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Ibn Battuta

January 19, 2024

For other uses, see Ibn Battuta (disambiguation).

Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Battutah (/ˌɪbən bætˈtuːtɑː/; 24 February 1304 – 1368/1369),[a] commonly known as Ibn Battuta, was a Maghrebi traveller, explorer and scholar.[7] Over a period of thirty years from 1325 to 1354, Ibn Battuta visited most of North Africa, the Middle East, East Africa, Central Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, China, the Iberian Peninsula, and West Africa. Near the end of his life, he dictated an account of his journeys, titled A Gift to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Travelling, but commonly known as The Rihla.

Shaykh[1]

Ibn Battuta
ابن بطوطة
1878 illustration by Léon Benett showing Ibn Battuta (center) and his guide (left) in Egypt
Born24 February 1304
Tangier, Marinid Sultanate
Died1369 (aged 64–65)
Marrakesh, Marinid Sultanate[2]
Other names
  • The Islamic Marco Polo
  • Ibn battuta al-Tanji
Occupation(s)Traveller, Geographer, explorer, scholar
EraPost-classical history
Notable workRihla
Arabic name
Personal (Ism)Shams al-Dīn
Patronymic (Nasab)Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm ibn Muḥammad ibn Yūsuf
Teknonymic (Kunya)ʾAbū ʿAbd Allāh
Epithet (Laqab)ibn Baṭṭūṭah

Ibn Battuta travelled more than any other explorer in pre-modern history, totalling around 117,000 km (73,000 mi), surpassing Zheng He with about 50,000 km (31,000 mi) and Marco Polo with 24,000 km (15,000 mi).[8][9][10] There have been doubts over the historicity of some of Ibn Battuta's travels, particularly as they reach farther East.

Name

Ibn Battuta is a patronymic literally meaning "son of the duckling".[11] His most common full name is given as Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Battuta.[12] In his travelogue, the Rihla, he gives his full name as Shams al-Din Abu’Abdallah Muhammad ibn’Abdallah ibn Muhammad ibn Ibrahim ibn Muhammad ibn Yusuf Lawati al-Tanji ibn Battuta.[13][14][15]

Early life

 
A miniature from al-Wasiti's Maqamat of Al-Hariri of pilgrims on a hajj

All that is known about Ibn Battuta's life comes from the autobiographical information included in the account of his travels, which records that he was of Berber descent,[9] born into a family of Islamic legal scholars in Tangier, known as qadis in the Muslim tradition in Morocco, on 24 February 1304, during the reign of the Marinid dynasty.[16] His family belonged to a Berber tribe known as the Lawata.[17] As a young man, he would have studied at a Sunni Maliki madhhab (Islamic jurisprudence school), the dominant form of education in North Africa at that time.[18] Maliki Muslims requested Ibn Battuta serve as their religious judge, as he was from an area where it was practised.[19]

Journeys

Itinerary, 1325–1332

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Ibn Battuta Itinerary 1325–1332 (North Africa, Iraq, Iran, the Arabian Peninsula, Somalia, Swahili Coast)

First pilgrimage

On 2 Rajab in the Muslim year 725 Anno Hegirae (14 June 1325 Anno Domini on the Christian calendar), at the age of twenty-one, Ibn Battuta set off from his home town on a hajj, or pilgrimage, to Mecca, a journey that would ordinarily take sixteen months. He was eager to learn more about far-away lands and craved adventure. No one knew that he would not return to Morocco again for 24 years.[20]

I set out alone, having neither fellow-traveller in whose companionship I might find cheer, nor caravan whose part I might join, but swayed by an overmastering impulse within me and a desire long-cherished in my bosom to visit these illustrious sanctuaries. So I braced my resolution to quit my dear ones, female and male, and forsook my home as birds forsake their nests. My parents being yet in the bonds of life, it weighed sorely upon me to part from them, and both they and I were afflicted with sorrow at this separation.[21]

He travelled to Mecca overland, following the North African coast across the sultanates of Abd al-Wadid and Hafsid. The route took him through Tlemcen, Béjaïa, and then Tunis, where he stayed for two months.[22] For safety, Ibn Battuta usually joined a caravan to reduce the risk of being robbed. He took a bride in the town of Sfax,[23] but soon left her due to a dispute with the father. That was the first in a series of marriages that would feature in his travels.[24]

 
Ottoman 17th century tile depicting the Kaaba, in Mecca

In the early spring of 1326, after a journey of over 3,500 km (2,200 mi), Ibn Battuta arrived at the port of Alexandria, at the time part of the Bahri Mamluk empire. He met two ascetic pious men in Alexandria. One was Sheikh Burhanuddin, who is supposed to have foretold the destiny of Ibn Battuta as a world traveller and told him, "It seems to me that you are fond of foreign travel. You must visit my brother Fariduddin in India, Rukonuddin in Sind, and Burhanuddin in China. Convey my greetings to them." Another pious man Sheikh Murshidi interpreted the meaning of a dream of Ibn Battuta that he was meant to be a world traveller.[25][26]

He spent several weeks visiting sites in the area, and then headed inland to Cairo, the capital of the Mamluk Sultanate and an important city. After spending about a month in Cairo,[27] he embarked on the first of many detours within the relative safety of Mamluk territory. Of the three usual routes to Mecca, Ibn Battuta chose the least-travelled, which involved a journey up the Nile valley, then east to the Red Sea port of ʿAydhab.[b] Upon approaching the town, however, a local rebellion forced him to turn back.[29]

Ibn Battuta returned to Cairo and took a second side trip, this time to Mamluk-controlled Damascus. During his first trip he had encountered a holy man who prophesied that he would only reach Mecca by travelling through Syria.[30] The diversion held an added advantage; because of the holy places that lay along the way, including Hebron, Jerusalem, and Bethlehem, the Mamluk authorities spared no efforts in keeping the route safe for pilgrims. Without this help many travellers would be robbed and murdered.[31][c]

After spending the Muslim month of Ramadan, during August,[36] in Damascus, he joined a caravan travelling the 1,300 km (810 mi) south to Medina, site of the Mosque of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. After four days in the town, he journeyed on to Mecca while visiting holy sites along the way; upon his arrival to Mecca he completed his first pilgrimage, in November, and he took the honorific status of El-Hajji. Rather than returning home, Ibn Battuta decided to continue travelling, choosing as his next destination the Ilkhanate, a Mongol Khanate, to the northeast.[37]

Iraq and Iran

On 17 November 1326, following a month spent in Mecca, Ibn Battuta joined a large caravan of pilgrims returning to Iraq across the Arabian Peninsula.[38] The group headed north to Medina and then, travelling at night, turned northeast across the Najd plateau to Najaf, on a journey that lasted about two weeks. In Najaf, he visited the mausoleum of Ali, the Fourth Caliph.[39]

Then, instead of continuing to Baghdad with the caravan, Ibn Battuta started a six-month detour that took him into Iran. From Najaf, he journeyed to Wasit, then followed the river Tigris south to Basra. His next destination was the town of Isfahan across the Zagros Mountains in Iran. He then headed south to Shiraz, a large, flourishing city spared the destruction wrought by Mongol invaders on many more northerly towns. Finally, he returned across the mountains to Baghdad, arriving there in June 1327.[40] Parts of the city were still ruined from the damage inflicted by Hulagu Khan's invading army in 1258.[41]

In Baghdad, he found Abu Sa'id, the last Mongol ruler of the unified Ilkhanate, leaving the city and heading north with a large retinue.[42] Ibn Battuta joined the royal caravan for a while, then turned north on the Silk Road to Tabriz, the first major city in the region to open its gates to the Mongols and by then an important trading centre as most of its nearby rivals had been razed by the Mongol invaders.[43]

Ibn Battuta left again for Baghdad, probably in July, but first took an excursion northwards along the river Tigris. He visited Mosul, where he was the guest of the Ilkhanate governor,[44] and then the towns of Cizre (Jazirat ibn 'Umar) and Mardin in modern-day Turkey. At a hermitage on a mountain near Sinjar, he met a Kurdish mystic who gave him some silver coins.[d][47] Once back in Mosul, he joined a "feeder" caravan of pilgrims heading south to Baghdad, where they would meet up with the main caravan that crossed the Arabian Desert to Mecca. Ill with diarrhoea, he arrived in the city weak and exhausted for his second hajj.[48]

Arabia

 
Old City of Sana'a, Yemen

Ibn Battuta remained in Mecca for some time (the Rihla suggests about three years, from September 1327 until autumn 1330). Problems with chronology, however, lead commentators to suggest that he may have left after the 1328 hajj.[e]

After the hajj in either 1328 or 1330, he made his way to the port of Jeddah on the Red Sea coast. From there he followed the coast in a series of boats (known as a jalbah, these were small craft made of wooden planks sewn together, lacking an established phrase) making slow progress against the prevailing south-easterly winds. Once in Yemen he visited Zabīd and later the highland town of Ta'izz, where he met the Rasulid dynasty king (Malik) Mujahid Nur al-Din Ali. Ibn Battuta also mentions visiting Sana'a, but whether he actually did so is doubtful.[49] In all likelihood, he went directly from Ta'izz to the important trading port of Aden, arriving around the beginning of 1329 or 1331.[50]

Somalia

 
The port and waterfront of Zeila

From Aden, Ibn Battuta embarked on a ship heading for Zeila on the coast of Somalia. He then moved on to Cape Guardafui further down the Somali seaboard, spending about a week in each location. Later he would visit Mogadishu, the then pre-eminent city of the "Land of the Berbers" (بلد البربر Balad al-Barbar, the medieval Arabic term for the Horn of Africa).[51][52][53]

When Ibn Battuta arrived in 1332, Mogadishu stood at the zenith of its prosperity. He described it as "an exceedingly large city" with many rich merchants, noted for its high-quality fabric that was exported to other countries, including Egypt.[54] Battuta added that the city was ruled by a Somali Sultan, Abu Bakr ibn Shaikh 'Umar.[55][56] He noted that Sultan Abu Bakr had dark skin complexion and spoke in his native tongue (Somali), but was also fluent in Arabic.[57][56][58] The Sultan also had a retinue of wazirs (ministers), legal experts, commanders, royal eunuchs, and other officials at his beck and call.[56]

Swahili coast

 
The Great Mosque of Kilwa Kisiwani, made of coral stones, is the largest Mosque of its kind.

Ibn Battuta continued by ship south to the Swahili coast, a region then known in Arabic as the Bilad al-Zanj ("Land of the Zanj")[59] with an overnight stop at the island town of Mombasa.[60] Although relatively small at the time, Mombasa would become important in the following century.[61] After a journey along the coast, Ibn Battuta next arrived in the island town of Kilwa in present-day Tanzania,[62] which had become an important transit centre of the gold trade.[63] He described the city as "one of the finest and most beautifully built towns; all the buildings are of wood, and the houses are roofed with dīs reeds".[64]

Ibn Battuta recorded his visit to the Kilwa Sultanate in 1330, and commented favourably on the humility and religion of its ruler, Sultan al-Hasan ibn Sulaiman, a descendant of the legendary Ali ibn al-Hassan Shirazi. He further wrote that the authority of the Sultan extended from Malindi in the north to Inhambane in the south and was particularly impressed by the planning of the city, believing it to be the reason for Kilwa's success along the coast. During this period, he described the construction of the Palace of Husuni Kubwa and a significant extension to the Great Mosque of Kilwa, which was made of coral stones and was the largest mosque of its kind. With a change in the monsoon winds, Ibn Battuta sailed back to Arabia, first to Oman and the Strait of Hormuz then on to Mecca for the hajj of 1330 (or 1332).[65]

Itinerary 1332–1347

Anatolia

 
Ibn Battuta may have met Andronikos III Palaiologos in late 1332.

After his third pilgrimage to Mecca, Ibn Battuta decided to seek employment with the Sultan of Delhi, Muhammad bin Tughluq. In the autumn of 1330 (or 1332), he set off for the Seljuk controlled territory of Anatolia to take an overland route to India.[66] He crossed the Red Sea and the Eastern Desert to reach the Nile valley and then headed north to Cairo. From there he crossed the Sinai Peninsula to Palestine and then travelled north again through some of the towns that he had visited in 1326. From the Syrian port of Latakia, a Genoese ship took him (and his companions) to Alanya on the southern coast of modern-day Turkey.[67]

He then journeyed westwards along the coast to the port of Antalya.[68] In the town he met members of one of the semi-religious fityan associations.[69][verification needed] These were a feature of most Anatolian towns in the 13th and 14th centuries. The members were young artisans and had at their head a leader with the title of Akhil.[70] The associations specialised in welcoming travellers. Ibn Battuta was very impressed with the hospitality that he received and would later stay in their hospices in more than 25 towns in Anatolia.[71] From Antalya Ibn Battuta headed inland to Eğirdir which was the capital of the Hamidids. He spent Ramadan (June 1331 or May 1333) in the city.[72]

From this point his itinerary across Anatolia in the Rihla becomes confused. Ibn Battuta describes travelling westwards from Eğirdir to Milas and then skipping 420 km (260 mi) eastward past Eğirdir to Konya. He then continues travelling in an easterly direction, reaching Erzurum from where he skips 1,160 km (720 mi) back to Birgi which lies north of Milas.[73] Historians believe that Ibn Battuta visited a number of towns in central Anatolia, but not in the order in which he describes.[74][f]

When Ibn Battuta arrived in Iznik, it had just been conquered by Orhan, Sultan of the nascent Ottoman Empire. Orhan was away and his wife was in command of the nearby stationed soldiers, Ibn Battuta gave this account of Orhan's wife: "A pious and excellent woman. She treated me honourably, gave me hospitality and sent gifts."[77]

Ibn Battuta's account of Orhan:

The greatest of the kings of the Turkmens and the richest in wealth, lands and military forces. Of fortresses, he possesses nearly a hundred, and for most of his time, he is continually engaged in making a round of them, staying in each fortress for some days to put it in good order and examine its condition. It is said that he has never stayed for a whole month in any one town. He also fights with the infidels continually and keeps them under siege.

