 76 His Whiggish convictions are spelled out in his first chapter I shall relate how the new settlement was successfully defended against foreign and domestic enemies how the authority of law and the security of property were found to be compatible with a liberty of discussion and of individual action never before known how from the auspicious union of order and freedom sprang a prosperity of which the annals of human affairs had furnished no example how our country from a state of ignominious vassalage rapidly rose to the place of umpire among European powers how her opulence and her martial glory grew together how a gigantic commerce gave birth to a maritime power compared with which every other maritime power ancient or modern sinks into insignificance the history of our country during the last hundred and sixty years is eminently the history of physical of moral and of intellectual improvement His legacy continues to be controversial Gertrude Himmelfarb wrote that most professional historians have long since given up reading Macaulay as they have given up writing the kind of history he wrote and thinking about history as he did 77 However J R Western wrote that Despite its age and blemishes Macaulay s History of England has still to be superseded by a full scale modern history of the period 78 The Whig consensus was steadily undermined during the post World War I re evaluation of European history and Butterfield s critique exemplified this trend Intellectuals no longer believed the world was automatically getting better and better Subsequent generations of academic historians have similarly rejected Whig history because of its presentist and teleological assumption that history is driving toward some sort of goal 79 Other criticized Whig assumptions included viewing the British system as the apex of human political development assuming that political figures in the past held current political beliefs anachronism considering British history as a march of progress with inevitable outcomes and presenting political figures of the past as heroes who advanced the cause of this political progress or villains who sought to hinder its inevitable triumph J Hart says a Whig interpretation requires human heroes and villains in the story 80 20th century edit See also Category Historiography by country 20th century historiography in major countries is characterized by a move to universities and academic research centers Popular history continued to be written by self educated amateurs but scholarly history increasingly became the province of PhD s trained in research seminars at a university The training emphasized working with primary sources in archives Seminars taught graduate students how to review the historiography of the topics so that they could understand the conceptual frameworks currently in use and the criticisms regarding their strengths and weaknesses 81 82 Western Europe and the United States took leading roles in this development The emergence of area studies of other regions also developed historiographical practices France Annales school edit Main article Annales school nbsp The 20th century saw the creation of a huge variety of historiographical approaches one was Marc Bloch s focus on social history rather than traditional political history The French Annales school radically changed the focus of historical research in France during the 20th century by stressing long term social history rather than political or diplomatic themes The school emphasized the use of quantification and the paying of special attention to geography 83 84 The Annales d histoire economique et sociale journal was founded in 1929 in Strasbourg by Marc Bloch and Lucien Febvre These authors the former a medieval historian and the latter an early modernist quickly became associated with the distinctive Annales approach which combined geography history and the sociological approaches of the Annee Sociologique many members of which were their colleagues at Strasbourg to produce an approach which rejected the predominant emphasis on politics diplomacy and war of many 19th and early 20th century historians as spearheaded by historians whom Febvre called Les Sorbonnistes Instead they pioneered an approach to a study of long term historical structures la longue duree over events and political transformations 85 Geography material culture and what later Annalistes called mentalites or the psychology of the epoch are also characteristic areas of study The goal of the Annales was to undo the work of the Sorbonnistes to turn French historians away from the narrowly political and diplomatic toward the new vistas in social and economic history 86 For early modern Mexican history the work of Marc Bloch s student Francois Chevalier on the formation of landed estates haciendas from the sixteenth century to the seventeenth had a major impact on Mexican history and historiography 87 setting off an important debate about whether landed estates were basically feudal or capitalistic 88 89 An eminent member of this school Georges Duby described his approach to history as one thatrelegated the sensational to the sidelines and was reluctant to give a simple accounting of events but strived on the contrary to pose and solve problems and neglecting surface disturbances to observe the long and medium term evolution of economy society and civilisation The Annalistes especially Lucien Febvre advocated a histoire totale or histoire tout court a complete study of a historical problem The second era of the school was led by Fernand Braudel and was very influential throughout the 1960s and 1970s especially for his work on the Mediterranean region in the era of Philip II of Spain Braudel developed the idea often associated with Annalistes of different modes of historical time l histoire quasi immobile motionless history of historical geography the history of social political and economic structures la longue duree and the history of men and events in the context of their structures His longue duree approach stressed slow and often imperceptible effects of space climate and technology on the actions of human beings in the past The Annales historians after living through two world wars and major political upheavals in France were deeply uncomfortable with the notion that multiple ruptures and discontinuities created history They preferred to stress slow change and the longue duree They paid special attention to geography climate and demography as long term factors They considered the continuities of the deepest structures were central to history beside which upheavals in institutions or the superstructure of social life were of little significance for history lies beyond the reach of conscious actors especially the will of revolutionaries 90 Noting the political upheavals in Europe and especially in France in 1968 Eric Hobsbawm argued that in France the virtual hegemony of Braudelian history and the Annales came to an end after 1968 and the international influence of the journal dropped steeply 91 Multiple responses were attempted by the school Scholars moved in multiple directions covering in disconnected fashion the social economic and cultural history of different eras and different parts of the globe By the time of crisis the school was building a vast publishing and research network reaching across France Europe and the rest of the world Influence indeed spread out from Paris but few new ideas came in Much emphasis was given to quantitative data seen as the key to unlocking all of social history 92 However the Annales ignored the developments in quantitative studies underway in the U S and Britain which reshaped economic political and demographic research 93 Marxist historiography edit Main article Marxist historiography Further information Communist Party Historians Group Marxist historiography developed as a school of historiography influenced by the chief tenets of Marxism including the centrality of social class and economic constraints in determining historical outcomes historical materialism Friedrich Engels wrote The Peasant War in Germany which analysed social warfare in early Protestant Germany in terms of emerging capitalist classes Although it lacked a rigorous engagement with archival sources it indicated an early interest in history from below and class analysis and it attempts a dialectical analysis Another treatise of Engels The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 was salient in creating the socialist impetus in British politics from then on e g the Fabian Society R H Tawney was an early historian working in this tradition The Agrarian Problem in the Sixteenth Century 1912 94 and Religion and the Rise of Capitalism 1926 reflected his ethical concerns and preoccupations in economic history He was profoundly interested in the issue of the enclosure of land in the English countryside in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and in Max Weber s thesis on the connection between the appearance of Protestantism and the rise of capitalism His belief in the rise of the gentry in the century before the outbreak of the Civil War in England provoked the Storm over the Gentry in which his methods were subjected to severe criticisms by Hugh Trevor Roper and John Cooper Historiography in the Soviet Union was greatly influenced by Marxist historiography as historical materialism was extended into the Soviet version of dialectical materialism A circle of historians inside