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Shiva

January 22, 2023

This article is about the Hindu god. For the Jewish period of mourning, see Shiva (Judaism). For other uses, see Shiva (disambiguation).
"Neelkanth" redirects here. For the 2012 film, see Neelkanth (film). For the bird, see Indian roller.
"Manjunatha" redirects here. For other uses, see Manjunath (disambiguation).

Shiva (/ˈʃɪvə/; Sanskrit: शिव, romanized: Śiva, lit. 'The Auspicious One' [ɕɪʋɐ]), also known as Mahadeva (/məˈhɑː ˈdeɪvə/; Sanskrit: महादेव:, romanized: Mahādevaḥ, lit. 'The Great God' [mɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ]),[9][10][11] or Hara,[12] is one of the principal deities of Hinduism.[13] He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hinduism.[14]

Shiva
God of Destruction, Master of Poison and Medicine, the Great Yogi, God of Time, the Cosmic Dancer Para Brahman, the Supreme Being (Shaivism)[1]
Member of Trimurti
Other namesShankara, Bholenath, Maheśvara, Mahadeva, Rudra, Mahakala, Sadashiva, Batara Siwa, Nataraja
Devanagariशिव
AffiliationTrimurti, Ishvara, Parabrahman and Paramatman (Shaivism)
Abode
Mantra
WeaponTrishula, Pashupatastra, Parashu, Pinaka bow[3]
SymbolsLingam,[3] Crescent Moon, Damaru (Drum), Vasuki
DayMonday and also Thrayodashi
MountNandi (bull)[4]
GenderMale
FestivalsMaha Shivaratri, Shravana, Kartik Purnima, Bhairava Ashtami[5]
Personal information
SpouseParvati/Sati[note 1]
ChildrenKartikeya (son)
Ganesha (son)[7][8]

Shiva is known as "The Destroyer" within the Trimurti, the Hindu trinity which also includes Brahma and Vishnu.[2][15] In the Shaivite tradition, Shiva is the Supreme Lord who creates, protects and transforms the universe.[9][10][11] In the goddess-oriented Shakta tradition, the Supreme Goddess (Devi) is regarded as the energy and creative power (Shakti) and the equal complementary partner of Shiva.[16][17] Shiva is one of the five equivalent deities in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta tradition of Hinduism.[18]

Shiva has many aspects, benevolent as well as fearsome. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient Yogi who lives an ascetic life on Mount Kailash[2] as well as a householder with his wife Parvati and his three children, Ganesha, Kartikeya and Ashokasundari. In his fierce aspects, he is often depicted slaying demons. Shiva is also known as Adiyogi Shiva, regarded as the patron god of yoga, meditation and the arts.[19]

The iconographical attributes of Shiva are the serpent around his neck, the adorning crescent moon, the holy river Ganga flowing from his matted hair, the third eye on his forehead (the eye that turns everything in front of it into ashes when opened), the trishula or trident as his weapon, and the damaru drum. He is usually worshipped in the aniconic form of lingam.[3]

Shiva has pre-Vedic roots,[20] and the figure of Shiva evolved as an amalgamation of various older non-Vedic and Vedic deities, including the Rigvedic storm god Rudra who may also have non-Vedic origins,[21] into a single major deity.[22] Shiva is a pan-Hindu deity, revered widely by Hindus in India, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Indonesia (especially in Java and Bali).[23]

Etymology and other names

Main article: Shiva Sahasranama
 
An ancient sculpture of Shiva at the Elephanta Caves, Maharashtra. 6th century CE

According to Monier Monier-Williams, the Sanskrit word "śiva" (Devanagari: शिव, also transliterated as shiva) means "auspicious, propitious, gracious, benign, kind, benevolent, friendly".[24] The root words of śiva in folk etymology are śī which means "in whom all things lie, pervasiveness" and va which means "embodiment of grace".[24][25]

The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda (c. 1700–1100 BCE), as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities, including Rudra.[26] The term Shiva also connotes "liberation, final emancipation" and "the auspicious one"; this adjectival usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic literature.[24][27] The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics and the Puranas, as an auspicious deity who is the "creator, reproducer and dissolver".[24][28]

Sharma presents another etymology with the Sanskrit root śarv-, which means "to injure" or "to kill",[29] interpreting the name to connote "one who can kill the forces of darkness".[30]

The Sanskrit word śaiva means "relating to the god Shiva", and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of Hinduism and for a member of that sect.[31] It is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism.[32]

Some authors associate the name with the Tamil word śivappu meaning "red", noting that Shiva is linked to the Sun (śivan, "the Red one", in Tamil) and that Rudra is also called Babhru (brown, or red) in the Rigveda.[33][34] The Vishnu sahasranama interprets Shiva to have multiple meanings: "The Pure One", and "the One who is not affected by three Guṇas of Prakṛti (Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas)".[35]

Shiva is known by many names such as Viswanatha (lord of the universe), Mahadeva, Mahandeo,[36] Mahasu,[37] Mahesha, Maheshvara, Shankara, Shambhu, Rudra, Hara, Trilochana, Devendra (chief of the gods), Neelakanta, Subhankara, Trilokinatha (lord of the three realms),[38][39][40] and Ghrneshwar (lord of compassion).[41] The highest reverence for Shiva in Shaivism is reflected in his epithets Mahādeva ("Great god"; mahā "Great" and deva "god"),[42][43] Maheśvara ("Great Lord"; mahā "great" and īśvara "lord"),[44][45] and Parameśvara ("Supreme Lord").[46]

Sahasranama are medieval Indian texts that list a thousand names derived from aspects and epithets of a deity.[47] There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva Sahasranama, devotional hymns (stotras) listing many names of Shiva.[48] The version appearing in Book 13 (Anuśāsanaparvan) of the Mahabharata provides one such list.[a] Shiva also has Dasha-Sahasranamas (10,000 names) that are found in the Mahanyasa. The Shri Rudram Chamakam, also known as the Śatarudriya, is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing him by many names.[49][50]

Historical development and literature

See also: History of Shaivism

Assimilation of traditions

See also: Roots of Hinduism

The Shiva-related tradition is a major part of Hinduism, found all over the Indian subcontinent, such as India, Nepal, Sri Lanka,[51] and Southeast Asia, such as Bali, Indonesia.[52] Shiva has pre-Vedic tribal roots,[20] having "his origins in primitive tribes, signs and symbols."[53] The figure of Shiva as we know him today is an amalgamation of various older deities into a single figure, due to the process of Sanskritization and the emergence of the Hindu synthesis in post-Vedic times.[54] How the persona of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not well documented, a challenge to trace and has attracted much speculation.[55] According to Vijay Nath:

Vishnu and Siva [...] began to absorb countless local cults and deities within their folds. The latter were either taken to represent the multiple facets of the same god or else were supposed to denote different forms and appellations by which the god came to be known and worshipped. [...] Siva became identified with countless local cults by the sheer suffixing of Isa or Isvara to the name of the local deity, e.g., Bhutesvara, Hatakesvara, Chandesvara."[56]

An example of assimilation took place in Maharashtra, where a regional deity named Khandoba is a patron deity of farming and herding castes.[57] The foremost center of worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in Jejuri.[58] Khandoba has been assimilated as a form of Shiva himself,[59] in which case he is worshipped in the form of a lingam.[57][60] Khandoba's varied associations also include an identification with Surya[57] and Karttikeya.[61]

Pre-Vedic elements

Pre-historic art

Scholars have interpreted early prehistoric paintings at the Bhimbetka rock shelters, considered to be from pre-10,000 BCE period,[62] as Shiva dancing, Shiva's trident, and his mount Nandi.[63] Rock paintings from Bhimbetka, depicting a figure with a trident or trishul, have been described as Nataraja by Erwin Neumayer, who dates them to the mesolithic.[64][b]

Indus Valley and the Pashupati seal

Main article: Pashupati seal
 
The Pashupati seal discovered during excavation of the Indus Valley archaeological site of Mohenjo-Daro and showing a possible representation of a "yogi" or "proto-Shiva" figure as Paśupati (Lord of the Animals" c. 2350–2000 BCE

Of several Indus valley seals that show animals, one seal that has attracted attention shows a large central figure, either horned or wearing a horned headdress and possibly ithyphallic,[note 2][65] seated in a posture reminiscent of the Lotus position, surrounded by animals. This figure was named by early excavators of Mohenjo-daro as Pashupati (Lord of Animals, Sanskrit paśupati),[66] an epithet of the later Hindu deities Shiva and Rudra.[67] Sir John Marshall and others suggested that this figure is a prototype of Shiva, with three faces, seated in a "yoga posture" with the knees out and feet joined.[68] Semi-circular shapes on the head were interpreted as two horns. Scholars such as Gavin Flood, John Keay and Doris Meth Srinivasan have expressed doubts about this suggestion.[69]

Gavin Flood states that it is not clear from the seal that the figure has three faces, is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure. He characterizes these views as "speculative", but adds that it is nevertheless possible that there are echoes of Shaiva iconographic themes, such as half-moon shapes resembling the horns of a bull.[70] John Keay writes that "he may indeed be an early manifestation of Lord Shiva as Pashu-pati", but a couple of his specialties of this figure does not match with Rudra.[71] Writing in 1997, Srinivasan interprets what John Marshall interpreted as facial as not human but more bovine, possibly a divine buffalo-man.[72]

The interpretation of the seal continues to be disputed. McEvilley, for example, states that it is not possible to "account for this posture outside the yogic account".[73] Asko Parpola states that other archaeological finds such as the early Elamite seals dated to 3000–2750 BCE show similar figures and these have been interpreted as "seated bull" and not a yogi, and the bovine interpretation is likely more accurate.[74] Gregory L. Possehl in 2002, associated it with the water buffalo, and concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognize the figure as a deity, and its posture as one of ritual discipline, regarding it as a proto-Shiva would "go too far".[75]

Vedic elements

According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the Zeravshan River (present-day Uzbekistan) and (present-day) Iran.[76] It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements",[76] which according to Beckwith borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices"[77] from the Bactria–Margiana Culture.[77] At least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra and the ritual drink Soma.[78]

Proto-Indo-European elements

The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion,[79] and the pre-Islamic Indo-Iranian religion.[77] The similarities between the iconography and theologies of Shiva with Greek and European deities have led to proposals for an Indo-European link for Shiva,[80][81] or lateral exchanges with ancient central Asian cultures.[82][83] His contrasting aspects such as being terrifying or blissful depending on the situation, are similar to those of the Greek god Dionysus,[84] as are their iconic associations with bull, snakes, anger, bravery, dancing and carefree life.[85][86] The ancient Greek texts of the time of Alexander the Great call Shiva as "Indian Dionysus", or alternatively call Dionysus as "god of the Orient".[85] Similarly, the use of phallic symbol[note 2] as an icon for Shiva is also found for Irish, Nordic, Greek (Dionysus[87]) and Roman deities, as was the idea of this aniconic column linking heaven and earth among early Indo-Aryans, states Roger Woodward.[80] Others contest such proposals, and suggest Shiva to have emerged from indigenous pre-Aryan tribal origins.[88]

Rudra

 
Three-headed Shiva, Gandhara, 2nd century AD

Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god Rudra,[89] and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in Hindu scriptures. The two names are used synonymously. Rudra, a Rigvedic deity with fearsome powers, was the god of the roaring storm. He is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce, destructive deity.[90] In RV 2.33, he is described as the "Father of the Rudras", a group of storm gods.[91][full citation needed]

Flood notes that Rudra is an ambiguous god, peripheral in the Vedic pantheon, possibly indicating non-Vedic origins.[21] Nevertheless, both Rudra and Shiva are akin to Wodan, the Germanic God of rage ("wütte") and the wild hunt.[92][93][page needed][94][page needed]

According to Sadasivan, during the development of the Hindu synthesis attributes of the Buddha were transferred by Brahmins to Shiva, who was also linked with Rudra.[53] The Rigveda has 3 out of 1,028 hymns dedicated to Rudra, and he finds occasional mention in other hymns of the same text.[95] Hymn 10.92 of the Rigveda states that deity Rudra has two natures, one wild and cruel (Rudra), another that is kind and tranquil (Shiva).[96]

The term Shiva also appears simply as an epithet, that means "kind, auspicious", one of the adjectives used to describe many different Vedic deities. While fierce ruthless natural phenomenon and storm-related Rudra is feared in the hymns of the Rigveda, the beneficial rains he brings are welcomed as Shiva aspect of him.[97] This healing, nurturing, life-enabling aspect emerges in the Vedas as Rudra-Shiva, and in post-Vedic literature ultimately as Shiva who combines the destructive and constructive powers, the terrific and the gentle, as the ultimate recycler and rejuvenator of all existence.[98]

The Vedic texts do not mention bull or any animal as the transport vehicle (vahana) of Rudra or other deities. However, post-Vedic texts such as the Mahabharata and the Puranas state the Nandi bull, the Indian zebu, in particular, as the vehicle of Rudra and of Shiva, thereby unmistakably linking them as same.[99]

Agni

Rudra and Agni have a close relationship.[note 3] The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra's gradual transformation into Rudra-Shiva.[note 4] The identification of Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in the Nirukta, an important early text on etymology, which says, "Agni is also called Rudra."[100] The interconnections between the two deities are complex, and according to Stella Kramrisch:

The fire myth of Rudra-Śiva plays on the whole gamut of fire, valuing all its potentialities and phases, from conflagration to illumination.[101]

In the Śatarudrīya, some epithets of Rudra, such as Sasipañjara ("Of golden red hue as of flame") and Tivaṣīmati ("Flaming bright"), suggest a fusing of the two deities.[note 5] Agni is said to be a bull,[102] and Lord Shiva possesses a bull as his vehicle, Nandi. The horns of Agni, who is sometimes characterized as a bull, are mentioned.[103][104] In medieval sculpture, both Agni and the form of Shiva known as Bhairava have flaming hair as a special feature.[105]

Indra

According to Wendy Doniger, the Saivite fertility myths and some of the phallic characteristics of Shiva are inherited from Indra.[106] Doniger gives several reasons for her hypothesis. Both are associated with mountains, rivers, male fertility, fierceness, fearlessness, warfare, the transgression of established mores, the Aum sound, the Supreme Self. In the Rig Veda the term śiva is used to refer to Indra. (2.20.3,[note 6] 6.45.17,[108][109] and 8.93.3.[110]) Indra, like Shiva, is likened to a bull.[111][112] In the Rig Veda, Rudra is the father of the Maruts, but he is never associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra.[113]

Indra himself may have been adopted by the Vedic Aryans from the Bactria–Margiana Culture.[77][78] According to Anthony,

Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, Verethraghna, were transferred to the adopted god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the Rig Veda. He was associated more than any other deity with Soma, a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from Ephedra) probably borrowed from the BMAC religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers.[114]

The texts and artwork of Jainism show Indra as a dancer, although not identical generally resembling the dancing Shiva artwork found in Hinduism, particularly in their respective mudras.[115] For example, in the Jain caves at Ellora, extensive carvings show dancing Indra next to the images of Tirthankaras in a manner similar to Shiva Nataraja. The similarities in the dance iconography suggests that there may be a link between ancient Indra and Shiva.[116]

Development

A few texts such as Atharvashiras Upanishad mention Rudra, and assert all gods are Rudra, everyone and everything is Rudra, and Rudra is the principle found in all things, their highest goal, the innermost essence of all reality that is visible or invisible.[117] The Kaivalya Upanishad similarly, states Paul Deussen – a German Indologist and professor of philosophy, describes the self-realized man as who "feels himself only as the one divine essence that lives in all", who feels identity of his and everyone's consciousness with Shiva (highest Atman), who has found this highest Atman within, in the depths of his heart.[118]

Rudra's evolution from a minor Vedic deity to a supreme being is first evidenced in the Shvetashvatara Upanishad (400–200 BCE), according to Gavin Flood, presenting the earliest seeds of theistic devotion to Rudra-Shiva.[119] Here Rudra-Shiva is identified as the creator of the cosmos and liberator of Selfs from the birth-rebirth cycle. The Svetasvatara Upanishad set the tone for early Shaivite thought, especially in chapter 3 verse 2 where Shiva is equated with Brahman: "Rudra is truly one; for the knowers of Brahman do not admit the existence of a second".[120][121] The period of 200 BC to 100 AD also marks the beginning of the Shaiva tradition focused on the worship of Shiva as evidenced in other literature of this period.[119] Other scholars such as Robert Hume and Doris Srinivasan state that the Shvetashvatara Upanishad presents pluralism, pantheism, or henotheism, rather than being a text just on Shiva theism.[122]

Self-realization and Shaiva Upanishads

He who sees himself in all beings,
And all beings in him,
attains the highest Brahman,
not by any other means.

—Kaivalya Upanishad 10 [123][124]

Shaiva devotees and ascetics are mentioned in Patanjali's Mahābhāṣya (2nd-century BCE) and in the Mahabharata.[125]

The earliest iconic artworks of Shiva may be from Gandhara and northwest parts of ancient India. There is some uncertainty as the artwork that has survived is damaged and they show some overlap with meditative Buddha-related artwork, but the presence of Shiva's trident and phallic symbolism[note 2] in this art suggests it was likely Shiva.[126] Numismatics research suggests that numerous coins of the ancient Kushan Empire (30–375 CE) that have survived, were images of a god who is probably Shiva.[127] The Shiva in Kushan coins is referred to as Oesho of unclear etymology and origins, but the simultaneous presence of Indra and Shiva in the Kushan era artwork suggest that they were revered deities by the start of the Kushan Empire.[128][129]

The Shaiva Upanishads are a group of 14 minor Upanishads of Hinduism variously dated from the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE through the 17th century.[130] These extol Shiva as the metaphysical unchanging reality Brahman and the Atman (Self),[117] and include sections about rites and symbolisms related to Shiva.[131]

The Shaiva Puranas, particularly the Shiva Purana and the Linga Purana, present the various aspects of Shiva, mythologies, cosmology and pilgrimage (Tirtha) associated with him.[132] The Shiva-related Tantra literature, composed between the 8th and 11th centuries, are regarded in devotional dualistic Shaivism as Sruti. Dualistic Shaiva Agamas which consider Self within each living being and Shiva as two separate realities (dualism, dvaita), are the foundational texts for Shaiva Siddhanta.[133] Other Shaiva Agamas teach that these are one reality (monism, advaita), and that Shiva is the Self, the perfection and truth within each living being.[134] In Shiva related sub-traditions, there are ten dualistic Agama texts, eighteen qualified monism-cum-dualism Agama texts and sixty-four monism Agama texts.[135][136][137]

Shiva-related literature developed extensively across India in the 1st millennium CE and through the 13th century, particularly in Kashmir and Tamil Shaiva traditions.[137] Shaivism gained immense popularity in Tamilakam as early as the 7th century CE, with poets such as Appar and Sambandar composing rich poetry that is replete with present features associated with the deity, such as his tandava dance, the mulavam (dumru), the aspect of holding fire, and restraining the proud flow of the Ganga upon his braid.[138] The monist Shiva literature posit absolute oneness, that is Shiva is within every man and woman, Shiva is within every living being, Shiva is present everywhere in the world including all non-living being, and there is no spiritual difference between life, matter, man and Shiva.[139] The various dualistic and monist Shiva-related ideas were welcomed in medieval southeast Asia, inspiring numerous Shiva-related temples, artwork and texts in Indonesia, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Thailand and Malaysia, with syncretic integration of local pre-existing theologies.[140]

Position within Hinduism

 
Lingodbhava is a Shaiva sectarian icon where Shiva is depicted rising from the Lingam (an infinite fiery pillar) that narrates how Shiva is the foremost of the Trimurti; Brahma on the left and Vishnu on the right are depicted bowing to Shiva in the centre.

Shaivism

Main article: Shaivism

Shaivism is one of the four major sects of Hinduism, the others being Vaishnavism, Shaktism and the Smarta Tradition. Followers of Shaivism, called "Shaivas", revere Shiva as the Supreme Being. Shaivas believe that Shiva is All and in all, the creator, preserver, destroyer, revealer and concealer of all that is.[9][10] He is not only the creator in Shaivism, but he is also the creation that results from him, he is everything and everywhere. Shiva is the primal Self, the pure consciousness and Absolute Reality in the Shaiva traditions.[9]

The Shaivism theology is broadly grouped into two: the popular theology influenced by Shiva-Rudra in the Vedas, Epics and the Puranas; and the esoteric theology influenced by the Shiva and Shakti-related Tantra texts.[141] The Vedic-Brahmanic Shiva theology includes both monist (Advaita) and devotional traditions (Dvaita) such as Tamil Shaiva Siddhanta and Lingayatism with temples featuring items such as linga, Shiva-Parvati iconography, bull Nandi within the premises, relief artwork showing aspects of Shiva.[142][143]

The Tantric Shiva tradition ignored the mythologies and Puranas related to Shiva, and depending on the sub-school developed a variety of practices. For example, historical records suggest the tantric Kapalikas (literally, the 'skull-men') co-existed with and shared many Vajrayana Buddhist rituals, engaged in esoteric practices that revered Shiva and Shakti wearing skulls, begged with empty skulls, and sometimes used meat as a part of ritual.[144] In contrast, the esoteric tradition within Kashmir Shaivism has featured the Krama and Trika sub-traditions.[145] The Krama sub-tradition focussed on esoteric rituals around Shiva-Kali pair.[146] The Trika sub-tradition developed a theology of triads involving Shiva, combined it with an ascetic lifestyle focusing on personal Shiva in the pursuit of monistic self-liberation.[145][147][148]

Vaishnavism

The Vaishnava (Vishnu-oriented) literature acknowledges and discusses Shiva. Like Shaiva literature that presents Shiva as supreme, the Vaishnava literature presents Vishnu as supreme. However, both traditions are pluralistic and revere both Shiva and Vishnu (along with Devi), their texts do not show exclusivism, and Vaishnava texts such as the Bhagavata Purana while praising Krishna as the Ultimate Reality, also present Shiva and Shakti as a personalized form an equivalent to the same Ultimate Reality.[149][150][151] The texts of Shaivism tradition similarly praise Vishnu. The Skanda Purana, for example, states:

Vishnu is no one but Shiva, and he who is called Shiva is but identical with Vishnu.