— Ibn Battuta, [78]

Ibn Battuta had also visited Bursa which at the time was the capital of the Ottoman Beylik, he described Bursa as "a great and important city with fine bazaars and wide streets, surrounded on all sides with gardens and running springs". [79]

He also visited the Beylik of Aydin. Ibn Battuta stated that the ruler of the Beylik of Aydin had twenty Greek slaves at the entrance of his palace and Ibn Battuta was given a Greek slave as a gift.[77] His visit to Anatolia was the first time in his travels he acquired a servant; the ruler of Aydin gifted him his first slave. Later, he purchased a young Greek girl for 40 dinars in Ephesus, was gifted another slave in İzmir by the Sultan, and purchased a second girl in Balikesir. The conspicuous evidence of his wealth and prestige continued to grow.[80]

Central Asia

 
Bactrian camel (one of the symbols of Silk Road caravans) in front of Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi in the city of Turkestan, Kazakhstan

From Sinope he took a sea route to the Crimean Peninsula, arriving in the Golden Horde realm. He went to the port town of Azov, where he met with the emir of the Khan, then to the large and rich city of Majar. He left Majar to meet with Uzbeg Khan's travelling court (Orda), which was at the time near Mount Beshtau. From there he made a journey to Bolghar, which became the northernmost point he reached, and noted its unusually short nights in summer (by the standards of the subtropics). Then he returned to the Khan's court and with it moved to Astrakhan.[citation needed]

Ibn Battuta recorded that while in Bolghar he wanted to travel further north into the land of darkness. The land is snow-covered throughout (northern Siberia) and the only means of transport is dog-drawn sled. There lived a mysterious people who were reluctant to show themselves. They traded with southern people in a peculiar way. Southern merchants brought various goods and placed them in an open area on the snow in the night, then returned to their tents. Next morning they came to the place again and found their merchandise taken by the mysterious people, but in exchange they found fur-skins which could be used for making valuable coats, jackets, and other winter garments. The trade was done between merchants and the mysterious people without seeing each other. As Ibn Battuta was not a merchant and saw no benefit of going there he abandoned the travel to this land of darkness.[81]

 
Flag of the Golden Horde during the reign of Öz Beg Khan

When they reached Astrakhan, Öz Beg Khan had just given permission for one of his pregnant wives, Princess Bayalun, a daughter of Byzantine emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos, to return to her home city of Constantinople to give birth. Ibn Battuta talked his way into this expedition, which would be his first beyond the boundaries of the Islamic world.[82]

Arriving in Constantinople towards the end of 1332 (or 1334), he met the Byzantine emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos. He visited the great church of Hagia Sophia and spoke with an Eastern Orthodox priest about his travels in the city of Jerusalem. After a month in the city, Ibn Battuta returned to Astrakhan, then arrived in the capital city Sarai al-Jadid and reported the accounts of his travels to Sultan Öz Beg Khan (r. 1313–1341). Then he continued past the Caspian and Aral Seas to Bukhara and Samarkand, where he visited the court of another Mongol khan, Tarmashirin (r. 1331–1334) of the Chagatai Khanate.[83] From there, he journeyed south to Afghanistan, then crossed into India via the mountain passes of the Hindu Kush.[84] In the Rihla, he mentions these mountains and the history of the range in slave trading.[85][86] He wrote,

After this I proceeded to the city of Barwan, in the road to which is a high mountain, covered with snow and exceedingly cold; they call it the Hindu Kush, that is Hindu-slayer, because most of the slaves brought thither from India die on account of the intenseness of the cold.

— Ibn Battuta, Chapter XIII, Rihla – Khorasan[86][87]

Ibn Battuta and his party reached the Indus River on 12 September 1333.[88] From there, he made his way to Delhi and became acquainted with the sultan, Muhammad bin Tughluq.

South Asia

 
Tomb of Feroze Shah Tughluq, successor of Muhammad bin Tughluq in Delhi. Ibn Battuta served as a qadi or judge for six years during Muhammad bin Tughluq's reign.

Muhammad bin Tughluq was renowned as the wealthiest man in the Muslim world at that time. He patronized various scholars, Sufis, qadis, viziers, and other functionaries in order to consolidate his rule. As with Mamluk Egypt, the Tughlaq Dynasty was a rare vestigial example of Muslim rule after a Mongol invasion.[89][better source needed] On the strength of his years of study in Mecca, Ibn Battuta was appointed a qadi, or judge, by the sultan.[90] However, he found it difficult to enforce Islamic law beyond the sultan's court in Delhi, due to lack of Islamic appeal in India.[91]

 
Ibn Battuta in 1334 visited the shrine of Baba Farid in Pakpattan.[92]

It is uncertain by which route Ibn Battuta entered the Indian subcontinent but it is known that he was kidnapped and robbed by rebels on his journey to the Indian coast. He may have entered via the Khyber Pass and Peshawar, or further south.[93] He crossed the Sutlej river near the city of Pakpattan,[94] in modern-day Pakistan, where he paid obeisance at the shrine of Baba Farid,[92] before crossing southwest into Rajput country. From the Rajput kingdom of Sarsatti, Battuta visited Hansi in India, describing it as "among the most beautiful cities, the best constructed and the most populated; it is surrounded with a strong wall, and its founder is said to be one of the great non-Muslim kings, called Tara".[95] Upon his arrival in Sindh, Ibn Battuta mentions the Indian rhinoceros that lived on the banks of the Indus.[96]

The Sultan was erratic even by the standards of the time and for six years Ibn Battuta veered between living the high life of a trusted subordinate and falling under suspicion of treason for a variety of offences. His plan to leave on the pretext of taking another hajj was stymied by the Sultan. The opportunity for Battuta to leave Delhi finally arose in 1341 when an embassy arrived from the Yuan dynasty of China asking for permission to rebuild a Himalayan Buddhist temple popular with Chinese pilgrims.[g][100]

Ibn Battuta was given charge of the embassy but en route to the coast at the start of the journey to China, he and his large retinue were attacked by a group of bandits.[101] Separated from his companions, he was robbed, kidnapped, and nearly lost his life.[102] Despite this setback, within ten days he had caught up with his group and continued on to Khambhat in the Indian state of Gujarat. From there, they sailed to Calicut (now known as Kozhikode), where Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama would land two centuries later. While in Calicut, Battuta was the guest of the ruling Zamorin.[90] While Ibn Battuta visited a mosque on shore, a storm arose and one of the ships of his expedition sank.[103] The other ship then sailed without him only to be seized by a local Sumatran king a few months later.

Afraid to return to Delhi and be seen as a failure, he stayed for a time in southern India under the protection of Jamal-ud-Din, ruler of the small but powerful Nawayath sultanate on the banks of the Sharavathi river next to the Arabian Sea. This area is today known as Hosapattana and lies in the Honavar administrative district of Uttara Kannada. Following the overthrow of the sultanate, Ibn Battuta had no choice but to leave India. Although determined to continue his journey to China, he first took a detour to visit the Maldive Islands where he worked as a judge.[104][better source needed]

 
View of an island in the Maldives

He spent nine months on the islands, much longer than he had intended. When he arrived at the capital, Malé, Ibn Battuta did not plan to stay. However, the leaders of the formerly Buddhist nation that had recently converted to Islam were looking for a chief judge, someone who knew Arabic and the Qur'an. To convince him to stay they gave him pearls, gold jewellery, and slaves, while at the same time making it impossible for him to leave by ship. Compelled into staying, he became a chief judge and married into the royal family of Omar I.

Ibn Battuta took on his duties as a judge with keenness and strived to transform local practices to conform to a stricter application of Muslim law. He commanded that men who did not attend Friday prayer be publicly whipped, and that robbers' right hand be cut off. He forbade women from being topless in public, which had previously been the custom.[105] However, these and other strict judgments began to antagonize the island nation's rulers, and involved him in power struggles and political intrigues. Ibn Battuta resigned from his job as chief qadi, although in all likelihood it was inevitable that he would have been dismissed.

Throughout his travels, Ibn Battuta kept close company with women, usually taking a wife whenever he stopped for any length of time at one place, and then divorcing her when he moved on. While in the Maldives, Ibn Battuta took four wives. In his Travels he wrote that in the Maldives the effect of small dowries and female non-mobility combined to, in effect, make a marriage a convenient temporary arrangement for visiting male travellers and sailors.

From the Maldives, he carried on to Sri Lanka and visited Sri Pada and Tenavaram temple. Ibn Battuta's ship almost sank on embarking from Sri Lanka, only for the vessel that came to his rescue to suffer an attack by pirates. Stranded onshore, he worked his way back to the Madurai kingdom in India. Here he spent some time in the court of the short-lived Madurai Sultanate under Ghiyas-ud-Din Muhammad Damghani,[106] from where he returned to the Maldives and boarded a Chinese junk, still intending to reach China and take up his ambassadorial post.

He reached the port of Chittagong in modern-day Bangladesh intending to travel to Sylhet to meet Shah Jalal, who became so renowned that Ibn Battuta, then in Chittagong, made a one-month journey through the mountains of Kamaru near Sylhet to meet him. On his way to Sylhet, Ibn Battuta was greeted by several of Shah Jalal's disciples who had come to assist him on his journey many days before he had arrived. At the meeting in 1345 CE, Ibn Battuta noted that Shah Jalal was tall and lean, fair in complexion and lived by the mosque in a cave, where his only item of value was a goat he kept for milk, butter, and yogurt. He observed that the companions of the Shah Jalal were foreign and known for their strength and bravery. He also mentions that many people would visit the Shah to seek guidance. Ibn Battuta went further north into Assam, then turned around and continued with his original plan.[citation needed]

Southeast Asia

See also: Golden Chersonese

In 1345, Ibn Battuta traveled to Samudra Pasai Sultanate (called "al-Jawa") in present-day Aceh, Northern Sumatra, after 40 days voyage from Sunur Kawan.[107][108] He notes in his travel log that the ruler of Samudra Pasai was a pious Muslim named Sultan Al-Malik Al-Zahir Jamal-ad-Din, who performed his religious duties with utmost zeal and often waged campaigns against animists in the region. The island of Sumatra, according to Ibn Battuta, was rich in camphor, areca nut, cloves, and tin.[109]

The madh'hab he observed was Imam Al-Shafi‘i, whose customs were similar to those he had previously seen in coastal India, especially among the Mappila Muslims, who were also followers of Imam Al-Shafi‘i. At that time Samudra Pasai marked the end of Dar al-Islam, because no territory east of this was ruled by a Muslim. Here he stayed for about two weeks in the wooden walled town as a guest of the sultan, and then the sultan provided him with supplies and sent him on his way on one of his own junks to China.[109]

Ibn Battuta first sailed for 21 days to a place called "Mul Jawa" (island of Java or Majapahit Java) which was a center of a Hindu empire. The empire spanned 2 months of travel, and ruled over the country of Qaqula and Qamara. He arrived at the walled city named Qaqula/Kakula, and observed that the city had war junks for pirate raiding and collecting tolls and that elephants were employed for various purposes. He met the ruler of Mul Jawa and stayed as a guest for three days.[110][111][112]

Ibn Battuta then sailed to a state called Kaylukari in the land of Tawalisi, where he met Urduja, a local princess. Urduja was a brave warrior, and her people were opponents of the Yuan dynasty. She was described as an "idolater", but could write the phrase Bismillah in Islamic calligraphy. The locations of Kaylukari and Tawalisi are disputed. Kaylukari might referred to Po Klong Garai in Champa (now southern Vietnam), and Urduja might be an aristocrat of Champa or Dai Viet. Filipinos widely believe that Kaylukari was in present-day Pangasinan Province of the Philippines.[113] Their opposition to the Mongols might indicate 2 possible locations: Japan and Java (Majapahit).[114] In modern times, Urduja has been featured in Filipino textbooks and films as a national heroine. Numerous other locations have been proposed, ranging from Java to somewhere in Guangdong Province, China. However, Sir Henry Yule and William Henry Scott consider both Tawalisi and Urduja to be entirely fictitious. (See Tawalisi for details.) From Kaylukari, Ibn Battuta finally reached Quanzhou in Fujian Province, China.

China

 
Ibn Battuta provides the earliest mention of the Great Wall of China with regard to medieval geographic studies, although he did not see it.

In the year 1345, Ibn Battuta arrived at Quanzhou in China's Fujian province, then under the rule of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. One of the first things he noted was that Muslims referred to the city as "Zaitun" (meaning olive), but Ibn Battuta could not find any olives anywhere. He mentioned local artists and their mastery in making portraits of newly arrived foreigners; these were for security purposes. Ibn Battuta praised the craftsmen and their silk and porcelain; as well as fruits such as plums and watermelons and the advantages of paper money.[115]

He described the manufacturing process of large ships in the city of Quanzhou.[116] He also mentioned Chinese cuisine and its usage of animals such as frogs, pigs, and even dogs which were sold in the markets, and noted that the chickens in China were larger than those in the west. Scholars however have pointed out numerous errors given in Ibn Battuta's account of China, for example confusing the Yellow River with the Grand Canal and other waterways, as well as believing that porcelain was made from coal.[117]

In Quanzhou, Ibn Battuta was welcomed by the head of the local Muslim merchants (possibly a fānzhǎng or "Leader of Foreigners" simplified Chinese: 番长; traditional Chinese: 番長; pinyin: fānzhǎng) and Sheikh al-Islam (Imam), who came to meet him with flags, drums, trumpets, and musicians.[118] Ibn Battuta noted that the Muslim populace lived within a separate portion in the city where they had their own mosques, bazaars, and hospitals. In Quanzhou, he met two prominent Iranians, Burhan al-Din of Kazerun and Sharif al-Din from Tabriz[119] (both of whom were influential figures noted in the Yuan History as "A-mi-li-ding" and "Sai-fu-ding", respectively).[120] While in Quanzhou he ascended the "Mount of the Hermit" and briefly visited a well-known Taoist monk in a cave.

