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Kannada

Kannada (/ˈkɑːnədə, ˈkæn-/;[5][6] ಕನ್ನಡ, [ˈkɐnːɐɖa]), originally romanised Canarese,[7] is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native speakers, and was additionally a second or third language for around 13 million non-native speakers in Karnataka.

Kannada
ಕನ್ನಡ
The word "Kannada" in Kannada script
Pronunciation[ˈkɐnːɐɖa]
Native toIndia
RegionKarnataka
EthnicityKannadigas
Native speakers
43.6 million (2011)[1]
L2 speakers: 15 million[1]
Early form
Kannada script
Kannada Braille
Official status
Official language in
 India
Regulated byVarious academies and the government of Karnataka[3]
Language codes
ISO 639-1kn
ISO 639-2kan
ISO 639-3kan
Glottolognucl1305
Linguasphere49-EBA-a
Distribution of Kannada native speakers, majority regions in dark blue and minority regions in light blue.[4]
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Kannada was the court language of some of the most powerful dynasties of south and central India, namely the Kadambas, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Yadava Dynasty or Seunas, Western Ganga dynasty, Wodeyars of Mysore, Nayakas of Keladi[8] Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara empire. The official and administrative language of the state of Karnataka,[9] it also has scheduled status in India and has been included among the country's designated classical languages.[10][11]

The Kannada language is written using the Kannada script, which evolved from the 5th-century Kadamba script. Kannada is attested epigraphically for about one and a half millennia and literary Old Kannada flourished in the 6th-century Ganga dynasty[12] and during the 9th-century Rashtrakuta Dynasty.[13][14] Kannada has an unbroken literary history of over a thousand years.[15] Kannada literature has been presented with 8 Jnanapith awards, the most for any Dravidian language and the second highest for any Indian language.[16][17][18] In July 2011, a center for the study of classical Kannada was established as part of the Central Institute of Indian Languages in Mysore to facilitate research related to the language.[19]

Geographic distribution

Kannada had 43.5 million native speakers in India at the time of the 2011 census. It is the main language of the state of Karnataka, where it is spoken natively by 40.6 million people, or about two thirds of the state's population. There are native Kannada speakers in the neighbouring states of Tamil Nadu (1,140,000 speakers), Maharashtra (993,000), Andhra Pradesh (533,000), Kerala (78,100) and Goa (67,800).[20] It is also spoken as a second and third language by over 12.9 million non-native speakers in Karnataka.[21]

Kannadigas form Tamil Nadu's 3rd biggest linguistic group and add up to about 1.23 million which is 2.2% of Tamil Nadu's total population.[22][23]

The Malayalam spoken by people of Lakshadweep has many Kannada words.[24]

In the United States, there were 35,900 speakers in 2006–2008,[25] a number that had risen to 48,600 by the time of the 2015 census. There are 4,000 speakers in Canada (according to the 2016 census), 9,700 in Australia (2016 census), 22,000 in Singapore (2018 estimate),[1] and 59,000 in Malaysia (2021 estimate).[1][better source needed]

Development

Kannada is a Southern Dravidian language and according to Sanford B. Steever, its history can be conventionally divided into three stages: Old Kannada (Haḷegannaḍa) from 450 to 1200 AD, Middle Kannada (Naḍugannaḍa) from 1200 to 1700 and Modern Kannada (Hosagannaḍa) from 1700 to the present.[26] Kannada was influenced to a considerable degree by Sanskrit and Prakrit. The scholar Iravatham Mahadevan indicated that Kannada was already a language of rich spoken tradition earlier than the 3rd century BC and based on the native Kannada words found in Prakrit inscriptions of that period, Kannada must have been spoken by a broad and stable population.[27][28][29] The scholar K. V. Narayana claims that many tribal languages which are now designated as Kannada dialects could be nearer to the earlier form of the language, with lesser influence from other languages.[27]

Sanskrit and Prakrit influence

The sources of influence on literary Kannada grammar appear to be three-fold: Pāṇini's grammar, non-Pāṇinian schools of Sanskrit grammar, particularly Katantra and Sakatayana schools, and Prakrit grammar.[30] Literary Prakrit seems to have prevailed in Karnataka since ancient times. The vernacular Prakrit speaking people may have come into contact with Kannada speakers, thus influencing their language, even before Kannada was used for administrative or liturgical purposes. Kannada phonetics, morphology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax show significant influence from these languages.[30][31]

Some naturalised (tadbhava) words of Prakrit origin in Kannada are: baṇṇa (colour) derived from vaṇṇa, huṇṇime (full moon) from puṇṇivā. Examples of naturalised Sanskrit words in Kannada are: varṇa (colour), pūrṇime, and rāya from rāja (king).[32]

Kannada also has borrowed (Tatsama) words such as dina (day), kōpa (anger), sūrya (sun), mukha (face), nimiṣa (minute).[33]

History

Early traces

 
The Halmidi inscription at Halmidi village, in old-Kannada, is usually dated to 450 AD (Kadamba Dynasty).
 
Old-Kannada inscription dated 578 AD (Badami Chalukya dynasty), outside Badami cave no.3
 
Old-Kannada inscription of c. 726 AD, discovered in Talakad, from the rule of King Shivamara I or Sripurusha (Western Ganga Dynasty)
 
Old-Kannada inscription of the 9th century (Rashtrakuta Dynasty) at Durga Devi temple in Hampi, Karnataka
 
The famous Atakur inscription (AD 949) from Mandya district, a classical Kannada composition in two parts; a fight between a hound and a wild boar, and the victory of the Rashtrakutas over the Chola dynasty in the famous battle of Takkolam
 
Old Kannada inscription dated 1057 AD of Western Chalukya King Someshvara I at Kalleshwara Temple, Hire Hadagali in Bellary district
 
Old-Kannada inscription ascribed to King Vikramaditya VI (Western Chalukya Empire), dated AD 1112, at the Mahadeva Temple in Itagi, Koppal district of Karnataka state
 
Old-Kannada inscription of 1220 AD (Hoysala Empire) at Ishwara temple of Arasikere town in the Hassan district
 
Kannada inscription dated 1509, of King Krishnadevaraya (Vijayanagara Empire), at the Virupaksha temple in Hampi describes his coronation
 
Kannada inscription dated 1654, at Yelandur with exquisite relief

The earliest Kannada inscriptions are from the middle of the 5th century AD, but there are a number of earlier texts that may have been influenced by the ancestor language of Old Kannada.[34]

Iravatam Mahadevan, author of a work on early Tamil epigraphy, argued that oral traditions in Kannada and Telugu existed much before written documents were produced. Although the rock inscriptions of Ashoka were written in Prakrit, the spoken language in those regions was Kannada as the case may be. He can be quoted as follows:[35]

If proof were needed to show that Kannada was the spoken language of the region during the early period, one needs only to study the large number of Kannada personal names and place names in the early Prakrit inscriptions on stone and copper in Upper South India [...] Kannada was spoken by relatively large and well-settled populations, living in well-organised states ruled by able dynasties like the Satavahanas, with a high degree of civilisation [...] There is, therefore, no reason to believe that these languages had less rich or less expressive oral traditions than Tamil had towards the end of its pre-literate period.

The Ashoka rock edict found at Brahmagiri (dated to 250 BC) has been suggested to contain words (Isila, meaning to throw, viz. an arrow, etc.) in identifiable Kannada.[36][37][38]

In some 3rd–1st century BC Tamil inscriptions, words of Kannada influence such as Naliyura, kavuDi and posil were found. In a 3rd-century AD Tamil inscription there is usage of oppanappa vIran. Here the honorific appa to a person's name is an influence from Kannada. Another word of Kannada origin is taayviru and is found in a 4th-century AD Tamil inscription. S. Settar studied the sittanavAsal inscription of first century AD as also the inscriptions at tirupparamkunram, adakala and neDanUpatti. The later inscriptions were studied in detail by Iravatham Mahadevan also. Mahadevan argues that the words erumi, kavuDi, poshil and tAyiyar have their origin in Kannada because Tamil cognates are not available. Settar adds the words nADu and iLayar to this list. Mahadevan feels that some grammatical categories found in these inscriptions are also unique to Kannada rather than Tamil. Both these scholars attribute these influences to the movements and spread of Jainas in these regions. These inscriptions belong to the period between the first century BC and fourth century AD. These are some examples that are proof of the early usage of a few Kannada origin words in early Tamil inscriptions before the common era and in the early centuries of the common era.[39]

Pliny the Elder, a Roman historian, wrote about pirates between Muziris and Nitrias (Netravati River), called Nitran by Ptolemy. He also mentions Barace (Barcelore), referring to the modern port city of Mangaluru, upon its mouth. Many of these are Kannada origin names of places and rivers of the Karnataka coast of 1st century AD.[40][41][42]

The Greek geographer Ptolemy (150 AD) mentions places such as Badiamaioi (Badami), Inde (Indi), Kalligeris (Kalkeri), Modogoulla (Mudagal), Petrigala (Pattadakal), Hippokoura (Huvina Hipparagi), Nagarouris (Nagur), Tabaso (Tavasi), Tiripangalida (Gadahinglai), Soubouttou or Sabatha (Savadi), Banaouase (Banavasi), Thogorum (Tagara), Biathana (Paithan), Sirimalaga (Malkhed), Aloe (Ellapur) and Pasage (Palasige).[43] He mentions a Satavahana king Sire Polemaios, who is identified with Sri Pulumayi (or Pulumavi), whose name is derived from the Kannada word for Puli, meaning tiger. Some scholars indicate that the name Pulumayi is actually Kannada's 'Puli Maiyi' or 'One with the body of a tiger' indicating native Kannada origin for the Satavahanas.[44] Pai identifies all the 10 cities mentioned by Ptolemy (100-170 AD) as lying between the river Benda (or Binda) or Bhima river in the north and Banaouasei (Banavasi) in the south, viz. Nagarouris (Nagur), Tabaso (Tavasi), Inde (Indi), Tiripangalida (Gadhinglaj), Hippokoura (Huvina Hipparagi), Soubouttou (Savadi), Sirimalaga (Malkhed), Kalligeris (Kalkeri), Modogoulla (Mudgal) and Petirgala (Pattadakal), as being located in Northern Karnataka which signify the existence of Kannada place names (and the language and culture) in the southern Kuntala region during the reign of Vasishtiputra Pulumayi (c. 85-125 AD, i.e., late 1st century – early 2nd century AD) who was ruling from Paithan in the north and his son, prince Vilivaya-kura or Pulumayi Kumara was ruling from Huvina Hipparagi in present Karnataka in the south.[45]

An early ancestor of Kannada (or a related language) may have been spoken by Indian traders in Roman-era Egypt and it may account for the Indian-language passages in the ancient Greek play known as the Charition mime.[46]