— Skanda Purana, 1.8.20–21[152]

Both traditions include legends about who is superior, about Shiva paying homage to Vishnu, and Vishnu paying homage to Shiva. However, in texts and artwork of either tradition, the mutual salutes are symbolism for complementarity.[153] The Mahabharata declares the unchanging Ultimate Reality (Brahman) to be identical to Shiva and to Vishnu,[154] that Vishnu is the highest manifestation of Shiva, and Shiva is the highest manifestation of Vishnu.[155]

Shaktism

 
Ardhanarishvara sculpture, Khajuraho, depicting Shiva with goddess Parvati as his equal half.[156] In the Ardhanarisvara concept, the icon is presented as half-man and half woman.

The goddess-oriented Shakti tradition of Hinduism is based on the premise that the Supreme Principle and the Ultimate Reality called Brahman is female (Devi),[157][158][159] but it treats the male as her equal and complementary partner.[160] This partner is Shiva.[161][162]

The earliest evidence of the tradition of reverence for the feminine with Rudra-Shiva context, is found in the Hindu scripture Rigveda, in a hymn called the Devi Sukta.[163][164][163][164][165]

The Devi Upanishad in its explanation of the theology of Shaktism, mentions and praises Shiva such as in its verse 19.[166][167] Shiva, along with Vishnu, is a revered god in the Devi Mahatmya, a text of Shaktism considered by the tradition to be as important as the Bhagavad Gita.[168][169] The Ardhanarisvara concept co-mingles god Shiva and goddess Shakti by presenting an icon that is half-man and half woman, a representation and theme of union found in many Hindu texts and temples.[170][171]

Smarta tradition

Main article: Panchayatana puja
 
Oleograph by Raja Ravi Varma depicting a Shiva-centric Panchayatana. A bearded Shiva sits in the centre with his wife Parvati and their infant son Ganesha; surrounded by (clockwise from left upper corner) Ganesha, Devi, Vishnu, and Surya. Shiva's mount is the bull Nandi below Shiva.

In the Smarta tradition of Hinduism, Shiva is a part of its Panchayatana puja.[172] This practice consists of the use of icons or anicons of five deities considered equivalent,[172] set in a quincunx pattern.[173] Shiva is one of the five deities, others being Vishnu, Devi (such as Parvati), Surya and Ganesha or Skanda or any personal god of devotee's preference (Ishta Devata).[174]

Philosophically, the Smarta tradition emphasizes that all idols (murti) are icons to help focus on and visualize aspects of Brahman, rather than distinct beings. The ultimate goal in this practice is to transition past the use of icons, recognize the Absolute symbolized by the icons,[175] on the path to realizing the nondual identity of one's Atman (Self) and the Brahman.[176] Popularized by Adi Shankara, many Panchayatana mandalas and temples have been uncovered that are from the Gupta Empire period, and one Panchayatana set from the village of Nand (about 24 kilometers from Ajmer) has been dated to belong to the Kushan Empire era (pre-300 CE).[177] The Kushan period set includes Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Brahma and one deity whose identity is unclear.[177]

Yoga

Shiva is considered the Great Yogi who is totally absorbed in himself – the transcendental reality. He is the Lord of Yogis, and the teacher of Yoga to sages.[178] As Shiva Dakshinamurthi, states Stella Kramrisch, he is the supreme guru who "teaches in silence the oneness of one's innermost self (atman) with the ultimate reality (brahman)."[179] Shiva is also an archetype for samhara (Sanskrit: संहार) or dissolution which includes transcendence of human misery by the dissolution of maya, which is why Shiva is associated with Yoga.[180][181]

The theory and practice of Yoga, in different styles, has been a part of all major traditions of Hinduism, and Shiva has been the patron or spokesperson in numerous Hindu Yoga texts.[182][183] These contain the philosophy and techniques for Yoga. These ideas are estimated to be from or after the late centuries of the 1st millennium CE, and have survived as Yoga texts such as the Isvara Gita (literally, 'Shiva's song'), which Andrew Nicholson – a professor of Hinduism and Indian Intellectual History – states have had "a profound and lasting influence on the development of Hinduism".[184]

Other famed Shiva-related texts influenced Hatha Yoga, integrated monistic (Advaita Vedanta) ideas with Yoga philosophy and inspired the theoretical development of Indian classical dance. These include the Shiva Sutras, the Shiva Samhita, and those by the scholars of Kashmir Shaivism such as the 10th-century scholar Abhinavagupta.[182][183][185] Abhinavagupta writes in his notes on the relevance of ideas related to Shiva and Yoga, by stating that "people, occupied as they are with their own affairs, normally do nothing for others", and Shiva and Yoga spirituality helps one look beyond, understand interconnectedness, and thus benefit both the individual and the world towards a more blissful state of existence.[186]

Trimurti

Main article: Trimurti

The Trimurti is a concept in Hinduism in which the cosmic functions of creation, maintenance, and destruction are personified by the forms of Brahma the creator, Vishnu the maintainer or preserver and Shiva the destroyer or transformer.[187][188] These three deities have been called "the Hindu triad"[189] or the "Great Triple deity".[190] However, the ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism feature many triads of gods and goddesses, some of which do not include Shiva.[191]

Attributes

 
Shiva with Parvati. Shiva is depicted three-eyed, the Ganges flowing through his matted hair, wearing ornaments of serpents and a skull garland, covered in ashes, and seated on a tiger skin.
 
A seated Shiva holds an axe and deer in his hands.
  • Third eye: Shiva is often depicted with a third eye, with which he burned Desire (Kāma) to ashes,[192] called "Tryambakam" (Sanskrit: त्र्यम्बकम् ), which occurs in many scriptural sources.[193] In classical Sanskrit, the word ambaka denotes "an eye", and in the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as three-eyed, so this name is sometimes translated as "having three eyes".[194] However, in Vedic Sanskrit, the word ambā or ambikā means "mother", and this early meaning of the word is the basis for the translation "three mothers".[195][196] These three mother-goddesses who are collectively called the Ambikās.[197] Other related translations have been based on the idea that the name actually refers to the oblations given to Rudra, which according to some traditions were shared with the goddess Ambikā.[198]
  • Crescent moon: Shiva bears on his head the crescent moon.[199] The epithet Candraśekhara (Sanskrit: चन्द्रशेखर "Having the moon as his crest" – candra = "moon"; śekhara = "crest, crown")[200][201][202] refers to this feature. The placement of the moon on his head as a standard iconographic feature dates to the period when Rudra rose to prominence and became the major deity Rudra-Shiva.[203] The origin of this linkage may be due to the identification of the moon with Soma, and there is a hymn in the Rig Veda where Soma and Rudra are jointly implored, and in later literature, Soma and Rudra came to be identified with one another, as were Soma and the moon.[204]
  • Ashes: Shiva iconography shows his body covered with ashes (bhasma, vibhuti).[11][205] The ashes represent a reminder that all of material existence is impermanent, comes to an end becoming ash, and the pursuit of eternal Self and spiritual liberation is important.[206][207]
  • Matted hair: Shiva's distinctive hair style is noted in the epithets Jaṭin, "the one with matted hair",[208] and Kapardin, "endowed with matted hair"[209] or "wearing his hair wound in a braid in a shell-like (kaparda) fashion".[210] A kaparda is a cowrie shell, or a braid of hair in the form of a shell, or, more generally, hair that is shaggy or curly.[211]
  • Blue throat: The epithet Nīlakaṇtha (Sanskrit नीलकण्ठ; nīla = "blue", kaṇtha = "throat").[212][213] Since Shiva drank the Halahala poison churned up from the Samudra Manthana to eliminate its destructive capacity. Shocked by his act, Parvati squeezed his neck and stopped it in his neck to prevent it from spreading all over the universe, supposed to be in Shiva's stomach. However the poison was so potent that it changed the color of his neck to blue.[214][215] This attribute indicates that one can become Shiva by swallowing the worldly poisons in terms of abuses and insults with equanimity while blessing those who give them.[216]
  • Meditating yogi: his iconography often shows him in a Yoga pose, meditating, sometimes on a symbolic Himalayan Mount Kailasha as the Lord of Yoga.[11]
  • Sacred Ganga: The epithet Gangadhara, "Bearer of the river Ganga" (Ganges). The Ganga flows from the matted hair of Shiva.[217][218] The Gaṅgā (Ganga), one of the major rivers of the country, is said to have made her abode in Shiva's hair.[219]
  • Tiger skin: Shiva is often shown seated upon a tiger skin.[11]
  • Serpents: Shiva is often shown garlanded with a snake.[11]
  • Trident: Shiva typically carries a trident called Trishula.[11] The trident is a weapon or a symbol in different Hindu texts.[220] As a symbol, the Trishul represents Shiva's three aspects of "creator, preserver and destroyer",[221] or alternatively it represents the equilibrium of three Gunas of "sattva, rajas and tamas".[222]
  • Drum: A small drum shaped like an hourglass is known as a damaru.[223][224] This is one of the attributes of Shiva in his famous dancing representation[225] known as Nataraja. A specific hand gesture (mudra) called ḍamaru-hasta (Sanskrit for "ḍamaru-hand") is used to hold the drum.[226] This drum is particularly used as an emblem by members of the Kāpālika sect.[227]
  • Axe (Parashu) and Deer are held in Shiva's hands in Odisha & south Indian icons.[228]
  • Rosary beads: he is garlanded with or carries a string of rosary beads in his right hand, typically made of Rudraksha.[11] This symbolises grace, mendicant life and meditation.[229][230]
  • Nandī: Nandī, (Sanskrit: नन्दिन् (nandin)), is the name of the bull that serves as Shiva's mount.[231][232] Shiva's association with cattle is reflected in his name Paśupati, or Pashupati (Sanskrit: पशुपति), translated by Sharma as "lord of cattle"[233] and by Kramrisch as "lord of animals", who notes that it is particularly used as an epithet of Rudra.[234]
  • Mount Kailāsa: Mount Kailash in the Himalayas is his traditional abode.[11][235] In Hindu mythology, Mount Kailāsa is conceived as resembling a Linga, representing the center of the universe.[236]
  • Gaṇa: The Gaṇas are attendants of Shiva and live in Kailash. They are often referred to as the bhutaganas, or ghostly hosts, on account of their nature. Generally benign, except when their lord is transgressed against, they are often invoked to intercede with the lord on behalf of the devotee. His son Ganesha was chosen as their leader by Shiva, hence Ganesha's title gaṇa-īśa or gaṇa-pati, "lord of the gaṇas".[237]
  • Varanasi: Varanasi (Benares) is considered to be the city specially loved by Shiva, and is one of the holiest places of pilgrimage in India. It is referred to, in religious contexts, as Kashi.[238]

Forms and depictions

According to Gavin Flood, "Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox," whose attributes include opposing themes.[239] The ambivalent nature of this deity is apparent in some of his names and the stories told about him.

Destroyer and Benefactor

 
 
Shiva is represented in his many aspects.[240] Left: Bhairava icon of the fierce form of Shiva, from 17th/18th century Nepal; right: Shiva as a meditating yogi in Rishikesh.

In Yajurveda, two contrary sets of attributes for both malignant or terrifying (Sanskrit: rudra) and benign or auspicious (Sanskrit: śiva) forms can be found, leading Chakravarti to conclude that "all the basic elements which created the complex Rudra-Śiva sect of later ages are to be found here".[241] In the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as "the standard of invincibility, might, and terror", as well as a figure of honor, delight, and brilliance.[242]

The duality of Shiva's fearful and auspicious attributes appears in contrasted names. The name Rudra reflects Shiva's fearsome aspects. According to traditional etymologies, the Sanskrit name Rudra is derived from the root rud-, which means "to cry, howl".[243] Stella Kramrisch notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form raudra, which means "wild, of rudra nature", and translates the name Rudra as "the wild one" or "the fierce god".[244] R. K. Sharma follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as "terrible".[245] Hara is an important name that occurs three times in the Anushasanaparvan version of the Shiva sahasranama, where it is translated in different ways each time it occurs, following a commentorial tradition of not repeating an interpretation. Sharma translates the three as "one who captivates", "one who consolidates", and "one who destroys".[12] Kramrisch translates it as "the ravisher".[215] Another of Shiva's fearsome forms is as Kāla "time" and Mahākāla "great time", which ultimately destroys all things.[246] The name Kāla appears in the Shiva Sahasranama, where it is translated by Ram Karan Sharma as "(the Supreme Lord of) Time".[247] Bhairava "terrible" or "frightful"[248] is a fierce form associated with annihilation. In contrast, the name Śaṇkara, "beneficent"[30] or "conferring happiness"[249] reflects his benign form. This name was adopted by the great Vedanta philosopher Adi Shankara (c. 788–820),[250] who is also known as Shankaracharya.[42] The name Śambhu (Sanskrit: शम्भु swam-on its own; bhu-burn/shine) "self-shining/ shining on its own", also reflects this benign aspect.[42][251]

Ascetic and householder

 
Shiva is depicted both as an ascetic yogi, and as a householder with goddess Parvati.

Shiva is depicted as both an ascetic yogi and as a householder (grihasta), roles which have been traditionally mutually exclusive in Hindu society.[252] When depicted as a yogi, he may be shown sitting and meditating.[253] His epithet Mahāyogi ("the great Yogi: Mahā = "great", Yogi = "one who practices Yoga") refers to his association with yoga.[254] While Vedic religion was conceived mainly in terms of sacrifice, it was during the Epic period that the concepts of tapas, yoga, and asceticism became more important, and the depiction of Shiva as an ascetic sitting in philosophical isolation reflects these later concepts.[255]

As a family man and householder, he has a wife, Parvati and two sons, Ganesha and Kartikeya. His epithet Umāpati ("The husband of Umā") refers to this idea, and Sharma notes that two other variants of this name that mean the same thing, Umākānta and Umādhava, also appear in the sahasranama.[256] Umā in epic literature is known by many names, including the benign Pārvatī.[257][258] She is identified with Devi, the Divine Mother; Shakti (divine energy) as well as goddesses like Tripura Sundari, Durga, Kali, Kamakshi and Minakshi. The consorts of Shiva are the source of his creative energy. They represent the dynamic extension of Shiva onto this universe.[259] His son Ganesha is worshipped throughout India and Nepal as the Remover of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings and Lord of Obstacles. Kartikeya is worshipped in Southern India (especially in Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka) by the names Subrahmanya, Subrahmanyan, Shanmughan, Swaminathan and Murugan, and in Northern India by the names Skanda, Kumara, or Karttikeya.[260]

Some regional deities are also identified as Shiva's children. As one story goes, Shiva is enticed by the beauty and charm of Mohini, Vishnu's female avatar, and procreates with her. As a result of this union, Shasta – identified with regional deities Ayyappan and Aiyanar – is born.[261][262][263][264] In outskirts of Ernakulam in Kerala, a deity named Vishnumaya is stated to be offspring of Shiva and invoked in local exorcism rites, but this deity is not traceable in Hindu pantheon and is possibly a local tradition with "vaguely Chinese" style rituals, states Saletore.[265] In some traditions, Shiva has daughters like the serpent-goddess Manasa and Ashokasundari.[266][267] According to Doniger, two regional stories depict demons Andhaka and Jalandhara as the children of Shiva who war with him, and are later destroyed by Shiva.[268]

Iconographic forms

 
Chola dynasty statue depicting Shiva dancing as Nataraja (Los Angeles County Museum of Art)

The depiction of Shiva as Nataraja (Sanskrit नटराज; Naṭarāja) is a form (mūrti) of Shiva (literally, "Lord of Dance").[269][270] The names Nartaka ("dancer") and Nityanarta ("eternal dancer") appear in the Shiva Sahasranama.[271] His association with dance and also with music is prominent in the Puranic period.[272] In addition to the specific iconographic form known as Nataraja, various other types of dancing forms (Sanskrit: nṛtyamūrti) are found in all parts of India, with many well-defined varieties in Tamil Nadu in particular.[273] The two most common forms of the dance are the Tandava, which later came to denote the powerful and masculine dance as Kala-Mahakala associated with the destruction of the world. When it requires the world or universe to be destroyed, Shiva does it by the Tandava,[274] and Lasya, which is graceful and delicate and expresses emotions on a gentle level and is considered the feminine dance attributed to the goddess Parvati.[275][276] Lasya is regarded as the female counterpart of Tandava.[276] The Tandava-Lasya dances are associated with the destruction-creation of the world.[277][278][279]

Dakshinamurthy (Sanskrit दक्षिणामूर्ति; Dakṣiṇāmūrti)[280] is a form (mūrti) of Shiva (literally, "[facing] south form"). Dakshinamurthy is depicted as a figure seated upon a deer-throne surrounded by sages receiving instruction.[281] This form represents Shiva in his aspect as a teacher of yoga, music, and wisdom and giving exposition on the shastras.[282] This iconographic form for depicting Shiva in Indian art is mostly from Tamil Nadu.[283]

Bhikshatana (Sanskrit भिक्षाटन; Bhikṣāṭana) is a form (mūrti) of Shiva (literally "wandering about for alms, mendicancy" [284]). Bhikshatana is depicted as a nude four-armed man adorned with ornaments who holds a begging bowl in his hand and is followed by demonic attendants. The nudity and begging bowl are associated with the kapali tradition. This form of Shiva is associated with his penance for committing brahmicide, and with his encounters with the sages and their wives in the Deodar forest.

Tripurantaka (Sanskrit त्रिपुरांतक; Tripurāntaka) is a form (mūrti) of Shiva (literally "ender of Tripura"[285]). Tripurantaka is depicted with four arms, the upper pair holding an axe and a deer, and the lower pair wielding a bow and arrow. This form of Shiva is associated with his destruction of the three cities (Tripura) of the Asuras.[286]

Ardhanarishvara (Sanskrit: अर्धनारीश्वर; Ardhanārīśvara) is a form (mūrti) of Shiva (literally "the lord who is half woman"[287]). Adhanarishvara is depicted with one half of the body as male and the other half as female. Ardhanarishvara represents the synthesis of masculine and feminine energies of the universe (Purusha and Prakriti) and illustrates how Shakti, the female principle of God, is inseparable from (or the same as, according to some interpretations) Shiva, the male principle of God, and vice versa.[288]

Kalyanasundara-murti (Sanskrit कल्याणसुन्दर-मूर्ति, literally "icon of beautiful marriage") is the depiction of Shiva's marriage to Parvati. The divine couple are often depicted performing the panigrahana (Sanskrit "accepting the hand") ritual from traditional Hindu wedding ceremonies. Agamic texts like the Amsumadbhedagama, the Uttara-kamaikagama and the Purva-Karanagama prescribe the iconography of the Kalyanasunadara icon.[289] The most basic form of this murti consists of only Shiva and Parvati together, but in more elaborate forms they are accompanied by other persons, sometimes including Parvati's parents, as well as deities (often with Vishnu and Lakshmi standing as Parvati's parents, Brahma as the officiating priest, and various other deities as attendants or guests).

Somaskanda is the depiction of Shiva, Parvati, and their son Skanda (Kartikeya), popular during the Pallava Dynasty in southern India.