the Communist Party of Great Britain CPGB formed in 1946 and became a highly influential cluster of British Marxist historians who contributed to history from below and class structure in early capitalist society While some members of the group most notably Christopher Hill and E P Thompson left the CPGB after the 1956 Hungarian Revolution the common points of British Marxist historiography continued in their works They placed a great emphasis on the subjective determination of history Christopher Hill s studies on 17th century English history were widely acknowledged and recognised as representative of this school 95 His books include Puritanism and Revolution 1958 Intellectual Origins of the English Revolution 1965 and revised in 1996 The Century of Revolution 1961 AntiChrist in 17th century England 1971 The World Turned Upside Down 1972 and many others E P Thompson pioneered the study of history from below in his work The Making of the English Working Class published in 1963 It focused on the forgotten history of the first working class political left in the world in the late 18th and early 19th centuries In his preface to this book Thompson set out his approach to writing history from below I am seeking to rescue the poor stockinger the Luddite cropper the obsolete hand loom weaver the Utopian artisan and even the deluded follower of Joanna Southcott from the enormous condescension of posterity Their crafts and traditions may have been dying Their hostility to the new industrialism may have been backward looking Their communitarian ideals may have been fantasies Their insurrectionary conspiracies may have been foolhardy But they lived through these times of acute social disturbance and we did not Their aspirations were valid in terms of their own experience and if they were casualties of history they remain condemned in their own lives as casualties Thompson s work was also significant because of the way he defined class He argued that class was not a structure but a relationship that changed over time He opened the gates for a generation of labor historians such as David Montgomery and Herbert Gutman who made similar studies of the American working classes Other important Marxist historians included Eric Hobsbawm C L R James Raphael Samuel A L Morton and Brian Pearce Biography edit Further information Biography Biography has been a major form of historiography since the days when Plutarch wrote the parallel lives of great Roman and Greek leaders It is a field especially attractive to nonacademic historians and often to the spouses or children of famous people who have access to the trove of letters and documents Academic historians tend to downplay biography because it pays too little attention to broad social cultural political and economic forces and perhaps too much attention to popular psychology The Great Man tradition in Britain originated in the multi volume Dictionary of National Biography which originated in 1882 and issued updates into the 1970s it continues to this day in the new Oxford Dictionary of National Biography In the United States the Dictionary of American Biography was planned in the late 1920s and appeared with numerous supplements into the 1980s It has now been displaced by the American National Biography as well as numerous smaller historical encyclopedias that give thorough coverage to Great Persons Bookstores do a thriving business in biographies which sell far more copies than the esoteric monographs based on post structuralism cultural racial or gender history Michael Holroyd says the last forty years may be seen as a golden age of biography but nevertheless calls it the shallow end of history Nicolas Barker argues that more and more biographies command an ever larger readership as he speculates that biography has come to express the spirit of our age 96 Daniel R Meister argues that Biography Studies is emerging as an independent discipline especially in the Netherlands This Dutch School of biography is moving biography studies away from the less scholarly life writing tradition and towards history by encouraging its practitioners to utilize an approach adapted from microhistory 97 British debates edit Main article Historiography of the United Kingdom Marxist historian E H Carr developed a controversial theory of history in his 1961 book What Is History which proved to be one of the most influential books ever written on the subject 98 He presented a middle of the road position between the empirical or Rankean view of history and R G Collingwood s idealism and rejected the empirical view of the historian s work being an accretion of facts that they have at their disposal as nonsense He maintained that there is such a vast quantity of information that the historian always chooses the facts they decide to make use of In Carr s famous example he claimed that millions had crossed the Rubicon but only Julius Caesar s crossing in 49 BC is declared noteworthy by historians 99 100 For this reason Carr argued that Leopold von Ranke s famous dictum wie es eigentlich gewesen show what actually happened was wrong because it presumed that the facts influenced what the historian wrote rather than the historian choosing what facts of the past they intended to turn into historical facts 101 At the same time Carr argued that the study of the facts may lead the historian to change his or her views In this way Carr argued that history was an unending dialogue between the past and present 99 102 Carr is held by some critics to have had a deterministic outlook in history 103 Others have modified or rejected this use of the label determinist 104 He took a hostile view of those historians who stress the workings of chance and contingency in the workings of history In Carr s view no individual is truly free of the social environment in which they live but contended that within those limitations there was room albeit very narrow room for people to make decisions that affect history Carr emphatically contended that history was a social science not an art 105 because historians like scientists seek generalizations that helped to broaden the understanding of one s subject 105 106 One of Carr s most forthright critics was Hugh Trevor Roper who argued that Carr s dismissal of the might have beens of history reflected a fundamental lack of interest in examining historical causation 107 Trevor Roper asserted that examining possible alternative outcomes of history was far from being a parlour game was rather an essential part of the historians work 108 as only by considering all possible outcomes of a given situation could a historian properly understand the period The controversy inspired Sir Geoffrey Elton to write his 1967 book The Practice of History Elton criticized Carr for his whimsical distinction between the historical facts and the facts of the past arguing that it reflected an extraordinarily arrogant attitude both to the past and to the place of the historian studying it 109 Elton instead strongly defended the traditional methods of history and was also appalled by the inroads made by postmodernism 110 Elton saw the duty of historians as empirically gathering evidence and objectively analyzing what the evidence has to say As a traditionalist he placed great emphasis on the role of individuals in history instead of abstract impersonal forces Elton saw political history as the highest kind of history Elton had no use for those who seek history to make myths to create laws to explain the past or to produce theories such as Marxism U S approaches edit Main article Historiography of the United States Classical and European history was part of the 19th century grammar curriculum American history became a topic later in the 19th century 111 In the historiography of the United States there were a series of major approaches in the 20th century In 2009 2012 there were an average of 16 000 new academic history books published in the U S every year 112 Progressive historians edit Main article Progressive historians The Progressive historians were a group of 20th century historians of the United States associated with a historiographical tradition that embraced an economic interpretation of American history 113 114 Most prominent among these was Charles A Beard who was influential in academia and with the general public 113 Consensus history edit Main article Consensus history Consensus history emphasizes the basic unity of American values and downplays conflict as superficial It was especially attractive in the 1950s and 1960s Prominent leaders included Richard Hofstadter Louis Hartz Daniel Boorstin Allan Nevins Clinton Rossiter Edmund Morgan and David M Potter 115 116 In 1948 Hofstadter made a compelling statement of the consensus model of the U S political tradition The fierceness of the political struggles has often been misleading for the range of vision embraced by the primary contestants in the major parties has always been bounded by the horizons of property and enterprise However much at odds on specific issues the major political traditions have shared a belief in the rights of property the philosophy of economic individualism the value of competition they have accepted the economic virtues of capitalist culture as necessary qualities of man 117 New Left history edit Consensus history was rejected by New Left viewpoints that attracted a younger generation of radical historians in the 1960s These viewpoints stress conflict and emphasize the