Epigraphy

The earliest examples of a full-length Kannada language stone inscription (śilāśāsana) containing Brahmi characters with characteristics attributed to those of proto-Kannada in Haḷe Kannaḍa (lit Old Kannada) script can be found in the Halmidi inscription, usually dated c. 450 AD, indicating that Kannada had become an administrative language at that time. The Halmidi inscription provides invaluable information about the history and culture of Karnataka.[47][48][49][50] A set of five copper plate inscriptions discovered in Mudiyanur, though in the Sanskrit language, is in the Pre-Old Kannada script older than the Halmidi edict date of 450 AD, as per palaeographers. Followed by B. L. Rice, leading epigrapher and historian, K. R. Narasimhan following a detailed study and comparison, declared that the plates belong to the 4th century, i.e., 338 AD.[51][52][53][54][55][56] The Kannada Lion balustrade inscription excavated at the Pranaveshwara temple complex at Talagunda near Shiralakoppa of Shivamogga district, dated to 370 AD is now considered the earliest Kannada inscriptions replacing the Halmidi inscription of 450 AD.[57] The 5th century poetic Tamatekallu inscription of Chitradurga and the Siragunda inscription from Chikkamagaluru Taluk of 500 AD are further examples.[58][59][60] Recent reports indicate that the Old Kannada Gunabhushitana Nishadi inscription discovered on the Chandragiri hill, Shravanabelagola, is older than Halmidi inscription by about fifty to hundred years and may belong to the period AD 350–400.[61] The noted archaeologist and art historian S. Shettar is of the opinion that an inscription of the Western Ganga King Kongunivarma Madhava (c. 350–370) found at Tagarthi (Tyagarthi) in Shikaripura taluk of Shimoga district is of 350 AD and is also older than the Halmidi inscription.[62][63]

Current estimates of the total number of existing epigraphs written in Kannada range from 25,000 by the scholar Sheldon Pollock to over 30,000 by Amaresh Datta of the Sahitya Akademi.[64][65] Prior to the Halmidi inscription, there is an abundance of inscriptions containing Kannada words, phrases and sentences, proving its antiquity. The 543 AD Badami cliff inscription of Pulakesi I is an example of a Sanskrit inscription in old Kannada script.[66][67] Kannada inscriptions are not only discovered in Karnataka but also quite commonly in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. Some inscriptions were also found in Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. This indicates the spread of the influence of the language over the ages, especially during the rule of large Kannada empires.[68][69][70][71]

The earliest copper plates inscribed in Old Kannada script and language, dated to the early 8th century AD, are associated with Alupa King Aluvarasa II from Belmannu (the Dakshina Kannada district), and display the double crested fish, his royal emblem.[72] The oldest well-preserved palm leaf manuscript in Old Kannada is that of Dhavala. It dates to around the 9th century and is preserved in the Jain Bhandar, Mudbidri, Dakshina Kannada district.[73] The manuscript contains 1478 leaves written using ink.[73]

Coins

Some early Kadamba Dynasty coins bearing the Kannada inscription Vira and Skandha were found in Satara collectorate.[74] A gold coin bearing three inscriptions of Sri and an abbreviated inscription of king Bhagiratha's name called bhagi (c. 390–420 AD) in old Kannada exists.[75] A Kadamba copper coin dated to the 5th century AD with the inscription Srimanaragi in Kannada script was discovered in Banavasi, Uttara Kannada district.[76] Coins with Kannada legends have been discovered spanning the rule of the Western Ganga Dynasty, the Badami Chalukyas, the Alupas, the Western Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas, the Hoysalas, the Vijayanagar Empire, the Kadamba Dynasty of Banavasi, the Keladi Nayakas and the Mysore Kingdom, the Badami Chalukya coins being a recent discovery.[77][78][79] The coins of the Kadambas of Goa are unique in that they have alternate inscription of the king's name in Kannada and Devanagari in triplicate,[80] a few coins of the Kadambas of Hangal are also available.[81]

Literature

Old Kannada

 
Shankha Jain Basadi temple at Lakshmeshwar where the notable Adikavi Pampa wrote the Adipurana in Kannada language

The oldest known existing record of Kannada poetry in Tripadi metre is the Kappe Arabhatta record of 7th century AD.[48][82] Kavirajamarga by King Nripatunga Amoghavarsha I (850 AD) is the earliest existing literary work in Kannada. It is a writing on literary criticism and poetics meant to standardise various written Kannada dialects used in literature in previous centuries. The book makes reference to Kannada works by early writers such as King Durvinita of the 6th century and Ravikirti, the author of the Aihole record of 636 AD.[83][84] Since the earliest available Kannada work is one on grammar and a guide of sorts to unify existing variants of Kannada grammar and literary styles, it can be safely assumed that literature in Kannada must have started several centuries earlier.[83][85] An early extant prose work, the Vaḍḍārādhane (ವಡ್ಡಾರಾಧನೆ) by Shivakotiacharya of 900 AD provides an elaborate description of the life of Bhadrabahu of Shravanabelagola.[86]

Some of the early writers of prose and verse mentioned in the Kavirajamarga, numbering 8–10, stating these are but a few of many, but whose works are lost, are Vimala or Vimalachandra (c. 777), Udaya, Nagarjuna, Jayabandhu, Durvinita (6th century), and poets including Kaviswara, Srivijaya, Pandita, Chandra, Ravi Kirti (c. 634) and Lokapala.[87][88][89][90][91] For fragmentary information on these writers, we can refer the work Karnataka Kavi Charite. Ancient indigenous Kannada literary compositions of (folk) poetry like the Chattana and Bedande which preferred to use the Desi metre are said to have survived at least until the date of the Kavirajamarga in 850 AD and had their roots in the early Kannada folk literature. These Kannada verse-compositions might have been representative of folk songs containing influence of Sanskrit and Prakrit metrical patterns to some extent. "Kavirajamarga" also discusses earlier composition forms peculiar to Kannada, the "gadyakatha", a mixture of prose and poetry, the "chattana" and the "bedande", poems of several stanzas that were meant to be sung with the optional use of a musical instrument.[89][92][93] Amoghavarsha Nripatunga compares the puratana-kavigal (old Kannada poets) who wrote the great Chattana poems in Kannada to the likes of the great Sanskrit poets like Gunasuri, Narayana, Bharavi, Kalidasa, Magha, etc. This Old Kannada work, Kavirajamarga, itself in turn refers to a Palagannada (Old Kannada) of much ancient times, which is nothing but the Pre-Old Kannada and also warns aspiring Kannada writers to avoid its archaisms, as per R. S. Hukkerikar. Regarding earlier poems in Kannada, the author of "Kavirajamarga" states that old Kannada is appropriate in ancient poems but insipid in contemporaneous works as per R. Narasimhacharya.[87][89][94] Gunanandi (900 AD), quoted by the grammarian Bhattakalanka and always addressed as Bhagawan (the adorable), was the author of a logic, grammar and sahitya. Durvinita (529–579 AD), the Ganga king, was the pupil of the author of Sabdavatara, i.e., Devanandi Pujyapada. Durvinita is said to have written a commentary on the difficult 15th sarga of Bharavi's Kiratarjuniya in Kannada. Early Kannada writers regularly mention three poets as of especial eminence among their predecessors – Samanta-bhadra, Kavi Parameshthi and Pujyapada. Since later Kannada poets so uniformly name these three as eminent poets, it is probable that they wrote in Kannada also. Samantabhadra is placed in 2nd century AD by Jain tradition. Old Kannada commentaries on some of his works exist. He was said to have born in Utkalikagrama and while performing penance in Manuvakahalli, he was attacked by a disease called Bhasmaka.[87] Pujyapada also called Devanandi, was the preceptor of Ganga king Durvinita and belonged to the late 5th to early 6th century AD. Kaviparameshthi probably lived in the 4th century AD. He may possibly be the same as the Kaviswara referred to in the Kavirajamarga, and the Kaviparameswara praised by Chavunda Raya (978 AD) and his spiritual teacher, Nemichandra (10th century AD), all the names possibly being only epithets.[95]

Kannada works from earlier centuries mentioned in the Kavirajamarga are not yet traced. Some ancient Kannada texts now considered extinct but referenced in later centuries are Prabhrita (650 AD) by Syamakundacharya, Chudamani (Crest Jewel—650 AD or earlier) by Srivaradhadeva, also known as Tumbuluracharya, which is a work of 96,000 verse-measures and a commentary on logic (Tatwartha-mahashastra).[96][97][98] Other sources date Chudamani to the 6th century or earlier.[91][99] An inscription of 1128 AD quotes a couplet by the famous Sanskrit poet Dandin (active 680–720 AD), highly praising Srivaradhadeva, for his Kannada work Chudamani, as having "produced Saraswati (i.e., learning and eloquence) from the tip of his tongue, as Siva produced the Ganges from the tip of his top-knot." Bhattakalanka (1604 CE), the great Kannada grammarian, refers to Srivaradhadeva's Chudamani as the greatest work in Kannada, and as incontestable proof of the scholarly character and value of Kannada literature. This makes Srivaradhadeva's time earlier than the 6th-7th century AD.[95] Other writers, whose works are not extant now but titles of which are known from independent references such as Indranandi's "Srutavatara", Devachandra's "Rajavalikathe",[89] Bhattakalanka's "Sabdanusasana" of 1604,[83] writings of Jayakirthi[100] are Syamakundacharya (650), who authored the "Prabhrita", and Srivaradhadeva (also called Tumubuluracharya, 650 or earlier), who wrote the "Chudamani" ("Crest Jewel"), a 96,000-verse commentary on logic.[83][91][99][101] The Karnateshwara Katha, a eulogy for King Pulakesi II, is said to have belonged to the 7th century;[100] the Gajastaka, a lost "ashtaka" (eight line verse) composition and a work on elephant management by King Shivamara II, belonged to the 8th century,[102] this served as the basis for 2 popular folk songs Ovanige and Onakevadu, which were sung either while pounding corn or to entice wild elephants into a pit ("Ovam").[100][103][104] The Chandraprabha-purana by Sri Vijaya, a court poet of emperor Amoghavarsha I, is ascribed to the early 9th century.[89] His writing has been mentioned by Vijayanagara poets Mangarasa III and Doddiah (also spelt Doddayya, c. 1550 AD) and praised by Durgasimha (c. 1025 AD).[105] During the 9th century period, the Digambara Jain poet Asaga (or Asoka) authored, among other writings, "Karnata Kumarasambhava Kavya" and "Varadamana Charitra". His works have been praised by later poets, although none of his works are available today.[90] "Gunagankiyam", the earliest known prosody in Kannada, was referenced in a Tamil work dated to 10th century or earlier ("Yapparungalakkarigai" by Amritasagara). Gunanandi, an expert in logic, Kannada grammar and prose, flourished in the 9th century AD.[89][91] Around 900 AD, Gunavarma I wrote "Sudraka" and "Harivamsa" (also known as "Neminatha Purana"). In "Sudraka" he compared his patron, Ganga king Ereganga Neetimarga II (c. 907-921 AD), to a noted king called Sudraka.[89][102] Jinachandra, who is referred to by Sri Ponna (c. 950 AD) as the author of "Pujyapada Charita", had earned the honorific "modern Samantha Bhadra".[106] Tamil Buddhist commentators of the 10th century AD (in the commentary on Neminatham, a Tamil grammatical work) make references that show that Kannada literature must have flourished as early as the BC 4th century.[107]