Pañcānana (Sanskrit: पञ्चानन), also called the pañcabrahma, is a form of Shiva depicting him as having five faces which correspond to his five divine activities (pañcakṛtya): creation (sṛṣṭi), preservation (sthithi), destruction (saṃhāra), concealing grace (tirobhāva), and revealing grace (anugraha). Five is a sacred number for Shiva.[290] One of his most important mantras has five syllables (namaḥ śivāya).[291]

 
The 10th century five headed Shiva, Sadashiva, Cambodia

Shiva's body is said to consist of five mantras, called the pañcabrahman.[292] As forms of God, each of these have their own names and distinct iconography:[293] These are represented as the five faces of Shiva and are associated in various texts with the five elements, the five senses, the five organs of perception, and the five organs of action.[294][295] Doctrinal differences and, possibly, errors in transmission, have resulted in some differences between texts in details of how these five forms are linked with various attributes.[296] The overall meaning of these associations is summarized by Stella Kramrisch, "

Through these transcendent categories, Śiva, the ultimate reality, becomes the efficient and material cause of all that exists.[297]

According to the Pañcabrahma Upanishad:

One should know all things of the phenomenal world as of a fivefold character, for the reason that the eternal verity of Śiva is of the character of the fivefold Brahman. (Pañcabrahma Upanishad 31)[298]

In the hymn of Manikkavacakar's Thiruvasagam, he testifies that at Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram had, by the pre-Chola period, an abstract or 'cosmic' symbolism linked to five elements (Pancha Bhoota) including ether.[299] Nataraja is a significant visual interpretation of Brahman and a dance posture of Shiva.[300] Sharada Srinivasan notes that, Nataraja is described as Satcitananda or "Being, Consciousness and Bliss" in the Shaiva Siddhanta text Kunchitangrim Bhaje, resembling the Advaita doctrine, or "abstract monism," of Adi Shankara, "which holds the individual Self (Jīvātman) and supream Self (Paramātmā) to be one," while "an earlier hymn to Nataraja by Manikkavachakar identifies him with the unitary supreme consciousness, by using Tamil word Or Unarve, rather than Sanskrit Chit." This may point to an "osmosis" of ideas in medieval India, states Srinivasan.[301]

Lingam

Main article: Lingam

The Linga Purana states, "Shiva is signless, without color, taste, smell, that is beyond word or touch, without quality, motionless and changeless".[302] The source of the universe is the signless, and all of the universe is the manifested Linga, a union of unchanging Principles and the ever changing nature.[302] The Linga Purana and Siva Gita texts builds on this foundation.[303][304] Linga, states Alain Daniélou, means sign.[302] It is an important concept in Hindu texts, wherein Linga is a manifested sign and nature of someone or something. It accompanies the concept of Brahman, which as invisible signless and existent Principle, is formless or linga-less.[302]

Shvetashvatara Upanishad states one of the three significations, the primary one, of Lingam as "the imperishable Purusha", the absolute reality, where says the linga as "sign", a mark that provides the existence of Brahman, thus the original meaning as "sign".[305] Furthermore, it says "Shiva, the Supreme Lord, has no liūga", liuga (Sanskrit: लिऊग IAST: liūga) meaning Shiva is transcendent, beyond any characteristic and, specifically the sign of gender.[305]

Apart from anthropomorphic images of Shiva, he is also represented in aniconic form of a lingam.[306][307] These are depicted in various designs. One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column in the centre of a lipped, disk-shaped object, the yoni, symbolism for the goddess Shakti.[308] In Shiva temples, the linga is typically present in its sanctum sanctorum and is the focus of votary offerings such as milk, water, flower petals, fruit, fresh leaves, and rice.[308] According to Monier Williams and Yudit Greenberg, linga literally means 'mark, sign or emblem', and also refers to a "mark or sign from which the existence of something else can be reliably inferred". It implies the regenerative divine energy innate in nature, symbolized by Shiva.[309][310]

Some scholars, such as Wendy Doniger, view linga as merely a phallic symbol,[311][312][313][314] although this interpretation is criticized by others, including Swami Vivekananda,[315] Sivananda Saraswati,[316] Stella Kramrisch,[317] Swami Agehananda Bharati,[318] S. N. Balagangadhara,[319] and others.[320][321][322][319] According to Moriz Winternitz, the linga in the Shiva tradition is "only a symbol of the productive and creative principle of nature as embodied in Shiva", and it has no historical trace in any obscene phallic cult.[323] According to Sivananda Saraswati, westerners who are curiously passionate and have impure understanding or intelligence, incorrectly assume Siva Linga as a phallus or sex organ.[316] Later on, Sivananda Saraswati mentions that, this is not only a serious mistake, but also a grave blunder.[316]

The worship of the lingam originated from the famous hymn in the Atharva-Veda Samhitâ sung in praise of the Yupa-Stambha, the sacrificial post. In that hymn, a description is found of the beginningless and endless Stambha or Skambha, and it is shown that the said Skambha is put in place of the eternal Brahman. Just as the Yajna (sacrificial) fire, its smoke, ashes, and flames, the Soma plant, and the ox that used to carry on its back the wood for the Vedic sacrifice gave place to the conceptions of the brightness of Shiva's body, his tawny matted hair, his blue throat, and the riding on the bull of the Shiva, the Yupa-Skambha gave place in time to the Shiva-Linga.[324][325] In the text Linga Purana, the same hymn is expanded in the shape of stories, meant to establish the glory of the great Stambha and the superiority of Shiva as Mahadeva.[325]

The oldest known archaeological linga as an icon of Shiva is the Gudimallam lingam from 3rd-century BCE.[308] In Shaivism pilgrimage tradition, twelve major temples of Shiva are called Jyotirlinga, which means "linga of light", and these are located across India.[326]

Avatars

Puranic scriptures contain occasional references to "ansh" – literally 'portion, or avatars of Shiva', but the idea of Shiva avatars is not universally accepted in Shaivism.[327] The Linga Purana mentions twenty-eight forms of Shiva which are sometimes seen as avatars,[328] however such mention is unusual and the avatars of Shiva is relatively rare in Shaivism compared to the well emphasized concept of Vishnu avatars in Vaishnavism.[329][330][331] Some Vaishnava literature reverentially link Shiva to characters in its Puranas. For example, in the Hanuman Chalisa, Hanuman is identified as the eleventh avatar of Shiva.[332][333][334] The Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana claim sage Durvasa to be a portion of Shiva.[335][336][337] Some medieval era writers have called the Advaita Vedanta philosopher Adi Shankara an incarnation of Shiva.[338]

Temple

For list of the temples by nation, see List of Shiva temples in India and List of Shiva Temples in Pakistan.

Festivals

Main article: Maha Shivaratri
 
 
Maha Sivaratri festival is observed in the night, usually in lighted temples or special prabha (above).

There is a Shivaratri in every lunar month on its 13th night/14th day,[339] but once a year in late winter (February/March) and before the arrival of spring, marks Maha Shivaratri which means "the Great Night of Shiva".[340]

Maha Shivaratri is a major Hindu festival, but one that is solemn and theologically marks a remembrance of "overcoming darkness and ignorance" in life and the world,[341] and meditation about the polarities of existence, of Shiva and a devotion to humankind.[339] It is observed by reciting Shiva-related poems, chanting prayers, remembering Shiva, fasting, doing Yoga and meditating on ethics and virtues such as self-restraint, honesty, noninjury to others, forgiveness, introspection, self-repentance and the discovery of Shiva.[342] The ardent devotees keep awake all night. Others visit one of the Shiva temples or go on pilgrimage to Jyotirlingam shrines. Those who visit temples, offer milk, fruits, flowers, fresh leaves and sweets to the lingam.[5] Some communities organize special dance events, to mark Shiva as the lord of dance, with individual and group performances.[343] According to Jones and Ryan, Maha Sivaratri is an ancient Hindu festival which probably originated around the 5th-century.[341]

Another major festival involving Shiva worship is Kartik Purnima, commemorating Shiva's victory over the three demons known as Tripurasura. Across India, various Shiva temples are illuminated throughout the night. Shiva icons are carried in procession in some places.[344]

Thiruvathira is a festival observed in Kerala dedicated to Shiva. It is believed that on this day, Parvati met Shiva after her long penance and Shiva took her as his wife.[345] On this day Hindu women performs the Thiruvathirakali accompanied by Thiruvathira paattu (folk songs about Parvati and her longing and penance for Shiva's affection).[346]

Regional festivals dedicated to Shiva include the Chithirai festival in Madurai around April/May, one of the largest festivals in South India, celebrating the wedding of Minakshi (Parvati) and Shiva. The festival is one where both the Vaishnava and Shaiva communities join the celebrations, because Vishnu gives away his sister Minakshi in marriage to Shiva.[347]

Some Shaktism-related festivals revere Shiva along with the goddess considered primary and Supreme. These include festivals dedicated to Annapurna such as Annakuta and those related to Durga.[348] In Himalayan regions such as Nepal, as well as in northern, central and western India, the festival of Teej is celebrated by girls and women in the monsoon season, in honor of goddess Parvati, with group singing, dancing and by offering prayers in Parvati-Shiva temples.[349][350]

The ascetic, Vedic and Tantric sub-traditions related to Shiva, such as those that became ascetic warriors during the Islamic rule period of India,[351][352] celebrate the Kumbha Mela festival.[353] This festival cycles every 12 years, in four pilgrimage sites within India, with the event moving to the next site after a gap of three years. The biggest is in Prayaga (renamed Allahabad during the Mughal rule era), where millions of Hindus of different traditions gather at the confluence of rivers Ganges and Yamuna. In the Hindu tradition, the Shiva-linked ascetic warriors (Nagas) get the honor of starting the event by entering the Sangam first for bathing and prayers.[353]

In Pakistan, major Shivaratri celebration occurs at the Umarkot Shiv Mandir in the Umarkot. The three-day Shivarathri celebration at the temple is attended by around 250,000 people.[354]

Beyond the Indian subcontinent and Hinduism

Indonesia

 
Shiva sculpture, Dieng Plateau in Java, Indonesia

In Indonesian Shaivism the popular name for Shiva has been Batara Guru, which is derived from Sanskrit Bhattāraka which means "noble lord".[355] He is conceptualized as a kind spiritual teacher, the first of all Gurus in Indonesian Hindu texts, mirroring the Dakshinamurti aspect of Shiva in the Indian subcontinent.[356] However, the Batara Guru has more aspects than the Indian Shiva, as the Indonesian Hindus blended their spirits and heroes with him. Batara Guru's wife in Southeast Asia is the same Hindu deity Durga, who has been popular since ancient times, and she too has a complex character with benevolent and fierce manifestations, each visualized with different names such as Uma, Sri, Kali and others.[357][358] In contrast to Hindu religious texts, whether Vedas or Puranas, in Javanese puppetry (wayang) books, Batara Guru is the king of the gods who regulates and creates the world system. In the classic book that is used as a reference for the puppeteers, it is said that Sanghyang Manikmaya or Batara Guru was created from a sparkling light by Sang Hyang Tunggal, along with the blackish light which is the origin of Ismaya.[359][360] Shiva has been called Sadāśiva, Paramasiva, Mahādeva in benevolent forms, and Kāla, Bhairava, Mahākāla in his fierce forms.[358]

The Indonesian Hindu texts present the same philosophical diversity of Shaivite traditions found in the Indian subcontinent. However, among the texts that have survived into the contemporary era, the more common are of those of Shaiva Siddhanta (locally also called Siwa Siddhanta, Sridanta).[361]

During the pre-Islamic period on the island of Java, Shaivism and Buddhism were considered very close and allied religions, though not identical religions.[362] The medieval-era Indonesian literature equates Buddha with Siwa (Shiva) and Janardana (Vishnu).[363] This tradition continues in predominantly Hindu Bali Indonesia in the modern era, where Buddha is considered the younger brother of Shiva.[364]

Central Asia

The worship of Shiva became popular in Central Asia through the influence of the Hephthalite Empire[365] and Kushan Empire. Shaivism was also popular in Sogdia and the Kingdom of Yutian as found from the wall painting from Penjikent on the river Zervashan.[366] In this depiction, Shiva is portrayed with a sacred halo and a sacred thread (Yajnopavita).[366] He is clad in tiger skin while his attendants are wearing Sogdian dress.[366] A panel from Dandan Oilik shows Shiva in His Trimurti form with Shakti kneeling on her right thigh.[366][367] Another site in the Taklamakan Desert depicts him with four legs, seated cross-legged on a cushioned seat supported by two bulls.[366] It is also noted that the Zoroastrian wind god Vayu-Vata took on the iconographic appearance of Shiva.[367]

Sikhism

The Japuji Sahib of the Guru Granth Sahib says: "The Guru is Shiva, the Guru is Vishnu and Brahma; the Guru is Paarvati and Lakhshmi."[368] In the same chapter, it also says: "Shiva speaks, and the Siddhas listen." In Dasam Granth, Guru Gobind Singh has mentioned two avatars of Rudra: Dattatreya Avatar and Parasnath Avatar.[369]

Buddhism

 
Mahakala, c. 1500 CE Tibetan Thangka

Shiva is mentioned in the Buddhist Tantras and worshipped as the fierce deity Mahākāla in Vajrayana, Chinese Esoteric, and Tibetan Buddhism.[370] In the cosmologies of Buddhist Tantras, Shiva is depicted as passive, with Shakti being his active counterpart: Shiva as Prajña and Shakti as Upāya.[371][372]

In Mahayana Buddhism, Shiva is depicted as Maheshvara, a deva living in Akanishta Devaloka. In Theravada Buddhism, Shiva is depicted as Ishana, a deva residing in the 6th heaven of Kamadhatu along with Sakra Indra. In Vajrayana Buddhism, Shiva is depicted as Mahakala, a dharma protecting Bodhisattva. In most forms of Buddhism, the position of Shiva is lesser than that of Mahabrahma or Sakra Indra. In Mahayana Buddhist texts, Shiva (Maheshvara) becomes a buddha called Bhasmeshvara Buddha ("Buddha of ashes").[citation needed]

In China and Taiwan, Shiva, better known there as Maheśvara (Chinese: 大自在天; pinyin: Dàzìzàitiān; or Chinese: 摩醯首羅天 pinyin: Móxīshǒuluótiān) is considered one of the Twenty Devas (Chinese: 二十諸天, pinyin: Èrshí Zhūtiān) or the Twenty-Four Devas (Chinese: 二十四諸天, pinyin: Èrshísì zhūtiān) who are a group of dharmapalas that manifest to protect the Buddhist dharma.[373] Statues of him are often enshrined in the Mahavira Halls of Chinese Buddhist temples along with the other devas. In addition, he is also regarded as one of thirty-three manifestations of Avalokitesvara in the Lotus Sutra.[374] In Mahayana Buddhist cosmology, Maheśvara resides in Akaniṣṭha, highest of the Śuddhāvāsa ("Pure Abodes") wherein Anāgāmi ("Non-returners") who are already on the path to Arhathood and who will attain enlightenment are born.

Daikokuten, one of the Seven Lucky Gods in Japan, is considered to be evolved from Shiva. The god enjoys an exalted position as a household deity in Japan and is worshipped as the god of wealth and fortune.[375] The name is the Japanese equivalent of Mahākāla, the Buddhist name for Shiva.[376]

Shiva has been merged with Buddhist deities in East Asian Buddhism

In contemporary culture

In contemporary culture, Shiva is depicted in art, films, books, tattoos, etc. He has been referred to as "the god of cool things"[379] and a "bonafide rock hero".[380]

Popular films include the Gujarati language movie Har Har Mahadev,[381] the Kannada movie Gange Gowri and well-known books include Amish Tripathi's Shiva Trilogy, which has sold over a million copies.[379] On television, Devon Ke Dev...Mahadev, a television serial about Shiva on the Life OK channel was among the most watched shows at its peak popularity.[382] A 90's television series of DD National titled Om Namah Shivay was also based on legends of Shiva.[383]

Popular video games featuring Shiva include the Shin Megami Tensei series and especially Smite. The god is also depicted as the mascot for the Washington Commanders in the popular animated series, Gridiron Heights.

Notes

Explanatory notes

  1. ^ This is the source for the version presented in Chidbhavananda, who refers to it being from the Mahabharata but does not explicitly clarify which of the two Mahabharata versions he is using. See Chidbhavananda 1997, p. 5.
  2. ^ Temporal range for Mesolithic in South Asia is from 12000 to 4000 years before present. The term "Mesolithic" is not a useful term for the periodization of the South Asian Stone Age, as certain tribes in the interior of the Indian subcontinent retained a mesolithic culture into the modern period, and there is no consistent usage of the term. The range 12,000–4,000 Before Present is based on the combination of the ranges given by Agrawal et al. (1978) and by Sen (1999), and overlaps with the early Neolithic at Mehrgarh. D.P. Agrawal et al., "Chronology of Indian prehistory from the Mesolithic period to the Iron Age", Journal of Human Evolution, Volume 7, Issue 1, January 1978, 37–44: "A total time bracket of c. 6,000–2,000 B.C. will cover the dated Mesolithic sites, e.g. Langhnaj, Bagor, Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, Lekhahia, etc." (p. 38). S.N. Sen, Ancient Indian History and Civilization, 1999: "The Mesolithic period roughly ranges between 10,000 and 6,000 B.C." (p. 23).
  1. ^ Sati, the first wife of Shiva, was reborn as Parvati after she immolated herself. According to Shaivism, Parvati has various appearances like Durga and Kali with the supreme aspect of Adi Shakti which are also associated with Shiva. All these goddesses are the same Atma (Self) in different bodies.[6]
  2. ^ a b c The ithyphallic representation of the erect shape connotes the very opposite in this context.[384] It contextualize "seminal retention", practice of celibacy (Brahmacarya)[385] and illustration of Urdhva Retas[317][386][387][388] and represents Shiva as "he stands for complete control of the senses, and for the supreme carnal renunciation".[384]
  3. ^ For a general statement of the close relationship, and example shared epithets, see: Sivaramamurti 1976, p. 11. For an overview of the Rudra-Fire complex of ideas, see: Kramrisch 1981, pp. 15–19.
  4. ^ For quotation "An important factor in the process of Rudra's growth is his identification with Agni in the Vedic literature and this identification contributed much to the transformation of his character as Rudra-Śiva." see: Chakravarti 1986, p. 17.
  5. ^ For "Note Agni-Rudra concept fused" in epithets Sasipañjara and Tivaṣīmati see: Sivaramamurti 1976, p. 45.
  6. ^ For text of RV 2.20.3a as स नो युवेन्द्रो जोहूत्रः सखा शिवो नरामस्तु पाता । and translation as "May that young adorable Indra, ever be the friend, the benefactor, and protector of us, his worshipper".[107]

Citations

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  16. ^ Kinsley 1988, pp. 50, 103–104.
  17. ^ Pintchman 2015, pp. 113, 119, 144, 171.
  18. ^ Flood 1996, pp. 17, 153.
  19. ^ Shiva Samhita, e.g. Mallinson 2007; Varenne 1976, p. 82; Marchand 2007 for Jnana Yoga.
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  27. ^ Chakravarti 1986, pp. 21–22.
  28. ^ Chakravarti 1986, pp. 1, 7, 21–23.
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  30. ^ a b Sharma 1996, p. 306.
  31. ^ Apte 1965, p. 927.
  32. ^ For the definition "Śaivism refers to the traditions which follow the teachings of Śiva (śivaśāna) and which focus on the deity Śiva... " see: Flood 1996, p. 149
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  37. ^ Berreman 1963, p. 385.
  38. ^ For translation see: Dutt 1905, Chapter 17 of Volume 13.
  39. ^ For translation see: Ganguli 2004, Chapter 17 of Volume 13.
  40. ^ Chidbhavananda 1997, Siva Sahasranama Stotram.
  41. ^ Lochtefeld 2002, p. 247.
  42. ^ a b c Kramrisch 1994a, p. 476.
  43. ^ For appearance of the name महादेव in the Shiva Sahasranama see: Sharma 1996, p. 297
  44. ^ Kramrisch 1994a, p. 477.
  45. ^ For appearance of the name in the Shiva Sahasranama see: Sharma 1996, p. 299
  46. ^ For Parameśhvara as "Supreme Lord" see: Kramrisch 1981, p. 479.
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  49. ^ For an overview of the Śatarudriya see: Kramrisch 1981, pp. 71–74.
  50. ^ For complete Sanskrit text, translations, and commentary see: Sivaramamurti 1976.
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  55. ^ For Shiva as a composite deity whose history is not well documented, see Keay 2000, p. 147
  56. ^ Nath 2001, p. 31.
  57. ^ a b c Courtright 1985, p. 205.
  58. ^ For Jejuri as the foremost center of worship see: Mate 1988, p. 162.
  59. ^ Sontheimer 1976, pp. 180–198: "Khandoba is a local deity in Maharashtra and been Sanskritised as an incarnation of Shiva."
  60. ^ For worship of Khandoba in the form of a lingam and possible identification with Shiva based on that, see: Mate 1988, p. 176.
  61. ^ For use of the name Khandoba as a name for Karttikeya in Maharashtra, see: Gupta 1988, Preface, and p. 40.
  62. ^ Klostermaier 2007, pp. 24–25: "... prehistoric cave paintings at Bhimbetka (from ca. 100,000 to ca. 10,000 BCE) which were discovered only in 1967..."
  63. ^ Javid 2008, pp. 20–21; Mathpal 1984, p. 220; Rajarajan 1996.
  64. ^ Neumayer 2013, p. 104.
  65. ^ Singh 1989; Kenoyer 1998. For a drawing of the seal see Figure 1 in Flood 1996, p. 29
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  68. ^ Flood 1996, pp. 28–29.
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  70. ^ Flood 1996, pp. 28–29; Flood 2003, pp. 204–205.
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  104. ^ RV 8.49; 10.155.
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  108. ^ For text of RV 6.45.17 as यो गृणतामिदासिथापिरूती शिवः सखा । स त्वं न इन्द्र मृलय ॥ and translation as "Indra, who has ever been the friend of those who praise you, and the insurer of their happiness by your protection, grant us felicity" see: Arya & Joshi 2001, p. 91, volume 3.
  109. ^ For translation of RV 6.45.17 as "Thou who hast been the singers' Friend, a Friend auspicious with thine aid, As such, O Indra, favour us" see: Griffith 1973, p. 310.
  110. ^ For text of RV 8.93.3 as स न इन्द्रः सिवः सखाश्चावद् गोमद्यवमत् । उरूधारेव दोहते ॥ and translation as "May Indra, our auspicious friend, milk for us, like a richly-streaming (cow), wealth of horses, kine, and barley" see: Arya & Joshi 2001, p. 48, volume 2.
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  112. ^ RV 7.19.
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  189. ^ For definition of Trimurti as "the unified form" of Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva and use of the phrase "the Hindu triad" see: Apte 1965, p. 485.
  190. ^ For the term "Great Trinity" in relation to the Trimurti see: Jansen 1993, p. 83.
  191. ^ The Trimurti idea of Hinduism, states Jan Gonda, "seems to have developed from ancient cosmological and ritualistic speculations about the triple character of an individual god, in the first place of Agni, whose births are three or threefold, and who is threefold light, has three bodies and three stations". See: Gonda 1969, pp. 218–219; Other trinities, beyond the more common "Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva", mentioned in ancient and medieval Hindu texts include: "Indra, Vishnu, Brahmanaspati", "Agni, Indra, Surya", "Agni, Vayu, Aditya", "Mahalakshmi, Mahasarasvati, and Mahakali", and others. See: [a] David White (2006), Kiss of the Yogini, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226894843, pp. 4, 29
    [b] Gonda 1969
  192. ^ For Shiva as depicted with a third eye, and mention of the story of the destruction of Kama with it, see: Flood 1996, p. 151.
  193. ^ For a review of 4 theories about the meaning of tryambaka, see: Chakravarti 1986, pp. 37–39.
  194. ^ For usage of the word ambaka in classical Sanskrit and connection to the Mahabharata depiction, see: Chakravarti 1986, pp. 38–39.
  195. ^ For translation of Tryambakam as "having three mother eyes" and as an epithet of Rudra, see: Kramrisch 1981, p. 483.
  196. ^ For Vedic Sanskrit meaning Lord has three mother eyes which symbolize eyes are the Sun, Moon and Fire.
  197. ^ For discussion of the problems in translation of this name, and the hypothesis regarding the Ambikās see: Hopkins (1968), p. 220.
  198. ^ For the Ambikā variant, see: Chakravarti 1986, pp. 17, 37.
  199. ^ For the moon on the forehead see: Chakravarti 1986, p. 109.
  200. ^ For śekhara as crest or crown, see: Apte 1965, p. 926.
  201. ^ For Candraśekhara as an iconographic form, see: Sivaramamurti 1976, p. 56.
  202. ^ For translation "Having the moon as his crest" see: Kramrisch 1981, p. 472.
  203. ^ For the moon iconography as marking the rise of Rudra-Shiva, see: Chakravarti 1986, p. 58.
  204. ^ For discussion of the linkages between Soma, Moon, and Rudra, and citation to RV 7.74, see: Chakravarti 1986, pp. 57–58.
  205. ^ This smearing of cremation ashes emerged into a practice of some Tantra-oriented ascetics, where they would also offer meat, alcohol and sexual fluids to Bhairava (a form of Shiva), and these groups were probably not of Brahmanic origin. These ascetics are mentioned in the ancient Pali Canon of Thervada Buddhism. See: Flood 1996, pp. 92, 161
  206. ^ Antonio Rigopoulos (2013), Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 5, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004178960, pp. 182–183
  207. ^ Paul Deussen (1980). Sechzig Upaniṣad's des Veda. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 775–776, 789–790, 551. ISBN 978-8120814677.
  208. ^ Chidbhavananda 1997, p. 22.
  209. ^ For translation of Kapardin as "Endowed with matted hair" see: Sharma 1996, p. 279.
  210. ^ Kramrisch 1981, p. 475.
  211. ^ For Kapardin as a name of Shiva, and description of the kaparda hair style, see, Macdonell, p. 62.
  212. ^ Sharma 1996, p. 290
  213. ^ See: name #93 in Chidbhavananda 1997, p. 31.
  214. ^ For Shiva drinking the poison churned from the world ocean see: Flood 1996, p. 78
  215. ^ a b Kramrisch 1981, p. 473.
  216. ^ "Lord Shiva | Shiv | God Shiva | Shiva God | Mahadev | Lord Shiv | Neelkanth". www.dadabhagwan.org.
  217. ^ For alternate stories about this feature, and use of the name Gaṅgādhara see: Chakravarti 1986, pp. 59 and 109.
  218. ^ For description of the Gaṅgādhara form, see: Sivaramamurti 1976, p. 8.
  219. ^ For Shiva supporting Gaṅgā upon his head, see: Kramrisch 1981, p. 473.
  220. ^ Wayman & Singh 1991, p. 266.
  221. ^ Suresh Chandra 1998, p. 309.
  222. ^ Sitansu S. Chakravarti 1991, p. 51.
  223. ^ Michaels 2004, p. 218.
  224. ^ For definition and shape, see: Apte 1965, p. 461.
  225. ^ Jansen 1993, p. 44.
  226. ^ Jansen 1993, p. 25.
  227. ^ For use by Kāpālikas, see: Apte 1965, p. 461.
  228. ^ C. Sivaramamurti (1963). South Indian Bronzes. Lalit Kalā Akademi. p. 41.
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  231. ^ For a review of issues related to the evolution of the bull (Nandin) as Shiva's mount, see: Chakravarti 1986, pp. 99–105.
  232. ^ For spelling of alternate proper names Nandī and Nandin see: Stutley 1985, p. 98.
  233. ^ Sharma 1996, p. 291
  234. ^ Kramrisch 1981, p. 479.
  235. ^ For the name Kailāsagirivāsī (Sanskrit कैलासिगिरवासी), "With his abode on Mount Kailāsa", as a name appearing in the Shiva Sahasranama, see: Sharma 1996, p. 281.
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  242. ^ For summary of Shiva's contrasting depictions in the Mahabharata, see: Sharma 1988, pp. 20–21.
  243. ^ For rud- meaning "cry, howl" as a traditional etymology see: Kramrisch 1981, p. 5.
  244. ^ Citation to M. Mayrhofer, Concise Etymological Sanskrit Dictionary, s.v. "rudra", is provided in: Kramrisch 1981, p. 5.
  245. ^ Sharma 1996, p. 301.
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  247. ^ Sharma 1996, p. 280.
  248. ^ Apte 1965, p. 727, left column.
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  250. ^ Flood 1996, p. 92.
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  252. ^ For the contrast between ascetic and householder depictions, see: Flood 1996, pp. 150–151
  253. ^ For Shiva's representation as a yogi, see: Chakravarti 1986, p. 32.
  254. ^ For name Mahāyogi and associations with yoga, see, Chakravarti 1986, pp. 23, 32, 150.
  255. ^ For the ascetic yogin form as reflecting Epic period influences, see: Chakravarti 1986, p. 32.
  256. ^ For Umāpati, Umākānta and Umādhava as names in the Shiva Sahasranama literature, see: Sharma 1996, p. 278.
  257. ^ For Umā as the oldest name, and variants including Pārvatī, see: Chakravarti 1986, p. 40.
  258. ^ For Pārvatī identified as the wife of Shiva, see: Kramrisch 1981, p. 479
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  281. ^ For the deer-throne and the audience of sages as Dakṣiṇāmūrti, see: Chakravarti 1986, p. 155.
  282. ^ For description of the form as representing teaching functions, see: Kramrisch 1981, p. 472.
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  291. ^ It is first encountered in an almost identical form in the Rudram. For the five syllable mantra see: Kramrisch 1981, p. 182.
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  294. ^ For association with the five faces and other groups of five, see: Kramrisch 1981, p. 182.
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General and cited sources