central roles of class race and gender The history of dissent and the experiences of racial minorities and disadvantaged classes was central to the narratives produced by New Left historians 118 119 120 Quantification and new approaches to history edit Main articles Social history and Political history United States The new political history Social history sometimes called the new social history is a broad branch that studies the experiences of ordinary people in the past 121 122 It had major growth as a field in the 1960s and 1970s and still is well represented in history departments However after 1980 the cultural turn directed the next generation to new topics In the two decades from 1975 to 1995 the proportion of professors of history in U S universities identifying with social history rose from 31 to 41 percent while the proportion of political historians fell from 40 to 30 percent 4 The growth was enabled by the social sciences computers statistics new data sources such as individual census information and summer training programs at the Newberry Library and the University of Michigan The New Political History saw the application of social history methods to politics as the focus shifted from politicians and legislation to voters and elections 123 124 The Social Science History Association was formed in 1976 as an interdisciplinary group with a journal Social Science History and an annual convention The goal was to incorporate in historical studies perspectives from all the social sciences especially political science sociology and economics The pioneers shared a commitment to quantification However by the 1980s the first blush of quantification had worn off as traditional historians counterattacked Harvey J Graff says The case against the new mixed and confused a lengthy list of ingredients including the following history s supposed loss of identity and humanity in the stain of social science the fear of subordinating quality to quantity conceptual and technical fallacies violation of the literary character and biographical base of good history rhetorical and aesthetic concern loss of audiences derogation of history rooted in great men and great events trivialization in general a hodgepodge of ideological objections from all directions and a fear that new historians were reaping research funds that might otherwise come to their detractors To defenders of history as they knew it the discipline was in crisis and the pursuit of the new was a major cause 125 Meanwhile new economic history became well established However cliometrics has never been considered a historical field by the vast majority of historians so that cliometric articles have not been cited by historians 126 127 Economists mostly employed economic theories and econometric applications similar to typical economic papers As a result quantification remained central to demographic studies but slipped behind in political and social history as traditional narrative approaches made a comeback 128 Recently as the newest approach in economic history new history of capitalism appeared In the first article of the related journal Marc Flandreau defined their purpose as crossing border to create a truly interdisciplinary field 129 Latin America edit Further information Historiography of Colonial Spanish America Argentina and Latin American studies Latin America is the former Spanish American empire in the Western Hemisphere plus Portuguese Brazil Professional historians pioneered the creation of this field starting in the late nineteenth century 130 The term Latin America did not come into general usage until the twentieth century and in some cases it was rejected 131 The historiography of the field has been more fragmented than unified with historians of Spanish America and Brazil generally remaining in separate spheres Another standard division within the historiography is the temporal factor with works falling into either the early modern period or colonial era or the post independence or national period from the early nineteenth onward Relatively few works span the two eras and few works except textbooks unite Spanish America and Brazil There is a tendency to focus on histories of particular countries or regions the Andes the Southern Cone the Caribbean with relatively little comparative work Historians of Latin America have contributed to various types of historical writing but one major innovative development in Spanish American history is the emergence of ethnohistory the history of indigenous peoples especially in Mexico based on alphabetic sources in Spanish or in indigenous languages 132 133 134 135 136 For the early modern period the emergence of Atlantic history based on comparisons and linkages of Europe the Americas and Africa from 1450 to 1850 that developed as a field in its own right has integrated early modern Latin American history into a larger framework 137 For all periods global or world history have focused on the connections between areas likewise integrating Latin America into a larger perspective Latin America s importance to world history is notable but often overlooked Latin America s central and sometimes pioneering role in the development of globalization and modernity did not cease with the end of colonial rule and the early modern period Indeed the region s political independence places it at the forefront of two trends that are regularly considered thresholds of the modern world The first is the so called liberal revolution the shift from monarchies of the ancien regime where inheritance legitimated political power to constitutional republics The second and related trend consistently considered a threshold of modern history that saw Latin America in the forefront is the development of nation states 138 Historical research appears in a number of specialized journals These include Hispanic American Historical Review est 1918 published by the Conference on Latin American History The Americas est 1944 Journal of Latin American Studies 1969 Canadian Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Studies est 1976 139 Bulletin of Latin American Research est 1981 Colonial Latin American Review 1992 and Colonial Latin American Historical Review est 1992 Latin American Research Review est 1969 published by the Latin American Studies Association does not focus primarily on history but it has often published historiographical essays on particular topics General works on Latin American history have appeared since the 1950s when the teaching of Latin American history expanded in U S universities and colleges 140 Most attempt full coverage of Spanish America and Brazil from the conquest to the modern era focusing on institutional political social and economic history An important eleven volume treatment of Latin American history is The Cambridge History of Latin America with separate volumes on the colonial era nineteenth century and the twentieth century 141 There is a small number of general works that have gone through multiple editions 142 143 144 Major trade publishers have also issued edited volumes on Latin American history 145 and historiography 146 Reference works include the Handbook of Latin American Studies which publishes articles by area experts with annotated bibliographic entries and the Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture 147 World history edit World history as a distinct field of historical study emerged as an independent academic field in the 1980s It focused on the examination of history from a global perspective and looked for common patterns that emerged across all cultures The basic thematic approach of this field was to analyse two major focal points integration how processes of world history have drawn people of the world together and difference how patterns of world history reveal the diversity of the human experience Arnold J Toynbee s ten volume A Study of History took an approach that was widely discussed in the 1930s and 1940s By the 1960s his work was virtually ignored by scholars and the general public He compared 26 independent civilizations and argued that they displayed striking parallels in their origin growth and decay He proposed a universal model to each of these civilizations detailing the stages through which they all pass genesis growth time of troubles universal state and disintegration The later volumes gave too much emphasis on spirituality to satisfy critics 148 Chicago historian William H McNeill wrote The Rise of the West 1965 to show how the separate civilizations of Eurasia interacted from the very beginning of their history borrowing critical skills from one another and thus precipitating still further change as adjustment between traditional old and borrowed new knowledge and practice became necessary He then discusses the dramatic effect of Western civilization on others in the past 500 years of history McNeill took a broad approach organized around the interactions of peoples across the globe Such interactions have become both more numerous and more continual and substantial in recent times Before about 1500 the network of communication between cultures was that of Eurasia The term for these areas of interaction differ from one world historian to another and include world system and ecumene His emphasis on cultural fusions influenced historical theory significantly 149 The cultural turn edit The cultural turn of the 1980s and 1990s affected scholars in most areas of history 150 Inspired largely by