Around the beginning of the 9th century, Old Kannada was spoken from Kaveri to Godavari. The Kannada spoken between the rivers Varada and Malaprabha was the pure well of Kannada undefiled.[108]

The late classical period gave birth to several genres of Kannada literature, with new forms of composition coming into use, including Ragale (a form of blank verse) and meters like Sangatya and Shatpadi. The works of this period are based on Jain and Hindu principles. Two of the early writers of this period are Harihara and Raghavanka, trailblazers in their own right. Harihara established the Ragale form of composition while Raghavanka popularised the Shatpadi (six-lined stanza) meter.[109] A famous Jaina writer of the same period is Janna, who expressed Jain religious teachings through his works.[110]

The Vachana Sahitya tradition of the 12th century is purely native and unique in world literature, and the sum of contributions by all sections of society. Vachanas were pithy poems on that period's social, religious and economic conditions. More importantly, they held a mirror to the seed of social revolution, which caused a radical re-examination of the ideas of caste, creed and religion. Some of the important writers of Vachana literature include Basavanna, Allama Prabhu and Akka Mahadevi.[111]

Emperor Nripatunga Amoghavarsha I of 850 AD recognised that the Sanskrit style of Kannada literature was Margi (formal or written form of language) and Desi (folk or spoken form of language) style was popular and made his people aware of the strength and beauty of their native language Kannada. In 1112 AD, Jain poet Nayasena of Mulugunda, Dharwad district, in his Champu work Dharmamrita (ಧರ್ಮಾಮೃತ), a book on morals, warns writers from mixing Kannada with Sanskrit by comparing it with mixing of clarified butter and oil. He has written it using very limited Sanskrit words which fit with idiomatic Kannada. In 1235 AD, Jain poet Andayya, wrote Kabbigara Kava- ಕಬ್ಬಿಗರ ಕಾವ (Poet's Defender), also called Sobagina Suggi (Harvest of Beauty) or Madana-Vijaya and Kavana-Gella (Cupid's Conquest), a Champu work in pure Kannada using only indigenous (desya) Kannada words and the derived form of Sanskrit words – tadbhavas, without the admixture of Sanskrit words. He succeeded in his challenge and proved wrong those who had advocated that it was impossible to write a work in Kannada without using Sanskrit words. Andayya may be considered as a protector of Kannada poets who were ridiculed by Sanskrit advocates. Thus Kannada is the only Dravidian language which is not only capable of using only native Kannada words and grammar in its literature (like Tamil), but also use Sanskrit grammar and vocabulary (like Telugu, Malayalam, Tulu, etc.) The Champu style of literature of mixing poetry with prose owes its origins to the Kannada language which was later incorporated by poets into Sanskrit and other Indian languages.[103][112][113][114][115][116]

Middle Kannada

During the period between the 15th and 18th centuries, Hinduism had a great influence on Middle Kannada (Naḍugannaḍa- ನಡುಗನ್ನಡ) language and literature. Kumara Vyasa, who wrote the Karṇāṭa Bhārata Kathāman̄jari (ಕರ್ಣಾಟ ಭಾರತ ಕಥಾಮಂಜರಿ), was arguably the most influential Kannada writer of this period. His work, entirely composed in the native Bhamini Shatpadi (hexa-meter), is a sublime adaptation of the first ten books of the Mahabharata.[117] During this period, the Sanskritic influence is present in most abstract, religious, scientific and rhetorical terms.[118][119][120] During this period, several Hindi and Marathi words came into Kannada, chiefly relating to feudalism and militia.[121]

Hindu saints of the Vaishnava sect such as Kanakadasa, Purandaradasa, Naraharitirtha, Vyasatirtha, Sripadaraya, Vadirajatirtha, Vijaya Dasa, Gopala Dasa, Jagannatha Dasa, Prasanna Venkatadasa produced devotional poems in this period.[122] Kanakadasa's Rāmadhānya Charite (ರಾಮಧಾನ್ಯ ಚರಿತೆ) is a rare work, concerning with the issue of class struggle.[123] This period saw the advent of Haridasa Sahitya (lit Dasa literature) which made rich contributions to Bhakti literature and sowed the seeds of Carnatic music. Purandara Dasa is widely considered the Father of Carnatic music.[124][125][126]

Modern Kannada

The Kannada works produced from the 19th century make a gradual transition and are classified as Hosagannaḍa or Modern Kannada. Most notable among the modernists was the poet Nandalike Muddana whose writing may be described as the "Dawn of Modern Kannada", though generally, linguists treat Indira Bai or Saddharma Vijayavu by Gulvadi Venkata Raya as the first literary works in Modern Kannada. The first modern movable type printing of "Canarese" appears to be the Canarese Grammar of Carey printed at Serampore in 1817, and the "Bible in Canarese" of John Hands in 1820.[127] The first novel printed was John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, along with other texts including Canarese Proverbs, The History of Little Henry and his Bearer by Mary Martha Sherwood, Christian Gottlob Barth's Bible Stories and "a Canarese hymn book."[128]

Modern Kannada in the 20th century has been influenced by many movements, notably Navodaya, Navya, Navyottara, Dalita and Bandaya. Contemporary Kannada literature has been highly successful in reaching people of all classes in society. Further, Kannada has produced a number of prolific and renowned poets and writers such as Kuvempu, Bendre, and V K Gokak. Works of Kannada literature have received eight Jnanpith awards,[129] the highest number awarded to any Indian language.[130]

Dialects

There is also a considerable difference between the spoken and written forms of the language. Spoken Kannada tends to vary from region to region. The written form is more or less consistent throughout Karnataka. The Ethnologue reports "about 20 dialects" of Kannada. Among them are Kundagannada (spoken exclusively in Kundapura, Brahmavara, Bynduru and Hebri), Sirsi Kannada Primarily spoken in Sirsi and it's neighbouring taluks, Nadavar-Kannada (spoken by Nadavaru), Havigannada (spoken mainly by Havyaka Brahmins), Are Bhashe (spoken by Gowda community mainly in Madikeri and Sullia region of Dakshina Kannada), Malenadu Kannada (Sakaleshpur, Coorg, Shimoga, Chikmagalur), Sholaga, Gulbarga Kannada, Dharawad Kannada etc. All of these dialects are influenced by their regional and cultural background. The one million Komarpants in and around Goa speak their own dialect of Kannada, known as Halegannada. They are settled throughout Goa state, throughout Uttara Kannada district and Khanapur taluk of Belagavi district, Karnataka.[131][132][133] The Halakki Vokkaligas of Uttara Kannada and Shimoga districts of Karnataka speak in their own dialect of Kannada called Halakki Kannada or Achchagannada. Their population estimate is about 75,000.[134][135][136]

Ethnologue also classifies a group of four languages related to Kannada, which are, besides Kannada proper, Badaga, Holiya, Kurumba and Urali.[137] The Golars or Golkars are a nomadic herdsmen tribe present in Nagpur, Chanda, Bhandara, Seoni and Balaghat districts of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh speak the Golari dialect of Kannada which is identical to the Holiya dialect spoken by their tribal offshoot Holiyas present in Seoni, Nagpur and Bhandara of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. There were around 3,600 speakers of this dialect as per the 1901 census. Matthew A. Sherring describes the Golars and Holars as a pastoral tribe from the Godavari banks established in the districts around Nagpur, in the stony tracts of Ambagarh, forests around Ramplee and Sahangadhee. Along the banks of the Wainganga, they dwell in the Chakurhaitee and Keenee subdivisions.[138] The Kurumvars of Chanda district of Maharashtra, a wild pastoral tribe, 2,200 in number as per the 1901 census, spoke a Kannada dialect called Kurumvari. The Kurumbas or Kurubas, a nomadic shepherd tribe were spread across the Nilgiris, Coimbatore, Salem, North and South Arcots, Trichinopoly, Tanjore and Pudukottai of Tamil Nadu, Cuddapah and Anantapur of Andhra Pradesh, Malabar and Cochin of Kerala and South Canara and Coorg of Karnataka and spoke the Kurumba Kannada dialect. The Kurumba and Kurumvari dialect (both closely related with each other) speakers were estimated to be around 11,400 in total as per the 1901 census. There were about 34,250 Badaga speakers as per the 1901 census.[139]

Nasik district of Maharashtra has a distinct tribe called 'Hatkar Kaanadi' people who speak a Kannada (Kaanadi) dialect with lot of old Kannada words. Per Chidananda Murthy, they are the native people of Nasik from ancient times, which shows that North Maharashtra's Nasik area had Kannada population 1000 years ago.[140][141] Kannada speakers formed 0.12% of Nasik district's population as per 1961 census.[142]

Writing system

The language uses forty-nine phonemic letters, divided into three groups: swaragalu (vowels – thirteen letters); vyanjanagalu (consonants – thirty-four letters); and yogavaahakagalu (neither vowel nor consonant – two letters: anusvara and visarga ). The character set is almost identical to that of other Indian languages. The Kannada script is almost entirely phonetic, but for the sound of a "half n" (which becomes a half m). The number of written symbols, however, is far more than the forty-nine characters in the alphabet, because different characters can be combined to form compound characters (ottakshara). Each written symbol in the Kannada script corresponds with one syllable, as opposed to one phoneme in languages like English—the Kannada script is syllabic.

Dictionary

Kannada–Kannada dictionary has existed in Kannada along with ancient works of Kannada grammar. The oldest available Kannada dictionary was composed by the poet 'Ranna' called 'Ranna Kanda' (ರನ್ನ ಕಂದ) in 996 AD. Other dictionaries are 'Abhidhana Vastukosha' (ಅಭಿದಾನ ವಾಸ್ತುಕೋಶ) by Nagavarma (1045 AD), 'Amarakoshada Teeku' (ಅಮರಕೋಶದ ತೀಕು) by Vittala (1300), 'Abhinavaabhidaana' (ಅಭಿನವಾಭಿದಾನ) by Abhinava Mangaraja (1398 AD) and many more.[143] A Kannada–English dictionary consisting of more than 70,000 words was composed by Ferdinand Kittel.[144]

G. Venkatasubbaiah edited the first modern Kannada–Kannada dictionary, a 9,000-page, 8-volume series published by the Kannada Sahitya Parishat. He also wrote a Kannada–English dictionary and a kliṣtapadakōśa (ಕ್ಲಿಷ್ಟಪಾದಕೋಶ), a dictionary of difficult words.[145][146]

Phonology

Spoken Kannada

Kannada has 34 consonants and 10 vowels.