Primary

  • Chinmayananda, Swami (2002). Vishnusahasranama. Central Chinmaya Mission Trust. ISBN 978-8175972452.
  • Dutt, Manmatha Nath (1905). A Prose English Translation of the Mahabharata: (translated Literally from the Original Sanskrit Text). Anushasana Parva, Volume 13. Calcutta: Dass, Elysium Press.
  • Ganguli, Kisari Mohan (2004). Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa. Munshirm Manoharlal Pub Pvt Ltd. ISBN 8121505933.
  • Śrī Viṣṇu sahasranāma : with text, transliteration, translation and commentary of Śrī Śaṅkarācārya. Madras: Sri Ramakrishna Math. 1986. ISBN 978-8171204205.

Secondary

  • Anthony, David W. (2007). The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691058870.
  • Apte, Vaman Shivram (1965). The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary (Fourth revised and enlarged ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN 8120805674.
  • Arya, Ravi Prakash; Joshi, K. L. (2001). Ṛgveda Saṃhitā: Sanskrit Text, English Translation. Delhi: Parimal Publications. ASIN B008RXWY7O (Set of four volumes). Parimal Sanskrit Series No. 45; 2003 reprint: ISBN 8170200709.
  • Beckwith, Christopher I. (2009). Empires of the Silk Road. Princeton University Press.
  • Berreman, Gerald Duane (1963). Hindus of the Himalayas. University of California Press.
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External links