anthropology it turned away from leaders ordinary people and famous events to look at the use of language and cultural symbols to represent the changing values of society 151 The British historian Peter Burke finds that cultural studies has numerous spinoffs or topical themes it has strongly influenced The most important include gender studies and postcolonial studies as well as memory studies and film studies 152 Diplomatic historian Melvyn P Leffler finds that the problem with the cultural turn is that the culture concept is imprecise and may produce excessively broad interpretations because it seems infinitely malleable and capable of giving shape to totally divergent policies for example to internationalism or isolationism in the United States and to cooperative internationalism or race hatred in Japan The malleability of culture suggest to me that in order to understand its effect on policy one needs also to study the dynamics of political economy the evolution of the international system and the roles of technology and communication among many other variables 153 Memory studies edit See also Social memory and Memory studies in historical Jesus research Memory studies is a new field focused on how nations and groups and historians construct and select their memories of the past in order to celebrate or denounce key features thus making a statement of their current values and beliefs 154 155 Historians have played a central role in shaping the memories of the past as their work is diffused through popular history books and school textbooks 156 French sociologist Maurice Halbwachs opened the field with La memoire collective Paris 1950 157 Many historians examine how the memory of the past has been constructed memorialized or distorted Historians examine how legends are invented 158 159 For example there are numerous studies of the memory of atrocities from World War II notably the Holocaust in Europe and Japanese war crimes in Asia 160 161 British historian Heather Jones argues that the historiography of the First World War in recent years has been reinvigorated by the cultural turn Scholars have raised entirely new questions regarding military occupation radicalization of politics race and the male body 162 Representative of recent scholarship is a collection of studies on the Dynamics of Memory and Identity in Contemporary Europe 163 Sage has published the scholarly journal Memory Studies since 2008 and the book series Memory Studies was launched by Palgrave Macmillan in 2010 with 5 10 titles a year 164 Scholarly journals editThe historical journal a forum where academic historians could exchange ideas and publish newly discovered information came into being in the 19th century The early journals were similar to those for the physical sciences and were seen as a means for history to become more professional Journals also helped historians to establish various historiographical approaches the most notable example of which was Annales Economies societes civilisations a publication of the Annales school in France Journals now typically have one or more editors and associate editors an editorial board and a pool of scholars to whom articles that are submitted are sent for confidential evaluation The editors will send out new books to recognized scholars for reviews that usually run 500 to 1000 words The vetting and publication process often takes months or longer Publication in a prestigious journal which accept 10 percent or fewer of the articles submitted is an asset in the academic hiring and promotion process Publication demonstrates that the author is conversant with the scholarly field Page charges and fees for publication are uncommon in history Journals are subsidized by universities or historical societies scholarly associations and subscription fees from libraries and scholars Increasingly they are available through library pools that allow many academic institutions to pool subscriptions to online versions Most libraries have a system for obtaining specific articles through inter library loan 165 Some major historical journals edit This list has no precise inclusion criteria as described in the Manual of Style for standalone lists Please improve this article by adding inclusion criteria or discuss this issue on the talk page November 2023 See also List of history journals Ideas and historiography 1839 Revista do Instituto Historico e Geografico Brasileiro Brazil 1840 Historisk tidsskrift Denmark 1859 Historische Zeitschrift Germany 166 1866 Archivum historicum later Historiallinen arkisto Finland published in Finnish 1867 Szazadok Hungary 1869 Casopis Matice moravske Czech republic then part of Austria Hungary 1871 Historisk tidsskrift Norway 1876 Revue Historique France 1880 Historisk tidskrift Sweden 1886 English Historical Review England 1887 Kwartalnik Historyczny Poland then part of Austria Hungary 1892 William and Mary Quarterly US 1894 Ons Hemecht Luxembourg 1895 American Historical Review US 167 1895 Cesky casopis historicky Czech republic then part of Austria Hungary 1914 Mississippi Valley Historical Review renamed in 1964 the Journal of American History US 168 1915 The Catholic Historical Review US 1916 The Journal of Negro History renamed in 2001 The Journal of African American History US 1916 Historisk Tidskrift for Finland Finland published in Swedish 1918 Hispanic American Historical Review US 1920 Canadian Historical Review Canada 1922 Slavonic and East European Review SEER England 169 1928 Scandia Sweden 1929 Annales d histoire economique et sociale France 1935 Journal of Southern History US 168 1941 The Journal of Economic History US 1944 The Americas US 1951 Historia Mexicana Mexico 1952 Past amp present a journal of historical studies England 1953 Vierteljahrshefte fur Zeitgeschichte Germany 1954 Ethnohistory US 1956 Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria Nigeria 1957 Victorian Studies US 169 1960 Journal of African History England 1960 Technology and culture the international quarterly of the Society for the History of Technology US 1960 History and Theory US 1967 Indian Church History Review India earlier published as the Bulletin of Church History Association of India 170 1967 The Journal of Social History US 1969 Journal of Interdisciplinary History US 1969 Journal of Latin American Studies UK 1975 Geschichte und Gesellschaft Zeitschrift fur historische Sozialwissenschaft Germany 1975 Signs US 1976 Journal of Family History US 1978 The Public Historian US 1981 Bulletin of Latin American Research UK 1982 Storia della Storiografia History of Historiography Histoire de l Historiographie Geschichte der Geschichtsschreibung 171 1982 Subaltern Studies Oxford University Press 1986 Zeitschrift fur Sozialgeschichte des 20 und 21 Jahrhunderts new title since 2003 Sozial Geschichte Zeitschrift fur historische Analyse des 20 und 21 Jahrhunderts Germany 1990 Gender and History US 1990 Journal of World History US 1990 L Homme Zeitschrift fur feministische Geschichtswissenschaft 172 Austria 1990 Osterreichische Zeitschrift fur Geschichtswissenschaften OZG 173 1992 Women s History Review 1992 Colonial Latin American Historical Review US 1992 Colonial Latin American Review 1996 Environmental History US 2011 International Journal for the Historiography of EducationNarrative editAccording to Lawrence Stone narrative has traditionally been the main rhetorical device used by historians In 1979 at a time when the new Social History was demanding a social science model of analysis Stone detected a move back toward the narrative Stone defined narrative as follows it is organized chronologically it is focused on a single coherent story it is descriptive rather than analytical it is concerned with people not abstract circumstances and it deals with the particular and specific rather than the collective and statistical He reported that More and more of the new historians are now trying to discover what was going on inside people s heads in the past and what it was like to live in the past questions which inevitably lead back to the use of narrative 174 Historians committed to a social science approach however have criticized the narrowness of narrative and its preference for anecdote over analysis and its use of clever examples rather than statistically verified empirical regularities 175 Topics studied editSome of the common topics in historiography are Reliability of the sources used in terms of authorship credibility of the author and the authenticity or corruption of the text See also source criticism Historiographical tradition or framework Every historian uses one or more historiographical traditions for example Marxist Annales school total history or political history Moral issues guilt assignment and praise assignment Revisionism versus orthodox interpretations Historical metanarratives and metahistory 176 177 Approaches editHow a historian approaches historical events is one of the most important decisions within historiography Historians commonly recognise that individual historical facts dealing with names dates and places are not particularly meaningful in themselves Such facts only become useful informative when assembled with other historical evidence and the process of assembling this evidence is understood by whom as a particular historiographical approach Some of the most influential historiographical approaches include Big history Black history Chronology Comparative history Cultural history Diplomatic history