Consonants

Labial Dental/
Alveolar
Retroflex Post-alv./
Palatal
Velar Glottal
Nasal m (ಮ) n (ನ) ɳ (ಣ) ɲ (ಞ) ŋ (ಙ)
Stop/
Affricate
voiceless p (ಪ) t (ತ) ʈ (ಟ) (ಚ) k (ಕ)
aspirated (ಫ) (ಥ) ʈʰ (ಠ) tʃʰ (ಛ) (ಖ)
voiced b (ಬ) d (ದ) ɖ (ಡ) (ಜ) ɡ (ಗ)
breathy (ಭ) (ಧ) ɖʱ (ಢ) dʒʱ (ಝ) ɡʱ (ಘ)
Fricative s (ಸ) ʂ (ಷ) ʃ (ಶ) h (ಹ)
Approximant ʋ (ವ) l (ಲ) ɭ (ಳ) j (ಯ)
Trill r (ರ)
  • Most consonants can be geminated.
  • Aspirated consonants never occur in native vocabulary. The only exception is the number 9, which can be written with a /bʱ/, as in "ಒಂಭತ್ತು". However, it is usually written with a /b/, as in "ಒಂಬತ್ತು".
  • The aspiration of consonants depends entirely on the speaker and many do not do it in non-formal situations.
  • The alveolar trill /r/ may be pronounced as an alveolar tap [ɾ].
  • The voiceless retroflex sibilant /ʂ/ is commonly pronounced as a /ʃ/ except in consonant clusters with retroflex consonants.
  • There are also the consonants /f, z/ which occur in recent English and Perso-Arabic loans but they may be replaced by the consonants /pʰ, dʒ/ respectively by speakers.[147]

Additionally, Kannada included the following phonemes, which dropped out of common usage in the 12th and 18th century respectively:

  • /r/ ಱ (ṟ), the alveolar trill.
  • /ɻ/ ೞ (ḻ), the retroflex central approximant.

Old Kannada had an archaic phoneme /ɻ/ under retroflexes in early inscriptions which merged with /ɭ/ and it maintained the contrast between /r/ (< PD ∗t̠) and /ɾ/ from (< PD ∗r). Both merged in Medieval Kannada.[147]

In old Kannada at around 10th-14th century, many of the initial /p/ debuccalized into a /h/ e.g. OlKn. pattu, MdKn. hattu "ten".[148]

Kannada lacks the palatalization of k's before front vowels which was done by Tamil-Malayalam languages and independently by Telugu, e.g. Kn. kivi, Ta. cevi, Te. cevi "ear".[149]

Vowels

Front Central Back
short long short long short long
Close i (ಇ) (ಈ) u (ಉ) (ಊ)
Mid e (ಎ) (ಏ) o (ಒ) (ಓ)
Open a (ಅ) (ಆ)
  • /ɐ/ and /aː/ are phonetically central [ɐ, äː]. /ɐ/ may be as open as /aː/ ([ä]) or higher [ɐ].
  • The vowels /i iː e eː/ may be preceded by /j/ and the vowels /u uː o oː/ may be preceded by /ʋ/ when they are in an initial position.
  • The short vowels /a i u e o/, when in an initial or a medial position tend to be pronounced as [ɐ ɪ ʊ ɛ ɔ]. In a final position, this phenomenon occurs less frequently.
  • /æː/ occurs in English loans but can be switched with /aː/ or /ja:/.[147]

At around the 8th century, Kannada raised the vowels e, o to i, u when next to high vowels, before written literature emerged in the language, e.g. Kn. kivi, Ta. cevi, Te. cevi "ear".[150]

Grammar

The canonical word order of Kannada is SOV (subject–object–verb), typical of Dravidian languages. Kannada is a highly inflected language with three genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter or common) and two numbers (singular and plural). It is inflected for gender, number and tense, among other things. The most authoritative known book on old Kannada grammar is Shabdhamanidarpana by Keshiraja. The first available Kannada book, a treatise on poetics, rhetoric and basic grammar is the Kavirajamarga from 850 AD.

The most influential account of Kannada grammar is Keshiraja's Shabdamanidarpana (c. 1260 AD).[151][152] The earlier grammatical works include portions of Kavirajamarga (a treatise on alańkāra) of the 9th century, and Kavyavalokana and Karnatakabhashabhushana (both authored by Nagavarma II in the first half of the 12th century).[152]

Compound bases

Compound bases, called samāsa in Kannada, are a set of two or more words compounded together.[153] There are several types of compound bases, based on the rules followed for compounding. The types of compound bases or samāsas: tatpurusha, karmadhāraya, dvigu, bahuvreehi, anshi, dvandva, kriya and gamaka samāsa.[clarification needed] Examples: taṅgāḷi, hemmara, kannusanne.

Pronouns

In many ways the third-person pronouns are more like demonstratives than like the other pronouns. They are pluralised like nouns and the first- and second-person pronouns have different ways to distinguish number.[154]

Sample text

The given sample text is Article 1 from the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights.[155]

ಎಲ್ಲಾ

Ellā

ಮಾನವರೂ

mānavarū

ಸ್ವತಂತ್ರರಾಗಿಯೇ

svatantrarāgiyē

ಹುಟ್ಟಿದ್ದಾರೆ.

huṭṭiddāre.

ಹಾಗೂ

Hāgū

ಘನತೆ

ghanate

ಮತ್ತು

mattu

ಅಧಿಕಾರಗಳಲ್ಲಿ

adhikāragaḷalli

ಸಮಾನರಾಗಿದ್ದಾರೆ.

samānarāgiddāre.

ತಿಳಿವು

Tiḷivu

ಮತ್ತು

mattu

ಅಂತಃಕರಣಗಳನ್ನು

antaḥkaraṇagaḷannu

ಪಡೆದವರಾದ್ದರಿಂದ,

paḍedavarāddarinda

ಅವರು

avaru

ಒಬ್ಬರಿಗೊಬ್ಬರು

obbarigobbaru

ಸಹೋದರ

sahōdara

ಭಾವದಿಂದ

bhāvadinda

ನಡೆದುಕೊಳ್ಳಬೇಕು.

naḍedukoḷḷabēku.

ಎಲ್ಲಾ ಮಾನವರೂ ಸ್ವತಂತ್ರರಾಗಿಯೇ ಹುಟ್ಟಿದ್ದಾರೆ. ಹಾಗೂ ಘನತೆ ಮತ್ತು ಅಧಿಕಾರಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಸಮಾನರಾಗಿದ್ದಾರೆ. ತಿಳಿವು ಮತ್ತು ಅಂತಃಕರಣಗಳನ್ನು ಪಡೆದವರಾದ್ದರಿಂದ, ಅವರು ಒಬ್ಬರಿಗೊಬ್ಬರು ಸಹೋದರ ಭಾವದಿಂದ ನಡೆದುಕೊಳ್ಳಬೇಕು.

Ellā mānavarū svatantrarāgiyē huṭṭiddāre. Hāgū ghanate mattu adhikāragaḷalli samānarāgiddāre. Tiḷivu mattu antaḥkaraṇagaḷannu paḍedavarāddarinda avaru obbarigobbaru sahōdara bhāvadinda naḍedukoḷḷabēku.

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

See also

References

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Bibliography

  • Bhat, Thirumaleshwara (1993). Govinda Pai. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 978-81-7201-540-4.
  • Garg, Ganga Ram (1992). "Kannada literature". Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World: A-Aj, Volume 1. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. ISBN 978-81-7022-374-0.
  • Kamath, Suryanath U. (2002) [2001]. A concise history of Karnata.k.a. from pre-historic times to the present. Bangalore: Jupiter books. LCCN 80905179. OCLC 7796041.
  • Kittel, F (1993). A Grammar of the Kannada Language Comprising the Three Dialects of the Language (Ancient, Medieval and Modern). New Delhi, Madras: Asian Educational Services. ISBN 978-81-206-0056-0.
  • Kloss and McConnell, Heinz and Grant D. (1978). The Written languages of the world: a survey of the degree and modes of use-vol 2 part1. Université Laval. ISBN 978-2-7637-7186-1.
  • Kuiper, Kathleen, ed. (2011). "Dravidian Studies: Kannada". Understanding India-The Culture of India. New York: Britannica educational Printing. ISBN 978-1-61530-203-1.
  • Narasimhacharya, R. (1988). History of Kannada Literature. New Delhi, Madras: Asian Educational Services. ISBN 978-81-206-0303-5.
  • Narasimhacharya, R. (1934). History of Kannada Language. University of Mysore.
  • Ramesh, K.V. (1984). Chalukyas of Vatapi. New Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan.
  • Rice, E.P. (1982) [1921]. Kannada Literature. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. ISBN 978-81-206-0063-8.
  • Rice, B.L. (2001) [1897]. Mysore Gazetteer Compiled for Government-vol 1. New Delhi, Madras: Asian Educational Services. ISBN 978-81-206-0977-8.
  • Sastri, Nilakanta K.A. (2002) [1955]. A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar. New Delhi: Indian Branch, Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-560686-7.
  • Shapiro and Schiffman, Michael C., Harold F. (1981). Language And Society in South Asia. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN 978-81-208-2607-6.
  • Steever, S. B. (1998). "Kannada". In Steever, S. B. (ed.). The Dravidian Languages. Routledge Language Family Descriptions. London: Routledge. pp. 129–157. ISBN 978-0-415-10023-6.
  • Various (1988). Encyclopaedia of Indian literature-vol 2. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 978-81-260-1194-0.
  • Zvelebil, Kamil (1973). Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India. Leiden, Netherlands: BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-03591-1.

Further reading

  • Masica, Colin P. (1991) [1991]. The Indo-Aryan Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2.
  • Thapar, Romila (2003) [2003]. The Penguin History of Early India. New Delhi: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-302989-2.
  • George M. Moraes (1931), The Kadamba Kula, A History of Ancient and Medieval Karnataka, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, Madras, 1990 ISBN 81-206-0595-0
  • Varadpande, Manohar Laxman (1987) [1987]. History of Indian Theatre. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 978-81-7017-221-5.
  • Robert Zydenbos (2020): A Manual of Modern Kannada. Heidelberg: XAsia Books (Open Access publication in PDF format)

External links

  • "Indian inscriptions-South Indian inscriptions, Vol 20, 18, 17, 15, 11 and 9, Archaeological survey of India, What Is India Publishers (P) Ltd".