  • Shaivism, Peter Bisschop

January 22, 2023
shiva, this, article, about, hindu, jewish, period, mourning, judaism, other, uses, disambiguation, neelkanth, redirects, here, 2012, film, neelkanth, film, bird, indian, roller, manjunatha, redirects, here, other, uses, manjunath, disambiguation, sanskrit, ro. This article is about the Hindu god For the Jewish period of mourning see Shiva Judaism For other uses see Shiva disambiguation Neelkanth redirects here For the 2012 film see Neelkanth film For the bird see Indian roller Manjunatha redirects here For other uses see Manjunath disambiguation Shiva ˈ ʃ ɪ v e Sanskrit श व romanized Siva lit The Auspicious One ɕɪʋɐ also known as Mahadeva m e ˈ h ɑː ˈ d eɪ v e Sanskrit मह द व romanized Mahadevaḥ lit The Great God mɐɦaːd eːʋɐ 9 10 11 or Hara 12 is one of the principal deities of Hinduism 13 He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism one of the major traditions within Hinduism 14 ShivaGod of Destruction Master of Poison and Medicine the Great Yogi God of Time the Cosmic Dancer Para Brahman the Supreme Being Shaivism 1 Member of TrimurtiOther namesShankara Bholenath Mahesvara Mahadeva Rudra Mahakala Sadashiva Batara Siwa NatarajaDevanagariश वAffiliationTrimurti Ishvara Parabrahman and Paramatman Shaivism AbodeMount Kailash 2 Cremation grounds Shmashana Adhipati MantraOm Namah Shivaya Om Namo Bhagavate Rudraya Mahamrityunjaya MantraWeaponTrishula Pashupatastra Parashu Pinaka bow 3 SymbolsLingam 3 Crescent Moon Damaru Drum VasukiDayMonday and also ThrayodashiMountNandi bull 4 GenderMaleFestivalsMaha Shivaratri Shravana Kartik Purnima Bhairava Ashtami 5 Personal informationSpouseParvati Sati note 1 ChildrenKartikeya son Ganesha son 7 8 Shiva is known as The Destroyer within the Trimurti the Hindu trinity which also includes Brahma and Vishnu 2 15 In the Shaivite tradition Shiva is the Supreme Lord who creates protects and transforms the universe 9 10 11 In the goddess oriented Shakta tradition the Supreme Goddess Devi is regarded as the energy and creative power Shakti and the equal complementary partner of Shiva 16 17 Shiva is one of the five equivalent deities in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta tradition of Hinduism 18 Shiva has many aspects benevolent as well as fearsome In benevolent aspects he is depicted as an omniscient Yogi who lives an ascetic life on Mount Kailash 2 as well as a householder with his wife Parvati and his three children Ganesha Kartikeya and Ashokasundari In his fierce aspects he is often depicted slaying demons Shiva is also known as Adiyogi Shiva regarded as the patron god of yoga meditation and the arts 19 The iconographical attributes of Shiva are the serpent around his neck the adorning crescent moon the holy river Ganga flowing from his matted hair the third eye on his forehead the eye that turns everything in front of it into ashes when opened the trishula or trident as his weapon and the damaru drum He is usually worshipped in the aniconic form of lingam 3 Shiva has pre Vedic roots 20 and the figure of Shiva evolved as an amalgamation of various older non Vedic and Vedic deities including the Rigvedic storm god Rudra who may also have non Vedic origins 21 into a single major deity 22 Shiva is a pan Hindu deity revered widely by Hindus in India Nepal Sri Lanka and Indonesia especially in Java and Bali 23 Contents 1 Etymology and other names 2 Historical development and literature 2 1 Assimilation of traditions 2 2 Pre Vedic elements 2 2 1 Pre historic art 2 2 2 Indus Valley and the Pashupati seal 2 3 Vedic elements 2 3 1 Proto Indo European elements 2 3 2 Rudra 2 3 3 Agni 2 3 4 Indra 2 4 Development 3 Position within Hinduism 3 1 Shaivism 3 2 Vaishnavism 3 3 Shaktism 3 4 Smarta tradition 3 5 Yoga 3 6 Trimurti 4 Attributes 5 Forms and depictions 5 1 Destroyer and Benefactor 5 2 Ascetic and householder 5 3 Iconographic forms 5 4 Lingam 5 5 Avatars 6 Temple 7 Festivals 8 Beyond the Indian subcontinent and Hinduism 8 1 Indonesia 8 2 Central Asia 8 3 Sikhism 8 4 Buddhism 9 In contemporary culture 10 Notes 10 1 Explanatory notes 10 2 Citations 11 General and cited sources 11 1 Primary 11 2 Secondary 12 External linksEtymology and other namesMain article Shiva Sahasranama An ancient sculpture of Shiva at the Elephanta Caves Maharashtra 6th century CE According to Monier Monier Williams the Sanskrit word siva Devanagari श व also transliterated as shiva means auspicious propitious gracious benign kind benevolent friendly 24 The root words of siva in folk etymology are si which means in whom all things lie pervasiveness and va which means embodiment of grace 24 25 The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda c 1700 1100 BCE as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities including Rudra 26 The term Shiva also connotes liberation final emancipation and the auspicious one this adjectival usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic literature 24 27 The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics and the Puranas as an auspicious deity who is the creator reproducer and dissolver 24 28 Sharma presents another etymology with the Sanskrit root sarv which means to injure or to kill 29 interpreting the name to connote one who can kill the forces of darkness 30 The Sanskrit word saiva means relating to the god Shiva and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of Hinduism and for a member of that sect 31 It is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices such as Shaivism 32 Some authors associate the name with the Tamil word sivappu meaning red noting that Shiva is linked to the Sun sivan the Red one in Tamil and that Rudra is also called Babhru brown or red in the Rigveda 33 34 The Vishnu sahasranama interprets Shiva to have multiple meanings The Pure One and the One who is not affected by three Guṇas of Prakṛti Sattva Rajas and Tamas 35 Shiva is known by many names such as Viswanatha lord of the universe Mahadeva Mahandeo 36 Mahasu 37 Mahesha Maheshvara Shankara Shambhu Rudra Hara Trilochana Devendra chief of the gods Neelakanta Subhankara Trilokinatha lord of the three realms 38 39 40 and Ghrneshwar lord of compassion 41 The highest reverence for Shiva in Shaivism is reflected in his epithets Mahadeva Great god maha Great and deva god 42 43 Mahesvara Great Lord maha great and isvara lord 44 45 and Paramesvara Supreme Lord 46 Sahasranama are medieval Indian texts that list a thousand names derived from aspects and epithets of a deity 47 There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva Sahasranama devotional hymns stotras listing many names of Shiva 48 The version appearing in Book 13 Anusasanaparvan of the Mahabharata provides one such list a Shiva also has Dasha Sahasranamas 10 000 names that are found in the Mahanyasa The Shri Rudram Chamakam also known as the Satarudriya is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing him by many names 49 50 Historical development and literatureSee also History of Shaivism Assimilation of traditions See also Roots of Hinduism The Shiva related tradition is a major part of Hinduism found all over the Indian subcontinent such as India Nepal Sri Lanka 51 and Southeast Asia such as Bali Indonesia 52 Shiva has pre Vedic tribal roots 20 having his origins in primitive tribes signs and symbols 53 The figure of Shiva as we know him today is an amalgamation of various older deities into a single figure due to the process of Sanskritization and the emergence of the Hindu synthesis in post Vedic times 54 How the persona of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not well documented a challenge to trace and has attracted much speculation 55 According to Vijay Nath Vishnu and Siva began to absorb countless local cults and deities within their folds The latter were either taken to represent the multiple facets of the same god or else were supposed to denote different forms and appellations by which the god came to be known and worshipped Siva became identified with countless local cults by the sheer suffixing of Isa or Isvara to the name of the local deity e g Bhutesvara Hatakesvara Chandesvara 56 An example of assimilation took place in Maharashtra where a regional deity named Khandoba is a patron deity of farming and herding castes 57 The foremost center of worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in Jejuri 58 Khandoba has been assimilated as a form of Shiva himself 59 in which case he is worshipped in the form of a lingam 57 60 Khandoba s varied associations also include an identification with Surya 57 and Karttikeya 61 Pre Vedic elements Pre historic art Scholars have interpreted early prehistoric paintings at the Bhimbetka rock shelters considered to be from pre 10 000 BCE period 62 as Shiva dancing Shiva s trident and his mount Nandi 63 Rock paintings from Bhimbetka depicting a figure with a trident or trishul have been described as Nataraja by Erwin Neumayer who dates them to the mesolithic 64 b Indus Valley and the Pashupati seal Main article Pashupati seal The Pashupati seal discovered during excavation of the Indus Valley archaeological site of Mohenjo Daro and showing a possible representation of a yogi or proto Shiva figure as Pasupati Lord of the Animals c 2350 2000 BCE Of several Indus valley seals that show animals one seal that has attracted attention shows a large central figure either horned or wearing a horned headdress and possibly ithyphallic note 2 65 seated in a posture reminiscent of the Lotus position surrounded by animals This figure was named by early excavators of Mohenjo daro as Pashupati Lord of Animals Sanskrit pasupati 66 an epithet of the later Hindu deities Shiva and Rudra 67 Sir John Marshall and others suggested that this figure is a prototype of Shiva with three faces seated in a yoga posture with the knees out and feet joined 68 Semi circular shapes on the head were interpreted as two horns Scholars such as Gavin Flood John Keay and Doris Meth Srinivasan have expressed doubts about this suggestion 69 Gavin Flood states that it is not clear from the seal that the figure has three faces is seated in a yoga posture or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure He characterizes these views as speculative but adds that it is nevertheless possible that there are echoes of Shaiva iconographic themes such as half moon shapes resembling the horns of a bull 70 John Keay writes that he may indeed be an early manifestation of Lord Shiva as Pashu pati but a couple of his specialties of this figure does not match with Rudra 71 Writing in 1997 Srinivasan interprets what John Marshall interpreted as facial as not human but more bovine possibly a divine buffalo man 72 The interpretation of the seal continues to be disputed McEvilley for example states that it is not possible to account for this posture outside the yogic account 73 Asko Parpola states that other archaeological finds such as the early Elamite seals dated to 3000 2750 BCE show similar figures and these have been interpreted as seated bull and not a yogi and the bovine interpretation is likely more accurate 74 Gregory L Possehl in 2002 associated it with the water buffalo and concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognize the figure as a deity and its posture as one of ritual discipline regarding it as a proto Shiva would go too far 75 Vedic elements According to Anthony the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo European immigrants in the contact zone between the Zeravshan River present day Uzbekistan and present day Iran 76 It was a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo European elements 76 which according to Beckwith borrowed distinctive religious beliefs and practices 77 from the Bactria Margiana Culture 77 At least 383 non Indo European words were borrowed from this culture including the god Indra and the ritual drink Soma 78 Proto Indo European elements The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre classical era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto Indo European religion 79 and the pre Islamic Indo Iranian religion 77 The similarities between the iconography and theologies of Shiva with Greek and European deities have led to proposals for an Indo European link for Shiva 80 81 or lateral exchanges with ancient central Asian cultures 82 83 His contrasting aspects such as being terrifying or blissful depending on the situation are similar to those of the Greek god Dionysus 84 as are their iconic associations with bull snakes anger bravery dancing and carefree life 85 86 The ancient Greek texts of the time of Alexander the Great call Shiva as Indian Dionysus or alternatively call Dionysus as god of the Orient 85 Similarly the use of phallic symbol note 2 as an icon for Shiva is also found for Irish Nordic Greek Dionysus 87 and Roman deities as was the idea of this aniconic column linking heaven and earth among early Indo Aryans states Roger Woodward 80 Others contest such proposals and suggest Shiva to have emerged from indigenous pre Aryan tribal origins 88 Rudra Three headed Shiva Gandhara 2nd century AD Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god Rudra 89 and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in Hindu scriptures The two names are used synonymously Rudra a Rigvedic deity with fearsome powers was the god of the roaring storm He is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce destructive deity 90 In RV 2 33 he is described as the Father of the Rudras a group of storm gods 91 full citation needed Flood notes that Rudra is an ambiguous god peripheral in the Vedic pantheon possibly indicating non Vedic origins 21 Nevertheless both Rudra and Shiva are akin to Wodan the Germanic God of rage wutte and the wild hunt 92 93 page needed 94 page needed According to Sadasivan during the development of the Hindu synthesis attributes of the Buddha were transferred by Brahmins to Shiva who was also linked with Rudra 53 The Rigveda has 3 out of 1 028 hymns dedicated to Rudra and he finds occasional mention in other hymns of the same text 95 Hymn 10 92 of the Rigveda states that deity Rudra has two natures one wild and cruel Rudra another that is kind and tranquil Shiva 96 The term Shiva also appears simply as an epithet that means kind auspicious one of the adjectives used to describe many different Vedic deities While fierce ruthless natural phenomenon and storm related Rudra is feared in the hymns of the Rigveda the beneficial rains he brings are welcomed as Shiva aspect of him 97 This healing nurturing life enabling aspect emerges in the Vedas as Rudra Shiva and in post Vedic literature ultimately as Shiva who combines the destructive and constructive powers the terrific and the gentle as the ultimate recycler and rejuvenator of all existence 98 The Vedic texts do not mention bull or any animal as the transport vehicle vahana of Rudra or other deities However post Vedic texts such as the Mahabharata and the Puranas state the Nandi bull the Indian zebu in particular as the vehicle of Rudra and of Shiva thereby unmistakably linking them as same 99 Agni Rudra and Agni have a close relationship note 3 The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra s gradual transformation into Rudra Shiva note 4 The identification of Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in the Nirukta an important early text on etymology which says Agni is also called Rudra 100 The interconnections between the two deities are complex and according to Stella Kramrisch The fire myth of Rudra Siva plays on the whole gamut of fire valuing all its potentialities and phases from conflagration to illumination 101 In the Satarudriya some epithets of Rudra such as Sasipanjara Of golden red hue as of flame and Tivaṣimati Flaming bright suggest a fusing of the two deities note 5 Agni is said to be a bull 102 and Lord Shiva possesses a bull as his vehicle Nandi The horns of Agni who is sometimes characterized as a bull are mentioned 103 104 In medieval sculpture both Agni and the form of Shiva known as Bhairava have flaming hair as a special feature 105 Indra According to Wendy Doniger the Saivite fertility myths and some of the phallic characteristics of Shiva are inherited from Indra 106 Doniger gives several reasons for her hypothesis Both are associated with mountains rivers male fertility fierceness fearlessness warfare the transgression of established mores the Aum sound the Supreme Self In the Rig Veda the term siva is used to refer to Indra 2 20 3 note 6 6 45 17 108 109 and 8 93 3 110 Indra like Shiva is likened to a bull 111 112 In the Rig Veda Rudra is the father of the Maruts but he is never associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra 113 Indra himself may have been adopted by the Vedic Aryans from the Bactria Margiana Culture 77 78 According to Anthony Many of the qualities of Indo Iranian god of might victory Verethraghna were transferred to the adopted god Indra who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture Indra was the subject of 250 hymns a quarter of the Rig Veda He was associated more than any other deity with Soma a stimulant drug perhaps derived from Ephedra probably borrowed from the BMAC religion His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers 114 The texts and artwork of Jainism show Indra as a dancer although not identical generally resembling the dancing Shiva artwork found in Hinduism particularly in their respective mudras 115 For example in the Jain caves at Ellora extensive carvings show dancing Indra next to the images of Tirthankaras in a manner similar to Shiva Nataraja The similarities in the dance iconography suggests that there may be a link between ancient Indra and Shiva 116 Development A few texts such as Atharvashiras Upanishad mention Rudra and assert all gods are Rudra everyone and everything is Rudra and Rudra is the principle found in all things their highest goal the innermost essence of all reality that is visible or invisible 117 The Kaivalya Upanishad similarly states Paul Deussen a German Indologist and professor of philosophy describes the self realized man as who feels himself only as the one divine essence that lives in all who feels identity of his and everyone s consciousness with Shiva highest Atman who has found this highest Atman within in the depths of his heart 118 Rudra s evolution from a minor Vedic deity to a supreme being is first evidenced in the Shvetashvatara Upanishad 400 200 BCE according to Gavin Flood presenting the earliest seeds of theistic devotion to Rudra Shiva 119 Here Rudra Shiva is identified as the creator of the cosmos and liberator of Selfs from the birth rebirth cycle The Svetasvatara Upanishad set the tone for early Shaivite thought especially in chapter 3 verse 2 where Shiva is equated with Brahman Rudra is truly one for the knowers of Brahman do not admit the existence of a second 120 121 The period of 200 BC to 100 AD also marks the beginning of the Shaiva tradition focused on the worship of Shiva as evidenced in other literature of this period 119 Other scholars such as Robert Hume and Doris Srinivasan state that the Shvetashvatara Upanishad presents pluralism pantheism or henotheism rather than being a text just on Shiva theism 122 Self realization and Shaiva Upanishads He who sees himself in all beings And all beings in him attains the highest Brahman not by any other means Kaivalya Upanishad 10 123 124 Shaiva devotees and ascetics are mentioned in Patanjali s Mahabhaṣya 2nd century BCE and in the Mahabharata 125 The earliest iconic artworks of Shiva may be from Gandhara and northwest parts of ancient India There is some uncertainty as the artwork that has survived is damaged and they show some overlap with meditative Buddha related artwork but the presence of Shiva s trident and phallic symbolism note 2 in this art suggests it was likely Shiva 126 Numismatics research suggests that numerous coins of the ancient Kushan Empire 30 375 CE that have survived were images of a god who is probably Shiva 127 The Shiva in Kushan coins is referred to as Oesho of unclear etymology and origins but the simultaneous presence of Indra and Shiva in the Kushan era artwork suggest that they were revered deities by the start of the Kushan Empire 128 129 The Shaiva Upanishads are a group of 14 minor Upanishads of Hinduism variously dated from the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE through the 17th century 130 These extol Shiva as the metaphysical unchanging reality Brahman and the Atman Self 117 and include sections about rites and symbolisms related to Shiva 131 The Shaiva Puranas particularly the Shiva Purana and the Linga Purana present the various aspects of Shiva mythologies cosmology and pilgrimage Tirtha associated with him 132 The Shiva related Tantra literature composed between the 8th and 11th centuries are regarded in devotional dualistic Shaivism as Sruti Dualistic Shaiva Agamas which consider Self within each living being and Shiva as two separate realities dualism dvaita are the foundational texts for Shaiva Siddhanta 133 Other Shaiva Agamas teach that these are one reality monism advaita and that Shiva is the Self the perfection and truth within each living being 134 In Shiva related sub traditions there are ten dualistic Agama texts eighteen qualified monism cum dualism Agama texts and sixty four monism Agama texts 135 136 137 Shiva related literature developed extensively across India in the 1st millennium CE and through the 13th century particularly in Kashmir and Tamil Shaiva traditions 137 Shaivism gained immense popularity in Tamilakam as early as the 7th century CE with poets such as Appar and Sambandar composing rich poetry that is replete with present features associated with the deity such as his tandava dance the mulavam dumru the aspect of holding fire and restraining the proud flow of the Ganga upon his braid 138 The monist Shiva literature posit absolute oneness that is Shiva is within every man and woman Shiva is within every living being Shiva is present everywhere in the world including all non living being and there is no spiritual difference between life matter man and Shiva 139 The various dualistic and monist Shiva related ideas were welcomed in medieval southeast Asia inspiring numerous Shiva related temples artwork and texts in Indonesia Myanmar Cambodia Laos Vietnam Thailand and Malaysia with syncretic integration of local pre existing theologies 140 Position within Hinduism Lingodbhava is a Shaiva sectarian icon where Shiva is depicted rising from the Lingam an infinite fiery pillar that narrates how Shiva is the foremost of the Trimurti Brahma on the left and Vishnu on the right are depicted bowing to Shiva in the centre Shaivism Main article Shaivism Shaivism is one of the four major sects of Hinduism the others being Vaishnavism Shaktism and the Smarta Tradition Followers of Shaivism called Shaivas revere Shiva as the Supreme Being Shaivas believe that Shiva is All and in all the creator preserver destroyer revealer and concealer of all that is 9 10 He is not only the creator in Shaivism but he is also the creation that results from him he is everything and everywhere Shiva is the primal Self the pure consciousness and Absolute Reality in the Shaiva traditions 9 The Shaivism theology is broadly grouped into two the popular theology influenced by Shiva Rudra in the Vedas Epics and the Puranas and the esoteric theology influenced by the Shiva and Shakti related Tantra texts 141 The Vedic Brahmanic Shiva theology includes both monist Advaita and devotional traditions Dvaita such as Tamil Shaiva Siddhanta and Lingayatism with temples featuring items such as linga Shiva Parvati iconography bull Nandi within the premises relief artwork showing aspects of Shiva 142 143 The Tantric Shiva tradition ignored the mythologies and Puranas related to Shiva and depending on the sub school developed a variety of practices For example historical records suggest the tantric Kapalikas literally the skull men co existed with and shared many Vajrayana Buddhist rituals engaged in esoteric practices that revered Shiva and Shakti wearing skulls begged with empty skulls and sometimes used meat as a part of ritual 144 In contrast the esoteric tradition within Kashmir Shaivism has featured the Krama and Trika sub traditions 145 The Krama sub tradition focussed on esoteric rituals around Shiva Kali pair 146 The Trika sub tradition developed a theology of triads involving Shiva combined it with an ascetic lifestyle focusing on personal Shiva in the pursuit of monistic self liberation 145 147 148 Vaishnavism The Vaishnava Vishnu oriented literature acknowledges and discusses Shiva Like Shaiva literature that presents Shiva as supreme the Vaishnava literature presents Vishnu as supreme However both traditions are pluralistic and revere both Shiva and Vishnu along with Devi their texts do not show exclusivism and Vaishnava texts such as the Bhagavata Purana while praising Krishna as the Ultimate Reality also present Shiva and Shakti as a personalized form an equivalent to the same Ultimate Reality 149 150 151 The texts of Shaivism tradition similarly praise Vishnu The Skanda Purana for example states Vishnu is no one but Shiva and he who is called Shiva is but identical with Vishnu Skanda Purana 1 8 20 21 152 Both traditions include legends about who is superior about Shiva paying homage to Vishnu and Vishnu paying homage to Shiva However in texts and artwork of either tradition the mutual salutes are symbolism for complementarity 153 The Mahabharata declares the unchanging Ultimate Reality Brahman to be identical to Shiva and to Vishnu 154 that Vishnu is the highest manifestation of Shiva and Shiva is the highest manifestation of Vishnu 155 Shaktism Ardhanarishvara sculpture Khajuraho depicting Shiva with goddess Parvati as his equal half 156 In the Ardhanarisvara concept the icon is presented as half man and half woman The goddess oriented Shakti tradition of Hinduism is based on the premise that the Supreme Principle and the Ultimate Reality called Brahman is female Devi 157 158 159 but it treats the male as her equal and complementary partner 160 This partner is Shiva 161 162 The earliest evidence of the tradition of reverence for the feminine with Rudra Shiva context is found in the Hindu scripture Rigveda in a hymn called the Devi Sukta 163 164 163 164 165 The Devi Upanishad in its explanation of the theology of Shaktism mentions and praises Shiva such as in its verse 19 166 167 Shiva along with Vishnu is a revered god in the Devi Mahatmya a text of Shaktism considered by the tradition to be as important as the Bhagavad Gita 168 169 The Ardhanarisvara concept co mingles god Shiva and goddess Shakti by presenting an icon that is half man and half woman a representation and theme of union found in many Hindu texts and temples 170 171 Smarta tradition Main article Panchayatana puja Oleograph by Raja Ravi Varma depicting a Shiva centric Panchayatana A bearded Shiva sits in the centre