Economic history history of capitalism Business history financial history Environmental history a relatively new field Ethnohistory Gender history including women s history family history feminist history Global history History of medicine History of religion and church history the history of theology is usually handled by whom under theology history of institutions Indigenous history Industrial history and the history of technology Intellectual history and the history of ideas Labor history Legendary history important in pre modern contexts Local history and microhistory Marxist historiography and historical materialism Military history including naval and air history Mythistory history incorporating elements of myth National history comforting myths of individual peoples Oral history Political history Public history especially museums and historic preservation Quantitative history prosopography using statistics to study biographies History of religions Historiography of science Social history and people s history along with the French version the Annales school and the German Bielefeld School Subaltern Studies regarding post colonial India Urban history American urban history Whig history history interpreted as the story of continuous progress World historyRelated fields edit Important related fields include Antiquarianism Genealogy Intellectual history Numismatics Paleography Philosophy of history PseudohistorySee also editList of historians by area of study Historical significance National memoryMethods edit Archival research Auxiliary sciences of history Historical method Humanistic historiography List of historians inclusive of most major historians List of historians by area of study List of history journals Philosophy of history Popular history Primary source documents correspondence diaries Secondary source interpretations written history Tertiary source textbooks and encyclopedias Periodization Public history including museums and historical preservation Historical revisionism Shared historical authority Historiography at Wikiversity where it is part of the School of HistoryTopics edit African historiography Historiography of Argentina Atlantic history Historiography of Canada Chinese historiography Historiography of the Cold War Historiography of early Christianity Historiography of the French Revolution Annales school in France Historiography of Germany Bielefeld School in Germany Greek historiography Historiography of Alexander the Great Classics History of India Historiography Historiography of the fall of the Mughal Empire Historiography of Islam Historiography of early Islam Historiography of Japan Historiography of Korea Korean nationalist historiography Latin American History Middle Ages Historiography of feudalism Dark Ages historiography Historiography of the Crusades Historiography and nationalism Roman historiography Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire Historiography of Switzerland Historiography in the Soviet Union Historiography of the United Kingdom Historiography of Scotland Historiography of the British Empire Historiography of the United States Frontier thesis World history Historiography 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Biographical Dictionary of English Literature Stubbs William Encyclopaedia Britannica 11th ed Frederick C Beiser 2011 The German Historicist Tradition p 254 https doi org 10 1093 acprof oso 9780199691555 001 0001 Green and Troup eds The Houses of History p 2 Leopold von Ranke was instrumental in establishing professional standards for historical training at the University of Berlin between 1824 and 1871 Caroline Hoefferle Essential Historiography Reader Boston Pearson 2011 68 ISBN 978 0321437624 Georg G Iggers The image of Ranke in American and German historical thought History and Theory 2 1 1962 17 40 in JSTOR Archived 2017 04 02 at the Wayback Machine E Sreedharan A textbook of historiography 500 BC to AD 2000 2004 p 185 ISBN 978 0321437624 Lectures p 138 Lectures p 54 Kasianov frist2 Philipp Georgiy Terr 2010 A Laboratory of Transnational History Ukraine and recent Ukrainian historiography Berghahn Books p 7 ISBN 978 1 84545 621 4 Retrieved October 18 2010 This essay deals with what I call nationalized history meaning a way of perceiving understanding and treating the past that requires separation of one s own history from common history and its construction as history of a nation a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint numeric names authors list link Ernst Mayr When Is Historiography Whiggish Journal of the History of Ideas April 1990 Vol 51 Issue 2 pp 301 309 in JSTOR Archived 2022 11 19 at the Wayback Machine Hugh Trevor Roper Introduction Lord Macaulay s History of England Penguin Classics 1979 p 10 ISBN 978 0140431339 The Nature of History second edition 1980 p 47 John Clive Macaulay the shaping of the historian 1975 ISBN 978 0394715070 Trevor Roper pp 25 26 Gertrude Himmelfarb Who Now Reads Macaulay Marriage and Morals Among The Victorians And other Essays London Faber and Faber 1986 p 163 J R Western Monarchy and Revolution The English State in the 1680s London Blandford Press 1972 p 403 ISBN 978 0713732801 Victor Feske From Belloc to Churchill Private Scholars Public Culture and the Crisis of British Liberalism 1900 1939 1996 p 2 https www jstor org stable 10 5149 9780807861387 feske Archived 2023 04 24 at the Wayback Machine Hart J 1965 Nineteenth Century Social Reform A Tory Interpretation of History Past amp Present 31 1 39 61 doi 10 1093 past 31 1 39 John Higham History Professional Scholarship in America 1989 ch 1 ISBN 978 0801839528 Hesketh Ian 2011 Writing history in Macaulay s shadow J R Seeley E A Freeman and the audience for scientific history in late Victorian Britain Journal of the Canadian Historical Association 22 2 30 56 doi 10 7202 1008977ar See Lucien Febvre La Terre et l evolution humaine 1922 translated as A Geographical Introduction to History London 1932 See for recent issues Archived 2008 09 28 at the Wayback Machine Colin Jones Olwen Hufton s Poor Richard Cobb s People and the Notions of the longue duree in French Revolutionary Historiography Past amp Present 2006 Supplement Volume 1 pp 178 203 in Project Muse J H Hexter Fernand Braudel and the Monde Braudellien Historians pp 61 https www jstor org stable 1876806 Archived 2023 04 24 at the Wayback Machine Francois Chevalier La formation des grands domains au Mexique terre et societe aux SVIe et XVIIe siecles Paris Institut de ethnologie 1952 Eric Van Young Rural History in The Oxford Handbook of Latin American History Jose C Moya ed New York Oxford University Press 2011 p 312 https doi org 10 1093 oxfordhb 9780195166217 001 0001 Van Young Eric 1983 Mexican Rural History Since Chevalier The Historiography of the Colonial Hacienda Latin American Research Review 18 3 5 62 doi 10 1017 S0023879100021026 S2CID 253142396 Harris Olivia 2004 Braudel Historical Time and the Horror of Discontinuity History Workshop Journal 57 161 174 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 693 9898 doi 10 1093 hwj 57 1 161 ISSN 1363 3554 S2CID 170657656 Archived from the original on 2017 08 30 Retrieved 2017 08 30 Only Aries was a true conservative indeed a royalist Eric J Hobsbawm 2003 Interesting times a twentieth century life Pantheon Books p 295 ISBN 978 0375422348 One of numerous spin off journals was Histoire amp mesure 1986 devoted to quantitative history Georg G Iggers Historiography in the Twentieth Century From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern Challenge 59 61 ISBN 978 0819567666 William Rose Benet 1988 p 961 Hill John Edward Christopher 1912 2003 Oxford Dictionary of National Biography online ed Oxford University Press January 2007 doi 10 1093 ref odnb 89437 Retrieved 29 June 2012 Subscription or UK public library membership required Riall Lucy 2010 The Shallow End of History The Substance and Future of Political Biography Journal of Interdisciplinary History 40 3 375 397 doi 10 1162 jinh 2010 40 3 375 S2CID 144340286 Daniel R Meister The biographical turn and the case for historical biography History Compass Dec 2017 doi 10 1111 hic3 12436 abstract Archived 2017 12 13 at the Wayback Machine Windshuttle Keith 2001 The Real Stuff of History Sydney Line Archived from the original on 2008 12 11 a b Huges Warrington p 26 Carr What Is History p 10 1967 ISBN 978 0394703916 Carr What Is History pp 8 13 1967 ISBN 978 0394703916 Carr What Is History p 30 1967 ISBN 978 0394703916 Huges Warrington p 27 One of his first and most influential critics was the British philosopher Michael Oakeshott What is History 1961 in idem What is History and Other Essays Exeter 2004 325 See M Hewitson History and Causality Basingstoke 2014 pp 86 93 ISBN 978 1 137 37240 6 a b Huges Warrington p 28 Carr What Is History p 62 1967 ISBN 978 0394703916 Trevor Roper pp 72 73 Trevor Roper p 73 Elton Geoffrey The Practice of History London Methuen 1967 pp 56 57 ISBN 978 0631229803 o Tuathaigh M A G Irish Historical Revisionism State of the Art of Ideological Project in Brady Ciaran ed Interpreting Irish History Dublin 2006 p 325 Barry Joyce The First U S History Textbooks Constructing and Disseminating the American Tale in the Nineteenth Century Lexington 2015 viii 335 pp ISBN 978 1498502153 See table IV 12b Archived 2015 09 24 at the Wayback Machine a b Hofstadter Richard 1979 The progressive historians Turner Beard Parrington Chicago University of Chicago Press ISBN 0 226 34818 0 