  Media related to Kannada language at Wikimedia Commons

kannada, other, uses, disambiguation, kanada, confused, with, canada, ɑː, ಕನ, ನಡ, ˈkɐnːɐɖa, originally, romanised, canarese, dravidian, language, spoken, predominantly, people, karnataka, southwestern, india, with, minorities, neighbouring, states, around, mil. For other uses see Kannada disambiguation and Kanada Not to be confused with Canada Kannada ˈ k ɑː n e d e ˈ k ae n 5 6 ಕನ ನಡ ˈkɐnːɐɖa originally romanised Canarese 7 is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India with minorities in all neighbouring states It has around 47 million native speakers and was additionally a second or third language for around 13 million non native speakers in Karnataka Kannadaಕನ ನಡThe word Kannada in Kannada scriptPronunciation ˈkɐnːɐɖa Native toIndiaRegionKarnatakaEthnicityKannadigasNative speakers43 6 million 2011 1 L2 speakers 15 million 1 Language familyDravidian SouthernTamil Kannada 2 Kannada BadagaKannadaEarly formOld KannadaWriting systemKannada scriptKannada BrailleOfficial statusOfficial language in India KarnatakaRegulated byVarious academies and the government of Karnataka 3 Language codesISO 639 1 span class plainlinks kn span ISO 639 2 span class plainlinks kan span ISO 639 3 a href https iso639 3 sil org code kan class extiw title iso639 3 kan kan a Glottolognucl1305Linguasphere49 EBA aDistribution of Kannada native speakers majority regions in dark blue and minority regions in light blue 4 This article contains IPA phonetic symbols Without proper rendering support you may see question marks boxes or other symbols instead of Unicode characters For an introductory guide on IPA symbols see Help IPA Part of a series onConstitutionally recognised languages of IndiaCategory22 Official Languages of the Indian RepublicAssamese Bengali Bodo Dogri Gujarati Hindi Kannada Kashmiri Konkani Maithili Malayalam Marathi Meitei Manipuri Nepali Odia Punjabi Sanskrit Santali Sindhi Tamil Telugu UrduRelatedEighth Schedule to the Constitution of India Official Languages Commission List of languages by number of native speakers in India Asia portal India portal Language portal Politics portalKannada was the court language of some of the most powerful dynasties of south and central India namely the Kadambas Chalukyas Rashtrakutas Yadava Dynasty or Seunas Western Ganga dynasty Wodeyars of Mysore Nayakas of Keladi 8 Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara empire The official and administrative language of the state of Karnataka 9 it also has scheduled status in India and has been included among the country s designated classical languages 10 11 The Kannada language is written using the Kannada script which evolved from the 5th century Kadamba script Kannada is attested epigraphically for about one and a half millennia and literary Old Kannada flourished in the 6th century Ganga dynasty 12 and during the 9th century Rashtrakuta Dynasty 13 14 Kannada has an unbroken literary history of over a thousand years 15 Kannada literature has been presented with 8 Jnanapith awards the most for any Dravidian language and the second highest for any Indian language 16 17 18 In July 2011 a center for the study of classical Kannada was established as part of the Central Institute of Indian Languages in Mysore to facilitate research related to the language 19 Contents 1 Geographic distribution 2 Development 3 Sanskrit and Prakrit influence 4 History 4 1 Early traces 4 2 Epigraphy 4 3 Coins 5 Literature 5 1 Old Kannada 5 2 Middle Kannada 5 3 Modern Kannada 6 Dialects 7 Writing system 8 Dictionary 9 Phonology 9 1 Consonants 9 2 Vowels 10 Grammar 10 1 Compound bases 10 2 Pronouns 11 Sample text 12 See also 13 References 14 Bibliography 15 Further reading 16 External linksGeographic distribution EditKannada had 43 5 million native speakers in India at the time of the 2011 census It is the main language of the state of Karnataka where it is spoken natively by 40 6 million people or about two thirds of the state s population There are native Kannada speakers in the neighbouring states of Tamil Nadu 1 140 000 speakers Maharashtra 993 000 Andhra Pradesh 533 000 Kerala 78 100 and Goa 67 800 20 It is also spoken as a second and third language by over 12 9 million non native speakers in Karnataka 21 Kannadigas form Tamil Nadu s 3rd biggest linguistic group and add up to about 1 23 million which is 2 2 of Tamil Nadu s total population 22 23 The Malayalam spoken by people of Lakshadweep has many Kannada words 24 In the United States there were 35 900 speakers in 2006 2008 25 a number that had risen to 48 600 by the time of the 2015 census There are 4 000 speakers in Canada according to the 2016 census 9 700 in Australia 2016 census 22 000 in Singapore 2018 estimate 1 and 59 000 in Malaysia 2021 estimate 1 better source needed Development EditKannada is a Southern Dravidian language and according to Sanford B Steever its history can be conventionally divided into three stages Old Kannada Haḷegannaḍa from 450 to 1200 AD Middle Kannada Naḍugannaḍa from 1200 to 1700 and Modern Kannada Hosagannaḍa from 1700 to the present 26 Kannada was influenced to a considerable degree by Sanskrit and Prakrit The scholar Iravatham Mahadevan indicated that Kannada was already a language of rich spoken tradition earlier than the 3rd century BC and based on the native Kannada words found in Prakrit inscriptions of that period Kannada must have been spoken by a broad and stable population 27 28 29 The scholar K V Narayana claims that many tribal languages which are now designated as Kannada dialects could be nearer to the earlier form of the language with lesser influence from other languages 27 Sanskrit and Prakrit influence EditThe sources of influence on literary Kannada grammar appear to be three fold Paṇini s grammar non Paṇinian schools of Sanskrit grammar particularly Katantra and Sakatayana schools and Prakrit grammar 30 Literary Prakrit seems to have prevailed in Karnataka since ancient times The vernacular Prakrit speaking people may have come into contact with Kannada speakers thus influencing their language even before Kannada was used for administrative or liturgical purposes Kannada phonetics morphology vocabulary grammar and syntax show significant influence from these languages 30 31 Some naturalised tadbhava words of Prakrit origin in Kannada are baṇṇa colour derived from vaṇṇa huṇṇime full moon from puṇṇiva Examples of naturalised Sanskrit words in Kannada are varṇa colour purṇime and raya from raja king 32 Kannada also has borrowed Tatsama words such as dina day kōpa anger surya sun mukha face nimiṣa minute 33 History EditEarly traces Edit Main articles Halmidi inscription Kappe Arabhatta Shravanabelagola inscription of Nandisena Tyagada Brahmadeva Pillar Atakur inscription Doddahundi nishidhi inscription and List of people associated with the study of Kannada inscriptions The Halmidi inscription at Halmidi village in old Kannada is usually dated to 450 AD Kadamba Dynasty Old Kannada inscription dated 578 AD Badami Chalukya dynasty outside Badami cave no 3 Old Kannada inscription of c 726 AD discovered in Talakad from the rule of King Shivamara I or Sripurusha Western Ganga Dynasty Old Kannada inscription of the 9th century Rashtrakuta Dynasty at Durga Devi temple in Hampi Karnataka The famous Atakur inscription AD 949 from Mandya district a classical Kannada composition in two parts a fight between a hound and a wild boar and the victory of the Rashtrakutas over the Chola dynasty in the famous battle of Takkolam Old Kannada inscription dated 1057 AD of Western Chalukya King Someshvara I at Kalleshwara Temple Hire Hadagali in Bellary district Old Kannada inscription ascribed to King Vikramaditya VI Western Chalukya Empire dated AD 1112 at the Mahadeva Temple in Itagi Koppal district of Karnataka state Old Kannada inscription of 1220 AD Hoysala Empire at Ishwara temple of Arasikere town in the Hassan district Kannada inscription dated 1509 of King Krishnadevaraya Vijayanagara Empire at the Virupaksha temple in Hampi describes his coronation Kannada inscription dated 1654 at Yelandur with exquisite relief The earliest Kannada inscriptions are from the middle of the 5th century AD but there are a number of earlier texts that may have been influenced by the ancestor language of Old Kannada 34 Iravatam Mahadevan author of a work on early Tamil epigraphy argued that oral traditions in Kannada and Telugu existed much before written documents were produced Although the rock inscriptions of Ashoka were written in Prakrit the spoken language in those regions was Kannada as the case may be He can be quoted as follows 35 If proof were needed to show that Kannada was the spoken language of the region during the early period one needs only to study the large number of Kannada personal names and place names in the early Prakrit inscriptions on stone and copper in Upper South India Kannada was spoken by relatively large and well settled populations living in well organised states ruled by able dynasties like the Satavahanas with a high degree of civilisation There is therefore no reason to believe that these languages had less rich or less expressive oral traditions than Tamil had towards the end of its pre literate period The Ashoka rock edict found at Brahmagiri dated to 250 BC has been suggested to contain words Isila meaning to throw viz an arrow etc in identifiable Kannada 36 37 38 In some 3rd 1st century BC Tamil inscriptions words of Kannada influence such as Naliyura kavuDi and posil were found In a 3rd century AD Tamil inscription there is usage of oppanappa vIran Here the honorific appa to a person s name is an influence from Kannada Another word of Kannada origin is taayviru and is found in a 4th century AD Tamil inscription S Settar studied the sittanavAsal inscription of first century AD as also the inscriptions at tirupparamkunram adakala and neDanUpatti The later inscriptions were studied in detail by Iravatham Mahadevan also Mahadevan argues that the words erumi kavuDi poshil and tAyiyar have their origin in Kannada because Tamil cognates are not available Settar adds the words nADu and iLayar to this list Mahadevan feels that some grammatical categories found in these inscriptions are also unique to Kannada rather than Tamil Both these scholars attribute these influences to the movements and spread of Jainas in these regions These inscriptions belong to the period between the first century BC and fourth century AD These are some examples that are proof of the early usage of a few Kannada origin words in early Tamil inscriptions before the common era and in the early centuries of the common era 39 Pliny the Elder a Roman historian wrote about pirates between Muziris and Nitrias Netravati River called Nitran by Ptolemy He also mentions Barace Barcelore referring to the modern port city of Mangaluru upon its mouth Many of these are Kannada origin names of places and rivers of the Karnataka coast of 1st century AD 40 41 42 The Greek geographer Ptolemy 150 AD mentions places such as Badiamaioi Badami Inde Indi Kalligeris Kalkeri Modogoulla Mudagal Petrigala Pattadakal Hippokoura Huvina Hipparagi Nagarouris Nagur Tabaso Tavasi Tiripangalida Gadahinglai Soubouttou or Sabatha Savadi Banaouase Banavasi Thogorum Tagara Biathana Paithan Sirimalaga Malkhed Aloe Ellapur and Pasage Palasige 43 He mentions a Satavahana king Sire Polemaios