with his wife Parvati and their infant son Ganesha surrounded by clockwise from left upper corner Ganesha Devi Vishnu and Surya Shiva s mount is the bull Nandi below Shiva In the Smarta tradition of Hinduism Shiva is a part of its Panchayatana puja 172 This practice consists of the use of icons or anicons of five deities considered equivalent 172 set in a quincunx pattern 173 Shiva is one of the five deities others being Vishnu Devi such as Parvati Surya and Ganesha or Skanda or any personal god of devotee s preference Ishta Devata 174 Philosophically the Smarta tradition emphasizes that all idols murti are icons to help focus on and visualize aspects of Brahman rather than distinct beings The ultimate goal in this practice is to transition past the use of icons recognize the Absolute symbolized by the icons 175 on the path to realizing the nondual identity of one s Atman Self and the Brahman 176 Popularized by Adi Shankara many Panchayatana mandalas and temples have been uncovered that are from the Gupta Empire period and one Panchayatana set from the village of Nand about 24 kilometers from Ajmer has been dated to belong to the Kushan Empire era pre 300 CE 177 The Kushan period set includes Shiva Vishnu Surya Brahma and one deity whose identity is unclear 177 Yoga Shiva is considered the Great Yogi who is totally absorbed in himself the transcendental reality He is the Lord of Yogis and the teacher of Yoga to sages 178 As Shiva Dakshinamurthi states Stella Kramrisch he is the supreme guru who teaches in silence the oneness of one s innermost self atman with the ultimate reality brahman 179 Shiva is also an archetype for samhara Sanskrit स ह र or dissolution which includes transcendence of human misery by the dissolution of maya which is why Shiva is associated with Yoga 180 181 The theory and practice of Yoga in different styles has been a part of all major traditions of Hinduism and Shiva has been the patron or spokesperson in numerous Hindu Yoga texts 182 183 These contain the philosophy and techniques for Yoga These ideas are estimated to be from or after the late centuries of the 1st millennium CE and have survived as Yoga texts such as the Isvara Gita literally Shiva s song which Andrew Nicholson a professor of Hinduism and Indian Intellectual History states have had a profound and lasting influence on the development of Hinduism 184 Other famed Shiva related texts influenced Hatha Yoga integrated monistic Advaita Vedanta ideas with Yoga philosophy and inspired the theoretical development of Indian classical dance These include the Shiva Sutras the Shiva Samhita and those by the scholars of Kashmir Shaivism such as the 10th century scholar Abhinavagupta 182 183 185 Abhinavagupta writes in his notes on the relevance of ideas related to Shiva and Yoga by stating that people occupied as they are with their own affairs normally do nothing for others and Shiva and Yoga spirituality helps one look beyond understand interconnectedness and thus benefit both the individual and the world towards a more blissful state of existence 186 Trimurti Main article Trimurti The Trimurti is a concept in Hinduism in which the cosmic functions of creation maintenance and destruction are personified by the forms of Brahma the creator Vishnu the maintainer or preserver and Shiva the destroyer or transformer 187 188 These three deities have been called the Hindu triad 189 or the Great Triple deity 190 However the ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism feature many triads of gods and goddesses some of which do not include Shiva 191 Attributes Shiva with Parvati Shiva is depicted three eyed the Ganges flowing through his matted hair wearing ornaments of serpents and a skull garland covered in ashes and seated on a tiger skin A seated Shiva holds an axe and deer in his hands Third eye Shiva is often depicted with a third eye with which he burned Desire Kama to ashes 192 called Tryambakam Sanskrit त र यम बकम which occurs in many scriptural sources 193 In classical Sanskrit the word ambaka denotes an eye and in the Mahabharata Shiva is depicted as three eyed so this name is sometimes translated as having three eyes 194 However in Vedic Sanskrit the word amba or ambika means mother and this early meaning of the word is the basis for the translation three mothers 195 196 These three mother goddesses who are collectively called the Ambikas 197 Other related translations have been based on the idea that the name actually refers to the oblations given to Rudra which according to some traditions were shared with the goddess Ambika 198 Crescent moon Shiva bears on his head the crescent moon 199 The epithet Candrasekhara Sanskrit चन द रश खर Having the moon as his crest candra moon sekhara crest crown 200 201 202 refers to this feature The placement of the moon on his head as a standard iconographic feature dates to the period when Rudra rose to prominence and became the major deity Rudra Shiva 203 The origin of this linkage may be due to the identification of the moon with Soma and there is a hymn in the Rig Veda where Soma and Rudra are jointly implored and in later literature Soma and Rudra came to be identified with one another as were Soma and the moon 204 Ashes Shiva iconography shows his body covered with ashes bhasma vibhuti 11 205 The ashes represent a reminder that all of material existence is impermanent comes to an end becoming ash and the pursuit of eternal Self and spiritual liberation is important 206 207 Matted hair Shiva s distinctive hair style is noted in the epithets Jaṭin the one with matted hair 208 and Kapardin endowed with matted hair 209 or wearing his hair wound in a braid in a shell like kaparda fashion 210 A kaparda is a cowrie shell or a braid of hair in the form of a shell or more generally hair that is shaggy or curly 211 Blue throat The epithet Nilakaṇtha Sanskrit न लकण ठ nila blue kaṇtha throat 212 213 Since Shiva drank the Halahala poison churned up from the Samudra Manthana to eliminate its destructive capacity Shocked by his act Parvati squeezed his neck and stopped it in his neck to prevent it from spreading all over the universe supposed to be in Shiva s stomach However the poison was so potent that it changed the color of his neck to blue 214 215 This attribute indicates that one can become Shiva by swallowing the worldly poisons in terms of abuses and insults with equanimity while blessing those who give them 216 Meditating yogi his iconography often shows him in a Yoga pose meditating sometimes on a symbolic Himalayan Mount Kailasha as the Lord of Yoga 11 Sacred Ganga The epithet Gangadhara Bearer of the river Ganga Ganges The Ganga flows from the matted hair of Shiva 217 218 The Gaṅga Ganga one of the major rivers of the country is said to have made her abode in Shiva s hair 219 Tiger skin Shiva is often shown seated upon a tiger skin 11 Serpents Shiva is often shown garlanded with a snake 11 Trident Shiva typically carries a trident called Trishula 11 The trident is a weapon or a symbol in different Hindu texts 220 As a symbol the Trishul represents Shiva s three aspects of creator preserver and destroyer 221 or alternatively it represents the equilibrium of three Gunas of sattva rajas and tamas 222 Drum A small drum shaped like an hourglass is known as a damaru 223 224 This is one of the attributes of Shiva in his famous dancing representation 225 known as Nataraja A specific hand gesture mudra called ḍamaru hasta Sanskrit for ḍamaru hand is used to hold the drum 226 This drum is particularly used as an emblem by members of the Kapalika sect 227 Axe Parashu and Deer are held in Shiva s hands in Odisha amp south Indian icons 228 Rosary beads he is garlanded with or carries a string of rosary beads in his right hand typically made of Rudraksha 11 This symbolises grace mendicant life and meditation 229 230 Nandi Nandi Sanskrit नन द न nandin is the name of the bull that serves as Shiva s mount 231 232 Shiva s association with cattle is reflected in his name Pasupati or Pashupati Sanskrit पश पत translated by Sharma as lord of cattle 233 and by Kramrisch as lord of animals who notes that it is particularly used as an epithet of Rudra 234 Mount Kailasa Mount Kailash in the Himalayas is his traditional abode 11 235 In Hindu mythology Mount Kailasa is conceived as resembling a Linga representing the center of the universe 236 Gaṇa The Gaṇa s are attendants of Shiva and live in Kailash They are often referred to as the bhutaganas or ghostly hosts on account of their nature Generally benign except when their lord is transgressed against they are often invoked to intercede with the lord on behalf of the devotee His son Ganesha was chosen as their leader by Shiva hence Ganesha s title gaṇa isa or gaṇa pati lord of the gaṇas 237 Varanasi Varanasi Benares is considered to be the city specially loved by Shiva and is one of the holiest places of pilgrimage in India It is referred to in religious contexts as Kashi 238 Forms and depictionsAccording to Gavin Flood Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox whose attributes include opposing themes 239 The ambivalent nature of this deity is apparent in some of his names and the stories told about him Destroyer and Benefactor Shiva is represented in his many aspects 240 Left Bhairava icon of the fierce form of Shiva from 17th 18th century Nepal right Shiva as a meditating yogi in Rishikesh In Yajurveda two contrary sets of attributes for both malignant or terrifying Sanskrit rudra and benign or auspicious Sanskrit siva forms can be found leading Chakravarti to conclude that all the basic elements which created the complex Rudra Siva sect of later ages are to be found here 241 In the Mahabharata Shiva is depicted as the standard of invincibility might and terror as well as a figure of honor delight and brilliance 242 The duality of Shiva s fearful and auspicious attributes appears in contrasted names The name Rudra reflects Shiva s fearsome aspects According to traditional etymologies the Sanskrit name Rudra is derived from the root rud which means to cry howl 243 Stella Kramrisch notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form raudra which means wild of rudra nature and translates the name Rudra as the wild one or the fierce god 244 R K Sharma follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as terrible 245 Hara is an important name that occurs three times in the Anushasanaparvan version of the Shiva sahasranama where it is translated in different ways each time it occurs following a commentorial tradition of not repeating an interpretation Sharma translates the three as one who captivates one who consolidates and one who destroys 12 Kramrisch translates it as the ravisher 215 Another of Shiva s fearsome forms is as Kala time and Mahakala great time which ultimately destroys all things 246 The name Kala appears in the Shiva Sahasranama where it is translated by Ram Karan Sharma as the Supreme Lord of Time 247 Bhairava terrible or frightful 248 is a fierce form associated with annihilation In contrast the name Saṇkara beneficent 30 or conferring happiness 249 reflects his benign form This name was adopted by the great Vedanta philosopher Adi Shankara c 788 820 250 who is also known as Shankaracharya 42 The name Sambhu Sanskrit शम भ swam on its own bhu burn shine self shining shining on its own also reflects this benign aspect 42 251 Ascetic and householder Shiva is depicted both as an ascetic yogi and as a householder with goddess Parvati Shiva is depicted as both an ascetic yogi and as a householder grihasta roles which have been traditionally mutually exclusive in Hindu society 252 When depicted as a yogi he may be shown sitting and meditating 253 His epithet Mahayogi the great Yogi Maha great Yogi one who practices Yoga refers to his association with yoga 254 While Vedic religion was conceived mainly in terms of sacrifice it was during the Epic period that the concepts of tapas yoga and asceticism became more important and the depiction of Shiva as an ascetic sitting in philosophical isolation reflects these later concepts 255 As a family man and householder he has a wife Parvati and two sons Ganesha and Kartikeya His epithet Umapati The husband of Uma refers to this idea and Sharma notes that two other variants of this name that mean the same thing Umakanta and Umadhava also appear in the sahasranama 256 Uma in epic literature is known by many names including the benign Parvati 257 258 She is identified with Devi the Divine Mother Shakti divine energy as well as goddesses like Tripura Sundari Durga Kali Kamakshi and Minakshi The consorts of Shiva are the source of his creative energy They represent the dynamic extension of Shiva onto this universe 259 His son Ganesha is worshipped throughout India and Nepal as the Remover of Obstacles Lord of Beginnings and Lord of Obstacles Kartikeya is worshipped in Southern India especially in Tamil Nadu Kerala and Karnataka by the names Subrahmanya Subrahmanyan Shanmughan Swaminathan and Murugan and in Northern India by the names Skanda Kumara or Karttikeya 260 Some regional deities are also identified as Shiva s children As one story goes Shiva is enticed by the beauty and charm of Mohini Vishnu s female avatar and procreates with her As a result of this union Shasta identified with regional deities Ayyappan and Aiyanar is born 261 262 263 264 In outskirts of Ernakulam in Kerala a deity named Vishnumaya is stated to be offspring of Shiva and invoked in local exorcism rites but this deity is not traceable in Hindu pantheon and is possibly a local tradition with vaguely Chinese style rituals states Saletore 265 In some traditions Shiva has daughters like the serpent goddess Manasa and Ashokasundari 266 267 According to Doniger two regional stories depict demons Andhaka and Jalandhara as the children of Shiva who war with him and are later destroyed by Shiva 268 Iconographic forms Chola dynasty statue depicting Shiva dancing as Nataraja Los Angeles County Museum of Art The depiction of Shiva as Nataraja Sanskrit नटर ज Naṭaraja is a form murti of Shiva literally Lord of Dance 269 270 The names Nartaka dancer and Nityanarta eternal dancer appear in the Shiva Sahasranama 271 His association with dance and also with music is prominent in the Puranic period 272 In addition to the specific iconographic form known as Nataraja various other types of dancing forms Sanskrit nṛtyamurti are found in all parts of India with many well defined varieties in Tamil Nadu in particular 273 The two most common forms of the dance are the Tandava which later came to denote the powerful and masculine dance as Kala Mahakala associated with the destruction of the world When it requires the world or universe to be destroyed Shiva does it by the Tandava 274 and Lasya which is graceful and delicate and expresses emotions on a gentle level and is considered the feminine dance attributed to the goddess Parvati 275 276 Lasya is regarded as the female counterpart of Tandava 276 The Tandava Lasya dances are associated with the destruction creation of the world 277 278 279 Dakshinamurthy Sanskrit दक ष ण म र त Dakṣiṇamurti 280 is a form murti of Shiva literally facing south form Dakshinamurthy is depicted as a figure seated upon a deer throne surrounded by sages receiving instruction 281 This form represents Shiva in his aspect as a teacher of yoga music and wisdom and giving exposition on the shastras 282 This iconographic form for depicting Shiva in Indian art is mostly from Tamil Nadu 283 Bhikshatana Sanskrit भ क ष टन Bhikṣaṭana is a form murti of Shiva literally wandering about for alms mendicancy 284 Bhikshatana is depicted as a nude four armed man adorned with ornaments who holds a begging bowl in his hand and is followed by demonic attendants The nudity and begging bowl are associated with the kapali tradition This form of Shiva is associated with his penance for committing brahmicide and with his encounters with the sages and their wives in the Deodar forest Tripurantaka Sanskrit त र प र तक Tripurantaka is a form murti of Shiva literally ender of Tripura 285 Tripurantaka is depicted with four arms the upper pair holding an axe and a deer and the lower pair wielding a bow and arrow This form of Shiva is associated with his destruction of the three cities Tripura of the Asuras 286 Ardhanarishvara Sanskrit अर धन र श वर Ardhanarisvara is a form murti of Shiva literally the lord who is half woman 287 Adhanarishvara is depicted with one half of the body as male and the other half as female Ardhanarishvara represents the synthesis of masculine and feminine energies of the universe Purusha and Prakriti and illustrates how Shakti the female principle of God is inseparable from or the same as according to some interpretations Shiva the male principle of God and vice versa 288 Kalyanasundara murti Sanskrit कल य णस न दर म र त literally icon of beautiful marriage is the depiction of Shiva s marriage to Parvati The divine couple are often depicted performing the panigrahana Sanskrit accepting the hand ritual from traditional Hindu wedding ceremonies Agamic texts like the Amsumadbhedagama the Uttara kamaikagama and the Purva Karanagama prescribe the iconography of the Kalyanasunadara icon 289 The most basic form of this murti consists of only Shiva and Parvati together but in more elaborate forms they are accompanied by other persons sometimes including Parvati s parents as well as deities often with Vishnu and Lakshmi standing as Parvati s parents Brahma as the officiating priest and various other deities as attendants or guests Somaskanda is the depiction of Shiva Parvati and their son Skanda Kartikeya popular during the Pallava Dynasty in southern India Pancanana Sanskrit पञ च नन also called the pancabrahma is a form of Shiva depicting him as having five faces which correspond to his five divine activities pancakṛtya creation sṛṣṭi preservation sthithi destruction saṃhara concealing grace tirobhava and revealing grace anugraha Five is a sacred number for Shiva 290 One of his most important mantras has five syllables namaḥ sivaya 291 The 10th century five headed Shiva Sadashiva Cambodia Sadyojata Vamadeva Aghora Tatpuruṣa isanaShiva s body is said to consist of five mantras called the pancabrahman 292 As forms of God each of these have their own names and distinct iconography 293 These are represented as the five faces of Shiva and are associated in various texts with the five elements the five senses the five organs of perception and the five organs of action 294 295 Doctrinal differences and possibly errors in transmission have resulted in some differences between texts in details of how these five forms are linked with various attributes 296 The overall meaning of these associations is summarized by Stella Kramrisch Through these transcendent categories Siva the ultimate reality becomes the efficient and material cause of all that exists 297 According to the Pancabrahma Upanishad One should know all things of the phenomenal world as of a fivefold character for the reason that the eternal verity of Siva is of the character of the fivefold Brahman Pancabrahma Upanishad 31 298 In the hymn of Manikkavacakar s Thiruvasagam he testifies that at Nataraja Temple Chidambaram had by the pre Chola period an abstract or cosmic symbolism linked to five elements Pancha Bhoota including ether 299 Nataraja is a significant visual interpretation of Brahman and a dance posture of Shiva 300 Sharada Srinivasan notes that Nataraja is described as Satcitananda or Being Consciousness and Bliss in the Shaiva Siddhanta text Kunchitangrim Bhaje resembling the Advaita doctrine or abstract monism of Adi Shankara which holds the individual Self Jivatman and supream Self Paramatma to be one while an earlier hymn to Nataraja by Manikkavachakar identifies him with the unitary supreme consciousness by using Tamil word Or Unarve rather than Sanskrit Chit This may point to an osmosis of ideas in medieval India states Srinivasan 301 Shiva Lingam with tripundra Lingam Main article Lingam The Linga Purana states Shiva is signless without color taste smell that is beyond word or touch without quality motionless and changeless 302 The source of the universe is the signless and all of the universe is the manifested Linga a union of unchanging Principles and the ever changing nature 302 The Linga Purana and Siva Gita texts builds on this foundation 303 304 Linga states Alain Danielou means sign 302 It is an important concept in Hindu texts wherein Linga is a manifested sign and nature of someone or something It accompanies the concept of Brahman which as invisible signless and existent Principle is formless or linga less 302 Shvetashvatara Upanishad states one of the three significations the primary one of Lingam as the imperishable Purusha the absolute reality where says the linga as sign a mark that provides the existence of Brahman thus the original meaning as sign 305 Furthermore it says Shiva the Supreme Lord has no liuga liuga Sanskrit ल ऊग IAST liuga meaning Shiva is transcendent beyond any characteristic and specifically the sign of gender 305 Apart from anthropomorphic images of Shiva he is also represented in aniconic form of a lingam 306 307 These are depicted in various designs One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column in the centre of a lipped disk shaped object the yoni symbolism for the goddess Shakti 308 In Shiva temples the linga is typically present in its sanctum sanctorum and is the focus of votary offerings such as milk water flower petals fruit fresh leaves and rice 308 According to Monier Williams and Yudit Greenberg linga literally means mark sign or emblem and also refers to a mark or sign from which the existence of something else can be reliably inferred It implies the regenerative divine energy innate in nature symbolized by Shiva 309 310 Some scholars such as Wendy Doniger view linga as merely a phallic symbol 311 312 313 314 although this interpretation is criticized by others including Swami Vivekananda 315 Sivananda Saraswati 316 Stella Kramrisch 317 Swami Agehananda Bharati 318 S N Balagangadhara 319 and others 320 321 322 319 According to Moriz Winternitz the linga in the Shiva tradition is only a symbol of the productive and creative principle of nature as embodied in Shiva and it has no historical trace in any obscene phallic cult 323 According to Sivananda Saraswati westerners who are curiously passionate and have impure understanding or intelligence incorrectly assume Siva Linga as a phallus or sex organ 316 Later on Sivananda Saraswati mentions that this is not only a serious mistake but also a grave blunder 316 The worship of the lingam originated from the famous hymn in the Atharva Veda Samhita sung in praise of the Yupa Stambha the sacrificial post In that hymn a description is found of the beginningless and endless Stambha or Skambha and it is shown that the said Skambha is put in place of the eternal Brahman Just as the Yajna sacrificial fire its smoke ashes and flames the Soma plant and the ox that used to carry on its back the wood for the Vedic sacrifice gave place to the conceptions of the brightness of Shiva s body his tawny matted hair his blue throat and the riding on the bull of the Shiva the Yupa Skambha gave place in time to the Shiva Linga 324 325 In the text Linga Purana the same hymn is expanded in the shape of stories meant to establish the glory of the great Stambha and the superiority of Shiva as Mahadeva 325 The oldest known archaeological linga as an icon of Shiva is the Gudimallam lingam from 3rd century BCE 308 In Shaivism pilgrimage tradition twelve major temples of Shiva are called Jyotirlinga which means linga of light and these are located across India 326 Avatars Puranic scriptures contain occasional references to ansh literally portion or avatars of Shiva but the idea of Shiva avatars is not universally accepted in Shaivism 327 The Linga Purana mentions twenty eight forms of Shiva which are sometimes seen as avatars 328 however such mention is unusual and the avatars of Shiva is relatively rare in Shaivism compared to the well emphasized concept of Vishnu avatars in Vaishnavism 329 330 331 Some Vaishnava literature reverentially link Shiva to characters in its Puranas For example in the Hanuman Chalisa Hanuman is identified as the eleventh avatar of Shiva 332 333 334 The Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana claim sage Durvasa to be a portion of Shiva 335 336 337 Some medieval era writers have called the Advaita Vedanta philosopher Adi Shankara an incarnation of Shiva 338 TempleFor list of the temples by nation see List of Shiva temples in India and List of Shiva Temples in Pakistan FestivalsMain article Maha Shivaratri Maha Sivaratri festival is observed in the night usually in lighted temples or special prabha above There is a Shivaratri in every lunar month on its 13th night 14th day 339 but once a year in late winter February March and before the arrival of spring marks Maha Shivaratri which means the Great Night of Shiva 340 Maha Shivaratri is a major Hindu festival but one that is solemn and theologically marks a remembrance of overcoming darkness and ignorance in life and the world 341 and meditation about the polarities of existence of Shiva and a devotion to humankind 339 It is observed by reciting Shiva related poems chanting prayers remembering Shiva fasting doing Yoga and meditating on ethics and virtues such as self restraint honesty noninjury to others forgiveness introspection self repentance and the discovery of Shiva 342 The ardent devotees keep awake all night Others visit one of the Shiva temples or go on pilgrimage to Jyotirlingam shrines Those who visit temples offer milk fruits flowers fresh leaves and sweets to the lingam 5 Some communities organize special dance events to mark Shiva as the lord of dance with individual and group performances 343 According to Jones and Ryan Maha Sivaratri is an ancient Hindu festival which probably originated around the 5th century 341 Another major festival involving Shiva worship is Kartik Purnima commemorating Shiva s victory over the three demons known as Tripurasura Across India various Shiva temples are illuminated throughout the night Shiva icons are carried in procession in some places 344 Thiruvathira is a festival observed in Kerala dedicated to Shiva It is believed that on this day Parvati met Shiva after her long penance and Shiva took her as his wife 345 On this day Hindu women performs the Thiruvathirakali accompanied by Thiruvathira paattu folk songs about Parvati and her longing and penance for Shiva s affection 346 Regional festivals dedicated to Shiva include the Chithirai festival in Madurai around April May one of the largest festivals in South India celebrating the wedding of Minakshi Parvati and Shiva The festival is one where both the Vaishnava and Shaiva communities join the celebrations because Vishnu gives away his sister Minakshi in marriage to Shiva 347 Some Shaktism related festivals revere Shiva along with