OCLC 4983475 Drake Richard 2018 12 15 Introduction The Beardian Interpretation of American History Charles Austin Beard Cornell University Press pp 1 6 doi 10 7591 9781501715143 004 ISBN 978 1 5017 1514 3 S2CID 239551539 archived from the original on 2023 04 26 retrieved 2023 04 26 Dwight W Hoover Some Comments on Recent United States Historiography American Quarterly 1965 17 2 Part 2 Supplement pp 299 318 in JSTOR Archived 2017 04 02 at the Wayback Machine Peter Novick That noble dream The objectivity question and the American historical profession Cambridge University Press 1988 pp 320 60 ISBN 978 0521357456 Richard Hofstadter 1948 The American Political Tradition And the Men Who Made it Knopf pp xxxvi xxxvii ISBN 978 0307809667 John Higham Changing paradigms The collapse of consensus history Journal of American History 1989 460 466 online Archived 2016 03 03 at the Wayback Machine Novick That noble dream The objectivity question and the American historical profession 1988 pp 415 68 ISBN 978 0521357456 Irwin Unger The New Left and American History Some Recent Trends in United States Historiography American Historical Review 1967 1237 1263 in JSTOR Archived 2020 04 25 at the Wayback Machine The old social history dealt with institutions like schools and churches while the new dealt with students teachers and churchgoers Veysey Laurence 1979 The New Social History in the Context of American Historical Writing Reviews in American History 7 1 1 12 doi 10 2307 2700953 ISSN 0048 7511 JSTOR 2700953 Archived from the original on 2022 06 09 Retrieved 2023 04 25 Allan G Bogue The Quest for Numeracy Data and Methods in American Political History Journal of Interdisciplinary History 21 1 1990 pp 89 116 in JSTOR Archived 2017 04 02 at the Wayback Machine Baker Paula 1999 The Midlife Crisis of the New Political History Journal of American History 86 1 158 166 doi 10 2307 2567411 JSTOR 2567411 Harvey J Graff The Shock of the New Histories Social Science Histories and Historical Literacies Social Science History 25 4 2001 483 533 at p 490 in Project Muse Journal of Economic History main page Economic History Review main page Kousser J Morgan 1984 The revivalism of narrative A response to recent criticisms of quantitative history PDF Social Science History 8 1 133 149 doi 10 1017 S0145553200020046 S2CID 143306892 Archived PDF from the original on 2020 11 24 Retrieved 2020 08 28 Flandreau Marc 2019 Border Crossing by Marc Flandreau Capitalism A Journal of History and Economics 1 1 1 9 doi 10 1353 cap 2019 0004 S2CID 242417622 Howard F Cline Latin American History Essays on Its Teaching and Research 1898 1965 2 vols Austin University of Texas Press 1967 ISBN 978 0292736313 Jose C Moya ed Introduction to The Oxford Handbook of Latin American History New York Oxford University Press p 5 https doi org 10 1093 oxfordhb 9780195166217 001 0001 Howard F Cline ed Handbook of Middle American Indians Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources 4 vols Austin University of Texas Press 1972 75 ISBN 978 1477306833 Charles Gibson The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule Stanford Stanford University Press 1964 ISBN 978 0804701969 James Lockhart The Nahuas After the Conquest Stanford Stanford University Press 1992 ISBN 9780804765572 Frank Salomon and Stuart B Schwartz eds Cambridge History of Native Peoples of the Americas South America New York Cambridge University Press 1999 ISBN 978 0521630757 Richard E W Adams and Murdo J MacLeod eds Cambridge History of Natives Peoples of the Americas Mesoamerica 2 vols New York Cambridge University Press 2000 doi 10 1017 CHOL9780521351652 see Bernard Bailyn Atlantic History Concept and Contours Cambridge MA Harvard University Press 2005 https doi org 10 2307 j ctvjz8180 The development of the field antedates this publication Moya Introduction Reclaiming Identity p 9 The Canadian Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Studies 2018 03 06 Archived from the original on 2016 10 17 Retrieved 2016 10 08 Howard F Cline ed Latin American History Essays on its Teaching and Research 1898 1965 2 vols Austin University of Texas Press 1967 Leslie Bethell editor The Cambridge History of Latin America 11 volumes New York Cambridge University Press 1984 Benjamin Keen and Keith Haynes A History of Latin America 9th edition Cengage 2012 ISBN 978 0618783182 John Charles Chasteen Born in Blood and Fire A Concise History of Latin America 4th edition New York W W Norton amp Co 2016 ISBN 978 0393283051 Thomas E Skidmore and Peter H Smith Modern Latin America 9th edition New York Oxford University Press 2013 ISBN 978 0190674670 Thomas H Holloway A Companion to Latin American History Malden MA Wiley Blackwell 2011 ISBN 978 1444338843 Jose C Moya The Oxford Handbook of Latin American History New York Oxford University Press 2011 ISBN 978 0195166217 Barbara A Tenenbaum ed Encyclopedia of Latin American History 5 vols New York Charles Scribner s Sons 1996 ISBN 978 0684192536 William H McNeill Arnold J Toynbee a Life 1989 McNeill William H 1995 The Changing Shape of World History History and Theory 34 2 8 26 doi 10 2307 2505432 JSTOR 2505432 It missed some areas Martin Kevin W 2014 Middle East Historiography Did We Miss the Cultural Turn History Compass 12 2 178 186 doi 10 1111 hic3 12142 Grigor Suny Ronald 2002 Back and Beyond Reversing the Cultural Turn American Historical Review 107 5 1476 1499 doi 10 1086 532855 JSTOR 10 1086 532855 Peter Burke What is Cultural History 2nd ed 2008 p 140 ISBN 978 0745644103 Melvyn P Leffler New Approaches Old Interpretations and Prospective Reconfigurations Diplomatic History 1995 19 1 pp 173 196 quotation at p 185 David Glassberg Public History and the Study of Memory The Public Historian 18 2 1996 pp 7 23 online Archived 2020 02 13 at the Wayback Machine David Lowenthal The Past is a Foreign Country 1985 ISBN 978 0521294805 S Berger and C Lorenz eds Nationalizing the Past Historians as Nation Builders in Modern Europe Palgrave Macmillan 2010 ISBN 978 0521294805 Translated as On collective memory University of Chicago Press 1992 ISBN 978 0226115962 Richard Jensen No Irish Need Apply A Myth of Victimization Journal of Social History 2002 36 2 pp 405 429 online Archived 2005 02 08 at the Wayback Machine Howard Schuman Barry Schwartz and Hannah d Arcy Elite Revisionists and Popular Beliefs Christopher Columbus Hero or Villain Public Opinion Quarterly 2005 69 1 pp 2 29 online Archived 2016 01 22 at the Wayback Machine Alon Confino Collective memory and cultural history problems of method American Historical Review 1997 1386 1403 in JSTOR Archived 2017 04 02 at the Wayback Machine another copy online Archived 2015 12 24 at the Wayback Machine Case studies are examined in Jeffrey K Olick et al eds The Collective Memory Reader 2011 excerpt and text search Heather Jones As the centenary approaches the regeneration of First World War historiography Historical Journal 2013 56 3 pp 857 878 doi 10 1017 S0018246X13000216 Eric Lagenbacher Bill Niven and Ruth Wittlinger eds Dynamics of Memory and Identity in Contemporary Europe Berghahn 2012 248 pp online 2014 review in H France Archived 2015 09 24 at the Wayback Machine For an overview of the field see Marek Tamm Beyond History and Memory New Perspectives in Memory Studies History Compass 11 6 2013 458 473 online Archived 2015 09 21 at the Wayback Machine Margaret F Stieg The Origin and Development of Scholarly Historical Periodicals 1986 ISBN 978 0817351564 Stieg The Origin and Development of Scholarly Historical Periodicals 1986 pp 20 39 ISBN 978 0817351564 Stieg The Origin and Development of Scholarly Historical Periodicals 1986 ISBN 978 0817351564 a b Stieg The Origin and Development of Scholarly Historical Periodicals 1986 ch 4 ISBN 978 0817351564 a b Stieg The Origin and Development of Scholarly Historical Periodicals 1986 pp 127 147 ISBN 978 0817351564 Journal Indian Church History Review Archived from the original on 2014 03 11 Retrieved 2013 08 20 Unito it Cisi unito it Archived from the original on 2011 06 08 Retrieved 2010 08 28 Univie ac at Univie ac at Archived from the original on 2016 05 27 Retrieved 2010 08 28 Univie ac at Univie ac at Archived from the original on 2012 01 17 Retrieved 2010 08 28 Lawrence Stone The Revival of Narrative Reflections on a New Old History Past and Present 85 Nov 1979 pp 3 24 quote on p 13 https www jstor org stable 650677 Archived 2023 04 26 at the Wayback Machine J Morgan Kousser The Revivalism of Narrative A Response to Recent Criticisms of Quantitative History Social Science History vol 8 no 2 Spring 1984 133 149 Eric H Monkkonen The Dangers of Synthesis American Historical Review 91 no 5 December 1986 1146 1157 https doi org 10 2307 1170990 Nikolaĭ Onufrievich Losskiĭ History of Russian Philosophy 1951 p 245 It must not be imagined however that history and metahistory are entirely separate Metahistory is continually present as the background of history That which is metahistorical breaks up both the cosmic endless sequence of events and The Visva bharati Quarterly 1956 p 118 Sometimes the term Metahistory is also used But it implies going beyond a transcendence of history and in this sense it is equated with metaphysics and theology Sometimes historical time is distinguished from metahistorical eternity Bibliography editThis further reading section may need cleanup Please read the editing guide and help improve the section November 2023 Learn how and when to remove this template message Theory edit Appleby