who is identified with Sri Pulumayi or Pulumavi whose name is derived from the Kannada word for Puli meaning tiger Some scholars indicate that the name Pulumayi is actually Kannada s Puli Maiyi or One with the body of a tiger indicating native Kannada origin for the Satavahanas 44 Pai identifies all the 10 cities mentioned by Ptolemy 100 170 AD as lying between the river Benda or Binda or Bhima river in the north and Banaouasei Banavasi in the south viz Nagarouris Nagur Tabaso Tavasi Inde Indi Tiripangalida Gadhinglaj Hippokoura Huvina Hipparagi Soubouttou Savadi Sirimalaga Malkhed Kalligeris Kalkeri Modogoulla Mudgal and Petirgala Pattadakal as being located in Northern Karnataka which signify the existence of Kannada place names and the language and culture in the southern Kuntala region during the reign of Vasishtiputra Pulumayi c 85 125 AD i e late 1st century early 2nd century AD who was ruling from Paithan in the north and his son prince Vilivaya kura or Pulumayi Kumara was ruling from Huvina Hipparagi in present Karnataka in the south 45 An early ancestor of Kannada or a related language may have been spoken by Indian traders in Roman era Egypt and it may account for the Indian language passages in the ancient Greek play known as the Charition mime 46 Epigraphy Edit The earliest examples of a full length Kannada language stone inscription silasasana containing Brahmi characters with characteristics attributed to those of proto Kannada in Haḷe Kannaḍa lit Old Kannada script can be found in the Halmidi inscription usually dated c 450 AD indicating that Kannada had become an administrative language at that time The Halmidi inscription provides invaluable information about the history and culture of Karnataka 47 48 49 50 A set of five copper plate inscriptions discovered in Mudiyanur though in the Sanskrit language is in the Pre Old Kannada script older than the Halmidi edict date of 450 AD as per palaeographers Followed by B L Rice leading epigrapher and historian K R Narasimhan following a detailed study and comparison declared that the plates belong to the 4th century i e 338 AD 51 52 53 54 55 56 The Kannada Lion balustrade inscription excavated at the Pranaveshwara temple complex at Talagunda near Shiralakoppa of Shivamogga district dated to 370 AD is now considered the earliest Kannada inscriptions replacing the Halmidi inscription of 450 AD 57 The 5th century poetic Tamatekallu inscription of Chitradurga and the Siragunda inscription from Chikkamagaluru Taluk of 500 AD are further examples 58 59 60 Recent reports indicate that the Old Kannada Gunabhushitana Nishadi inscription discovered on the Chandragiri hill Shravanabelagola is older than Halmidi inscription by about fifty to hundred years and may belong to the period AD 350 400 61 The noted archaeologist and art historian S Shettar is of the opinion that an inscription of the Western Ganga King Kongunivarma Madhava c 350 370 found at Tagarthi Tyagarthi in Shikaripura taluk of Shimoga district is of 350 AD and is also older than the Halmidi inscription 62 63 Current estimates of the total number of existing epigraphs written in Kannada range from 25 000 by the scholar Sheldon Pollock to over 30 000 by Amaresh Datta of the Sahitya Akademi 64 65 Prior to the Halmidi inscription there is an abundance of inscriptions containing Kannada words phrases and sentences proving its antiquity The 543 AD Badami cliff inscription of Pulakesi I is an example of a Sanskrit inscription in old Kannada script 66 67 Kannada inscriptions are not only discovered in Karnataka but also quite commonly in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu Some inscriptions were also found in Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat This indicates the spread of the influence of the language over the ages especially during the rule of large Kannada empires 68 69 70 71 The earliest copper plates inscribed in Old Kannada script and language dated to the early 8th century AD are associated with Alupa King Aluvarasa II from Belmannu the Dakshina Kannada district and display the double crested fish his royal emblem 72 The oldest well preserved palm leaf manuscript in Old Kannada is that of Dhavala It dates to around the 9th century and is preserved in the Jain Bhandar Mudbidri Dakshina Kannada district 73 The manuscript contains 1478 leaves written using ink 73 Coins Edit Some early Kadamba Dynasty coins bearing the Kannada inscription Vira and Skandha were found in Satara collectorate 74 A gold coin bearing three inscriptions of Sri and an abbreviated inscription of king Bhagiratha s name called bhagi c 390 420 AD in old Kannada exists 75 A Kadamba copper coin dated to the 5th century AD with the inscription Srimanaragi in Kannada script was discovered in Banavasi Uttara Kannada district 76 Coins with Kannada legends have been discovered spanning the rule of the Western Ganga Dynasty the Badami Chalukyas the Alupas the Western Chalukyas the Rashtrakutas the Hoysalas the Vijayanagar Empire the Kadamba Dynasty of Banavasi the Keladi Nayakas and the Mysore Kingdom the Badami Chalukya coins being a recent discovery 77 78 79 The coins of the Kadambas of Goa are unique in that they have alternate inscription of the king s name in Kannada and Devanagari in triplicate 80 a few coins of the Kadambas of Hangal are also available 81 Literature EditMain articles Kannada literature List of important milestones in Kannada literature and List of notable epics in the Kannada language Old Kannada Edit Main articles Rashtrakuta literature Western Ganga literature Kannada literature in the Western Chalukya Empire and Hoysala literature Shankha Jain Basadi temple at Lakshmeshwar where the notable Adikavi Pampa wrote the Adipurana in Kannada language The oldest known existing record of Kannada poetry in Tripadi metre is the Kappe Arabhatta record of 7th century AD 48 82 Kavirajamarga by King Nripatunga Amoghavarsha I 850 AD is the earliest existing literary work in Kannada It is a writing on literary criticism and poetics meant to standardise various written Kannada dialects used in literature in previous centuries The book makes reference to Kannada works by early writers such as King Durvinita of the 6th century and Ravikirti the author of the Aihole record of 636 AD 83 84 Since the earliest available Kannada work is one on grammar and a guide of sorts to unify existing variants of Kannada grammar and literary styles it can be safely assumed that literature in Kannada must have started several centuries earlier 83 85 An early extant prose work the Vaḍḍaradhane ವಡ ಡ ರ ಧನ by Shivakotiacharya of 900 AD provides an elaborate description of the life of Bhadrabahu of Shravanabelagola 86 Some of the early writers of prose and verse mentioned in the Kavirajamarga numbering 8 10 stating these are but a few of many but whose works are lost are Vimala or Vimalachandra c 777 Udaya Nagarjuna Jayabandhu Durvinita 6th century and poets including Kaviswara Srivijaya Pandita Chandra Ravi Kirti c 634 and Lokapala 87 88 89 90 91 For fragmentary information on these writers we can refer the work Karnataka Kavi Charite Ancient indigenous Kannada literary compositions of folk poetry like the Chattana and Bedande which preferred to use the Desi metre are said to have survived at least until the date of the Kavirajamarga in 850 AD and had their roots in the early Kannada folk literature These Kannada verse compositions might have been representative of folk songs containing influence of Sanskrit and Prakrit metrical patterns to some extent Kavirajamarga also discusses earlier composition forms peculiar to Kannada the gadyakatha a mixture of prose and poetry the chattana and the bedande poems of several stanzas that were meant to be sung with the optional use of a musical instrument 89 92 93 Amoghavarsha Nripatunga compares the puratana kavigal old Kannada poets who wrote the great Chattana poems in Kannada to the likes of the great Sanskrit poets like Gunasuri Narayana Bharavi Kalidasa Magha etc This Old Kannada work Kavirajamarga itself in turn refers to a Palagannada Old Kannada of much ancient times which is nothing but the Pre Old Kannada and also warns aspiring Kannada writers to avoid its archaisms as per R S Hukkerikar Regarding earlier poems in Kannada the author of Kavirajamarga states that old Kannada is appropriate in ancient poems but insipid in contemporaneous works as per R Narasimhacharya 87 89 94 Gunanandi 900 AD quoted by the grammarian Bhattakalanka and always addressed as Bhagawan the adorable was the author of a logic grammar and sahitya Durvinita 529 579 AD the Ganga king was the pupil of the author of Sabdavatara i e Devanandi Pujyapada Durvinita is said to have written a commentary on the difficult 15th sarga of Bharavi s Kiratarjuniya in Kannada Early Kannada writers regularly mention three poets as of especial eminence among their predecessors Samanta bhadra Kavi Parameshthi and Pujyapada Since later Kannada poets so uniformly name these three as eminent poets it is probable that they wrote in Kannada also Samantabhadra is placed in 2nd century AD by Jain tradition Old Kannada commentaries on some of his works exist He was said to have born in Utkalikagrama and while performing penance in Manuvakahalli he was attacked by a disease called Bhasmaka 87 Pujyapada also called Devanandi was the preceptor of Ganga king Durvinita and belonged to the late 5th to early 6th century AD Kaviparameshthi probably lived in the 4th century AD He may possibly be the same as the Kaviswara referred to in the Kavirajamarga and the Kaviparameswara praised by Chavunda Raya 978 AD and his spiritual teacher Nemichandra 10th century AD all the names possibly being only epithets 95 Kannada works from earlier centuries mentioned in the Kavirajamarga are not yet traced Some ancient Kannada texts now considered extinct but referenced in later centuries are Prabhrita 650 AD by Syamakundacharya Chudamani Crest Jewel 650 AD or earlier by Srivaradhadeva also known as Tumbuluracharya which is a work of 96 000 verse measures and a commentary on logic Tatwartha mahashastra 96 97 98 Other sources date Chudamani to the 6th century or earlier 91 99 An inscription of 1128 AD quotes a couplet by the famous Sanskrit poet Dandin active 680 720 AD highly praising Srivaradhadeva for his Kannada work Chudamani as having produced Saraswati i e learning and eloquence from the tip of his tongue as Siva produced the Ganges from the tip of his top knot Bhattakalanka 1604 CE the great Kannada grammarian refers to Srivaradhadeva s Chudamani as the greatest work in Kannada and as incontestable proof of the scholarly character and value of Kannada literature This makes Srivaradhadeva s time earlier than the 6th 7th century AD 95 Other writers whose works are not extant now but titles of which are known from independent references such as Indranandi s Srutavatara Devachandra s Rajavalikathe 89 Bhattakalanka s Sabdanusasana of 1604 83 writings of Jayakirthi 100 are Syamakundacharya 650 who authored the Prabhrita and Srivaradhadeva also called Tumubuluracharya 650 or earlier who wrote the Chudamani Crest Jewel a 96 000 verse commentary on logic 83 91 99 101 The Karnateshwara Katha a eulogy for King Pulakesi II is said to have belonged to the 7th century 100 the Gajastaka a lost ashtaka eight line verse composition and a work on elephant management by King Shivamara II belonged