He then travelled south along the Chinese coast to Guangzhou, where he lodged for two weeks with one of the city's wealthy merchants.[121]

From Guangzhou he went north to Quanzhou and then proceeded to the city of Fuzhou, where he took up residence with Zahir al-Din and met Kawam al-Din and a fellow countryman named Al-Bushri of Ceuta, who had become a wealthy merchant in China. Al-Bushri accompanied Ibn Battuta northwards to Hangzhou and paid for the gifts that Ibn Battuta would present to the Emperor Huizong of Yuan.[122]

Ibn Battuta said that Hangzhou was one of the largest cities he had ever seen,[123] and he noted its charm, describing that the city sat on a beautiful lake surrounded by gentle green hills.[124] He mentions the city's Muslim quarter and resided as a guest with a family of Egyptian origin.[122] During his stay at Hangzhou he was particularly impressed by the large number of well-crafted and well-painted Chinese wooden ships, with coloured sails and silk awnings, assembling in the canals. Later he attended a banquet of the Yuan administrator of the city named Qurtai, who according to Ibn Battuta, was very fond of the skills of local Chinese conjurers.[125] Ibn Battuta also mentions locals who worshipped a solar deity.[126]

He described floating through the Grand Canal on a boat watching crop fields, orchids, merchants in black silk, and women in flowered silk and priests also in silk.[127] In Beijing, Ibn Battuta referred to himself as the long-lost ambassador from the Delhi Sultanate and was invited to the Yuan imperial court of Emperor Huizong (who according to Ibn Battuta was worshipped by some people in China). Ibn Batutta noted that the palace of Khanbaliq was made of wood and that the ruler's "head wife" (Empress Qi) held processions in her honour.[128][129]

Ibn Battuta also wrote he had heard of "the rampart of Yajuj and Majuj" that was "sixty days' travel" from the city of Zeitun (Quanzhou);[130] Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb notes that Ibn Battuta believed that the Great Wall of China was built by Dhul-Qarnayn to contain Gog and Magog as mentioned in the Quran.[130] However, Ibn Battuta, who asked about the wall in China, could find no one who had either seen it or knew of anyone who had seen it.[131]

Ibn Battuta travelled from Beijing to Hangzhou, and then proceeded to Fuzhou. Upon his return to Quanzhou, he soon boarded a Chinese junk owned by the Sultan of Samudera Pasai Sultanate heading for Southeast Asia, whereupon Ibn Battuta was unfairly charged a hefty sum by the crew and lost much of what he had collected during his stay in China.[132]

Battuta claimed that the Emperor Huizong of Yuan had interred with him in his grave six slave soldiers and four girl slaves.[133] Silver, gold, weapons, and carpets were put into the grave.[134]

Return

After returning to Quanzhou in 1346, Ibn Battuta began his journey back to Morocco.[135] In Kozhikode, he once again considered throwing himself at the mercy of Muhammad bin Tughluq in Delhi, but thought better of it and decided to carry on to Mecca. On his way to Basra he passed through the Strait of Hormuz, where he learned that Abu Sa'id, last ruler of the Ilkhanate Dynasty had died in Iran. Abu Sa'id's territories had subsequently collapsed due to a fierce civil war between the Iranians and Mongols.[136]

In 1348, Ibn Battuta arrived in Damascus with the intention of retracing the route of his first hajj. He then learned that his father had died 15 years earlier[137] and death became the dominant theme for the next year or so. The Black Death had struck and he stopped in Homs as the plague spread through Syria, Palestine, and Arabia. He heard of terrible death tolls in Gaza, but returned to Damascus that July where the death toll had reached 2,400 victims each day.[138] When he stopped in Gaza he found it was depopulated, and in Egypt he stayed at Abu Sir. Reportedly deaths in Cairo had reached levels of 1,100 each day.[139] He made hajj to Mecca then he decided to return to Morocco, nearly a quarter of a century after leaving home.[140] On the way he made one last detour to Sardinia, then in 1349, returned to Tangier by way of Fez, only to discover that his mother had also died a few months before.[141]

Itinerary 1349–1354

class=notpageimage|
Ibn Battuta Itinerary 1349–1354 (North Africa, Spain and West Africa)

Spain and North Africa

 
Ibn Battuta visited the Emirate of Granada, which was the final vestige of the Arab-Andalusian populace in Al-Andalus.

After a few days in Tangier, Ibn Battuta set out for a trip to the Muslim-controlled territory of al-Andalus on the Iberian Peninsula. King Alfonso XI of Castile and León had threatened to attack Gibraltar, so in 1350, Ibn Battuta joined a group of Muslims leaving Tangier with the intention of defending the port.[142] By the time he arrived, the Black Death had killed Alfonso and the threat of invasion had receded, so he turned the trip into a sight-seeing tour ending up in Granada.[143]

After his departure from al-Andalus he decided to travel through Morocco. On his return home, he stopped for a while in Marrakech, which was almost a ghost town following the recent plague and the transfer of the capital to Fez.[144]

Mali and Timbuktu

 
Sankore Madrasah in Timbuktu, Mali

In the autumn of 1351, Ibn Battuta left Fez and made his way to the town of Sijilmasa on the northern edge of the Sahara in present-day Morocco.[145] There he bought a number of camels and stayed for four months. He set out again with a caravan in February 1352 and after 25 days arrived at the dry salt lake bed of Taghaza with its salt mines. All of the local buildings were made from slabs of salt by the slaves of the Masufa tribe, who cut the salt in thick slabs for transport by camel. Taghaza was a commercial centre and awash with Malian gold, though Ibn Battuta did not form a favourable impression of the place, recording that it was plagued by flies and the water was brackish.[146]

After a ten-day stay in Taghaza, the caravan set out for the oasis of Tasarahla (probably Bir al-Ksaib)[147][h] where it stopped for three days in preparation for the last and most difficult leg of the journey across the vast desert. From Tasarahla, a Masufa scout was sent ahead to the oasis town of Oualata, where he arranged for water to be transported a distance of four days travel where it would meet the thirsty caravan. Oualata was the southern terminus of the trans-Saharan trade route and had recently become part of the Mali Empire. Altogether, the caravan took two months to cross the 1,600 km (990 mi) of desert from Sijilmasa.[148]

 
Azalai salt caravan from Agadez to Bilma, Niger

From there, Ibn Battuta travelled southwest along a river he believed to be the Nile (it was actually the river Niger), until he reached the capital of the Mali Empire.[i] There he met Mansa Suleyman, king since 1341. Ibn Battuta disapproved of the fact that female slaves, servants, and even the daughters of the sultan went about exposing parts of their bodies not befitting a Muslim.[150] He wrote in his Rihla that black Africans were characterised by "ill manners" and "contempt for white men", and that he "was long astonished at their feeble intellect and their respect for mean things."[151] He left the capital in February accompanied by a local Malian merchant and journeyed overland by camel to Timbuktu.[152] Though in the next two centuries it would become the most important city in the region, at that time it was a small city and relatively unimportant.[153] It was during this journey that Ibn Battuta first encountered a hippopotamus. The animals were feared by the local boatmen and hunted with lances to which strong cords were attached.[154] After a short stay in Timbuktu, Ibn Battuta journeyed down the Niger to Gao in a canoe carved from a single tree. At the time Gao was an important commercial center.[155]

After spending a month in Gao, Ibn Battuta set off with a large caravan for the oasis of Takedda. On his journey across the desert, he received a message from the Sultan of Morocco commanding him to return home. He set off for Sijilmasa in September 1353, accompanying a large caravan transporting 600 female slaves, and arrived back in Morocco early in 1354.[156]

Ibn Battuta's itinerary gives scholars a glimpse as to when Islam first began to spread into the heart of west Africa.[157]

Works

Further information: Rihla
 
Purported Mausoleum of Ibn Battuta in Tangier
 
Historic copy of selected parts of the Travel Report by Ibn Battuta, 1836 CE, Cairo

After returning home from his travels in 1354, and at the suggestion of the Marinid ruler of Morocco, Abu Inan Faris, Ibn Battuta dictated an account in Arabic of his journeys to Ibn Juzayy, a scholar whom he had previously met in Granada. The account is the only source for Ibn Battuta's adventures. The full title of the manuscript may be translated as A Masterpiece to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Travelling (تحفة النظار في غرائب الأمصار وعجائب الأسفار, Tuḥfat an-Nuẓẓār fī Gharāʾib al-Amṣār wa ʿAjāʾib al-Asfār).[158][j] However, it is often simply referred to as The Travels (الرحلة, Rihla),[160] in reference to a standard form of Arabic literature.

There is no indication that Ibn Battuta made any notes or had any journal during his twenty-nine years of travelling.[k] When he came to dictate an account of his experiences he had to rely on memory and manuscripts produced by earlier travellers. Ibn Juzayy did not acknowledge his sources and presented some of the earlier descriptions as Ibn Battuta's own observations. When describing Damascus, Mecca, Medina, and some other places in the Middle East, he clearly copied passages from the account by the Andalusian Ibn Jubayr which had been written more than 150 years earlier.[162] Similarly, most of Ibn Juzayy's descriptions of places in Palestine were copied from an account by the 13th-century traveller Muhammad al-Abdari.[163]

Scholars do not believe that Ibn Battuta visited all the places he described and argue that in order to provide a comprehensive description of places in the Muslim world, he relied on hearsay evidence and made use of accounts by earlier travellers. For example, it is considered very unlikely that Ibn Battuta made a trip up the Volga River from New Sarai to visit Bolghar[164] and there are serious doubts about a number of other journeys such as his trip to Sana'a in Yemen,[165] his journey from Balkh to Bistam in Khorasan,[166] and his trip around Anatolia.[167]

Ibn Battuta's claim that a Maghrebian called "Abu'l Barakat the Berber" converted the Maldives to Islam is contradicted by an entirely different story which says that the Maldives were converted to Islam after miracles were performed by a Tabrizi named Maulana Shaikh Yusuf Shams-ud-din according to the Tarikh, the official history of the Maldives.[168]

Some scholars have also questioned whether he really visited China.[169] Ibn Battuta may have plagiarized entire sections of his descriptions of China lifted from works by other authors like "Masalik al-absar fi mamalik al-amsar" by Shihab al-Umari, Sulaiman al-Tajir, and possibly from Al Juwayni, Rashid al din, and an Alexander romance. Furthermore, Ibn Battuta's description and Marco Polo's writings share extremely similar sections and themes, with some of the same commentary, e.g. it is unlikely that the 3rd Caliph Uthman ibn Affan had someone with the identical name in China who was encountered by Ibn Battuta.[170]

However, even if the Rihla is not fully based on what its author personally witnessed, it provides an important account of much of the 14th-century world. Concubines were used by Ibn Battuta such as in Delhi.[161]: 111–113, 137, 141, 238 [171] He wedded several women, divorced at least some of them, and in Damascus, Malabar, Delhi, Bukhara, and the Maldives had children by them or by concubines.[172] Ibn Battuta insulted Greeks as "enemies of Allah", drunkards and "swine eaters", while at the same time in Ephesus he purchased and used a Greek girl who was one of his many slave girls in his "harem" through Byzantium, Khorasan, Africa, and Palestine.[173] It was two decades before he again returned to find out what happened to one of his wives and child in Damascus.[174]

Ibn Battuta often experienced culture shock in regions he visited where the local customs of recently converted peoples did not fit in with his orthodox Muslim background. Among the Turks and Mongols, he was astonished at the freedom and respect enjoyed by women and remarked that on seeing a Turkish couple in a bazaar one might assume that the man was the woman's servant when he was in fact her husband.[175] He also felt that dress customs in the Maldives, and some sub-Saharan regions in Africa were too revealing.[citation needed]

Little is known about Ibn Battuta's life after completion of his Rihla in 1355. He was appointed a judge in Morocco and died in 1368 or 1369.[176]

Ibn Battuta's work was unknown outside the Muslim world until the beginning of the 19th century, when the German traveller-explorer Ulrich Jasper Seetzen (1767–1811) acquired a collection of manuscripts in the Middle East, among which was a 94-page volume containing an abridged version of Ibn Juzayy's text. Three extracts were published in 1818 by the German orientalist Johann Kosegarten.[177] A fourth extract was published the following year.[178] French scholars were alerted to the initial publication by a lengthy review published in the Journal de Savants by the orientalist Silvestre de Sacy.[179]

Three copies of another abridged manuscript were acquired by the Swiss traveller Johann Burckhardt and bequeathed to the University of Cambridge. He gave a brief overview of their content in a book published posthumously in 1819.[180] The Arabic text was translated into English by the orientalist Samuel Lee and published in London in 1829.[181]

In the 1830s, during the French occupation of Algeria, the Bibliothèque Nationale (BNF) in Paris acquired five manuscripts of Ibn Battuta's travels, in which two were complete.[l] One manuscript containing just the second part of the work is dated 1356 and is believed to be Ibn Juzayy's autograph.[186] The BNF manuscripts were used in 1843 by the Irish-French orientalist Baron de Slane to produce a translation into French of Ibn Battuta's visit to the Sudan.[187] They were also studied by the French scholars Charles Defrémery and Beniamino Sanguinetti. Beginning in 1853 they published a series of four volumes containing a critical edition of the Arabic text together with a translation into French.[188] In their introduction Defrémery and Sanguinetti praised Lee's annotations but were critical of his translation which they claimed lacked precision, even in straightforward passages.[m]

In 1929, exactly a century after the publication of Lee's translation, the historian and orientalist Hamilton Gibb published an English translation of selected portions of Defrémery and Sanguinetti's Arabic text.[190] Gibb had proposed to the Hakluyt Society in 1922 that he should prepare an annotated translation of the entire Rihla into English.[191] His intention was to divide the translated text into four volumes, each volume corresponding to one of the volumes published by Defrémery and Sanguinetti. The first volume was not published until 1958.[192] Gibb died in 1971, having completed the first three volumes. The fourth volume was prepared by Charles Beckingham and published in 1994.[193] Defrémery and Sanguinetti's printed text has now been translated into number of other languages.