the goddess considered primary and Supreme These include festivals dedicated to Annapurna such as Annakuta and those related to Durga 348 In Himalayan regions such as Nepal as well as in northern central and western India the festival of Teej is celebrated by girls and women in the monsoon season in honor of goddess Parvati with group singing dancing and by offering prayers in Parvati Shiva temples 349 350 The ascetic Vedic and Tantric sub traditions related to Shiva such as those that became ascetic warriors during the Islamic rule period of India 351 352 celebrate the Kumbha Mela festival 353 This festival cycles every 12 years in four pilgrimage sites within India with the event moving to the next site after a gap of three years The biggest is in Prayaga renamed Allahabad during the Mughal rule era where millions of Hindus of different traditions gather at the confluence of rivers Ganges and Yamuna In the Hindu tradition the Shiva linked ascetic warriors Nagas get the honor of starting the event by entering the Sangam first for bathing and prayers 353 In Pakistan major Shivaratri celebration occurs at the Umarkot Shiv Mandir in the Umarkot The three day Shivarathri celebration at the temple is attended by around 250 000 people 354 Beyond the Indian subcontinent and HinduismIndonesia Shiva sculpture Dieng Plateau in Java Indonesia In Indonesian Shaivism the popular name for Shiva has been Batara Guru which is derived from Sanskrit Bhattaraka which means noble lord 355 He is conceptualized as a kind spiritual teacher the first of all Gurus in Indonesian Hindu texts mirroring the Dakshinamurti aspect of Shiva in the Indian subcontinent 356 However the Batara Guru has more aspects than the Indian Shiva as the Indonesian Hindus blended their spirits and heroes with him Batara Guru s wife in Southeast Asia is the same Hindu deity Durga who has been popular since ancient times and she too has a complex character with benevolent and fierce manifestations each visualized with different names such as Uma Sri Kali and others 357 358 In contrast to Hindu religious texts whether Vedas or Puranas in Javanese puppetry wayang books Batara Guru is the king of the gods who regulates and creates the world system In the classic book that is used as a reference for the puppeteers it is said that Sanghyang Manikmaya or Batara Guru was created from a sparkling light by Sang Hyang Tunggal along with the blackish light which is the origin of Ismaya 359 360 Shiva has been called Sadasiva Paramasiva Mahadeva in benevolent forms and Kala Bhairava Mahakala in his fierce forms 358 The Indonesian Hindu texts present the same philosophical diversity of Shaivite traditions found in the Indian subcontinent However among the texts that have survived into the contemporary era the more common are of those of Shaiva Siddhanta locally also called Siwa Siddhanta Sridanta 361 During the pre Islamic period on the island of Java Shaivism and Buddhism were considered very close and allied religions though not identical religions 362 The medieval era Indonesian literature equates Buddha with Siwa Shiva and Janardana Vishnu 363 This tradition continues in predominantly Hindu Bali Indonesia in the modern era where Buddha is considered the younger brother of Shiva 364 Central Asia The worship of Shiva became popular in Central Asia through the influence of the Hephthalite Empire 365 and Kushan Empire Shaivism was also popular in Sogdia and the Kingdom of Yutian as found from the wall painting from Penjikent on the river Zervashan 366 In this depiction Shiva is portrayed with a sacred halo and a sacred thread Yajnopavita 366 He is clad in tiger skin while his attendants are wearing Sogdian dress 366 A panel from Dandan Oilik shows Shiva in His Trimurti form with Shakti kneeling on her right thigh 366 367 Another site in the Taklamakan Desert depicts him with four legs seated cross legged on a cushioned seat supported by two bulls 366 It is also noted that the Zoroastrian wind god Vayu Vata took on the iconographic appearance of Shiva 367 Sikhism The Japuji Sahib of the Guru Granth Sahib says The Guru is Shiva the Guru is Vishnu and Brahma the Guru is Paarvati and Lakhshmi 368 In the same chapter it also says Shiva speaks and the Siddhas listen In Dasam Granth Guru Gobind Singh has mentioned two avatars of Rudra Dattatreya Avatar and Parasnath Avatar 369 Buddhism Mahakala c 1500 CE Tibetan Thangka Shiva is mentioned in the Buddhist Tantras and worshipped as the fierce deity Mahakala in Vajrayana Chinese Esoteric and Tibetan Buddhism 370 In the cosmologies of Buddhist Tantras Shiva is depicted as passive with Shakti being his active counterpart Shiva as Prajna and Shakti as Upaya 371 372 In Mahayana Buddhism Shiva is depicted as Maheshvara a deva living in Akanishta Devaloka In Theravada Buddhism Shiva is depicted as Ishana a deva residing in the 6th heaven of Kamadhatu along with Sakra Indra In Vajrayana Buddhism Shiva is depicted as Mahakala a dharma protecting Bodhisattva In most forms of Buddhism the position of Shiva is lesser than that of Mahabrahma or Sakra Indra In Mahayana Buddhist texts Shiva Maheshvara becomes a buddha called Bhasmeshvara Buddha Buddha of ashes citation needed In China and Taiwan Shiva better known there as Mahesvara Chinese 大自在天 pinyin Dazizaitian or Chinese 摩醯首羅天 pinyin Moxishǒuluotian is considered one of the Twenty Devas Chinese 二十諸天 pinyin Ershi Zhutian or the Twenty Four Devas Chinese 二十四諸天 pinyin Ershisi zhutian who are a group of dharmapalas that manifest to protect the Buddhist dharma 373 Statues of him are often enshrined in the Mahavira Halls of Chinese Buddhist temples along with the other devas In addition he is also regarded as one of thirty three manifestations of Avalokitesvara in the Lotus Sutra 374 In Mahayana Buddhist cosmology Mahesvara resides in Akaniṣṭha highest of the Suddhavasa Pure Abodes wherein Anagami Non returners who are already on the path to Arhathood and who will attain enlightenment are born Daikokuten one of the Seven Lucky Gods in Japan is considered to be evolved from Shiva The god enjoys an exalted position as a household deity in Japan and is worshipped as the god of wealth and fortune 375 The name is the Japanese equivalent of Mahakala the Buddhist name for Shiva 376 Shiva has been merged with Buddhist deities in East Asian Buddhism Daikokuten is a Shiva Ōkuninushi fusion deity in Japan 377 Acala is a fierce Shiva adaptation in both China and Japan 378 Statue of Shiva depicted as a Chinese Buddhist deva on Mount Putuo Guanyin Dharma Realm in Zhejiang ChinaIn contemporary cultureIn contemporary culture Shiva is depicted in art films books tattoos etc He has been referred to as the god of cool things 379 and a bonafide rock hero 380 Popular films include the Gujarati language movie Har Har Mahadev 381 the Kannada movie Gange Gowri and well known books include Amish Tripathi s Shiva Trilogy which has sold over a million copies 379 On television Devon Ke Dev Mahadev a television serial about Shiva on the Life OK channel was among the most watched shows at its peak popularity 382 A 90 s television series of DD National titled Om Namah Shivay was also based on legends of Shiva 383 Popular video games featuring Shiva include the Shin Megami Tensei series and especially Smite The god is also depicted as the mascot for the Washington Commanders in the popular animated series Gridiron Heights NotesExplanatory notes This is the source for the version presented in Chidbhavananda who refers to it being from the Mahabharata but does not explicitly clarify which of the two Mahabharata versions he is using See Chidbhavananda 1997 p 5 Temporal range for Mesolithic in South Asia is from 12000 to 4000 years before present The term Mesolithic is not a useful term for the periodization of the South Asian Stone Age as certain tribes in the interior of the Indian subcontinent retained a mesolithic culture into the modern period and there is no consistent usage of the term The range 12 000 4 000 Before Present is based on the combination of the ranges given by Agrawal et al 1978 and by Sen 1999 and overlaps with the early Neolithic at Mehrgarh D P Agrawal et al Chronology of Indian prehistory from the Mesolithic period to the Iron Age Journal of Human Evolution Volume 7 Issue 1 January 1978 37 44 A total time bracket of c 6 000 2 000 B C will cover the dated Mesolithic sites e g Langhnaj Bagor Bhimbetka Adamgarh Lekhahia etc p 38 S N Sen Ancient Indian History and Civilization 1999 The Mesolithic period roughly ranges between 10 000 and 6 000 B C p 23 Sati the first wife of Shiva was reborn as Parvati after she immolated herself According to Shaivism Parvati has various appearances like Durga and Kali with the supreme aspect of Adi Shakti which are also associated with Shiva All these goddesses are the same Atma Self in different bodies 6 a b c The ithyphallic representation of the erect shape connotes the very opposite in this context 384 It contextualize seminal retention practice of celibacy Brahmacarya 385 and illustration of Urdhva Retas 317 386 387 388 and represents Shiva as he stands for complete control of the senses and for the supreme carnal renunciation 384 For a general statement of the close relationship and example shared epithets see Sivaramamurti 1976 p 11 For an overview of the Rudra Fire complex of ideas see Kramrisch 1981 pp 15 19 For quotation An important factor in the process of Rudra s growth is his identification with Agni in the Vedic literature and this identification contributed much to the transformation of his character as Rudra Siva see Chakravarti 1986 p 17 For Note Agni Rudra concept fused in epithets Sasipanjara and Tivaṣimati see Sivaramamurti 1976 p 45 For text of RV 2 20 3a as स न य व न द र ज ह त र सख श व नर मस त प त and translation as May that young adorable Indra ever be the friend the benefactor and protector of us his worshipper 107 Citations Hinduism Encyclopedia of World Religions Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 2008 pp 445 448 ISBN 978 1593394912 a b c Zimmer 1972 pp 124 126 a b c Fuller 2004 p 58 Javid 2008 pp 20 21 a b Dalal 2010 pp 137 186 Kinsley 1998 p 35 Cush Robinson amp York 2008 p 78 Williams 1981 p 62 a b c d Sharma 2000 p 65 a b c Issitt amp Main 2014 pp 147 168 a b c d e f g h i Flood 1996 p 151 a b Sharma 1996 p 314 Shiva In Mythology Let s Reimagine The Lord Flood 1996 pp 17 153 Sivaraman 1973 p 131 Gonda 1969 Kinsley 1988 pp 50 103 104 Pintchman 2015 pp 113 119 144 171 Flood 1996 pp 17 153 Shiva Samhita e g Mallinson 2007 Varenne 1976 p 82 Marchand 2007 for Jnana Yoga a b Sadasivan 2000 p 148 Sircar 1998 pp 3 with footnote 2 102 105 a b Flood 1996 p 152 Flood 1996 pp 148 149 Keay 2000 p xxvii Granoff 2003 pp 95 114 Nath 2001 p 31 Keay 2000 p xxvii Flood 1996 p 17 a b c d Monier Monier Williams 1899 Sanskrit to English Dictionary with Etymology Archived 27 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine Oxford University Press pp 1074 1076 Prentiss 2000 p 199 For use of the term siva as an epithet for other Vedic deities see Chakravarti 1986 p 28 Chakravarti 1986 pp 21 22 Chakravarti 1986 pp 1 7 21 23 For root sarv see Apte 1965 p 910 a b Sharma 1996 p 306 Apte 1965 p 927 For the definition Saivism refers to the traditions which follow the teachings of Siva sivasana and which focus on the deity Siva see Flood 1996 p 149 van Lysebeth Andre 2002 Tantra Cult of the Feminine Weiser Books p 213 ISBN 978 0877288459 Tyagi Ishvar Chandra 1982 Shaivism in Ancient India From the Earliest Times to C A D 300 Meenakshi Prakashan p 81 Sri Vishnu Sahasranama 1986 pp 47 122 Chinmayananda 2002 p 24 Powell 2016 p 27 Berreman 1963 p 385 For translation see Dutt 1905 Chapter 17 of Volume 13 For translation see Ganguli 2004 Chapter 17 of Volume 13 Chidbhavananda 1997 Siva Sahasranama Stotram Lochtefeld 2002 p 247 a b c Kramrisch 1994a p 476 For appearance of the name मह द व in the Shiva Sahasranama see Sharma 1996 p 297 Kramrisch 1994a p 477 For appearance of the name in the Shiva Sahasranama see Sharma 1996 p 299 For Parameshvara as Supreme Lord see Kramrisch 1981 p 479 Sir Monier Monier Williams sahasranAman A Sanskrit English Dictionary Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo European Languages Oxford University Press Reprinted Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120831056 Sharma 1996 pp viii ix For an overview of the Satarudriya see Kramrisch 1981 pp 71 74 For complete Sanskrit text translations and commentary see Sivaramamurti 1976 Flood 1996 p 17 Keay 2000 p xxvii Boon 1977 pp 143 205 a b Sadasivan 2000 p 148 Flood 1996 pp 148 149 Keay 2000 p xxvii Granoff 2003 pp 95 114 For Shiva as a composite deity whose history is not well documented see Keay 2000 p 147 Nath 2001 p 31 a b c Courtright 1985 p 205 For Jejuri as the foremost center of worship see Mate 1988 p 162 Sontheimer 1976 pp 180 198 Khandoba is a local deity in Maharashtra and been Sanskritised as an incarnation of Shiva For worship of Khandoba in the form of a lingam and possible identification with Shiva based on that see Mate 1988 p 176 For use of the name Khandoba as a name for Karttikeya in Maharashtra see Gupta 1988 Preface and p 40 Klostermaier 2007 pp 24 25 prehistoric cave paintings at Bhimbetka from ca 100 000 to ca 10 000 BCE which were discovered only in 1967 Javid 2008 pp 20 21 Mathpal 1984 p 220 Rajarajan 1996 Neumayer 2013 p 104 Singh 1989 Kenoyer 1998 For a drawing of the seal see Figure 1 in Flood 1996 p 29 For translation of pasupati as Lord of Animals see Michaels 2004 p 312 Vohra 2000 Bongard Levin 1985 p 45 Rosen amp Schweig 2006 p 45 Flood 1996 pp 28 29 Flood 1996 pp 28 29 Flood 2003 pp 204 205 Srinivasan 1997 p 181 Flood 1996 pp 28 29 Flood 2003 pp 204 205 Keay 2000 p 14 Srinivasan 1997 p 181 McEvilley Thomas 1 March 1981 An Archaeology of Yoga Res Anthropology and Aesthetics 1 51 doi 10 1086 RESv1n1ms20166655 ISSN 0277 1322 S2CID 192221643 Asko Parpola 2009 Deciphering the Indus Script Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0521795661 pp 240 250 Possehl Gregory L 2002 The Indus Civilization A Contemporary Perspective Rowman Altamira pp 140 144 ISBN 978 0759116429 a b Anthony 2007 p 462 a b c d Beckwith 2009 p 32 a b Anthony 2007 pp 454 455 Roger D Woodard 2006 Indo European Sacred Space Vedic and Roman Cult University of Illinois Press pp 242 ISBN 978 0252092954 a b Roger D Woodard 2010 Indo European Sacred Space Vedic and Roman Cult University of Illinois Press pp 60 67 79 80 ISBN 978 0252 092954 Alain Danielou 1992 Gods of Love and Ecstasy The Traditions of Shiva and Dionysus Inner Traditions Bear amp Co pp 49 50 ISBN 978 0892813742 Quote The parallels between the names and legends of Shiva Osiris and Dionysus are so numerous that there can be little doubt as to their original sameness Namita Gokhale 2009 The Book of Shiva Penguin Books pp 10 11 ISBN 978 0143067610 Pierfrancesco Callieri 2005 A Dionysian Scheme on a Seal from Gupta India Archived 20 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine East and West Vol 55 No 1 4 December 2005 pp 71 80 Long J Bruce 1971 Siva and Dionysos Visions of Terror and Bliss Numen 18 3 180 209 doi 10 2307 3269768 JSTOR 3269768 a b Wendy Doniger O Flaherty 1980 Dionysus and Siva Parallel Patterns in Two Pairs of Myths Archived 20 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine History of Religions Vol 20 No 1 2 Aug Nov 1980 pp 81 111 Patrick Laude 2005 Divine Play Sacred Laughter and Spiritual Understanding Palgrave Macmillan pp 41 60 ISBN 978 1403980588 Walter Friedrich Otto Robert B Palmer 1965 Dionysus Myth and Cult Indiana University Press p 164 ISBN 0253208912 Sircar 1998 pp 3 with footnote 2 102 105 Michaels 2004 p 316 Flood 2003 p 73 Doniger pp 221 223 Zimmer 2000 Storl 2004 Winstedt 2020 Chakravarti 1986 pp 1 2 Kramrisch 1994a p 7 Chakravarti 1986 pp 2 3 Chakravarti 1986 pp 1 9 Kramrisch 1994a pp 14 15 For translation from Nirukta 10 7 see Sarup 1998 p 155 Kramrisch 1994a p 18 Rig Veda Rig Veda Book 6 HYMN XLVIII Agni and Others Sacred texts com Retrieved 6 June 2010 For the parallel between the horns of Agni as bull and Rudra see Chakravarti 1986 p 89 RV 8 49 10 155 For flaming hair of Agni and Bhairava see Sivaramamurti p 11 Doniger Wendy 1973 The Vedic Antecedents Siva the erotic ascetic Oxford University Press US pp 84 89 Arya amp Joshi 2001 p 48 volume 2 For text of RV 6 45 17 as य ग णत म द स थ प र त श व सख स त व न इन द र म लय and translation as Indra who has ever been the friend of those who praise you and the insurer of their happiness by your protection grant us felicity see Arya amp Joshi 2001 p 91 volume 3 For translation of RV 6 45 17 as Thou who hast been the singers Friend a Friend auspicious with thine aid As such O Indra favour us see Griffith 1973 p 310 For text of RV 8 93 3 as स न इन द र स व सख श च वद ग मद यवमत उर ध र व द हत and translation as May Indra our auspicious friend milk for us like a richly streaming cow wealth of horses kine and barley see Arya amp Joshi 2001 p 48 volume 2 For the bull parallel between Indra and Rudra see Chakravarti 1986 p 89 RV 7 19 For the lack of warlike connections and difference between Indra and Rudra see Chakravarti 1986 p 8 Anthony 2007 p 454 Owen 2012 pp 25 29 Sivaramamurti 2004 pp 41 59 Owen 2012 pp 25 29 a b Deussen 1997 p 769 Deussen 1997 pp 792 793 Radhakrishnan 1953 p 929 a b Flood 2003 pp 204 205 Svetasvatara Upanishad Chap 3 the Highest Reality Speaking Tree The Trika Tradition of Kashmir Shaivism The Times of India Hume 1921 pp 399 403 Hiriyanna 2000 pp 32 36 Kunst 1968 Srinivasan 1997 pp 96 97 and Chapter 9 Deussen 1997 pp 792 793 Sastri 1898 pp 80 82 Flood 2003 p 205 For date of Mahabhasya see Scharf 1996 page 1 with footnote Blurton 1993 pp 84 103 Blurton 1993 p 84 Pratapaditya Pal 1986 Indian Sculpture Circa 500 B C A D 700 University of California Press pp 75 80 ISBN 978 0520 059917 Sivaramamurti 2004 pp 41 59 Deussen 1997 p 556 769 footnote 1 Klostermaier 1984 pp 134 371 Flood 2003 pp 205 206 Rocher 1986 pp 187 188 222 228 Flood 2003 pp 208 212 Sharma 1990 pp 9 14 Davis 1992 p 167 note 21 Quote page 13 Some agamas argue a monist metaphysics while others are decidedly dualist Some claim ritual is the most efficacious means of religious attainment while others assert that knowledge is more important Mark Dyczkowski 1989 The Canon of the Saivagama Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120805958 pl 43 44 JS Vasugupta 2012 Siva Sutras Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120804074 pp 252 259 a b Flood 1996 pp 162 169 Somasundaram Ottilingam Murthy Tejus 2017 Siva The Mad Lord A Puranic perspective Indian Journal of Psychiatry 59 1 119 122 doi 10 4103 0019 5545 204441 ISSN 0019 5545 PMC 5418997 PMID 28529371 Tagare 2002 pp 16 19 Flood 2003 pp 208 212 Gonda 1975 pp 3 20 35 36 49 51 Thakur 1986 pp 83 94 Michaels 2004 p 216 Michaels 2004 pp 216 218 Surendranath Dasgupta 1973 A History of Indian Philosophy Cambridge University Press pp 17 48 49 65 67 155 161 ISBN 978 81208 04166 David N Lorenzen 1972 The Kapalikas and Kalamukhas Two Lost Saivite Sects University of California Press pp 2 5 15 17 38 80 ISBN 978 0520 018426 a b Narendranath B Patil 2003 The Variegated Plumage Encounters with Indian Philosophy Motilal Banarsidass pp 125 126 ISBN 978 8120819535 Mark S G Dyczkowski 1987 The Doctrine of Vibration An Analysis of the Doctrines and Practices Associated with Kashmir Shaivism State University of New York Press p 9 ISBN 978 0887064319 Michaels 2004 pp 215 216 David Lawrence Kashmiri Shaiva Philosophy Archived 12 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine University of Manitoba Canada IEP Section 1 d Edwin Bryant 2003 Krishna The Beautiful Legend of God Srimad Bhagavata Purana Penguin ISBN 978 0141913377 pp 10 12 Quote accept and indeed extol the transcendent and absolute nature of the other and of the Goddess Devi too Ludo Rocher 1986 The Puranas Otto Harrassowitz Verlag ISBN 978 3447025225 p 23 with footnotes EO James 1997 The Tree of Life Brill Academic ISBN 978 9004016125 pp 150 153 Gregor Maehle 2009 Ashtanga Yoga New World ISBN 978 1577316695 p 17 for Sanskrit see Skanda Purana Shankara Samhita Part 1 Verses 1 8 20 21 Sanskrit Saroj Panthey 1987 Iconography of Siva in Pahaṛi Paintings Mittal Publications p 94 ISBN 978 8170990161 Barbara Holdrege 2012 Hananya Goodman ed Between Jerusalem and Benares Comparative Studies in Judaism and Hinduism State University of New York Press pp 120 125 with footnotes ISBN 978 1438404370 Charles Johnston 1913 The Atlantic Monthly Vol CXII Riverside Press Cambridge pp 835 836 Jones amp Ryan 2006 p 43 Coburn 2002 pp 1 53 56 280 Lochtefeld 2002 p 426 Kinsley 1988 pp 101 105 Kinsley 1988 pp 50 103 104 Pintchman 2015 pp 113 119 144 171 Pintchman 2014 pp 85 86 119 144 171 Coburn 1991 pp 19 24 40 65 Narayani p 232 a b McDaniel 2004 p 90 a b Brown 1998 p 26 Jamison Stephanie Brereton Joel 2020 The Rigveda ISBN 978 0190633394 Brown 1998 p 77 Warrier 1967 pp 77 84 Rocher 1986 p 193 David R Kinsley 1975 The Sword and the Flute Kali and Kṛṣṇa Dark Visions of the Terrible and the Sublime in Hindu Mythology University of California Press pp 102 with footnote 42 ISBN 978 0520026759 Quote In the Devi Mahatmya it is quite clear that Durga is an independent deity great in her own right and only loosely associated with any of the great male deities And if any one of the great gods can be said to be her closest associate it is Visnu rather than Siva Gupteshwar Prasad 1994 I A Richards and Indian Theory of Rasa Sarup amp Sons pp 117 118 ISBN 978 8185431376 Jaideva Vasugupta 1991 The Yoga of Delight Wonder and Astonishment State University of New York Press p xix ISBN 978 0791410738 a b Gudrun Buhnemann 2003 Mandalas and Yantras in the Hindu Traditions Brill Academic p 60 ISBN 978 9004129023 James C Harle 1994 The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent Yale University Press pp 140 142 191 201 203 ISBN 978 0300062175 Flood 1996 p 17 J N Farquhar 1984 Outline of the Religious Literature of India Motilal Banarsidass p 180 ISBN 978 8120820869 Edwin F Bryant 2007 Krishna A Sourcebook Oxford University Press pp 313 314 ISBN 978 0199724314 a b Williams 1981 pp 1 4 Kramrisch 1981 p 22 Kramrisch 1981 p 23 Ramaswamy Krishnan de Nicolas Antonio Banerjee Aditi 2007 Invading the Sacred Rupa Publication p 59 ISBN 978 8129111821 Samhara Saṃhara 18 definitions 3 August 2014 a b a Vasugupta Jaideva 1979 Siva Sutras Motilal Banarsidass pp xv xx ISBN 978 8120804074 b James Mallinson 2007 The Shiva Samhita A Critical Edition Yoga pp xiii xiv ISBN 978 0971646650 OCLC 76143968 a b a Jaideva Vasugupta 1991 The Yoga of Delight Wonder and Astonishment A Translation of the Vijnana bhairava with an Introduction and Notes by Jaideva Singh State University of New York Press pp xii xvi ISBN 978 0791410738 b Vasugupta Jaideva 1980 The Yoga of Vibration and Divine Pulsation A Translation of the Spanda Karika with Ksemaraja s Commentary the Spanda Nirnaya State University of New York Press pp xxv xxxii 2 4 ISBN 978 0791411797 Andrew J Nicholson 2014 Lord Siva s Song The Isvara Gita State University of New York Press pp 1 2 ISBN 978 1438451022 David Smith 2003 The Dance of Siva Religion Art and Poetry in South India Cambridge University Press pp 237 239 ISBN 978 0521528658 Jaideva Vasugupta Mark S G Dyczkowski 1992 The Aphorisms of Siva The Siva Sutra with Bhaskara s Commentary the Varttika State University of New York Press pp 7 8 ISBN 978 0791412640 For quotation defining the Trimurti see Matchett Freda The Puraṇas in Flood 2003 p 139 Ralph Metzner 1986 Opening to Inner Light The Transformation of Human Nature and Consciousness J P Tarcher p 61 ISBN 978 0874773538 David Frawley 2009 Inner Tantric Yoga Working with the Universal Shakti Secrets of Mantras Deities and Meditation Lotus p 25 ISBN 978 0940676503 For definition of Trimurti as the unified form of Brahma Viṣṇu and Siva and use of the phrase the Hindu triad see Apte 1965 p 485 For the term Great Trinity in relation to the Trimurti see Jansen 1993 p 83 The Trimurti idea of Hinduism states Jan Gonda seems to have developed from ancient cosmological and ritualistic speculations about the triple character of an individual god in the first place of Agni whose births are three or threefold and who is threefold light has three bodies and three stations See Gonda 1969 pp 218 219 Other trinities beyond the more common Brahma Vishnu Shiva mentioned in ancient and medieval Hindu texts include Indra Vishnu Brahmanaspati Agni Indra Surya Agni Vayu Aditya Mahalakshmi Mahasarasvati and Mahakali and others See a David White 2006 Kiss of the Yogini University of Chicago Press ISBN 978 0226894843 pp 4 29 b Gonda 1969 For Shiva as depicted with a third eye and mention of the story of the destruction of Kama with it see Flood 1996 p 151 For a review of 4 theories about the meaning of tryambaka see Chakravarti 1986 pp 37 39 For usage of the word ambaka in classical Sanskrit and connection to the Mahabharata depiction see Chakravarti 1986 pp 38 39 For translation of Tryambakam as having three mother eyes and as an epithet of Rudra see Kramrisch 1981 p 483 For Vedic Sanskrit meaning Lord has three mother eyes which symbolize eyes are the Sun Moon and Fire For discussion of the problems in translation of this name and the hypothesis regarding the Ambikas see Hopkins 1968 p 220 For the Ambika variant see Chakravarti 1986 pp 17 37 For the moon on the forehead see Chakravarti 1986 p 109 For sekhara as crest or crown see Apte 1965 p 926 For Candrasekhara as an iconographic form see Sivaramamurti 1976 p 56 For translation Having the moon as his crest see Kramrisch 1981 p 472 For the moon iconography as marking the rise of Rudra Shiva see Chakravarti 1986 p 58 For discussion of the linkages between Soma Moon and Rudra and citation to RV 7 74 see Chakravarti 1986 pp 57 58 This smearing of cremation ashes emerged into a practice of some Tantra oriented ascetics where they would also offer meat alcohol and sexual fluids to Bhairava a form of Shiva and these groups were probably not of Brahmanic origin These ascetics are mentioned in the ancient Pali Canon of Thervada Buddhism See Flood 1996 pp 92 161 Antonio Rigopoulos 2013 Brill s Encyclopedia of Hinduism Volume 5 Brill Academic ISBN 978 9004178960 pp 182 183 Paul Deussen 1980 Sechzig Upaniṣad s des Veda Motilal Banarsidass pp 775 776 789 790 551 ISBN 978 8120814677 Chidbhavananda 1997 p 22 For translation of Kapardin as Endowed with matted hair see Sharma 1996 p 279 Kramrisch 1981 p 475 For Kapardin as a name of Shiva and description of the kaparda hair style see Macdonell p 62 Sharma 1996 p 290 See name 93 in Chidbhavananda 1997 p 31 For Shiva drinking the poison churned from the world ocean see Flood 1996 p 78 a b Kramrisch 1981 p 473 Lord Shiva Shiv God Shiva Shiva God Mahadev Lord Shiv Neelkanth www dadabhagwan org For alternate stories about this feature and use of the name Gaṅgadhara see Chakravarti 1986 pp 59 and 109 For description of the Gaṅgadhara form see Sivaramamurti 1976 p 8 For Shiva supporting