to the 8th century 102 this served as the basis for 2 popular folk songs Ovanige and Onakevadu which were sung either while pounding corn or to entice wild elephants into a pit Ovam 100 103 104 The Chandraprabha purana by Sri Vijaya a court poet of emperor Amoghavarsha I is ascribed to the early 9th century 89 His writing has been mentioned by Vijayanagara poets Mangarasa III and Doddiah also spelt Doddayya c 1550 AD and praised by Durgasimha c 1025 AD 105 During the 9th century period the Digambara Jain poet Asaga or Asoka authored among other writings Karnata Kumarasambhava Kavya and Varadamana Charitra His works have been praised by later poets although none of his works are available today 90 Gunagankiyam the earliest known prosody in Kannada was referenced in a Tamil work dated to 10th century or earlier Yapparungalakkarigai by Amritasagara Gunanandi an expert in logic Kannada grammar and prose flourished in the 9th century AD 89 91 Around 900 AD Gunavarma I wrote Sudraka and Harivamsa also known as Neminatha Purana In Sudraka he compared his patron Ganga king Ereganga Neetimarga II c 907 921 AD to a noted king called Sudraka 89 102 Jinachandra who is referred to by Sri Ponna c 950 AD as the author of Pujyapada Charita had earned the honorific modern Samantha Bhadra 106 Tamil Buddhist commentators of the 10th century AD in the commentary on Neminatham a Tamil grammatical work make references that show that Kannada literature must have flourished as early as the BC 4th century 107 Around the beginning of the 9th century Old Kannada was spoken from Kaveri to Godavari The Kannada spoken between the rivers Varada and Malaprabha was the pure well of Kannada undefiled 108 The late classical period gave birth to several genres of Kannada literature with new forms of composition coming into use including Ragale a form of blank verse and meters like Sangatya and Shatpadi The works of this period are based on Jain and Hindu principles Two of the early writers of this period are Harihara and Raghavanka trailblazers in their own right Harihara established the Ragale form of composition while Raghavanka popularised the Shatpadi six lined stanza meter 109 A famous Jaina writer of the same period is Janna who expressed Jain religious teachings through his works 110 The Vachana Sahitya tradition of the 12th century is purely native and unique in world literature and the sum of contributions by all sections of society Vachanas were pithy poems on that period s social religious and economic conditions More importantly they held a mirror to the seed of social revolution which caused a radical re examination of the ideas of caste creed and religion Some of the important writers of Vachana literature include Basavanna Allama Prabhu and Akka Mahadevi 111 Emperor Nripatunga Amoghavarsha I of 850 AD recognised that the Sanskrit style of Kannada literature was Margi formal or written form of language and Desi folk or spoken form of language style was popular and made his people aware of the strength and beauty of their native language Kannada In 1112 AD Jain poet Nayasena of Mulugunda Dharwad district in his Champu work Dharmamrita ಧರ ಮ ಮ ತ a book on morals warns writers from mixing Kannada with Sanskrit by comparing it with mixing of clarified butter and oil He has written it using very limited Sanskrit words which fit with idiomatic Kannada In 1235 AD Jain poet Andayya wrote Kabbigara Kava ಕಬ ಬ ಗರ ಕ ವ Poet s Defender also called Sobagina Suggi Harvest of Beauty or Madana Vijaya and Kavana Gella Cupid s Conquest a Champu work in pure Kannada using only indigenous desya Kannada words and the derived form of Sanskrit words tadbhavas without the admixture of Sanskrit words He succeeded in his challenge and proved wrong those who had advocated that it was impossible to write a work in Kannada without using Sanskrit words Andayya may be considered as a protector of Kannada poets who were ridiculed by Sanskrit advocates Thus Kannada is the only Dravidian language which is not only capable of using only native Kannada words and grammar in its literature like Tamil but also use Sanskrit grammar and vocabulary like Telugu Malayalam Tulu etc The Champu style of literature of mixing poetry with prose owes its origins to the Kannada language which was later incorporated by poets into Sanskrit and other Indian languages 103 112 113 114 115 116 Middle Kannada Edit Main articles Kannada literature in Vijayanagara empire and Literature of the Kingdom of Mysore During the period between the 15th and 18th centuries Hinduism had a great influence on Middle Kannada Naḍugannaḍa ನಡ ಗನ ನಡ language and literature Kumara Vyasa who wrote the Karṇaṭa Bharata Kathaman jari ಕರ ಣ ಟ ಭ ರತ ಕಥ ಮ ಜರ was arguably the most influential Kannada writer of this period His work entirely composed in the native Bhamini Shatpadi hexa meter is a sublime adaptation of the first ten books of the Mahabharata 117 During this period the Sanskritic influence is present in most abstract religious scientific and rhetorical terms 118 119 120 During this period several Hindi and Marathi words came into Kannada chiefly relating to feudalism and militia 121 Hindu saints of the Vaishnava sect such as Kanakadasa Purandaradasa Naraharitirtha Vyasatirtha Sripadaraya Vadirajatirtha Vijaya Dasa Gopala Dasa Jagannatha Dasa Prasanna Venkatadasa produced devotional poems in this period 122 Kanakadasa s Ramadhanya Charite ರ ಮಧ ನ ಯ ಚರ ತ is a rare work concerning with the issue of class struggle 123 This period saw the advent of Haridasa Sahitya lit Dasa literature which made rich contributions to Bhakti literature and sowed the seeds of Carnatic music Purandara Dasa is widely considered the Father of Carnatic music 124 125 126 Modern Kannada Edit Main articles Modern Kannada literature and Kannada poetry The Kannada works produced from the 19th century make a gradual transition and are classified as Hosagannaḍa or Modern Kannada Most notable among the modernists was the poet Nandalike Muddana whose writing may be described as the Dawn of Modern Kannada though generally linguists treat Indira Bai or Saddharma Vijayavu by Gulvadi Venkata Raya as the first literary works in Modern Kannada The first modern movable type printing of Canarese appears to be the Canarese Grammar of Carey printed at Serampore in 1817 and the Bible in Canarese of John Hands in 1820 127 The first novel printed was John Bunyan s Pilgrim s Progress along with other texts including Canarese Proverbs The History of Little Henry and his Bearer by Mary Martha Sherwood Christian Gottlob Barth s Bible Stories and a Canarese hymn book 128 Modern Kannada in the 20th century has been influenced by many movements notably Navodaya Navya Navyottara Dalita and Bandaya Contemporary Kannada literature has been highly successful in reaching people of all classes in society Further Kannada has produced a number of prolific and renowned poets and writers such as Kuvempu Bendre and V K Gokak Works of Kannada literature have received eight Jnanpith awards 129 the highest number awarded to any Indian language 130 Dialects EditMain article Kannada dialects There is also a considerable difference between the spoken and written forms of the language Spoken Kannada tends to vary from region to region The written form is more or less consistent throughout Karnataka The Ethnologue reports about 20 dialects of Kannada Among them are Kundagannada spoken exclusively in Kundapura Brahmavara Bynduru and Hebri Sirsi Kannada Primarily spoken in Sirsi and it s neighbouring taluks Nadavar Kannada spoken by Nadavaru Havigannada spoken mainly by Havyaka Brahmins Are Bhashe spoken by Gowda community mainly in Madikeri and Sullia region of Dakshina Kannada Malenadu Kannada Sakaleshpur Coorg Shimoga Chikmagalur Sholaga Gulbarga Kannada Dharawad Kannada etc All of these dialects are influenced by their regional and cultural background The one million Komarpants in and around Goa speak their own dialect of Kannada known as Halegannada They are settled throughout Goa state throughout Uttara Kannada district and Khanapur taluk of Belagavi district Karnataka 131 132 133 The Halakki Vokkaligas of Uttara Kannada and Shimoga districts of Karnataka speak in their own dialect of Kannada called Halakki Kannada or Achchagannada Their population estimate is about 75 000 134 135 136 Ethnologue also classifies a group of four languages related to Kannada which are besides Kannada proper Badaga Holiya Kurumba and Urali 137 The Golars or Golkars are a nomadic herdsmen tribe present in Nagpur Chanda Bhandara Seoni and Balaghat districts of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh speak the Golari dialect of Kannada which is identical to the Holiya dialect spoken by their tribal offshoot Holiyas present in Seoni Nagpur and Bhandara of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra There were around 3 600 speakers of this dialect as per the 1901 census Matthew A Sherring describes the Golars and Holars as a pastoral tribe from the Godavari banks established in the districts around Nagpur in the stony tracts of Ambagarh forests around Ramplee and Sahangadhee Along the banks of the Wainganga they dwell in the Chakurhaitee and Keenee subdivisions 138 The Kurumvars of Chanda district of Maharashtra a wild pastoral tribe 2 200 in number as per the 1901 census spoke a Kannada dialect called Kurumvari The Kurumbas or Kurubas a nomadic shepherd tribe were spread across the Nilgiris Coimbatore Salem North and South Arcots Trichinopoly Tanjore and Pudukottai of Tamil Nadu Cuddapah and Anantapur of Andhra Pradesh Malabar and Cochin of Kerala and South Canara and Coorg of Karnataka and spoke the Kurumba Kannada dialect The Kurumba and Kurumvari dialect both closely related with each other speakers were estimated to be around 11 400 in total as per the 1901 census There were about 34 250 Badaga speakers as per the 1901 census 139 Nasik district of Maharashtra has a distinct tribe called Hatkar Kaanadi people who speak a Kannada Kaanadi dialect with lot of old Kannada words Per Chidananda Murthy they are the native people of Nasik from ancient times which shows that North Maharashtra s Nasik area had Kannada population 1000 years ago 140 141 Kannada speakers formed 0 12 of Nasik district s population as per 1961 census 142 Writing system EditMain articles Kannada alphabet and Kannada braille The language uses forty nine phonemic letters divided into three groups swaragalu vowels thirteen letters vyanjanagalu consonants thirty four letters and yogavaahakagalu neither vowel nor consonant two letters anusvara and visarga The character set is almost identical to that of other Indian languages The Kannada script is almost entirely phonetic but for the sound of a half n which becomes a half m The number of written symbols however is far more than the forty nine characters in the alphabet because different characters can be combined to form compound characters ottakshara Each written symbol in the Kannada script corresponds with one syllable as opposed to one phoneme in languages like English the Kannada script is syllabic Dictionary EditKannada Kannada dictionary has existed in Kannada along with ancient works of Kannada grammar The oldest available Kannada dictionary was composed by the poet Ranna called Ranna Kanda ರನ ನ ಕ ದ in 996 AD Other dictionaries are Abhidhana Vastukosha ಅಭ ದ ನ ವ ಸ ತ ಕ ಶ by Nagavarma 1045 AD Amarakoshada