Historicity

German Islamic studies scholar Ralph Elger views Battuta's travel account as an important literary work but doubts the historicity of much of its content, which he suspects to be a work of fiction compiled and inspired from other contemporary travel reports.[194] Various other scholars have raised similar doubts.[195]

In 1987, Ross E. Dunn similarly expressed doubts that any evidence would be found to support the narrative of the Rihla, but in 2010, Tim Mackintosh-Smith completed a multi-volume field study in dozens of the locales mentioned in the Rihla, in which he reports on previously unknown manuscripts of Islamic law kept in the archives of Al-Azhar University in Cairo that were copied by Ibn Battuta in Damascus in 1326, corroborating the date in the Rihla of his sojourn in Syria.[196]

Present-day cultural references

 
Borj en-Nâam barracks in Tangier, repurposed as Ibn Battuta Memorial Museum

The largest themed mall in Dubai, UAE, the Ibn Battuta Mall is named for him and features both areas designed to recreate the exotic lands he visited on his travels and statuary tableaus depicting scenes from his life history.[197][198]

A giant semblance of Battuta, alongside two others from the history of Arab exploration, the geographer and historian Al Bakri and the navigator and cartographer Ibn Majid, is displayed at the Mobility pavilion at Expo 2020 in Dubai in a section of the exhibition designed by Weta Workshop.[199]

Tangier Ibn Battouta Airport is an international airport located in his hometown of Tangier, Morocco.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Arabic: ابن بطوطة; fully: Shams al-Dīn Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm ibn Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm ibn Yūsuf al-Lawātī al-Ṭanji; Arabic: شمس الدين أبو عبد الله محمد بن عبد الله بن محمد بن إبراهيم بن محمد بن إبراهيم بن يوسف اللواتي الطنجي
  2. ^ Aydhad was a port on the west coast of the Red Sea at 22°19′51″N 36°29′25″E / 22.33083°N 36.49028°E / 22.33083; 36.49028.[28]
  3. ^ Ibn Battuta left Cairo on around 16 July 1326 and arrived in Damascus three weeks later on 9 August 1326.[32] He described travelling on a complicated zig-zag route across Palestine in which he visited more than twenty cities. Such a journey would have been impossible in the allotted time and both Gibb (1958) and Hrbek (1962) have argued that Ibn Battuta conflated this journey with later journeys that he made in the region.[33][34] Elad (1987) has shown that Ibn Battuta's descriptions of most of the sites in Palestine were not original but were copied (without acknowledgement) from the earlier rihla by the traveller Mohammed al-Abdari. Because of these difficulties, it is not possible to determine an accurate chronology of Ibn Battuta's travels in the region.[35]
  4. ^ Most of Ibn Battuta's descriptions of the towns along the Tigris are copied from Ibn Jabayr's Rihla from 1184.[45][46]
  5. ^ Ibn Battuta states that he stayed in Mecca for the hajj of 1327, 1328, 1329 and 1330 but gives comparatively little information on his stays. After the hajj of 1330 he left for East Africa, arriving back again in Mecca before the 1332 hajj. He states that he then left for India and arrived at the Indus river on 12 September 1333; however, although he does not specify exact dates, the description of his complex itinerary and the clues in the text to the chronology suggest that this journey to India lasted around three years. He must have therefore either left Mecca two years earlier than stated or arrived in India two years later. The issue is discussed by Gibb 1962, pp. 528–537 Vol. 2, Hrbek 1962 and Dunn 2005, pp. 132–133.
  6. ^ This is one of several occasions where Ibn Battuta interrupts a journey to branch out on a side trip only to later skip back and resume the original journey. Gibb describes these side trips as "divagations".[75] The divagation through Anatolia is considered credible as Ibn Battuta describes numerous personal experiences and there is sufficient time between leaving Mecca in mid-November 1330 and reaching Eğirdir on the way back from Erzurum at the start of Ramadan (8 June) in 1331.[74] Gibb still admits that he found it difficult to believe that Ibn Battuta actually travelled as far east as Erzurum.[76]
  7. ^ In the Rihla the date of Ibn Battuta's departure from Delhi is given as 17 Safar 743 AH or 22 July 1342.[97][98] Dunn has argued that this is probably an error and to accommodate Ibn Battuta's subsequent travels and visits to the Maldives it is more likely that he left Delhi in 1341.[99]
  8. ^ Bir al-Ksaib (also Bir Ounane or El Gçaib) is in northern Mali at 21°17′33″N 5°37′30″W / 21.29250°N 5.62500°W / 21.29250; -5.62500. The oasis is 265 km (165 mi) south of Taghaza and 470 km (290 mi) north of Oualata.
  9. ^ The location of the Malian capital has been the subject of considerable scholarly debate but there is no consensus. The historian, John Hunwick has studied the times given by Ibn Battuta for the various stages of his journey and proposed that the capital is likely to have been on the left side of the Niger River somewhere between Bamako and Nyamina.[149]
  10. ^ Dunn gives the clunkier translation A Gift to the Observers Concerning the Curiosities of the Cities and the Marvels Encountered in Travels.[159]
  11. ^ Though he mentions being robbed of some notes[161]
  12. ^ Neither de Slane's 19th century catalogue[182] nor the modern online equivalent provide any information on the provenance of the manuscripts.[183] Dunn states that all five manuscripts were "found in Algeria"[184] but in their introduction Defrémery and Sanguinetti mention that the BNF had acquired one manuscript (MS Supplément arabe 909/Arabe 2287) from M. Delaporte, a former French consul to Morocco.[185]
  13. ^ French: "La version de M. Lee manque quelquefois d'exactitude, même dans des passage fort simples et très-faciles".[189]

References

Citations

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  33. ^ Gibb 1958, p. 81 Note 48.
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Bibliography

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  • Waines, David (2010), The Odyssey of Ibn Battuta: Uncommon Tales of a Medieval Adventurer, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-86985-8.

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ibn Battuta.
 
Wikiquote has quotations related to Ibn Battuta.
  • Travels In Asia And Africa 1325–1354 – Gibb's 1929 translation from the Internet Archive
  • – Saudi Aramco World article by Tim Mackintosh-Smith (March/April 2006).
  • – Saudi Aramco World article by Douglas Bullis (July/August 2000).
  • Google Books – 2004 reissue of Gibb's 1929 translation.
  • Yule, Henry; Beazley, Charles Raymond (1911). "Ibn Batuta" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 14 (11th ed.). pp. 219–220.
  • French text from Defrémery and Sanguinetti (1853–1858) with an introduction and footnotes by Stéphane Yérasimos published in 1982: Volume 1, Volume 2, Volume 3.
  • Works by Ibn Battuta at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)  
  • Interactive scholarly edition, with critical English translation and multimodal resources mashup (publications, images, videos) Engineering Historical Memory.