Joyce Lynn Hunt amp Margaret Jacob Telling the Truth About History New York W W Norton amp Company 1994 Bentley Michael Modern Historiography An Introduction 1999 ISBN 0 415 20267 1 Marc Bloch The Historian s Craft 1940 Burke Peter History and Social Theory Polity Press Oxford 1992 David Cannadine editor What is History Now Palgrave Macmillan 2002 E H Carr What is History 1961 ISBN 0 394 70391 X R G Collingwood The Idea of History 1936 ISBN 0 19 285306 6 Deluermoz Quentin and Singaravelou Pierre A Past of Possibilities A History of What Could Have Been ISBN 978 0300227543 Yale University Press 2021 Doran Robert ed Philosophy of History After Hayden White London Bloomsbury 2013 Geoffrey Elton The Practice of History 1969 ISBN 0 631 22980 9 Richard J Evans In Defence of History 1997 ISBN 1 86207 104 7 Fischer David Hackett Historians Fallacies Towards a Logic of Historical Thought Harper amp Row 1970 Gardiner Juliet ed What is History Today London MacMillan Education Ltd 1988 Harlaftis Gelina ed The New Ways of History Developments in Historiography I B Tauris 2010 260 pp trends in historiography since 1990 Hewitson Mark History and Causality Palgrave Macmillan 2014 Jenkins Keith ed The Postmodern History Reader 2006 Jenkins Keith Rethinking History 1991 ISBN 0 415 30443 1 Arthur Marwick The New Nature of History knowledge evidence language Basingstoke Palgrave 2001 ISBN 0 333 96447 0 Munslow Alan The Routledge Companion to Historical Studies 2000 an encyclopedia of concepts methods and historians Olstein Diego Thinking History Globally 2025 summary Spalding Roger amp Christopher Parker Historiography An Introduction 2008 ISBN 0 7190 7285 9 Sreedharan E 2004 A Textbook of Historiography 500 B C to A D 2000 Orient Blackswan ISBN 978 8125026570 Archived from the original on 2023 01 13 Retrieved 2016 02 13 ISBN 978 81 905928 0 2 lt ref gt Sreedharan 2007 A Manual of Historical Research Methodology South Indian Studies ISBN 978 8190592802 Tosh John The Pursuit of History 2002 ISBN 0 582 77254 0 Tucker Aviezer ed A Companion to the Philosophy of History and Historiography Malden Blackwell 2009 White Hayden The Fiction of Narrative Essays on History Literature and Theory 1957 2007 Johns Hopkins 2010 Ed Robert DoranGuides to scholarship edit The American Historical Association s Guide to Historical Literature ed by Mary Beth Norton and Pamela Gerardi 3rd ed 2 vol Oxford U P 1995 2064 pages annotated guide to 27 000 of the most important English language history books in all fields and topics vol 1 online vol 2 online Allison William Henry et al eds A guide to historical literature 1931 comprehensive bibliography for scholarship to 1930 as selected by scholars from the American Historical Association online edition free Backhouse Roger E and Philippe Fontaine eds A Historiography of the Modern Social Sciences Cambridge University Press 2014 pp ix 248 essays on the ways in which the histories of psychology anthropology sociology economics history and political science have been written since 1945 Black Jeremy Clio s Battles Historiography in Practice Indiana University Press 2015 xvi 323 pp Boyd Kelly ed Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writers 2 Vol 1999 1600 pp covering major historians and themes Cline Howard F ed Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources Handbook of Middle American Indians 4 vols U of Texas Press 1973 Gray Wood Historian s Handbook 2nd ed Houghton Miffin Co cop 1964 vii 88 pp a primer Elton G R Modern Historians on British History 1485 1945 A Critical Bibliography 1945 1969 1969 annotated guide to 1000 history books on every major topic plus book reviews and major scholarly articles online Loades David ed Reader s Guide to British History Routledge 2 vol 2003 1760 pp highly detailed guide to British historiography excerpt and text search Charles Oman 1906 Inaugural Lecture on The Study of History delivered on Wednesday February 7 1906 Oxford Oxford University Press Wikidata Q26157365 Parish Peter ed Reader s Guide to American History Routledge 1997 880 pp detailed guide to historiography of American topics excerpt and text search Popkin Jeremy D From Herodotus to H Net The Story of Historiography Oxford UP 2015 Woolf Daniel et al The Oxford History of Historical Writing 5 vol 2011 r12 covers all major historians since AD 600 The Oxford History of Historical Writing Volume 1 Beginnings to AD 600 online at doi 10 1093 acprof osobl 9780199218158 001 0001 The Oxford History of Historical Writing Volume 3 1400 1800 online at doi 10 1093 acprof osobl 9780199219179 001 0001 The Oxford History of Historical Writing Volume 4 1800 1945 online at doi 10 1093 acprof osobl 9780199533091 001 0001Histories of historical writing edit Arnold John H History A Very Short Introduction 2000 New York Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0192853523 Barnes Harry Elmer A history of historical writing 1962 Barraclough Geoffrey History Main Trends of Research in the Social and Human Sciences 1978 Bauer Stefan The Invention of Papal History Onofrio Panvinio between Renaissance and Catholic Reform Oxford University Press 2020 Bentley Michael ed Companion to Historiography Routledge 1997 ISBN 0415285577 39 chapters by experts Boyd Kelly ed Encyclopedia of historians and historical writing 2 vol Taylor amp Francis 1999 1562 pp Breisach Ernst Historiography Ancient Medieval and Modern 3rd ed 2007 ISBN 0 226 07278 9 Budd Adam ed The Modern Historiography Reader Western Sources Routledge 2009 Cline Howard F ed Latin American History Essays on Its Study and Teaching 1898 1965 2 vols Austin University of Texas Press 1965 Cohen H Floris The Scientific Revolution A Historiographical Inquiry 1994 ISBN 0 226 11280 2 Conrad Sebastian The Quest for the Lost Nation Writing History in Germany and Japan in the American Century 2010 Crymble Adam Technology and the Historian Transformations in the Digital Age University of Illinois 2021 241 pp Fitzsimons M A et al eds The development of historiography 1954 471 pages comprehensive global coverage online free Gilderhus Mark T History and Historians A Historiographical Introduction 2002 ISBN 0 13 044824 9 Iggers Georg G Historiography in the 20th Century From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern Challenge 2005 Kramer Lloyd and Sarah Maza eds A Companion to Western Historical Thought Blackwell 2006 520 pp ISBN 978 1 4051 4961 7 Momigliano Arnaldo The Classical Foundation of Modern Historiography 1990 ISBN 978 0 226 07283 8 The Oxford History of Historical Writing 5 vol 2011 Volume 1 Beginnings to AD 600 Volume 2 600 1400 Volume 3 1400 1800 Volume 4 1800 1945 Volume 5 Historical Writing since 1945 catalog Rahman M M ed Encyclopaedia of Historiography 2006 Excerpt and text search Soffer Reba History Historians and Conservatism in Britain and America From the Great War to Thatcher and Reagan 2009 excerpt and text search Thompson James Westfall A History of Historical Writing vol 1 From the earliest Times to the End of the 17th Century 1942 A History of Historical Writing vol 2 The 18th and 19th Centuries 1942 Woolf Daniel ed A Global Encyclopedia of Historical Writing 2 vol 1998 Woolf Daniel Historiography in New Dictionary of the History of Ideas ed M C Horowitz 2005 vol I Woolf Daniel A Global History of History Cambridge University Press 2011 Woolf Daniel ed The Oxford History of Historical Writing 5 vols Oxford University Press 2011 12 Woolf Daniel A Concise History Of History Cambridge University Press 2019 Feminist historiography edit Bonnie G Smith The Gender of History Men Women and Historical Practice Harvard University Press 2000 Gerda Lerner The Majority Finds its Past Placing Women in History New York Oxford University Press 1979 Judith M Bennett History Matters Patriarchy and the Challenge of Feminism University of Pennsylvania Press 2006 Julie Des Jardins Women and the Historical Enterprise in America University of North Carolina Press 2002 Donna Guy Gender and Sexuality in Latin America in The Oxford Handbook of Latin American History Jose C Moya ed New York Oxford University Press 2011 pp 367 381 Asuncion Lavrin Sexuality in Colonial Spanish America in The Oxford Handbook of Latin American History Jose C Moya ed New York Oxford University Press 2011 pp 132 154 Mary Ritter Beard Woman as force in history A study in traditions and realities Mary Spongberg Writing women s history since the Renaissance Palgrave Macmillan 2002 Clare Hemmings Why Stories Matter The Political Grammar of Feminist Theory Duke University Press 2011National and regional studies edit Berger Stefan et al eds Writing National Histories Western Europe Since 1800 1999 excerpt and text search how history has been used in Germany France amp Italy to legitimize the nation state against socialist communist and Catholic internationalism Iggers Georg G A new Directions and European Historiography 1975 LaCapra Dominic and Stephen L Kaplan eds Modern European Intellectual History Reappraisals and New Perspective 1982 Asia and Africa edit Cohen Paul 1984 Preview of Discovering history in China American historical writing on the recent Chinese past WorldCat org Columbia University Press Studies of the East Asian Institute ISBN 023152546X OCLC 456728837 R C Majumdar Historiography in Modem India Bombay 1970 ISBN 978 2102227356 Marcinkowski M Ismail Persian Historiography and Geography Bertold Spuler on Major Works Produced in Iran the Caucasus Central Asia India and Early Ottoman Turkey Singapore Pustaka