Gaṅga upon his head see Kramrisch 1981 p 473 Wayman amp Singh 1991 p 266 Suresh Chandra 1998 p 309 Sitansu S Chakravarti 1991 p 51 Michaels 2004 p 218 For definition and shape see Apte 1965 p 461 Jansen 1993 p 44 Jansen 1993 p 25 For use by Kapalikas see Apte 1965 p 461 C Sivaramamurti 1963 South Indian Bronzes Lalit Kala Akademi p 41 John A Grimes 1996 A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy Sanskrit Terms Defined in English State University of New York Press p 257 ISBN 978 0791430675 Prabhavati C Reddy 2014 Hindu Pilgrimage Shifting Patterns of Worldview of Srisailam in South India Routledge pp 114 115 ISBN 978 1317806318 For a review of issues related to the evolution of the bull Nandin as Shiva s mount see Chakravarti 1986 pp 99 105 For spelling of alternate proper names Nandi and Nandin see Stutley 1985 p 98 Sharma 1996 p 291 Kramrisch 1981 p 479 For the name Kailasagirivasi Sanskrit क ल स ग रव स With his abode on Mount Kailasa as a name appearing in the Shiva Sahasranama see Sharma 1996 p 281 For identification of Mount Kailasa as the central linga see Stutley 1985 p 62 Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend ISBN 0500510881 by Anna L Dallapiccola Keay 2000 p 33 For quotation Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox and overview of conflicting attributes see Flood 1996 p 150 George Michell 1977 The Hindu Temple An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms University of Chicago Press pp 25 26 ISBN 978 0226532301 For quotation regarding Yajur Veda as containing contrary sets of attributes and marking point for emergence of all basic elements of later sect forms see Chakravarti 1986 p 7 For summary of Shiva s contrasting depictions in the Mahabharata see Sharma 1988 pp 20 21 For rud meaning cry howl as a traditional etymology see Kramrisch 1981 p 5 Citation to M Mayrhofer Concise Etymological Sanskrit Dictionary s v rudra is provided in Kramrisch 1981 p 5 Sharma 1996 p 301 Kramrisch 1994a p 476 Kramrisch 1981 p 474 Sharma 1996 p 280 Apte 1965 p 727 left column Kramrisch 1981 p 481 Flood 1996 p 92 Chakravarti 1986 pp 28 note 7 and p 177 For the contrast between ascetic and householder depictions see Flood 1996 pp 150 151 For Shiva s representation as a yogi see Chakravarti 1986 p 32 For name Mahayogi and associations with yoga see Chakravarti 1986 pp 23 32 150 For the ascetic yogin form as reflecting Epic period influences see Chakravarti 1986 p 32 For Umapati Umakanta and Umadhava as names in the Shiva Sahasranama literature see Sharma 1996 p 278 For Uma as the oldest name and variants including Parvati see Chakravarti 1986 p 40 For Parvati identified as the wife of Shiva see Kramrisch 1981 p 479 Search for Meaning By Antonio R Gualtieri For regional name variants of Karttikeya see Gupta 1988 Preface Doniger Wendy 1999 Splitting the difference gender and myth in ancient Greece and India London University of Chicago Press pp 263 265 ISBN 978 0226156415 Vanita Ruth Kidwai Saleem 2001 Same sex love in India readings from literature and history Palgrave Macmillan p 69 ISBN 978 0312293246 Pattanaik Devdutt 2001 The man who was a woman and other queer tales of Hindu lore Routledge p 71 ISBN 978 1560231813 See Mohini Relationship with Shiva for details RN Saletore 1981 Indian Witchcraft Abhinav Publications p 93 ISBN 978 0391024809 McDaniel 2004 p 156 Vettam Mani 1975 Puranic Encyclopaedia a Comprehensive Dictionary with Special Reference to the Epic and Puranic Literature Motilal Banarsidass Publishers pp 62 515 516 ISBN 978 0842608220 Wendy Doniger 2005 The Bedtrick Tales of Sex and Masquerade University of Chicago Press pp 72 206 ISBN 978 0226156439 For description of the nataraja form see Jansen 1993 pp 110 111 For interpretation of the naṭaraja form see Zimmer 1972 pp 151 157 For names Nartaka Sanskrit नर तक and Nityanarta Sanskrit न त यनर त as names of Shiva see Sharma 1996 p 289 For prominence of these associations in puranic times see Chakravarti 1986 p 62 For popularity of the nṛtyamurti and prevalence in South India see Chakravarti 1986 p 63 Kramrisch 1994a p 439 Klostermaier 1984 p 151 Shiva the Dancer Massey Reginald India s Kathak Dance India s Kathak Dance Past Present Future Abhinav Publications p 8 a b Moorthy Vijaya 2001 Romance of the Raga Abhinav Publications p 96 Leeming David Adams 2001 A Dictionary of Asian Mythology Oxford University Press p 45 Radha Sivananda 1992 Mantra of Muladhara Chakra Kuṇḍalini Yoga Motilal Banarsidass p 304 Srimad Bhagavatam Canto 1 Chapter 2 Verse 23 23 November 2010 Archived from the original on 23 November 2010 For iconographic description of the Dakṣiṇamurti form see Sivaramamurti 1976 p 47 For the deer throne and the audience of sages as Dakṣiṇamurti see Chakravarti 1986 p 155 For description of the form as representing teaching functions see Kramrisch 1981 p 472 For characterization of Dakṣiṇamurti as a mostly south Indian form see Chakravarti 1986 p 62 Monier Williams Monier 2008 1899 Sanskrit English Dictionary Universitat zu Koln p 756 Sivaramamurti 1976 pp 34 49 For evolution of this story from early sources to the epic period when it was used to enhance Shiva s increasing influence see Chakravarti p 46 Goldberg specifically rejects the translation by Frederique Marglin 1989 as half man half woman and instead adopts the translation by Marglin as the lord who is half woman as given in Marglin 1989 216 Goldberg p 1 Ardhanarisvara Encyclopaedia Britannica Online Encyclopaedia Britannica 2011 Retrieved 26 January 2011 Rao 1916 Elements of Hindu Iconography Vol 2 Part I Madras Law Printing House T A Gopinatha 1916 Elements of Hindu Iconography Vol 2 Part I Madras Law Printing House pp 338 343 For five as a sacred number see Kramrisch 1981 p 182 It is first encountered in an almost identical form in the Rudram For the five syllable mantra see Kramrisch 1981 p 182 For discussion of these five forms and a table summarizing the associations of these five mantras see Kramrisch 1981 pp 182 189 For distinct iconography see Kramrisch 1981 p 185 For association with the five faces and other groups of five see Kramrisch 1981 p 182 For the epithets pancamukha and pancavaktra both of which mean five faces as epithets of Siva see Apte 1965 p 578 middle column For variation in attributions among texts see Kramrisch 1981 p 187 Kramrisch 1994a p 184 Quotation from Pancabrahma Upanishad 31 is from Kramrisch 1981 p 182 Srinivasan 2004 p 446 James C Harle 1994 The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent Yale University Press pp 309 310 ISBN 978 0300062175 Srinivasan 2004 pp 447 a b c d Alain Danielou 1991 The Myths and Gods of India Princeton Bollingen Series Inner Traditions Bear amp Co pp 222 224 ISBN 978 0892813544 Kramrisch 1994a pp 171 185 K V Anantharaman Chapter X Omnipotence of Siva Linga Siva Gita A Critical Study hdl 10603 295754 a b Kramrisch 1994a p 221 Michaels 2004 p 216 Flood 1996 p 29 Tattwananda pp 49 52 a b c Lingam Hindu symbol Archived 11 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine Encyclopaedia Britannica Monier Williams 1899 Sanskrit to English Dictionary ल ङ ग p 901 Yudit Kornberg Greenberg 2008 Encyclopedia of Love in World Religions ABC CLIO pp 572 573 ISBN 978 1851099801 O Flaherty Wendy Doniger 1981 Siva the erotic ascetic Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 0195202503 O Flaherty Wendy Doniger 2013 On Hinduism Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0199360079 O Flaherty Wendy Doniger 2009 The Hindus An Alternative History United States Viking Press ISBN 978 0143116691 Rohit Dasgupta 2014 Michael Kimmel Christine Milrod Amanda Kennedy eds Cultural Encyclopedia of the Penis Rowman amp Littlefield p 107 ISBN 978 0759123144 Sen Amiya P 2006 Editor s Introduction The Indispensable Vivekananda Orient Blackswan pp 25 26 a b c Sivananda Swami 1996 Worship of Siva Linga Lord Siva and His Worship The Divine Life Trust Society a b Kramrisch 1994a p 26 Swami Agehananda Bharati 1970 The Tantric Tradition Red Wheel Weiser p 294 ISBN 0877282536 a b Balagangadhara S N Claerhout Sarah Spring 2008 Are Dialogues Antidotes to Violence Two Recent Examples From Hinduism Studies PDF Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies 7 19 118 143 Archived from the original PDF on 20 August 2009 Retrieved 18 January 2009 Rajiv Malhotra 2016 Academic Hinduphobia A critique of Wendy Doniger s erotic school of Indology Voice of India ISBN 978 9385485015 The Hindu Goddess Reinterpreted Invading the Sacred An Analysis of Hinduism Studies in America Rupa amp Co 2007 ISBN 978 8129111821 Amy M Braverman 2004 The interpretation of gods University of Chicago Winternitz Moriz V Srinivasa Sarma 1981 A History of Indian Literature Volume 1 Motilal Banarsidass p 543 footnote 4 ISBN 978 8120802643 Harding Elizabeth U 1998 God the Father Kali The Black Goddess of Dakshineswar Motilal Banarsidass pp 156 157 ISBN 978 8120814509 a b Vivekananda Swami The Paris congress of the history of religions The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda Vol 4 Swati Mitra 2011 Omkareshwar and Maheshwar Eicher Goodearth and Madhya Pradesh Government p 25 ISBN 978 9380262246 Parrinder Edward Geoffrey 1982 Avatar and incarnation Oxford Oxford University Press p 88 ISBN 0195203615 Winternitz Moriz V Srinivasa Sarma 1981 A History of Indian Literature Volume 1 Motilal Banarsidass pp 543 544 ISBN 978 8120802643 James Lochtefeld 2002 Shiva in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism Vol 2 N Z Rosen Publishing ISBN 0823922871 p 635 Jones amp Ryan 2006 p 474 Parrinder Edward Geoffrey 1982 Avatar and incarnation Oxford Oxford University Press pp 87 88 ISBN 0195203615 Lutgendorf Philip 2007 Hanuman s tale the messages of a divine monkey Oxford University Press US p 44 ISBN 978 0195309218 Catherine Ludvik 1994 Hanuman in the Ramayaṇa of Valmiki and the Ramacaritamanasa of Tulasi Dasa Motilal Banarsidass Publ pp 10 11 ISBN 978 8120811225 Sri Ramakrishna Math 1985 Hanuman Chalisa p 5 Footnote 70 1 to Horace Hayman Wilson s English translation of The Vishnu Purana Book I Chapter IX Footnote 83 4 to Horace Hayman Wilson s English translation of The Vishnu Purana Book I Chapter X Srimad Bhagavatam Canto 4 Chapter 1 English translation by A C Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada Archived from the original on 29 August 2012 A Thousand Teachings The Upadesasahasri of Sankara Translated by Mayeda Sengaku State University of New York Press 1979 p 4 ISBN 978 0791409435 a b Karen Pechilis 2012 Selva J Raj ed Dealing with Deities The Ritual Vow in South Asia State University of New York Press pp 152 153 ISBN 978 0791482001 Dalal 2010 pp 137 186 Jones amp Ryan 2006 p 269 a b Jones amp Ryan 2006 p 269 Jones amp Ryan 2006 p 269 Long 1982 pp 189 217 Cath Senker 2007 My Hindu Year The Rosen Publishing Group pp 12 13 ISBN 978 1404237315 Muriel Marion Underhill 1991 The Hindu Religious Year Asian Educational Services pp 95 96 ISBN 8120605233 Tubers are the veggies of choice to celebrate Thiruvathira Retrieved 6 March 2020 Thiruvathira Kerala s own version of Karva Chauth Manorama Retrieved 6 March 2020 Jones amp Ryan 2006 pp 112 113 Jones amp Ryan 2006 pp 39 140 Manju Bhatnagar 1988 The Monsoon Festival Teej in Rajasthan Asian Folklore Studies 47 1 63 72 doi 10 2307 1178252 JSTOR 1178252 Skinner Debra Holland Dorothy Adhikari G B 1994 The Songs of Tij A Genre of Critical Commentary for Women in Nepal Asian Folklore Studies 53 2 259 305 doi 10 2307 1178647 JSTOR 1178647 David N Lorenzen 1978 Warrior Ascetics in Indian History Archived 5 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine Journal of the American Oriental Society 98 1 61 75 William Pinch 2012 Warrior Ascetics and Indian Empires Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1107406377 a b Jones amp Ryan 2006 p 301 Kalhoro Zulfiqar Ali 27 February 2018 The thriving Shiva festival in Umarkot is a reminder of Sindh s Hindu heritage Dawn Retrieved 5 August 2020 Ghose 1966 pp 16 123 494 495 550 552 Ghose 1966 pp 130 131 550 552 Hariani Santiko 1997 The Goddess Durga in the East Javanese Period Archived 22 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine Asian Folklore Studies Vol 56 No 2 pp 209 226 a b Ghose 1966 pp 15 17 Sena Wangi ed 1999 Ensiklopedi wayang Indonesia A B in Indonesian Vol 1 Sekretariat Nasional Pewayangan Indonesia p 259 ISBN 9799240018 P B R Carey ed 1992 The British in Java 1811 1816 a Javanese account Oriental documents Vol 10 Oxford University Press for British Academy p 525 ISBN 0197260624 Ghose 1966 pp 155 157 462 463 Ghose 1966 pp 160 165 J L Moens 1974 Het Buddhisme Java en Sumatra in Zijn laatste boeiperiods T B G pp 522 539 550 OCLC 10404094 Ghose 1966 pp 4 6 14 16 94 96 160 161 253 P 377 Classical Hinduism By Mariasusai Dhavamony a b c d e Puri P 133 Buddhism in Central Asia a b Request Rejected PDF Winfried Corduan Neighboring Faiths A Christian Introduction to World Religions InterVarsiry Press p 377 Dasam Granth ISBN 978 8170103257 Bryson Megan 2017 Between China and Tibet Mahakala Worship and Esoteric Buddhism in the Dali Kingdom In Bentor Yael Shahar Meir eds Chinese and Tibetan Esoteric Buddhism Studies on East Asian Religions Vol 1 Leiden and Boston Brill Publishers pp 402 428 doi 10 1163 9789004340503 019 ISBN 978 9004340497 ISSN 2452 0098 Kalupahana David J 2001 1991 Integration of Sutra and Tantra Siva Sakti interpreted as Prajna Upaya Buddhist Thought and Ritual New Delhi Motilal Banarsidass p 95 ISBN 978 8120817739 OCLC 487199178 Barnaby B Dhs 2006 What Is Tantric Practice p 43 ISBN 978 1465330093 Retrieved 13 October 2013 Hodous Lewis Soothill William Edward 2004 A dictionary of Chinese Buddhist terms with Sanskrit and English equivalents and a Sanskrit Pali index London RoutledgeCurzon ISBN 0203641868 OCLC 275253538 Watson Burton 1999 The lotus sutra Sri Satguru Publications ISBN 8170306337 OCLC 247391640 Roberts Jeremy 2009 Japanese Mythology A to Z Infobase Publishing p 28 ISBN 978 1438128023 Pal Pratapaditya Indian Sculpture 700 1800 Los Angeles County Museum of Art p 180 Ronald Morse 2015 Folk Legends from Tono Japan s Spirits Deities and Phantastic Creatures Rowman amp Littlefield p 131 ISBN 978 1442248236 Charles Russell Coulter Patricia Turner 2013 Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities Routledge p 182 ISBN 978 1135963903 a b Shiva the god of cool things Retrieved 11 April 2017 Shiva the brand God who never fails Economic Times Blog Retrieved 11 April 2017 Dwyer Rachel 2006 Filming the Gods Religion and Indian Cinema Routledge ISBN 978 1134380701 Mahadev tops TRP charts with a new record of 8 2 TVR The Times of India Retrieved 11 April 2017 TV series Om Namah Shivay had 52 songs by top singers Director Dheeraj Kumar www outlookindia com IANS 16 June 2020 Retrieved 2 December 2021 a b Kramrisch 1994a p 218 Ghurye G S 1952 Ascetic Origins Sociological Bulletin Sociological Bulletin 1 2 1 2 162 184 doi 10 1177 0038022919520206 S2CID 220049343 Pensa Corrado Some Internal and Comparative Problems in the Field of Indian Religions Problems and 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Sanskrit Dictionary Fourth revised and enlarged ed Delhi Motilal Banarsidass Publishers ISBN 8120805674 Arya Ravi Prakash Joshi K L 2001 Ṛgveda Saṃhita Sanskrit Text English Translation Delhi Parimal Publications ASIN B008RXWY7O Set of four volumes Parimal Sanskrit Series No 45 2003 reprint ISBN 8170200709 Beckwith Christopher I 2009 Empires of the Silk Road Princeton University Press Berreman Gerald Duane 1963 Hindus of the Himalayas University of California Press Blurton T Richard 1993 Hindu Art Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0674391895 Bongard Levin Grigoriĭ Maksimovich 1985 Ancient Indian Civilization Arnold Heinemann Boon James A 1977 The Anthropological Romance of Bali 1597 1972 Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0521213981 Brown Cheever Mackenzie 1998 The Devi Gita The Song of the Goddess A Translation Annotation and Commentary SUNY Press ISBN 978 0791439395 Chakravarti Mahadev 1986 The Concept of Rudra Siva Through The Ages Second Revised ed Delhi Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 8120800532 Sitansu S Chakravarti 1991 Hinduism a Way of Life Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120808997 Suresh Chandra 1998 Encyclopaedia of Hindu Gods and Goddesses Sarup amp Sons ISBN 978 8176250399 Chatterji J C 1986 Kashmir Shaivism Albany State University of New York Press ISBN 8176254274 Chidbhavananda Swami 1997 Siva Sahasranama Stotram With Navavali Introduction and English Rendering Sri Ramakrishna Tapovanam ISBN 8120805674 Third edition The version provided by Chidbhavananda is from chapter 17 of the Anusasana Parva of the Mahabharata Coburn Thomas B 1991 Encountering the Goddess A translation of the Devi Mahatmya and a Study of Its Interpretation State University of New York Press ISBN 0791404463 Coburn Thomas B 2002 Devi Mahatmya The Crystallization of the Goddess Tradition South Asia Books ISBN 8120805577 Courtright Paul B 1985 Gaṇesa Lord of Obstacles Lord of Beginnings New York Oxford University Press ISBN 0195057422 Cush Denise Robinson Catherine A York Michael 2008 Encyclopedia of Hinduism Routledge ISBN 978 0700712670 Dalal Roshen 2010 Hinduism An Alphabetical Guide Penguin Books ISBN 978 0143414216 Davidson Ronald M 2004 Indian Esoteric Buddhism Social History of the Tantric Movement Motilal Banarsidass Davis Richard H 1992 Ritual in an Oscillating Universe Worshipping Siva in Medieval India Princeton New Jersey Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0691073866 Debnath Sailen 2009 The Meanings of Hindu Gods Goddesses and Myths New Delhi Rupa amp Co ISBN 978 8129114815 Deussen Paul 1997 Sixty Upanishads of the Veda Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120814677 Flood Gavin 1996 An Introduction to Hinduism Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 0521438780 Flood Gavin 2003 The Saiva Traditions In Flood Gavin ed The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism Malden MA Blackwell Publishing ISBN 1405132515 Frawley David 2015 Shiva the lord of yoga Twin Lakes WI Lotus Press Fuller Christopher John 2004 The Camphor Flame Popular Hinduism and society in India Princeton 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Originally published in 1915 Hume Robert 1921 Shvetashvatara Upanishad The Thirteen Principal Upanishads Oxford University Press Issitt Micah Lee Main Carlyn 2014 Hidden Religion The Greatest Mysteries and Symbols of the World s Religious Beliefs ABC CLIO ISBN 978 1610694780 Jansen Eva Rudy 1993 The Book of Hindu Imagery Havelte Holland Binkey Kok Publications BV ISBN 9074597076 Javid Ali 2008 World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India Algora Publishing ISBN 978 0875864846 Jones Constance Ryan James D 2006 Encyclopedia of Hinduism Infobase ISBN 978 0816075645 Keay John 2000 India A History New York Grove Press ISBN 0802137970 Kenoyer Jonathan Mark 1998 Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization Karachi Oxford University Press Kinsley David 1988 Hindu Goddesses Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition University of California Press ISBN 978 0520908833 Kinsley David 1998 Hindu Goddesses Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition Motilal Banarsidass Publ ISBN 978 8120803947 Klostermaier Klaus K 1984 Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India Wilfrid Laurier University Press ISBN 978 0889201583 Klostermaier Klaus K 2007 A Survey of Hinduism 3rd Edition State University of University Press ISBN 978 0791470824 Kramrisch Stella 1981 Manifestations of Shiva Philadelphia Museum of Art ISBN 978 0876330395 Kramrisch Stella 1994a The Presence of Siva Princeton New Jersey Princeton University Press ISBN 0691019304 Kunst Arnold June 1968 Some notes on the interpretation of the Ṥvetaṥvatara Upaniṣad Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 31 2 309 314 doi 10 1017 S0041977X00146531 S2CID 179086253 Lochtefeld James 2002 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism Vol 1 amp 2 Rosen Publishing ISBN 978 0823931798 Long Bruce 1982 Guy Richard Welbon and Glenn E Yocum ed Religious Festivals in South India and Sri Lanka Chapter Mahasivaratri the Saiva festival of repentance Manohar Macdonell Arthur Anthony 1996 A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary New Delhi Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers ISBN 8121507154 Mahony William K 1998 The Artful Universe An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0791435793 Mallinson James 2007 The Shiva Samhita A critical edition and English translation by James Mallinson Woodstock NY YogVidya ISBN 978 0971646650 Marchand Peter 2007 The Yoga of Truth Jnana The Ancient Path of Silent Knowledge Rochester VT Destiny Books ISBN 978 1594771651 Marshall John 1996 Mohenjo Daro and the Indus Civilization Asian Educational Services Facsimile of 1931 ed edition ISBN 8120611799 Mate M S 1988 Temples and Legends of Maharashtra Bombay Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan Mathpal Yashodhar 1984 Prehistoric Rock Paintings of Bhimbetka Central India Abhinav Publications ISBN 978 8170171935 McDaniel June 2004 Offering Flowers Feeding Skulls Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0195347135 Michaels Axel 2004 Hinduism Past and Present Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0691089522 Nath Vijay March April 2001 From Brahmanism to Hinduism Negotiating the Myth of the Great Tradition Social Scientist 29 3 4 19 50 doi 10 2307 3518337 JSTOR 3518337 Neumayer Erwin 2013 Prehistoric Rock Art of India OUP India ISBN 978 0198060987 Retrieved 1 March 2017 Owen Lisa 2012 Carving Devotion in the Jain Caves at Ellora Brill Academic ISBN 978 9004206298 Parmeshwaranand Swami 2004 Encyclopaedia of the Saivism in three volumes New Delhi Sarup amp Sons ISBN 8176254274 Pintchman Tracy 2015 The Rise of the Goddess in the Hindu Tradition State University of New York Press ISBN 978 1438416182 Pintchman Tracy 2014 Seeking Mahadevi Constructing the Identities of the Hindu Great Goddess State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0791490495 Powell Robert 2016 Himalayan Drawings Taylor amp Francis ISBN 978 1317709091 Prentiss Karen Pechilis 2000 The Embodiment of Bhakti Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0195351903 Rajarajan R K K 1996 Vṛṣabhavahanamurti in Literature and Art Annali del Istituto Orientale Naples 56 3 305 310 Rocher Ludo 1986 The Puranas Otto Harrassowitz Verlag ISBN 978 3447025225 Rosen Steven Schweig Graham M 2006 Essential Hinduism Greenwood Publishing Group Sadasivan S N 2000 A Social History of India APH Publishing ISBN 978 8176481700 Radhakrishnan Sarvapalli 1953 The Principal Upanishads New Delhi HarperCollins Publishers India 1994 Reprint ISBN 8172231245 Sastri A Mahadeva 1898 Amritabindu and Kaivalya Upanishads with Commentaries Thomson amp Co Sarup Lakshman 1998 1927 The Nighaṇṭu and The Nirukta Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 8120813812 Scharf Peter M 1996 The Denotation of Generic Terms in Ancient Indian Philosophy Grammar Nyaya and Mimaṃsa American Philosophical Society ISBN 978 0871698636 Sharma Arvind 2000 Classical Hindu Thought An Introduction Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0195644418 Sharma Ram Karan 1988 Elements of Poetry in the Mahabharata Second ed Delhi Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 8120805445 Sharma Debabrata Sen 1990 The philosophy of sadhana with special reference to the Trika philosophy of Kashmir Albany State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0791403471 Sharma Ram Karan 1996 Sivasahasranamaṣṭakam Eight Collections of Hymns Containing One Thousand and Eight Names of Siva Delhi Nag Publishers ISBN 8170813506 This work compares eight versions of the Sivasahasranamastotra with comparative analysis and Sivasahasranamakoṣa A Dictionary of Names The text of the eight versions is given in Sanskrit Singh S P 1989 Rgvedic Base of the Pasupati Seal of Mohenjo Daro Puratattva 19 19 26 Sircar Dineschandra 1998 The Sakta Piṭhas Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120808799 Sivaramamurti C 1976 Satarudriya Vibhuti of Siva s Iconography Delhi Abhinav Publications Sivaraman K 1973 Saivism in Philosophical Perspective A Study of the Formative Concepts Problems and Methods of Saiva Siddhanta Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120817715 Sivaramamurti C 2004 Satarudriya Vibhuti Or Shiva s Iconography Abhinav Publications ISBN 978 8170170389 Sontheimer Gunther Dietz 1976 Biroba Mhaskoba und Khandoba Ursprung Geschichte und Umwelt von pastoralen Gottheiten in Maharastra in German Franz Steiner Srinivasan Doris Meth 1997 Many Heads Arms and Eyes Origin Meaning and Form in Multiplicity in Indian Art Brill ISBN 978 9004107588 Srinivasan Sharada 2004 Shiva as cosmic dancer On Pallava origins for the Nataraja bronze World Archaeology Vol 36 The Journal of Modern Craft pp 432 450 doi 10 1080 1468936042000282726821 S2CID 26503807 Storl Wolf Dieter 2004 Shiva The Wild God of Power and Ecstasy Simon and Schuster Stutley Margaret 1985 The Illustrated Dictionary of Hindu Iconography First Indian Edition Munshiram Manoharlal 2003 ISBN 8121510872 Tagare G V 2002 The Pratyabhijna Philosophy Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120818927 Tattwananda Swami 1984 Vaisnava Sects Saiva Sects Mother Worship Calcutta Firma KLM Private Ltd First revised edition Thakur Upendra 1986 Some Aspects of Asian History and Culture Abhinav Publications ISBN 978 8170172079 Tulsidas Goswami 1985 Hanuman Chalisa Chennai Sri Ramakrishna Math ISBN 8171200869 original text transliteration English translation and notes Varenne Jean 1976 Yoga and the Hindu Tradition Chicago The University of Chicago Press ISBN 0226851168 Vohra Ranbir 2000 The Making of India A Historical Survey M E Sharpe ISBN 978 0765607119 Warrier AG Krishna 1967 Sakta Upaniṣads Adyar Library and Research Center ISBN 978 0835673181 OCLC 2606086 Wayman Alex Singh Jaideva 1991 Review A Trident of Wisdom Translation of Paratrisika vivarana of Abhinavagupta Philosophy East and West 41 2 266 268 doi 10 2307 1399778 JSTOR 1399778 Williams Joanna Gottfried 1981 Kaladarsana American Studies in the Art of India Brill Academic ISBN 9004064982 Winstedt Richard 2020 Shaman Saiva and Sufi A Study of the Evolution of Malay Magic Library of Alexandria Zimmer Heinrich 1972 1946 Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization Princeton New Jersey Princeton University Press ISBN 0691017786 Zimmer Heinrich 2000 Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization Motilal Banarsidass Publishers External linksShiva at Wikipedia s sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Data from Wikidata Shaivism Peter Bisschop Portals Hinduism India Bangladesh Nepal Sri Lanka Religion Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Shiva amp oldid 1133563399, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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