January 19, 2024
battuta, other, uses, disambiguation, abdullah, muhammad, battutah, ɑː, february, 1304, 1368, 1369, commonly, known, maghrebi, traveller, explorer, scholar, over, period, thirty, years, from, 1325, 1354, visited, most, north, africa, middle, east, east, africa. For other uses see Ibn Battuta disambiguation Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Battutah ˌ ɪ b en b ae t ˈ t uː t ɑː 24 February 1304 1368 1369 a commonly known as Ibn Battuta was a Maghrebi traveller explorer and scholar 7 Over a period of thirty years from 1325 to 1354 Ibn Battuta visited most of North Africa the Middle East East Africa Central Asia South Asia Southeast Asia China the Iberian Peninsula and West Africa Near the end of his life he dictated an account of his journeys titled A Gift to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Travelling but commonly known as The Rihla Shaykh 1 Ibn Battutaابن بطوطة1878 illustration by Leon Benett showing Ibn Battuta center and his guide left in EgyptBorn24 February 1304Tangier Marinid SultanateDied1369 aged 64 65 Marrakesh Marinid Sultanate 2 Other namesThe Islamic Marco Polo Ibn battuta al TanjiOccupation s Traveller Geographer explorer scholarEraPost classical historyNotable workRihlaArabic namePersonal Ism Shams al DinPatronymic Nasab Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allah ibn Muḥammad ibn Ibrahim ibn Muḥammad ibn YusufTeknonymic Kunya ʾAbu ʿAbd AllahEpithet Laqab ibn BaṭṭuṭahIbn Battuta travelled more than any other explorer in pre modern history totalling around 117 000 km 73 000 mi surpassing Zheng He with about 50 000 km 31 000 mi and Marco Polo with 24 000 km 15 000 mi 8 9 10 There have been doubts over the historicity of some of Ibn Battuta s travels particularly as they reach farther East Contents 1 Name 2 Early life 3 Journeys 3 1 Itinerary 1325 1332 3 1 1 First pilgrimage 3 1 2 Iraq and Iran 3 1 3 Arabia 3 1 4 Somalia 3 1 5 Swahili coast 3 2 Itinerary 1332 1347 3 2 1 Anatolia 3 2 2 Central Asia 3 2 3 South Asia 3 2 4 Southeast Asia 3 2 5 China 4 Return 4 1 Itinerary 1349 1354 4 1 1 Spain and North Africa 4 1 2 Mali and Timbuktu 5 Works 6 Historicity 7 Present day cultural references 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 10 1 Citations 10 2 Bibliography 11 External linksNameIbn Battuta is a patronymic literally meaning son of the duckling 11 His most common full name is given as Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Battuta 12 In his travelogue the Rihla he gives his full name as Shams al Din Abu Abdallah Muhammad ibn Abdallah ibn Muhammad ibn Ibrahim ibn Muhammad ibn Yusuf Lawati al Tanji ibn Battuta 13 14 15 Early life nbsp A miniature from al Wasiti s Maqamat of Al Hariri of pilgrims on a hajjAll that is known about Ibn Battuta s life comes from the autobiographical information included in the account of his travels which records that he was of Berber descent 9 born into a family of Islamic legal scholars in Tangier known as qadis in the Muslim tradition in Morocco on 24 February 1304 during the reign of the Marinid dynasty 16 His family belonged to a Berber tribe known as the Lawata 17 As a young man he would have studied at a Sunni Maliki madhhab Islamic jurisprudence school the dominant form of education in North Africa at that time 18 Maliki Muslims requested Ibn Battuta serve as their religious judge as he was from an area where it was practised 19 JourneysItinerary 1325 1332 nbsp nbsp nbsp Tangier nbsp Tlemcen nbsp Bejaia nbsp Tunis nbsp Fes nbsp Miliana nbsp Algiers nbsp Annaba nbsp Sousse nbsp Gabes nbsp Tripoli nbsp Sfax nbsp Alexandria nbsp Cairo nbsp Damascus nbsp Jerusalem nbsp Bethlehem nbsp Medina nbsp Najaf nbsp Baghdad nbsp Tigris nbsp Basra nbsp Zagros Mountains nbsp Shiraz nbsp Tabriz nbsp Mosul nbsp Cizre nbsp Mardin nbsp Jeddah nbsp Yemen nbsp Rabigh nbsp Zabid nbsp Ta izz nbsp Sana a nbsp Aden nbsp Zeila nbsp Mogadishu nbsp Mombasa nbsp Zanzibar nbsp Dhofar nbsp Al Hasa nbsp Qatif nbsp Muscat nbsp Latakia nbsp Kilwaclass notpageimage Ibn Battuta Itinerary 1325 1332 North Africa Iraq Iran the Arabian Peninsula Somalia Swahili Coast First pilgrimage On 2 Rajab in the Muslim year 725 Anno Hegirae 14 June 1325 Anno Domini on the Christian calendar at the age of twenty one Ibn Battuta set off from his home town on a hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca a journey that would ordinarily take sixteen months He was eager to learn more about far away lands and craved adventure No one knew that he would not return to Morocco again for 24 years 20 I set out alone having neither fellow traveller in whose companionship I might find cheer nor caravan whose part I might join but swayed by an overmastering impulse within me and a desire long cherished in my bosom to visit these illustrious sanctuaries So I braced my resolution to quit my dear ones female and male and forsook my home as birds forsake their nests My parents being yet in the bonds of life it weighed sorely upon me to part from them and both they and I were afflicted with sorrow at this separation 21 He travelled to Mecca overland following the North African coast across the sultanates of Abd al Wadid and Hafsid The route took him through Tlemcen Bejaia and then Tunis where he stayed for two months 22 For safety Ibn Battuta usually joined a caravan to reduce the risk of being robbed He took a bride in the town of Sfax 23 but soon left her due to a dispute with the father That was the first in a series of marriages that would feature in his travels 24 nbsp Ottoman 17th century tile depicting the Kaaba in MeccaIn the early spring of 1326 after a journey of over 3 500 km 2 200 mi Ibn Battuta arrived at the port of Alexandria at the time part of the Bahri Mamluk empire He met two ascetic pious men in Alexandria One was Sheikh Burhanuddin who is supposed to have foretold the destiny of Ibn Battuta as a world traveller and told him It seems to me that you are fond of foreign travel You must visit my brother Fariduddin in India Rukonuddin in Sind and Burhanuddin in China Convey my greetings to them Another pious man Sheikh Murshidi interpreted the meaning of a dream of Ibn Battuta that he was meant to be a world traveller 25 26 He spent several weeks visiting sites in the area and then headed inland to Cairo the capital of the Mamluk Sultanate and an important city After spending about a month in Cairo 27 he embarked on the first of many detours within the relative safety of Mamluk territory Of the three usual routes to Mecca Ibn Battuta chose the least travelled which involved a journey up the Nile valley then east to the Red Sea port of ʿAydhab b Upon approaching the town however a local rebellion forced him to turn back 29 Ibn Battuta returned to Cairo and took a second side trip this time to Mamluk controlled Damascus During his first trip he had encountered a holy man who prophesied that he would only reach Mecca by travelling through Syria 30 The diversion held an added advantage because of the holy places that lay along the way including Hebron Jerusalem and Bethlehem the Mamluk authorities spared no efforts in keeping the route safe for pilgrims Without this help many travellers would be robbed and murdered 31 c After spending the Muslim month of Ramadan during August 36 in Damascus he joined a caravan travelling the 1 300 km 810 mi south to Medina site of the Mosque of the Islamic prophet Muhammad After four days in the town he journeyed on to Mecca while visiting holy sites along the way upon his arrival to Mecca he completed his first pilgrimage in November and he took the honorific status of El Hajji Rather than returning home Ibn Battuta decided to continue travelling choosing as his next destination the Ilkhanate a Mongol Khanate to the northeast 37 Iraq and Iran On 17 November 1326 following a month spent in Mecca Ibn Battuta joined a large caravan of pilgrims returning to Iraq across the Arabian Peninsula 38 The group headed north to Medina and then travelling at night turned northeast across the Najd plateau to Najaf on a journey that lasted about two weeks In Najaf he visited the mausoleum of Ali the Fourth Caliph 39 Then instead of continuing to Baghdad with the caravan Ibn Battuta started a six month detour that took him into Iran From Najaf he journeyed to Wasit then followed the river Tigris south to Basra His next destination was the town of Isfahan across the Zagros Mountains in Iran He then headed south to Shiraz a large flourishing city spared the destruction wrought by Mongol invaders on many more northerly towns Finally he returned across the mountains to Baghdad arriving there in June 1327 40 Parts of the city were still ruined from the damage inflicted by Hulagu Khan s invading army in 1258 41 In Baghdad he found Abu Sa id the last Mongol ruler of the unified Ilkhanate leaving the city and heading north with a large retinue 42 Ibn Battuta joined the royal caravan for a while then turned north on the Silk Road to Tabriz the first major city in the region to open its gates to the Mongols and by then an important trading centre as most of its nearby rivals had been razed by the Mongol invaders 43 Ibn Battuta left again for Baghdad probably in July but first took an excursion northwards along the river Tigris He visited Mosul where he was the guest of the Ilkhanate governor 44 and then the towns of Cizre Jazirat ibn Umar and Mardin in modern day Turkey At a hermitage on a mountain near Sinjar he met a Kurdish mystic who gave him some silver coins d 47 Once back in Mosul he joined a feeder caravan of pilgrims heading south to Baghdad where they would meet up with the main caravan that crossed the Arabian Desert to Mecca Ill with diarrhoea he arrived in the city weak and exhausted for his second hajj 48 Arabia nbsp Old City of Sana a YemenIbn Battuta remained in Mecca for some time the Rihla suggests about three years from September 1327 until autumn 1330 Problems with chronology however lead commentators to suggest that he may have left after the 1328 hajj e After the hajj in either 1328 or 1330 he made his way to the port of Jeddah on the Red Sea coast From there he followed the coast in a series of boats known as a jalbah these were small craft made of wooden planks sewn together lacking an established phrase making slow progress against the prevailing south easterly winds Once in Yemen he visited Zabid and later the highland town of Ta izz where he met the Rasulid dynasty king Malik Mujahid Nur al Din Ali Ibn Battuta also mentions visiting Sana a but whether he actually did so is doubtful 49 In all likelihood he went directly from Ta izz to the important trading port of Aden arriving around the beginning of 1329 or 1331 50 Somalia nbsp The port and waterfront of ZeilaFrom Aden Ibn Battuta embarked on a ship heading for Zeila on the coast of Somalia He then moved on to Cape Guardafui further down the Somali seaboard spending about a week in each location Later he would visit Mogadishu the then pre eminent city of the Land of the Berbers بلد البربر Balad al Barbar the medieval Arabic term for the Horn of Africa 51 52 53 When Ibn Battuta arrived in 1332 Mogadishu stood at the zenith of its prosperity He described it as an exceedingly large city with many rich merchants noted for its high quality fabric that was exported to other countries including Egypt 54 Battuta added that the city was ruled by a Somali Sultan Abu Bakr ibn Shaikh Umar 55 56 He noted that Sultan Abu Bakr had dark skin complexion and spoke in his native tongue Somali but was also fluent in Arabic 57 56 58 The Sultan also had a retinue of wazirs ministers legal experts commanders royal eunuchs and other officials at his beck and call 56 Swahili coast nbsp The Great Mosque of Kilwa Kisiwani made of coral stones is the largest Mosque of its kind Ibn Battuta continued by ship south to the Swahili coast a region then known in Arabic as the Bilad al Zanj Land of the Zanj 59 with an overnight stop at the island town of Mombasa 60 Although relatively small at the time Mombasa would become important in the following century 61 After a journey along the coast Ibn Battuta next arrived in the island town of Kilwa in present day Tanzania 62 which had become an important transit centre of the gold trade 63 He described the city as one of the finest and most beautifully built towns all the buildings are of wood and the houses are roofed with dis reeds 64 Ibn Battuta recorded his visit to the Kilwa Sultanate in 1330 and commented favourably on the humility and religion of its ruler Sultan al Hasan ibn Sulaiman a descendant of the legendary Ali ibn al Hassan Shirazi He further wrote that the authority of the Sultan extended from Malindi in the north to Inhambane in the south and was particularly impressed by the planning of the city believing it to be the reason for Kilwa s success along the coast During this period he described the construction of the Palace of Husuni Kubwa and a significant extension to the Great Mosque of Kilwa which was made of coral stones and was the largest mosque of its kind With a change in the monsoon winds Ibn Battuta sailed back to Arabia first to Oman and the Strait of Hormuz then on to Mecca for the hajj of 1330 or 1332 65 Itinerary 1332 1347 nbsp nbsp nbsp Anatolia nbsp Alanya nbsp Konya nbsp Sinop nbsp Feodosiya nbsp Astrakhan nbsp Constantinople nbsp Hagia Sophia nbsp Caspian Sea nbsp Aral Sea nbsp Bukhara nbsp Samarkand nbsp Afghanistan nbsp Isfahan nbsp Delhi nbsp Khambhat nbsp Kozhikode nbsp Sumatra nbsp Honavar nbsp Uttara Kannada nbsp Maldives nbsp Sri Lanka nbsp Adam s Peak nbsp Vietnam nbsp Philippines nbsp Chittagong nbsp Sylhet nbsp Myanmar nbsp Pasai nbsp Java nbsp Quanzhou nbsp Fujian nbsp Hangzhou nbsp Beijing nbsp Balkh nbsp Antalya nbsp Bulgaria nbsp Azov nbsp Pakistan nbsp Uzbekistan nbsp Tajikistan nbsp Samarqand nbsp Uttar Pradesh nbsp Deccan nbsp Alexandria nbsp Cairo nbsp Damascus nbsp Jerusalem nbsp Bethlehem nbsp Medina nbsp Baghdad nbsp Shiraz nbsp Jeddah nbsp Mecca nbsp Dhofarclass notpageimage Ibn Battuta Itinerary 1332 1346 Black Sea Area Central Asia India South East Asia and China Anatolia nbsp Ibn Battuta may have met Andronikos III Palaiologos in late 1332 After his third pilgrimage to Mecca Ibn Battuta decided to seek employment with the Sultan of Delhi Muhammad bin Tughluq In the autumn of 1330 or 1332 he set off for the Seljuk controlled territory of Anatolia to take an overland route to India 66 He crossed the Red Sea and the Eastern Desert to reach the Nile valley and then headed north to Cairo From there he crossed the Sinai Peninsula to Palestine and then travelled north again through some of the towns that he had visited in 1326 From the Syrian port of Latakia a Genoese ship took him and his companions to Alanya on the southern coast of modern day Turkey 67 He then journeyed westwards along the coast to the port of Antalya 68 In the town he met members of one of the semi religious fityan associations 69 verification needed These were a feature of most Anatolian towns in the 13th and 14th centuries The members were young artisans and had at their head a leader with the title of Akhil 70 The associations specialised in welcoming travellers Ibn Battuta was very impressed with the hospitality that he received and would later stay in their hospices in more than 25 towns in Anatolia 71 From Antalya Ibn Battuta headed inland to Egirdir which was the capital of the Hamidids He spent Ramadan June 1331 or May 1333 in the city 72 From this point his itinerary across Anatolia in the Rihla becomes confused Ibn Battuta describes travelling westwards from Egirdir to Milas and then skipping 420 km 260 mi eastward past Egirdir to Konya He then continues travelling in an easterly direction reaching Erzurum from where he skips 1 160 km 720 mi back to Birgi which lies north of Milas 73 Historians believe that Ibn Battuta visited a number of towns in central Anatolia but not in the order in which he describes 74 f When Ibn Battuta arrived in Iznik it had just been conquered by Orhan Sultan of the nascent Ottoman Empire Orhan was away and his wife was in command of the nearby stationed soldiers Ibn Battuta gave this account of Orhan s wife A pious and excellent woman She treated me honourably gave me hospitality and sent gifts 77 Ibn Battuta s account of Orhan The greatest of the kings of the Turkmens and the richest in wealth lands and military forces Of fortresses he possesses nearly a hundred and for most of his time he is continually engaged in making a round of them staying in each fortress for some days to put it in good order and examine its condition It is said that he has never stayed for a whole month in any one town He also fights with the infidels continually and keeps them under siege Ibn Battuta 78 Ibn Battuta had also visited Bursa which at the time was the capital of the Ottoman Beylik he described Bursa as a great and important city with fine bazaars and wide streets surrounded on all sides with gardens and running springs 79 He also visited the Beylik of Aydin Ibn Battuta stated that the ruler of the Beylik of Aydin had twenty Greek slaves at the entrance of his palace and Ibn Battuta was given a Greek slave as a gift 77 His visit to Anatolia was the first time in his travels he acquired a servant the ruler of Aydin gifted