Nasional 2003 Martin Thomas R Herodotus and Sima Qian The First Great Historians of Greece and China A Brief History with Documents 2009 E Sreedharan A Textbook of Historiography 500 B C to A D 2000 2004 Arvind Sharma Hinduism and Its Sense of History Oxford University Press 2003 ISBN 978 0 19 566531 4 Shourie Arun 2014 Eminent historians Their technology their line their fraud Noida Uttar Pradesh India HarperCollins Publishers ISBN 978 9351365914 Yerxa Donald A Recent Themes in the History of Africa and the Atlantic World Historians in Conversation 2008 excerpt and text searchBritain edit Bann Stephen Romanticism and the Rise of History Twayne Publishers 1995 Bentley Michael Modernizing England s Past English Historiography in the Age of Modernism 1870 1970 2006 excerpt and text search Cannadine David In Churchill s Shadow Confronting the Passed in Modern Britain 2003 Furber Elizabeth ed Changing Views on British History Essays on Historical Writing Since 1939 1966 418pp essays by scholars Goldstein Doris S 1986 The origins and early years of the English Historical Review English Historical Review 101 398 6 19 doi 10 1093 ehr ci cccxcviii 6 Goldstein Doris S 1982 The Organizational Development of the British Historical Profession 1884 1921 Historical Research 55 132 180 193 doi 10 1111 j 1468 2281 1982 tb01157 x Hale John Rigby ed The evolution of British historiography from Bacon to Namier 1967 Hexter J H On Historians Reappraisals of some of the makers of modern history 1979 covers Carl Becker Wallace Ferguson Fernan Braudel Lawrence Stone Christopher Hill and J G A Pocock Howsam Leslie Academic Discipline or Literary Genre The Establishment of Boundaries in Historical Writing Victorian Literature and Culture 32 02 2004 525 545 online Jann Rosemary The Art and Science of Victorian History 1985 Jann Rosemary From Amateur to Professional The Case of the Oxbridge Historians Journal of British Studies 1983 22 2 pp 122 147 Kenyon John The History Men The Historical Profession in England since the Renaissance 1983 Loades David Reader s Guide to British History 2 vol 2003 1700pp 1600 word long historiographical essays on about 1000 topics Mitchell Rosemary Picturing the Past English History in Text and Image 1830 1870 Oxford Clarendon Press 2000 Philips Mark Salber Society and Sentiment Genres of Historical Writing in Britain 1740 1820 Princeton University Press 2000 Richardson Roger Charles ed The debate on the English Revolution 2nd ed Manchester University Press 1998 Schlatter Richard ed Recent Views on British History Essays on Historical Writing Since 1966 1984 525 pp 13 topics essays by scholarsBritish Empire edit Berger Carl Writing Canadian History Aspects of English Canadian Historical Writing since 1900 2nd ed 1986 Bhattacharjee J B Historians and Historiography of North East India 2012 Davison Graeme The Use and Abuse of Australian History 2000 Farrell Frank Themes in Australian History Questions Issues and Interpretation in an Evolving Historiography 1990 Gare Deborah Britishness in Recent Australian Historiography The Historical Journal Vol 43 No 4 Dec 2000 pp 1145 1155 in JSTOR Guha Ranajiit Dominance Without Hegemony History and Power in Colonial India Harvard UP 1998 Granatstein J L Who Killed Canadian History 1998 Mittal S C India distorted A study of British historians on India 1995 on 19th century writers Saunders Christopher The making of the South African past major historians on race and class 1988 Winks Robin ed The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume V Historiography 2001 France edit Further information Historiography of the French Revolution Annales school and Revue d histoire moderne et contemporaine Burke Peter The French Historical Revolution The Annales School 1929 2014 John Wiley amp Sons 2015 Clark Stuart 1983 French historians and early modern popular culture Past amp Present 100 62 99 doi 10 1093 past 100 1 62 Daileader Philip and Philip Whalen eds French Historians 1900 2000 New Historical Writing in Twentieth Century France 2010 40 long essays by experts excerpt Revel Jacques and Lynn Hunt eds Histories French Constructions of the Past 1995 654pp 65 essays by French historians Stoianovich Traian French Historical Method The Annales Paradigm 1976 Germany edit Further information Historiography of Germany and Bielefeld School Fletcher Roger Recent developments in West German Historiography the Bielefeld School and its critics German Studies Review 1984 451 480 in JSTOR Hagemann Karen and Jean H Quataert eds Gendering Modern German History Rewriting Historiography 2008 Iggers Georg G The German Conception of History The National Tradition of Historical Thought from Herder to the Present 2nd ed 1983 Ruger Jan and Nikolaus Wachsmann eds Rewriting German history new perspectives on modern Germany Palgrave Macmillan 2015 excerpt Sheehan James J What is German history Reflections on the role of the nation in German history and historiography Journal of Modern History 1981 2 23 in JSTOR Sperber Jonathan Master Narratives of Nineteenth century German History Central European History 1991 24 1 69 91 online Stuchtey Benedikt and Peter Wende eds British and German historiography 1750 1950 traditions perceptions and transfers 2000 Latin America edit Adelman Jeremy ed Colonial Legacies New York Routledge 1999 Coatsworth John Cliometrics and Mexican History Historical Methods18 1 Winter 1985 31 37 Gootenberg Paul 2004 Between a Rock and a Softer Place Reflections on Some Recent Economic History of Latin America Latin American Research Review 39 2 239 257 doi 10 1353 lar 2004 0031 S2CID 144339079 Kuzensof Oppenheimer Robert 1985 The Family and Society in Nineteenth Century Latin America An Historiographical Introduction Journal of Family History 10 3 215 234 doi 10 1177 036319908501000301 S2CID 145607701 Lockhart James The Social History of Early Latin America Latin American Research Review 1972 Moya Jose C The Oxford Handbook of Latin American History New York Oxford University Press 2011 Russell Wood A J R 2001 Archives and the Recent Historiography on Colonial Brazil Latin American Research Review 36 175 103 doi 10 1017 S0023879100018847 S2CID 252750152 Van Young Eric 1999 The New Cultural History Comes to Old Mexico The Hispanic American Historical Review 79 2 211 248 doi 10 1215 00182168 79 2 211 United States edit Hofstadter Richard The Progressive Historians Turner Beard Parrington 1968 Novick Peter That Noble Dream The Objectivity Question and the American Historical Profession 1988 ISBN 0 521 34328 3 Palmer William W All Coherence Gone A Cultural History of Leading History Departments in the United States 1970 2010 Journal of The Historical Society 2012 12 111 153 doi 10 1111 j 1540 5923 2012 00360 x Palmer William Engagement with the Past The Lives and Works of the World War II Generation of Historians 2001 Parish Peter J ed Reader s Guide to American History 1997 historiographical overview of 600 topics Wish Harvey The American Historian 1960 covers pre 1920Themes organizations and teaching edit Carlebach Elishiva et al eds Jewish History and Jewish Memory Essays in Honor of Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi 1998 excerpt and text search Charlton Thomas L History of Oral History Foundations and Methodology 2007 Darcy R and Richard C Rohrs A Guide to Quantitative History 1995 Dawidowicz Lucy S The Holocaust and Historians 1981 Ernest John Liberation Historiography African American Writers and the Challenge of History 1794 1861 2004 Evans Ronald W The Hope for American School Reform The Cold War Pursuit of Inquiry Learning in Social Studies Palgrave Macmillan 2011 265 pages Ferro Marc Cinema and History 1988 Green Anna and Kathleeen Troup The Houses of History A Critical Reader in Twentieth Century History and Theory 2 ed Manchester University Press 2016 Hudson Pat History by Numbers An Introduction to Quantitative Approaches 2002 Jarzombek Mark A Prolegomenon to Critical Historiography Journal of Architectural Education 52 4 May 1999 197 206 2 Keita Maghan Race and the Writing of History Oxford UP 2000 Leavy Patricia Oral History Understanding Qualitative Research 2011 excerpt and text search Loewen James W Lies My Teacher Told Me Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong 1996 Manning Patrick ed World History Global And Local Interactions 2006 Maza Sarah Thinking About History Chicago University of Chicago Press 2017 doi 10 7208 chicago 9780226109473 001 0001 Meister Daniel R The biographical turn and the case for historical biography History Compass Dec 2017 doi 10 1111 hic3 12436 abstract Morris Suzuki Tessa The Past Within Us Media Memory History 2005 ISBN 1 85984 513 4 Ritchie Donald A The Oxford Handbook of Oral History 2010 excerpt and text search Trohler Daniel History and Historiography Approaches to Historical Research in Education T Fitzgerald ed Handbook of Historical Studies in Education 2019 3 External links editInternational Commission for the History and Theory of Historiography 4 short guide to Historiographical terms Basic guide to historiography research for undergraduates Cromohs cyber review of modern historiography open access electronic scholarly journal Archived 2019 10 23 at the Wayback Machine History of Historiography scholarly journal in several languages Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Historiography amp oldid 1195784294, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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