him his first slave Later he purchased a young Greek girl for 40 dinars in Ephesus was gifted another slave in Izmir by the Sultan and purchased a second girl in Balikesir The conspicuous evidence of his wealth and prestige continued to grow 80 Central Asia nbsp Bactrian camel one of the symbols of Silk Road caravans in front of Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi in the city of Turkestan KazakhstanFrom Sinope he took a sea route to the Crimean Peninsula arriving in the Golden Horde realm He went to the port town of Azov where he met with the emir of the Khan then to the large and rich city of Majar He left Majar to meet with Uzbeg Khan s travelling court Orda which was at the time near Mount Beshtau From there he made a journey to Bolghar which became the northernmost point he reached and noted its unusually short nights in summer by the standards of the subtropics Then he returned to the Khan s court and with it moved to Astrakhan citation needed Ibn Battuta recorded that while in Bolghar he wanted to travel further north into the land of darkness The land is snow covered throughout northern Siberia and the only means of transport is dog drawn sled There lived a mysterious people who were reluctant to show themselves They traded with southern people in a peculiar way Southern merchants brought various goods and placed them in an open area on the snow in the night then returned to their tents Next morning they came to the place again and found their merchandise taken by the mysterious people but in exchange they found fur skins which could be used for making valuable coats jackets and other winter garments The trade was done between merchants and the mysterious people without seeing each other As Ibn Battuta was not a merchant and saw no benefit of going there he abandoned the travel to this land of darkness 81 nbsp Flag of the Golden Horde during the reign of Oz Beg KhanWhen they reached Astrakhan Oz Beg Khan had just given permission for one of his pregnant wives Princess Bayalun a daughter of Byzantine emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos to return to her home city of Constantinople to give birth Ibn Battuta talked his way into this expedition which would be his first beyond the boundaries of the Islamic world 82 Arriving in Constantinople towards the end of 1332 or 1334 he met the Byzantine emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos He visited the great church of Hagia Sophia and spoke with an Eastern Orthodox priest about his travels in the city of Jerusalem After a month in the city Ibn Battuta returned to Astrakhan then arrived in the capital city Sarai al Jadid and reported the accounts of his travels to Sultan Oz Beg Khan r 1313 1341 Then he continued past the Caspian and Aral Seas to Bukhara and Samarkand where he visited the court of another Mongol khan Tarmashirin r 1331 1334 of the Chagatai Khanate 83 From there he journeyed south to Afghanistan then crossed into India via the mountain passes of the Hindu Kush 84 In the Rihla he mentions these mountains and the history of the range in slave trading 85 86 He wrote After this I proceeded to the city of Barwan in the road to which is a high mountain covered with snow and exceedingly cold they call it the Hindu Kush that is Hindu slayer because most of the slaves brought thither from India die on account of the intenseness of the cold Ibn Battuta Chapter XIII Rihla Khorasan 86 87 Ibn Battuta and his party reached the Indus River on 12 September 1333 88 From there he made his way to Delhi and became acquainted with the sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq South Asia nbsp Tomb of Feroze Shah Tughluq successor of Muhammad bin Tughluq in Delhi Ibn Battuta served as a qadi or judge for six years during Muhammad bin Tughluq s reign Muhammad bin Tughluq was renowned as the wealthiest man in the Muslim world at that time He patronized various scholars Sufis qadis viziers and other functionaries in order to consolidate his rule As with Mamluk Egypt the Tughlaq Dynasty was a rare vestigial example of Muslim rule after a Mongol invasion 89 better source needed On the strength of his years of study in Mecca Ibn Battuta was appointed a qadi or judge by the sultan 90 However he found it difficult to enforce Islamic law beyond the sultan s court in Delhi due to lack of Islamic appeal in India 91 nbsp Ibn Battuta in 1334 visited the shrine of Baba Farid in Pakpattan 92 It is uncertain by which route Ibn Battuta entered the Indian subcontinent but it is known that he was kidnapped and robbed by rebels on his journey to the Indian coast He may have entered via the Khyber Pass and Peshawar or further south 93 He crossed the Sutlej river near the city of Pakpattan 94 in modern day Pakistan where he paid obeisance at the shrine of Baba Farid 92 before crossing southwest into Rajput country From the Rajput kingdom of Sarsatti Battuta visited Hansi in India describing it as among the most beautiful cities the best constructed and the most populated it is surrounded with a strong wall and its founder is said to be one of the great non Muslim kings called Tara 95 Upon his arrival in Sindh Ibn Battuta mentions the Indian rhinoceros that lived on the banks of the Indus 96 The Sultan was erratic even by the standards of the time and for six years Ibn Battuta veered between living the high life of a trusted subordinate and falling under suspicion of treason for a variety of offences His plan to leave on the pretext of taking another hajj was stymied by the Sultan The opportunity for Battuta to leave Delhi finally arose in 1341 when an embassy arrived from the Yuan dynasty of China asking for permission to rebuild a Himalayan Buddhist temple popular with Chinese pilgrims g 100 Ibn Battuta was given charge of the embassy but en route to the coast at the start of the journey to China he and his large retinue were attacked by a group of bandits 101 Separated from his companions he was robbed kidnapped and nearly lost his life 102 Despite this setback within ten days he had caught up with his group and continued on to Khambhat in the Indian state of Gujarat From there they sailed to Calicut now known as Kozhikode where Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama would land two centuries later While in Calicut Battuta was the guest of the ruling Zamorin 90 While Ibn Battuta visited a mosque on shore a storm arose and one of the ships of his expedition sank 103 The other ship then sailed without him only to be seized by a local Sumatran king a few months later Afraid to return to Delhi and be seen as a failure he stayed for a time in southern India under the protection of Jamal ud Din ruler of the small but powerful Nawayath sultanate on the banks of the Sharavathi river next to the Arabian Sea This area is today known as Hosapattana and lies in the Honavar administrative district of Uttara Kannada Following the overthrow of the sultanate Ibn Battuta had no choice but to leave India Although determined to continue his journey to China he first took a detour to visit the Maldive Islands where he worked as a judge 104 better source needed nbsp View of an island in the MaldivesHe spent nine months on the islands much longer than he had intended When he arrived at the capital Male Ibn Battuta did not plan to stay However the leaders of the formerly Buddhist nation that had recently converted to Islam were looking for a chief judge someone who knew Arabic and the Qur an To convince him to stay they gave him pearls gold jewellery and slaves while at the same time making it impossible for him to leave by ship Compelled into staying he became a chief judge and married into the royal family of Omar I Ibn Battuta took on his duties as a judge with keenness and strived to transform local practices to conform to a stricter application of Muslim law He commanded that men who did not attend Friday prayer be publicly whipped and that robbers right hand be cut off He forbade women from being topless in public which had previously been the custom 105 However these and other strict judgments began to antagonize the island nation s rulers and involved him in power struggles and political intrigues Ibn Battuta resigned from his job as chief qadi although in all likelihood it was inevitable that he would have been dismissed Throughout his travels Ibn Battuta kept close company with women usually taking a wife whenever he stopped for any length of time at one place and then divorcing her when he moved on While in the Maldives Ibn Battuta took four wives In his Travels he wrote that in the Maldives the effect of small dowries and female non mobility combined to in effect make a marriage a convenient temporary arrangement for visiting male travellers and sailors From the Maldives he carried on to Sri Lanka and visited Sri Pada and Tenavaram temple Ibn Battuta s ship almost sank on embarking from Sri Lanka only for the vessel that came to his rescue to suffer an attack by pirates Stranded onshore he worked his way back to the Madurai kingdom in India Here he spent some time in the court of the short lived Madurai Sultanate under Ghiyas ud Din Muhammad Damghani 106 from where he returned to the Maldives and boarded a Chinese junk still intending to reach China and take up his ambassadorial post He reached the port of Chittagong in modern day Bangladesh intending to travel to Sylhet to meet Shah Jalal who became so renowned that Ibn Battuta then in Chittagong made a one month journey through the mountains of Kamaru near Sylhet to meet him On his way to Sylhet Ibn Battuta was greeted by several of Shah Jalal s disciples who had come to assist him on his journey many days before he had arrived At the meeting in 1345 CE Ibn Battuta noted that Shah Jalal was tall and lean fair in complexion and lived by the mosque in a cave where his only item of value was a goat he kept for milk butter and yogurt He observed that the companions of the Shah Jalal were foreign and known for their strength and bravery He also mentions that many people would visit the Shah to seek guidance Ibn Battuta went further north into Assam then turned around and continued with his original plan citation needed Southeast Asia See also Golden Chersonese In 1345 Ibn Battuta traveled to Samudra Pasai Sultanate called al Jawa in present day Aceh Northern Sumatra after 40 days voyage from Sunur Kawan 107 108 He notes in his travel log that the ruler of Samudra Pasai was a pious Muslim named Sultan Al Malik Al Zahir Jamal ad Din who performed his religious duties with utmost zeal and often waged campaigns against animists in the region The island of Sumatra according to Ibn Battuta was rich in camphor areca nut cloves and tin 109 The madh hab he observed was Imam Al Shafi i whose customs were similar to those he had previously seen in coastal India especially among the Mappila Muslims who were also followers of Imam Al Shafi i At that time Samudra Pasai marked the end of Dar al Islam because no territory east of this was ruled by a Muslim Here he stayed for about two weeks in the wooden walled town as a guest of the sultan and then the sultan provided him with supplies and sent him on his way on one of his own junks to China 109 Ibn Battuta first sailed for 21 days to a place called Mul Jawa island of Java or Majapahit Java which was a center of a Hindu empire The empire spanned 2 months of travel and ruled over the country of Qaqula and Qamara He arrived at the walled city named Qaqula Kakula and observed that the city had war junks for pirate raiding and collecting tolls and that elephants were employed for various purposes He met the ruler of Mul Jawa and stayed as a guest for three days 110 111 112 Ibn Battuta then sailed to a state called Kaylukari in the land of Tawalisi where he met Urduja a local princess Urduja was a brave warrior and her people were opponents of the Yuan dynasty She was described as an idolater but could write the phrase Bismillah in Islamic calligraphy The locations of Kaylukari and Tawalisi are disputed Kaylukari might referred to Po Klong Garai in Champa now southern Vietnam and Urduja might be an aristocrat of Champa or Dai Viet Filipinos widely believe that Kaylukari was in present day Pangasinan Province of the Philippines 113 Their opposition to the Mongols might indicate 2 possible locations Japan and Java Majapahit 114 In modern times Urduja has been featured in Filipino textbooks and films as a national heroine Numerous other locations have been proposed ranging from Java to somewhere in Guangdong Province China However Sir Henry Yule and William Henry Scott consider both Tawalisi and Urduja to be entirely fictitious See Tawalisi for details From Kaylukari Ibn Battuta finally reached Quanzhou in Fujian Province China China nbsp Ibn Battuta provides the earliest mention of the Great Wall of China with regard to medieval geographic studies although he did not see it In the year 1345 Ibn Battuta arrived at Quanzhou in China s Fujian province then under the rule of the Mongol led Yuan dynasty One of the first things he noted was that Muslims referred to the city as Zaitun meaning olive but Ibn Battuta could not find any olives anywhere He mentioned local artists and their mastery in making portraits of newly arrived foreigners these were for security purposes Ibn Battuta praised the craftsmen and their silk and porcelain as well as fruits such as plums and watermelons and the advantages of paper money 115 He described the manufacturing process of large ships in the city of Quanzhou 116 He also mentioned Chinese cuisine and its usage of animals such as frogs pigs and even dogs which were sold in the markets and noted that the chickens in China were larger than those in the west Scholars however have pointed out numerous errors given in Ibn Battuta s account of China for example confusing the Yellow River with the Grand Canal and other waterways as well as believing that porcelain was made from coal 117 In Quanzhou Ibn Battuta was welcomed by the head of the local Muslim merchants possibly a fanzhǎng or Leader of Foreigners simplified Chinese 番长 traditional Chinese 番長 pinyin fanzhǎng and Sheikh al Islam Imam who came to meet him with flags drums trumpets and musicians 118 Ibn Battuta noted that the Muslim populace lived within a separate portion in the city where they had their own mosques bazaars and hospitals In Quanzhou he met two prominent Iranians Burhan al Din of Kazerun and Sharif al Din from Tabriz 119 both of whom were influential figures noted in the Yuan History as A mi li ding and Sai fu ding respectively 120 While in Quanzhou he ascended the Mount of the Hermit and briefly visited a well known Taoist monk in a cave He then travelled south along the Chinese coast to Guangzhou where he lodged for two weeks with one of the city s wealthy merchants 121 From Guangzhou he went north to Quanzhou and then proceeded to the city of Fuzhou where he took up residence with Zahir al Din and met Kawam al Din and a fellow countryman named Al Bushri of Ceuta who had become a wealthy merchant in China Al Bushri accompanied Ibn Battuta northwards to Hangzhou and paid for the gifts that Ibn Battuta would present to the Emperor Huizong of Yuan 122 Ibn Battuta said that Hangzhou was one of the largest cities he had ever seen 123 and he noted its charm describing that the city sat on a beautiful lake surrounded by gentle green hills 124 He mentions the city s Muslim quarter and resided as a guest with a family of Egyptian origin 122 During his stay at Hangzhou he was particularly impressed by the large number of well crafted and well painted Chinese wooden ships with coloured sails and silk awnings assembling in the canals Later he attended a banquet of the Yuan administrator of the city named Qurtai who according to Ibn Battuta was very fond of the skills of local Chinese conjurers 125 Ibn Battuta also mentions locals who worshipped a solar deity 126 He described floating through the Grand Canal on a boat watching crop fields orchids merchants in black silk and women in flowered silk and priests also in silk 127 In Beijing Ibn Battuta referred to himself as the long lost ambassador from the Delhi Sultanate and was invited to the Yuan imperial court of Emperor Huizong who according to Ibn Battuta was worshipped by some people in China Ibn Batutta noted that the palace of Khanbaliq was made of wood and that the ruler s head wife Empress Qi held processions in her honour 128 129 Ibn Battuta also wrote he had heard of the rampart of Yajuj and Majuj that was sixty days travel from the city of Zeitun Quanzhou 130 Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb notes that Ibn Battuta believed that the Great Wall of China was built by Dhul Qarnayn to contain Gog and Magog as mentioned in the Quran 130 However Ibn Battuta who asked about the wall in China could find no one who had either seen it or knew of anyone who had seen it 131 Ibn Battuta travelled from Beijing to Hangzhou and then proceeded to Fuzhou Upon his return to Quanzhou he soon boarded a Chinese junk owned by the Sultan of Samudera Pasai Sultanate heading for Southeast Asia whereupon Ibn Battuta was unfairly charged a hefty sum by the crew and lost much of what he had collected during his stay in China 132 Battuta claimed that the Emperor Huizong of Yuan had interred with him in his grave six slave soldiers and four girl slaves 133 Silver gold weapons and carpets were put into the grave 134 ReturnAfter returning to Quanzhou in 1346 Ibn Battuta began his journey back to Morocco 135 In Kozhikode he once again considered throwing himself at the mercy of Muhammad bin Tughluq in Delhi but thought better of it and decided to carry on to Mecca On his way to Basra he passed through the Strait of Hormuz where he learned that Abu Sa id last ruler of the Ilkhanate Dynasty had died in Iran Abu Sa id s territories had subsequently collapsed due to a fierce civil war between the Iranians and Mongols 136 In 1348 Ibn Battuta arrived in Damascus with the intention of retracing the route of his first hajj He then learned that his father had died 15 years earlier 137 and death became the dominant theme for the next year or so The Black Death had struck and he stopped in Homs as the plague spread through Syria Palestine and Arabia He heard of terrible death tolls in Gaza but returned to Damascus that July where the death toll had reached 2 400 victims each day 138 When he stopped in Gaza he found it was depopulated and in Egypt he stayed at Abu Sir Reportedly deaths in Cairo had reached levels of 1 100 each day 139 He made hajj to Mecca then he decided to return to Morocco nearly a quarter of a century after leaving home 140 On the way he made one last detour to Sardinia then in 1349 returned to Tangier by way of Fez only to discover that his mother had also died a few months before 141 Itinerary 1349 1354 nbsp nbsp nbsp Tangiers nbsp Tlemcen nbsp Tunis nbsp Fes nbsp Algiers nbsp Tenes nbsp Alexandria nbsp Cairo nbsp Sijilmasa nbsp Taghaza nbsp Oualata nbsp Niani nbsp Timbuktu nbsp Gao nbsp I n Azaoua nbsp Takedda nbsp Cagliari nbsp Marrakech nbsp Gibraltar nbsp Granada nbsp Malagaclass notpageimage Ibn Battuta Itinerary 1349 1354 North Africa Spain and West Africa Spain and North Africa nbsp Ibn Battuta visited the Emirate of Granada which was the final vestige of the Arab Andalusian populace in Al Andalus After a few days in Tangier Ibn Battuta set out for a trip to the Muslim controlled territory of al Andalus on the Iberian Peninsula King Alfonso XI of Castile and Leon had threatened to attack Gibraltar so in 1350 Ibn Battuta joined a group of Muslims leaving Tangier with the intention of defending the port 142 By the time he arrived the Black Death had killed Alfonso and the threat of invasion had receded so he turned the trip into a sight seeing tour ending up in Granada 143 After his departure from al Andalus he decided to travel through Morocco On his return home he stopped for a while in Marrakech which was almost a ghost town following the recent plague and the transfer of the capital to Fez 144 Mali and Timbuktu nbsp Sankore Madrasah in Timbuktu MaliIn the autumn of 1351 Ibn Battuta left Fez and made his way to the town of Sijilmasa on the northern edge of the Sahara in present day Morocco 145 There he bought a number of camels and stayed for four months He set out again with a caravan in February 1352 and after 25 days arrived at the dry salt lake bed of Taghaza with its salt mines All of the local buildings were made from slabs of salt by the slaves of the Masufa tribe who cut the salt in thick slabs for transport by camel Taghaza was a commercial centre and awash with Malian gold though Ibn Battuta did not form a favourable impression of the place recording that it was plagued by flies and the water was brackish 146 After a ten day stay in Taghaza the caravan set out for the oasis of Tasarahla probably Bir al Ksaib 147 h where it stopped for three days in preparation for the last and most difficult leg of the journey across the vast desert From Tasarahla a Masufa scout was sent ahead to the oasis town of Oualata where he arranged for water to be transported a distance of four days travel where it would meet the thirsty caravan Oualata was the southern terminus of the trans Saharan trade route and had recently become part of the Mali Empire Altogether the caravan took two months to cross the 1 600 km 990 mi of desert from Sijilmasa 148 nbsp Azalai salt caravan from Agadez to Bilma NigerFrom there Ibn Battuta travelled southwest along a river he believed to be the Nile it was actually the river Niger until he reached the capital of the Mali Empire i There he met Mansa Suleyman king since 1341 Ibn Battuta disapproved of the fact that female slaves servants and even the daughters of the sultan went about exposing parts of their bodies not befitting a Muslim 150 He wrote in his Rihla that black Africans were characterised by ill manners and contempt for white men and that he was long astonished at their feeble intellect and their respect for mean things 151 He left the capital in February accompanied by a local Malian merchant and journeyed overland by camel to Timbuktu 152 Though in the next two centuries it would become the most important city in the region at that time it was a small city and relatively unimportant 153 It was during this journey that Ibn Battuta first encountered a hippopotamus The animals were feared by the local boatmen and hunted with lances to which strong cords were attached 154 After a short stay in Timbuktu Ibn Battuta journeyed down the Niger to Gao in a canoe carved from a single tree At the time Gao was an important commercial center 155 After spending a month in Gao Ibn Battuta set off with a large caravan for the oasis of Takedda On his journey across the desert he received a message from the Sultan of Morocco commanding him to return home He set off for Sijilmasa in September 1353 accompanying a large caravan transporting 600 female slaves and arrived back in Morocco early in 1354 156 Ibn Battuta s itinerary gives scholars a glimpse as to when Islam first began to spread into the heart of west Africa 157 WorksFurther information Rihla nbsp Purported Mausoleum of Ibn Battuta in Tangier nbsp Historic copy of selected parts of the Travel Report by Ibn Battuta 1836 CE CairoAfter returning home from his travels in 1354 and at the suggestion of the Marinid ruler of Morocco Abu Inan Faris Ibn Battuta dictated an account in Arabic of his journeys to Ibn Juzayy a scholar whom he had previously met in Granada The account is the only source for Ibn Battuta s adventures The full title of the manuscript may be translated as A Masterpiece to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Travelling تحفة النظار في غرائب الأمصار وعجائب الأسفار Tuḥfat an Nuẓẓar fi Gharaʾib al Amṣar wa ʿAjaʾib al Asfar 158 j However it is often simply referred to as The Travels الرحلة Rihla 160 in reference to a standard form of Arabic literature There is no indication that Ibn Battuta made any notes or had any journal during his twenty nine years of travelling k When he came to dictate an account of his experiences he had to rely on memory and manuscripts produced by earlier travellers Ibn Juzayy did not acknowledge his sources and presented some of the earlier descriptions as Ibn Battuta s own observations When describing Damascus Mecca Medina and some other places in the Middle East he clearly copied passages from the account by the Andalusian Ibn Jubayr which had been written more than 150 years earlier 162 Similarly most of Ibn Juzayy s descriptions of places in Palestine were copied from an account by the 13th century traveller Muhammad al Abdari 163 Scholars do not believe that Ibn Battuta visited all the places he described and argue that in order to provide a comprehensive description of places in the Muslim world he relied on hearsay evidence and made use of accounts by earlier travellers For example it is considered very unlikely that Ibn Battuta made a trip up the Volga River from New Sarai to visit Bolghar 164 and there are serious doubts about a number of other journeys such as his trip to Sana a in Yemen 165 his journey from Balkh to Bistam in Khorasan 166 and his trip around Anatolia 167 Ibn Battuta s claim that a Maghrebian called Abu l Barakat the Berber converted the Maldives to Islam is contradicted by an entirely different story which says that the Maldives were converted to Islam after miracles were performed by a Tabrizi named Maulana Shaikh Yusuf Shams ud din according to the Tarikh the official history of the Maldives 168 Some scholars have also questioned whether he really visited China 169 Ibn Battuta may have plagiarized entire sections of his descriptions of China lifted from works by other authors like Masalik al absar fi mamalik al amsar by Shihab al Umari Sulaiman al Tajir and possibly from Al Juwayni Rashid al din and an Alexander romance Furthermore Ibn Battuta s description and Marco Polo s writings share extremely similar sections and themes with some of the same commentary e g it is unlikely that the 3rd Caliph Uthman ibn Affan had someone with the identical name in China who was encountered by Ibn Battuta 170 However even if the Rihla is not fully based on what its author personally witnessed it provides an important account of much of the 14th century world Concubines were used by Ibn Battuta such as in Delhi 161 111 113 137 141 238 171 He wedded several women divorced at least some of them and in Damascus Malabar Delhi Bukhara and the Maldives had children by them or by concubines 172 Ibn Battuta insulted Greeks as enemies of Allah drunkards and swine eaters while at the same time in Ephesus he purchased and used a Greek girl who was one of his many slave girls in his harem through Byzantium Khorasan Africa and Palestine 173 It was two decades before he again returned to find out what happened to one of his wives and child in Damascus 174 Ibn Battuta often experienced culture shock in regions he visited where the local customs of recently converted peoples did not fit in with his orthodox Muslim background Among the Turks and Mongols he was astonished at the freedom and respect enjoyed by women and remarked that on seeing a Turkish couple in a bazaar one might assume that the man was the woman s servant when he was in fact her husband 175 He also felt that dress customs in the Maldives and some sub Saharan regions in Africa were too revealing citation needed Little is known about Ibn Battuta s life after completion of his Rihla in 1355 He was appointed a judge in Morocco and died in 1368 or 1369 176 Ibn Battuta s work was unknown outside the Muslim world until the beginning of the 19th century when the German traveller explorer Ulrich Jasper Seetzen 1767 1811 acquired a collection of manuscripts in the Middle East among which was a 94 page volume containing an abridged version of Ibn Juzayy s text Three extracts were published in 1818 by the German orientalist Johann Kosegarten 177 A fourth extract was published the following year 178 French scholars were alerted to the initial publication by a lengthy review published in the Journal de Savants by the orientalist Silvestre de Sacy 179 Three copies of another abridged manuscript were acquired by the Swiss traveller Johann Burckhardt and bequeathed to the University of Cambridge He gave a brief overview of their content in a book published posthumously in 1819 180 The Arabic text was translated into English by the orientalist Samuel Lee and published in London in 1829 181 In the 1830s during the French occupation of Algeria the Bibliotheque Nationale BNF in Paris acquired five manuscripts of Ibn Battuta s travels in which two were complete l One manuscript containing just the second part of the work is dated 1356 and is believed to be Ibn Juzayy s autograph 186 The BNF manuscripts were used in 1843 by the Irish French orientalist Baron de Slane to produce a translation into French of Ibn Battuta s visit to the Sudan 187 They were also studied by the French scholars Charles Defremery and Beniamino Sanguinetti Beginning in 1853 they published a series of four volumes containing a critical edition of the Arabic text together with a translation into French 188 In their introduction Defremery and Sanguinetti praised Lee s annotations but were critical of his translation which they claimed lacked precision even in straightforward passages m In 1929 exactly a century after the publication of Lee s translation the historian and orientalist Hamilton Gibb published an English translation of selected portions of Defremery and Sanguinetti s Arabic text 190 Gibb had proposed to the Hakluyt Society in 1922 that he should prepare an annotated translation of the entire Rihla into English 191 His intention was to divide the translated text into four volumes each volume corresponding to one of the volumes published by Defremery and Sanguinetti The first volume was not published until 1958 192 Gibb died in 1971 having completed the first three volumes The fourth volume was prepared by Charles Beckingham and published in 1994 193 Defremery and Sanguinetti s printed text has now been translated into number of other languages HistoricityGerman Islamic studies scholar Ralph Elger views Battuta s travel account as an important literary work but doubts the historicity of much of its content which he suspects to be a work of fiction compiled and inspired from other contemporary travel reports 194 Various other scholars have raised similar doubts 195 In 1987 Ross E Dunn similarly expressed doubts that any evidence would be found to support the narrative of the Rihla but in 2010 Tim Mackintosh Smith completed a multi volume field study in dozens of the locales mentioned in the Rihla in which he reports on previously unknown manuscripts of Islamic law kept in the archives of Al Azhar University in Cairo that were copied by Ibn Battuta in Damascus in 1326 corroborating the date in the Rihla of his sojourn in Syria 196 Present day cultural references nbsp Borj en Naam barracks in Tangier repurposed as Ibn Battuta Memorial MuseumThe largest themed mall in Dubai UAE the Ibn Battuta Mall is named for him and features both areas designed to recreate the exotic lands he visited on his travels and statuary tableaus depicting scenes from his life history 197 198 A giant semblance of Battuta alongside two others from the history of Arab exploration the geographer and historian Al Bakri and the navigator and cartographer Ibn Majid is displayed at the Mobility pavilion at Expo 2020 in Dubai in a section of the exhibition designed by Weta Workshop 199 Tangier Ibn Battouta Airport is an international airport located in his hometown of Tangier Morocco See alsoList of places visited by Ibn Battuta Ibn Fadhlan Ibrahim ibn Yaqub Benjamin of TudelaNotes Arabic ابن بطوطة fully Shams al Din Abu ʿAbd Allah Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allah ibn Muḥammad ibn Ibrahim ibn Muḥammad ibn Ibrahim ibn Yusuf al Lawati al Ṭanji Arabic شمس الدين أبو عبد الله محمد بن عبد الله بن محمد بن إبراهيم بن محمد بن إبراهيم بن يوسف اللواتي الطنجي Aydhad was a port on the west coast of the Red Sea at 22 19 51 N 36 29 25 E 22 33083 N 36 49028 E 22 33083 36 49028 28 Ibn Battuta left Cairo on around 16 July 1326 and arrived in Damascus three weeks later on 9 August 1326 32 He described travelling on a complicated zig zag route across Palestine in which he visited more than twenty cities Such a journey would have been impossible in the allotted time and both Gibb 1958 and Hrbek 1962 have argued that Ibn Battuta conflated this journey with later journeys that he made in the region 33 34 Elad 1987 has shown that Ibn Battuta s descriptions of most of the sites in Palestine were not original but were copied without acknowledgement from the earlier rihla by the traveller Mohammed al Abdari Because of these difficulties it is not possible to determine an accurate chronology of Ibn Battuta s travels in the region 35 Most of Ibn Battuta s descriptions of the towns along the Tigris are copied from Ibn Jabayr s Rihla from 1184 45 46 Ibn Battuta states that he stayed in Mecca for the hajj of 1327 1328 1329 and 1330 but gives comparatively little information on his stays After the hajj of 1330 he left for East Africa arriving back again in Mecca before the 1332 hajj He states that he then left for India and arrived at the Indus river on 12 September 1333 however although he does not specify exact dates the description of his complex itinerary and the clues in the text to the chronology suggest that this journey to India lasted around three years He must have therefore either left Mecca two years earlier than stated or arrived in India two years later The issue is discussed by Gibb 1962 pp 528 537 Vol 2 Hrbek 1962 and Dunn 2005 pp 132 133 This is one of several occasions where Ibn Battuta interrupts a journey to branch out on a side trip only to later skip back and resume the original journey Gibb describes these side trips as divagations 75 The divagation through Anatolia is considered credible as Ibn Battuta describes numerous personal experiences and there is sufficient time between leaving Mecca in mid November 1330 and reaching Egirdir on the way back from Erzurum at the start of Ramadan 8 June in 1331 74 Gibb still admits that he found it difficult to believe that Ibn Battuta actually travelled as far east as Erzurum 76 In the Rihla the date of Ibn Battuta s departure from Delhi is given as 17 Safar 743 AH or 22 July 1342 97 98 Dunn has argued that this is probably an error and to accommodate Ibn Battuta s subsequent travels and visits to the Maldives it is more likely that he left Delhi in 1341 99 Bir al Ksaib also Bir Ounane or El Gcaib is in northern Mali at 21 17 33 N 5 37 30 W 21 29250 N 5 62500 W 21 29250 5 62500 The oasis is 265 km 165 mi south of Taghaza and 470 km 290 mi north of Oualata The location of the Malian capital has been the subject of considerable scholarly debate but there is no consensus The historian John Hunwick has studied the times given by Ibn Battuta for the various stages of his journey and proposed that the capital is likely to have been on the left side of the Niger River somewhere between Bamako and Nyamina 149 Dunn gives the clunkier translation A Gift to the Observers Concerning the Curiosities of the Cities and the Marvels Encountered in Travels 159 Though he mentions being robbed of some notes 161 Neither de Slane s 19th century catalogue 182 nor the modern online equivalent provide any information on the provenance of the manuscripts 183 Dunn states that all five manuscripts were found in Algeria 184 but in their introduction Defremery and Sanguinetti mention that the BNF had acquired one manuscript MS Supplement arabe 909 Arabe 2287 from M Delaporte a former French consul to Morocco 185 French La version de M Lee manque quelquefois d exactitude meme dans des passage fort simples et tres faciles 189 ReferencesCitations Norris H T 1959 Ibn Baṭṭuṭah s Andalusian Journey The Geographical Journal 125 2 185 196 doi 10 2307 1790500 ISSN 0016 7398 JSTOR 1790500 Roynard Romy 22 November 2018 Sur les traces d Ibn Battuta le Maroc National Geographic in French Retrieved 7 December 2022 Meri Yousef 2 July 2019 Ibn Baṭṭuṭa obo Retrieved 20 June 2022 Paul Starkey 2013 Ibn Battuta In Ian Richard Netton ed Encyclopaedia of Islam Routledge p 253 ISBN 978 1 135 17960 1 Pryor John H 3 April 2013 The adventures of Ibn Battuta a Muslim traveller of the 14th century review Parergon 10 2 252 253 doi 10 1353 pgn 1992 0050 ISSN 1832 8334 S2CID 144835824 Retrieved 20 June 2022 Chism Christine 2013 Between Islam and Christendom Ibn Battuta s Travels in Asia Minor and the North Cosmopolitanism and the Middle Ages New York Palgrave Macmillan US pp 59 78 doi 10 1057 9781137045096 4 ISBN 978 1 349 34108 5 3 4 5 6 Parker John 2004 Marco Polo The World Book Encyclopedia vol 15 illustrated ed United States World Book Inc ISBN 978 0 7166 0104 3 a b Dunn 2005 p 20 Nehru Jawaharlal 1989 Glimpses of World History Oxford University Press p 752 ISBN 978 0 19 561323 0 After outlining the extensive route of Ibn Battuta s Journey Nehru notes This is a record of travel which is rare enough today with our many conveniences In any event Ibn Battuta must be amongst the great travellers of all time Gearon Eamonn 2011 The Sahara A Cultural History Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 986195 8 Ibn Battuta Biography Facts and Pictures Mark Joshua J Ibn Battuta World History Encyclopedia Retrieved 7 February 2023 His full name as given in the Rihla was Shams al Din Abu Abdallah Muhammad ibn Abdallah ibn Muhammad ibn Ibrahim ibn Muhammad ibn Yusuf al Lawati al Tanji ibn Battuta and all that is known of his family comes from the Rihla which records references to his education and provides his lineage Ibn Battuta 1304 1368 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California Press ISBN 978 0 520 05771 5 Archived from the original on 10 October 2014 Retrieved 13 June 2015 Dunn 2005 p 260 Elliott Michael 21 July 2011 The Enduring Message of Hangzhou Time Archived from the original on 17 January 2012 Retrieved 5 November 2011 Gibb amp Beckingham 1994 pp 904 907 Ibn Batuta S Lee Oriental Translation Fund 1829 The Travels of Ibn Batuta Oriental Translation Committee Retrieved 13 June 2015 Rumford J 2001 Traveling Man The Journey of Ibn Battuta 1325 1354 Houghton Mifflin Harcourt ISBN 978 0 547 56256 8 Archived from the original on 24 February 2018 Retrieved 13 June 2015 Snodgrass M E 2010 Encyclopedia of the Literature of Empire Facts on File ISBN 978 1 4381 1906 9 Archived from the original on 24 February 2018 Retrieved 13 June 2015 Dunn 2005 p 260 a b Gibb amp Beckingham 1994 p 896 Haw Stephen G 2006 Marco Polo s China a Venetian in the realm of Khubilai Khan Volume 3 of Routledge studies in the early history of Asia Psychology Press pp 52 57 ISBN 978 0 415 34850 8 archived from the original on 24 December 2016 Dunn 2005 pp 259 261 Aubrey W Bonnett Calvin B Holder 2009 Continuing Perspectives on the Black Diaspora University Press of America p 26 ISBN 978 0 7618 4662 8 L P Harvey 2007 Ibn Battuta I B Tauris p 51 ISBN 978 1 84511 394 0 Archived from the original on 2 December 2017 Dunn 2005 p 261 Dunn 2005 pp 268 269 Dunn 2005 p 269 Gibb amp Beckingham 1994 p 918 Vol 4 Gibb amp Beckingham 1994 p 919 Vol 4 Dunn 2005 pp 274 275 Dunn 2005 p 278 Dunn 2005 p 282 Dunn 2005 pp 283 284 Dunn 2005 pp 286 287 Defremery amp Sanguinetti 1858 p 376 Vol 4 Levtzion amp Hopkins 2000 p 282 Dunn 2005 p 295 Defremery amp Sanguinetti 1858 pp 378 379 Vol 4 Levtzion amp Hopkins 2000 p 282 Dunn 2005 p 297 Levtzion amp Hopkins 2000 p 457 Defremery amp Sanguinetti 1858 p 385 Vol 4 Levtzion amp Hopkins 2000 p 284 Dunn 2005 p 298 Hunwick 1973 Jerry Bently Old World Encounters Cross Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre Modern Times New York Oxford University Press 1993 131 El Hamel Chouki 2002 Race slavery and Islam in Maghribi Mediterranean thought the question of the Haratin in Morocco The Journal of North African Studies 7 3 29 52 doi 10 1080 13629380208718472 S2CID 219625829 Retrieved 29 April 2022 Defremery amp Sanguinetti 1858 p 430 Vol 4 Levtzion amp Hopkins 2000 p 299 Gibb amp Beckingham 1994 pp 969 970 Vol 4 Dunn 2005 p 304 Dunn 2005 p 304 Defremery amp Sanguinetti 1858 pp 425 426 Vol 4 Levtzion amp Hopkins 2000 p 297 Defremery amp Sanguinetti 1858 pp 432 436 Vol 4 Levtzion amp Hopkins 2000 p 299 Dunn 2005 p 305 Defremery amp Sanguinetti 1858 pp 444 445 Vol 4 Levtzion amp Hopkins 2000 p 303 Dunn 2005 p 306 Noel King ed Ibn Battuta in Black Africa Princeton 2005 pp 45 46 Four generations before Mansa Suleiman who died in 1360 CE his grandfather s grandfather Saraq Jata had embraced Islam M S p ix p 310 Dunn 2005 pp 310 311 Defremery amp Sanguinetti 1853 pp 9 10 Vol 1 a b Battutah Ibn 2002 The Travels of Ibn Battutah Picador p 141 ISBN 978 0 330 41879 9 Dunn 2005 pp 313 314 Mattock 1981 Dunn 2005 pp 63 64 Elad 1987 Dunn 2005 p 179 Janicsek 1929 Dunn 2005 p 134 Note 17 Dunn 2005 p 180 Note 23 Dunn 2005 p 157 Note 13 Kamala Visweswaran 2011 Perspectives on Modern South Asia A Reader in Culture History and Representation John Wiley amp Sons pp 164 ISBN 978 1 4051 0062 5 Archived from the original on 19 January 2017 Dunn 2005 pp 253 262 Note 20 Elger Ralf 2010 Lying forging plagiarism some narrative techniques in Ibn Baṭṭuṭa s travelogue In Elger Ralf Kose Yavuz eds Many Ways of Speaking about the Self Middle Eastern Ego documents in Arabic Persian and Turkish 14th 20th Century Wiesbaden Otto Harrassowitz Verlag pp 71 88 79 82 ISBN 978 3 447 06250 3 Stewart Gordon 2009 When Asia was the World Perseus Books Group pp 114 ISBN 978 0 306 81739 7 permanent dead link Michael N Pearson 2003 The Indian Ocean Routledge p 112 ISBN 978 1 134 60959 8 He had a son to a Moroccan woman wife in Damascus a daughter to a slave girl in Bukhara a daughter in Delhi to a wife another to a slave girl in Malabar a son in the Maldives to a wife in the Maldives at least he divorced his wives before he left William Dalrymple 2003 City of Djinns A Year in Delhi Penguin Publishing Group ISBN 978 1 101 12701 8 Kate S Hammer 1999 The Role of Women in Ibn Battuta s Rihla Indiana University p 45 Gibb 1958 pp 480 481 Dunn 2005 p 168 Gibb 1958 pp ix x Vol 1 Dunn 2005 p 318 Defremery amp Sanguinetti 1853 Vol 1 pp xiii xiv Kosegarten 1818 Apetz 1819 de Sacy 1820 Burckhardt 1819 pp 533 537 Note 82 Defremery amp Sanguinetti 1853 Vol 1 p xvi Lee 1829 de Slane 1883 1895 p 401 MS Arabe 2287 MS Arabe 2288 MS Arabe 2289 MS Arabe 2290 MS Arabe 2291 Dunn 2005 p 4 Defremery amp Sanguinetti 1853 Vol 1 p xxiii de Slane 1843b MS Arabe 2291 de Slane 1843a Defremery amp Sanguinetti 1853 Defremery amp Sanguinetti 1854 Defremery amp Sanguinetti 1855 Defremery amp Sanguinetti 1858 Defremery amp Sanguinetti 1853 Vol 1 p xvii Gibb 1929 Gibb amp Beckingham 1994 p ix Gibb 1958 Gibb amp Beckingham 1994 Gropp Lewis 17 September 2010 Zeitzeuge oder Falscher Deutschlandfunk in German Euben Roxanne L 2008 Journeys to the Other Shore Muslim and Western Travelers in Search of Knowledge Princeton University Press p 220 ISBN 978 1 4008 2749 7 Dunn Ross E 2012 The Adventures of Ibn Battuta A Muslim Traveler of the 14th Century University of California Press Ibn Battuta Mall Shopping centre that lets you explore new places gulfnews com 25 October 2021 Largest Themed Shopping Mall In Dubai Ibn Battuta Mall 50 foot giants and superstar architects Inside Expo 2020 s Mobility pavilion CNN Bibliography Aiya V Nagam 1906 Travancore State Manual Travancore Government press Apetz Heinrich 1819 Descriptio terrae Malabar ex Arabico Ebn Batutae Itinerario Edita in Latin and Arabic Jena Croecker OCLC 243444596 Burckhardt John Lewis 1819 Travels in Nubia London John Murray OCLC 192612 Chittick H Neville 1977 The East Coast Madagascar and the Indian Ocean in Oliver Roland ed Cambridge History of Africa Vol 3 From c 1050 to c 1600 Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 183 231 ISBN 978 0 521 20981 6 Defremery C Sanguinetti B R eds 1853 Voyages d Ibn Batoutah Volume 1 in French and Arabic Paris Societe Asiatic The text of these volumes has been used as the source for translations into other languages Defremery C Sanguinetti B R eds 1854 Voyages d Ibn Batoutah Volume 2 in French and Arabic Paris Societe Asiatic Defremery C Sanguinetti B R eds 1855 Voyages d Ibn Batoutah Volume 3 in French and Arabic Paris Societe Asiatic Defremery C Sanguinetti B R eds 1858 Voyages d Ibn Batoutah Volume 4 in French and Arabic Paris Societe Asiatic Dunn Ross E 2005 The Adventures of Ibn Battuta University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 24385 9 First published in 1986 ISBN 0 520 05771 6 Elad Amikam 1987 The description of the travels of Ibn Baṭuṭṭa in Palestine is it original Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 119 2 256 272 doi 10 1017 S0035869X00140651 S2CID 162501637 Gibb H A R ed 1929 Ibn Battuta Travels in Asia and Africa selections London Routledge Reissued several times Extracts are available on the Fordham University site Archived 13 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine Gibb H A R ed 1958 The Travels of Ibn Baṭṭuṭa A D 1325 1354 Volume 1 London Hakluyt Society Gibb H A R ed 1962 The Travels of Ibn Baṭṭuṭa A D 1325 1354 Volume 2 London Hakluyt Society Gibb H A R ed 1971 The Travels of Ibn Baṭṭuṭa A D 1325 1354 Volume 3 London Hakluyt Society Gibb H A R Beckingham C F eds 1994 The Travels of Ibn Baṭṭuṭa A D 1325 1354 Volume 4 London Hakluyt Society ISBN 978 0 904180 37 4 This volume was translated by Beckingham after Gibb s death in 1971 A separate index was published in 2000 Hrbek Ivan 1962 The chronology of Ibn Battuta s travels Archiv Orientalni vol 30 pp 409 486 Hunwick John O 1973 The mid fourteenth century capital of Mali Journal of African History 14 2 195 208 doi 10 1017 s0021853700012512 JSTOR 180444 S2CID 162784401 Janicsek Stephen 1929 Ibn Baṭuṭṭa s journey to Bulghar is it a fabrication PDF Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 61 4 791 800 doi 10 1017 S0035869X00070015 S2CID 163430554 Kosegarten Johann Gottfried Ludwig 1818 De Mohamedde ebn Batuta Arabe Tingitano ejusque itineribus commentatio academica in Latin and Arabic Jena Croecker OCLC 165774422 Lee Samuel 1829 The Travels of Ibn Batuta translated from the abridged Arabic manuscript copies preserved in the Public Library of Cambridge With notes illustrative of the history geography botany antiquities amp c occurring throughout the work London Oriental Translation Committee The text is discussed in Defremery amp Sanguinetti 1853 Volume 1 pp xvi xvii Levtzion Nehemia Hopkins John F P eds 2000 Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West Africa New York Marcus Weiner Press ISBN 978 1 55876 241 1 First published in 1981 pp 279 304 contain a translation of Ibn Battuta s account of his visit to West Africa Mattock J N 1981 Ibn Baṭṭuṭa s use of Ibn Jubayr s Riḥla in Peters R ed Proceedings of the Ninth Congress of the Union Europeenne des Arabisants et Islamisants Amsterdam 1st to 7th September 1978 Leiden Brill pp 209 218 ISBN 978 90 04 06380 8 MS Arabe 2287 Supplement arabe 909 Bibliotheque de France Archive et manuscrits Retrieved 14 November 2014 MS Arabe 2288 Supplement arabe 911 Bibliotheque de France Archive et manuscrits Retrieved 14 November 2014 MS Arabe 2289 Supplement arabe 910 Bibliotheque de France Archive et manuscrits Retrieved 14 November 2014 MS Arabe 2290 Supplement arabe 908 Bibliotheque de France Archive et manuscrits Retrieved 14 November 2014 MS Arabe 2291 Supplement arabe 907 Bibliotheque de France Archive et manuscrits Retrieved 14 November 2014 Peacock David Peacock Andrew 2008 The enigma of Aydhab a medieval Islamic port on the Red Sea coast International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 37 1 32 48 Bibcode 2008IJNAr 37 32P doi 10 1111 j 1095 9270 2007 00172 x S2CID 162206137 de Sacy Silvestre 1820 Review of De Mohamedde ebn Batuta Arabe Tingitano Journal des Savants 15 25 de Slane Baron 1843a Voyage dans la Soudan par Ibn Batouta Journal Asiatique Series 4 in French 1 March 181 240 de Slane Baron 1843b Lettre a M Reinaud Journal Asiatique Series 4 in French 1 March 241 246 de Slane Baron 1883 1895 Departement des Manuscrits Catalogue des manuscrits arabes in French Paris Bibliotheque nationale Taeschner Franz 1986 1960 Akhi The Encyclopaedia of Islam Volume 1 A B Leiden Brill pp 321 323 Yule Henry 1916 IV Ibn Battuta s travels in Bengal and China Cathay and the Way Thither Volume 4 London Hakluyt Society pp 1 106 Includes the text of Ibn Battuta s account of his visit to China The translation is from the French text of Defremery amp Sanguinetti 1858 Volume 4 Chittick H Neville 1968 Ibn Baṭṭuṭa and East Africa Journal de la Societe des Africanistes 38 2 239 241 doi 10 3406 jafr 1968 1485 Euben Roxanne L 2006 Ibn Battuta Journeys to the Other Shore Muslim and Western Travelers in Search of Knowledge Princeton NJ Princeton University Press pp 63 89 ISBN 978 0 691 12721 7 Ferrand Gabriel 1913 Ibn Batuta Relations de voyages et textes geographiques arabes persans et turks relatifs a l Extreme Orient du 8e au 18e siecles Volumes 1 and 2 in French Paris Ernest Laroux pp 426 437 Gordon Stewart 2008 When Asia was the World Traveling Merchants Scholars Warriors and Monks who created the Riches of the East Philadelphia Da Capo Press Perseus Books ISBN 978 0 306 81556 0 Harvey L P 2007 Ibn Battuta New York I B Tauris ISBN 978 1 84511 394 0 Mackintosh Smith Tim 2002 Travels with a Tangerine A Journey in the Footnotes of Ibn Battutah London Picador ISBN 978 0 330 49114 3 Mackintosh Smith Tim ed 2003 The Travels of Ibn Battutah London Picador ISBN 978 0 330 41879 9 Contains an introduction by Mackintosh Smith and then an abridged version around 40 per cent of the original of the translation by H A R Gibb and C E Beckingham 1958 1994 Mackintosh Smith Tim 2005 Hall of a Thousand Columns Hindustan to Malabar with Ibn Battutah London John Murray ISBN 978 0 7195 6710 0 Mackintosh Smith Tim 2010 Landfalls On the Edge of Islam with Ibn Battutah London John Murray ISBN 978 0 7195 6787 2 Mzik Hans von ed 1911 Die Reise des Arabers Ibn Baṭuṭa durch Indien und China in German Hamburg Gutenberg OCLC 470669765 Norris H T 1994 Ibn Baṭṭuṭa s journey in the north eastern Balkans Journal of Islamic Studies vol 5 no 2 pp 209 220 doi 10 1093 jis 5 2 209 Waines David 2010 The Odyssey of Ibn Battuta Uncommon Tales of a Medieval Adventurer Chicago University of Chicago Press ISBN 978 0 226 86985 8 External links nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ibn Battuta nbsp Wikiquote has quotations related to Ibn Battuta Travels In Asia And Africa 1325 1354 Gibb s 1929 translation from the Internet Archive A Tangerine in Delhi Saudi Aramco World article by Tim Mackintosh Smith March April 2006 The Longest Hajj The Journeys of Ibn Battuta Saudi Aramco World article by Douglas Bullis July August 2000 Google Books 2004 reissue of Gibb s 1929 translation Yule Henry Beazley Charles Raymond 1911 Ibn Batuta Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol 14 11th ed pp 219 220 French text from Defremery and Sanguinetti 1853 1858 with an introduction and footnotes by Stephane Yerasimos published in 1982 Volume 1 Volume 2 Volume 3 Works by Ibn Battuta at LibriVox public domain audiobooks nbsp Interactive scholarly edition with critical English translation and multimodal resources mashup publications images videos Engineering Historical Memory Portals nbsp Morocco nbsp Islam nbsp Geography nbsp History nbsp Middle Ages nbsp Biography Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Ibn Battuta amp oldid 1196130347, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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