Teeku ಅಮರಕ ಶದ ತ ಕ by Vittala 1300 Abhinavaabhidaana ಅಭ ನವ ಭ ದ ನ by Abhinava Mangaraja 1398 AD and many more 143 A Kannada English dictionary consisting of more than 70 000 words was composed by Ferdinand Kittel 144 G Venkatasubbaiah edited the first modern Kannada Kannada dictionary a 9 000 page 8 volume series published by the Kannada Sahitya Parishat He also wrote a Kannada English dictionary and a kliṣtapadakōsa ಕ ಲ ಷ ಟಪ ದಕ ಶ a dictionary of difficult words 145 146 Phonology Edit source source Spoken Kannada Kannada has 34 consonants and 10 vowels Consonants Edit Labial Dental Alveolar Retroflex Post alv Palatal Velar GlottalNasal m ಮ n ನ ɳ ಣ ɲ ಞ ŋ ಙ Stop Affricate voiceless p ಪ t ತ ʈ ಟ tʃ ಚ k ಕ aspirated pʰ ಫ tʰ ಥ ʈʰ ಠ tʃʰ ಛ kʰ ಖ voiced b ಬ d ದ ɖ ಡ dʒ ಜ ɡ ಗ breathy bʱ ಭ dʱ ಧ ɖʱ ಢ dʒʱ ಝ ɡʱ ಘ Fricative s ಸ ʂ ಷ ʃ ಶ h ಹ Approximant ʋ ವ l ಲ ɭ ಳ j ಯ Trill r ರ Most consonants can be geminated Aspirated consonants never occur in native vocabulary The only exception is the number 9 which can be written with a bʱ as in ಒ ಭತ ತ However it is usually written with a b as in ಒ ಬತ ತ The aspiration of consonants depends entirely on the speaker and many do not do it in non formal situations The alveolar trill r may be pronounced as an alveolar tap ɾ The voiceless retroflex sibilant ʂ is commonly pronounced as a ʃ except in consonant clusters with retroflex consonants There are also the consonants f z which occur in recent English and Perso Arabic loans but they may be replaced by the consonants pʰ dʒ respectively by speakers 147 Additionally Kannada included the following phonemes which dropped out of common usage in the 12th and 18th century respectively r ಱ ṟ the alveolar trill ɻ ೞ ḻ the retroflex central approximant Old Kannada had an archaic phoneme ɻ under retroflexes in early inscriptions which merged with ɭ and it maintained the contrast between r lt PD t and ɾ from lt PD r Both merged in Medieval Kannada 147 In old Kannada at around 10th 14th century many of the initial p debuccalized into a h e g OlKn pattu MdKn hattu ten 148 Kannada lacks the palatalization of k s before front vowels which was done by Tamil Malayalam languages and independently by Telugu e g Kn kivi Ta cevi Te cevi ear 149 Vowels Edit Front Central Backshort long short long short longClose i ಇ iː ಈ u ಉ uː ಊ Mid e ಎ eː ಏ o ಒ oː ಓ Open a ಅ aː ಆ ɐ and aː are phonetically central ɐ aː ɐ may be as open as aː a or higher ɐ The vowels i iː e eː may be preceded by j and the vowels u uː o oː may be preceded by ʋ when they are in an initial position The short vowels a i u e o when in an initial or a medial position tend to be pronounced as ɐ ɪ ʊ ɛ ɔ In a final position this phenomenon occurs less frequently aeː occurs in English loans but can be switched with aː or ja 147 At around the 8th century Kannada raised the vowels e o to i u when next to high vowels before written literature emerged in the language e g Kn kivi Ta cevi Te cevi ear 150 Grammar EditMain article Kannada grammar The canonical word order of Kannada is SOV subject object verb typical of Dravidian languages Kannada is a highly inflected language with three genders masculine feminine and neuter or common and two numbers singular and plural It is inflected for gender number and tense among other things The most authoritative known book on old Kannada grammar is Shabdhamanidarpana by Keshiraja The first available Kannada book a treatise on poetics rhetoric and basic grammar is the Kavirajamarga from 850 AD The most influential account of Kannada grammar is Keshiraja s Shabdamanidarpana c 1260 AD 151 152 The earlier grammatical works include portions of Kavirajamarga a treatise on alankara of the 9th century and Kavyavalokana and Karnatakabhashabhushana both authored by Nagavarma II in the first half of the 12th century 152 Compound bases Edit Compound bases called samasa in Kannada are a set of two or more words compounded together 153 There are several types of compound bases based on the rules followed for compounding The types of compound bases or samasas tatpurusha karmadharaya dvigu bahuvreehi anshi dvandva kriya and gamaka samasa clarification needed Examples taṅgaḷi hemmara kannusanne Pronouns Edit In many ways the third person pronouns are more like demonstratives than like the other pronouns They are pluralised like nouns and the first and second person pronouns have different ways to distinguish number 154 Sample text EditThe given sample text is Article 1 from the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights 155 ಎಲ ಲ Ellaಮ ನವರ manavaruಸ ವತ ತ ರರ ಗ ಯ svatantraragiyeಹ ಟ ಟ ದ ದ ರ huṭṭiddare ಹ ಗ Haguಘನತ ghanateಮತ ತ mattuಅಧ ಕ ರಗಳಲ ಲ adhikaragaḷalliಸಮ ನರ ಗ ದ ದ ರ samanaragiddare ತ ಳ ವ Tiḷivuಮತ ತ mattuಅ ತ ಕರಣಗಳನ ನ antaḥkaraṇagaḷannuಪಡ ದವರ ದ ದರ ದ paḍedavaraddarindaಅವರ avaruಒಬ ಬರ ಗ ಬ ಬರ obbarigobbaruಸಹ ದರsahōdaraಭ ವದ ದbhavadindaನಡ ದ ಕ ಳ ಳಬ ಕ naḍedukoḷḷabeku ಎಲ ಲ ಮ ನವರ ಸ ವತ ತ ರರ ಗ ಯ ಹ ಟ ಟ ದ ದ ರ ಹ ಗ ಘನತ ಮತ ತ ಅಧ ಕ ರಗಳಲ ಲ ಸಮ ನರ ಗ ದ ದ ರ ತ ಳ ವ ಮತ ತ ಅ ತ ಕರಣಗಳನ ನ ಪಡ ದವರ ದ ದರ ದ ಅವರ ಒಬ ಬರ ಗ ಬ ಬರ ಸಹ ದರ ಭ ವದ ದ ನಡ ದ ಕ ಳ ಳಬ ಕ Ella manavaru svatantraragiye huṭṭiddare Hagu ghanate mattu adhikaragaḷalli samanaragiddare Tiḷivu mattu antaḥkaraṇagaḷannu paḍedavaraddarinda avaru obbarigobbaru sahōdara bhavadinda naḍedukoḷḷabeku All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood See also Edit India portal Languages portalBangalore Kannada Gokak agitation Hermann Mogling Kannada cinema Kannada dialects Kannada flag Kannada in computing Kuvempu List of Kannada language radio stations List of Karnataka literature List of languages by number of native speakers in India Siribhoovalaya Timeline of Karnataka YakshaganaReferences Edit a b c d Kannada at Ethnologue 25th ed 2022 Zvelebil fig 36 and Krishnamurthy fig 37 in Shapiro and Schiffman 1981 pp 95 96 The Karnataka 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Avinasha 28 December 2021 Ancient copper plates of Kannada older than Halmidi inscription are in Kolar ಕ ಲ ರದಲ ಲ ದ ಹಲ ಮ ಡ ಶ ಸನಕ ಕ ತಲ ಪ ರ ಚ ನವ ದ ಕನ ನಡ ಭ ಷ ಯ ತ ಮ ರದ ಪತ ರ Vijay Karnataka in Kannada Retrieved 15 April 2022 Rice Benjamin Lewis 1905 Epigraphia Carnatica Inscriptions in the Kolar District Mysore Government Central Press pp 111 113 Kannada inscription at Talagunda of 370 CE may replace Halmidi inscription as the oldest Deccan Herald R Narasimhacharya 1988 p 6 Rice E P 1921 p 13 Govinda Pai in Bhat 1993 p 102 Mysore scholar deciphers Chandragiri inscription The Hindu Chennai India 20 September 2008 Archived from the original on 22 September 2008 Retrieved 20 September 2008 HALMIDI INSCRIPTION Centre for classical Kannada Central Institute for Indian Languages Archived from the original on 6 May 2013 Retrieved 25 March 2012 HISTORIAN S STUDY PUSHES EARLIEST RECORD OF KANNADA WRITING BACK BY A CENTURY The antiquity of Kannada 10 March 2013 Datta Amaresh Encyclopaedia of Indian literature vol 2 p 1717 1988 Sahitya Akademi ISBN 81 260 1194 7 Sheldon Pollock in Dehejia Vidya The Body Adorned Sacred and Profane in Indian Art p 5 chapter The body as Leitmotif 2013 Columbia University Press ISBN 978 0 231 14028 7 Kamath 2001 p58 Azmathulla Shariff 14 February 2018 Badami Chalukyans magical transformation Deccan Herald Archived from the original on 7 October 2006 Retrieved 25 November 2006 Kamath 2001 p83 Sircar 1965 pp 202 4 Luce 1985 pp 62 n 16 Guy John 1996 A WARRIOR RULER STELE FROM SRI KSETRA PYU BURMA PDF Journal of The Siam Society Siamese Heritage Journal of The Siam Society Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Gururaj Bhat in Kamath 2001 p97 a b Mukerjee Shruba 21 August 2005 Preserving voices from the past Sunday Herald Archived from the original on 22 October 2006 Retrieved 11 April 2007 The coins are preserved at the Archaeological Section Prince of Wales Museum of Western India Mumbai Kundangar and Moraes in Moraes 1931 p382 The coin is preserved at the Indian Historical Research Institute St Xavier s College Mumbai Kundangar and Moraes in Moraes 1938 p 382 Dr Gopal director Department of Archaeology and Ancient History 6 February 2006 5th century copper coin discovered at Banavasi The Hindu Chennai India Archived from the original on 26 May 2007 a href Template Cite news html title Template Cite news cite news a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Kamath 2001 p12 p57 Govindaraya Prabhu S Indian coins Dynasties of South Prabhu s Web Page on Indian Coinage 1 November 2001 Archived from the original on 1 September 2006 Retrieved 27 November 2006 Harihariah Oruganti Vice President Madras Coin Society Vijayanagar Coins Catalogue Retrieved 27 November 2006 This shows that the native vernacular of the Goa Kadambas was Kannada Moraes 1931 p384 Two coins of the Hangal Kadambas are preserved at the Royal Asiatic Society Mumbai one with the Kannada inscription Saarvadhari and other with Nakara Moraes 1931 p385 Kamath 2001 p 67 a b c d Sastri 1955 p355 Kamath 2001 p90 Jyotsna Kamat History of the Kannada Literature I Kamat s Potpourri 4 November 2006 Kamat s Potpourri Retrieved 25 November 2006 Sastri 1955 p356 a b c Rice Benjamin Lewis April 1890 Early History of Kannaḍa Literature Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland Cambridge University Press 254 256 245 262 JSTOR 25208973 Rao in Datta 1994 pp 2278 2283 a b c d e f g R Narasimhacharya 1934 pp 2 4 5 12 18 29 a b Warder 1988 pp 240 241 a b c d 6th century Sanskrit poet Dandin praised Srivaradhadeva s writing as having produced Saraswati from the tip of his tongue just as Shiva produced the Ganges from the tip of his top knot Rice E P 1921 pp 25 28 Garg 1987 vol 4 Nagaraj in Sheldon 2003 p 333 Hukkerikar Ramarao S 1955 Karnataka Darshana R S Hukkerikar sole distributor Popular Book Depot pp 85 87 178 205 a b Rice Edward Peter 1915 A History of Kanarese Literature Oxford University Press pp 22 26 The seventeenth century Kannada grammarian Bhattakalanka wrote about the Chudamani as a milestone in the literature of the Kannada language Sastri 1955 p355 Jyotsna Kamat History of the Kannada Literature I Kamat s Potpourri 4 November 2006 Kamat s Potpourri Retrieved 25 November 2006 Narasimhacharya 1988 pp 4 5 a b Rice B L 1897 pp 496 497 a b c Chidananda Murthy in Kamath 1980 p 50 67 Mugali 1975 p 13 a b Kamath 2001 p50 p67 a b Datta Amaresh 1987 Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature A Devo Sahitya Akademi 1987 ISBN 9788126018031 Sahitya Akademi 1987 p 248 The author and his work were praised by the latter day poet Durgasimha of AD 1025 R Narasimhacharya 1988 p18 Benjamin Lewis Rice 1985 p xv K Appadurai The place of Kannada and Tamil in India s national culture INTAMM Archived from the original on 15 April 2007 Retrieved 25 November 2006 Narasimhacharya R 1999 History of Kannada Language Asian Educational Services 1942 ISBN 9788120605596 Sastri 1955 pp 361 2 Narasimhacharya 1988 p20 Sastri 1955 p361 Nagendra Dr 1988 Indian Literature Prabhat Prakashan 1988 Narasimhacharya Ramanujapuram 1988 History of Kannada Literature Readership Lectures Asian Educational Services 1988 ISBN 9788120603035 andayya pure kannada Hari Saravanan V 2014 Gods Heroes and their Story Tellers Intangible cultural heritage of South India Notion Press 2014 ISBN 9789384391492 Rice Edward P 1921 A History of Kannada Literature Oxford University Press 1921 14 15 Rice Edward P 1982 A History of Kannada Literature Asian Educational Services pp 15 44 ISBN 9788120600638 Sastri 1955 p364 Literature in all Dravidian languages owes a great deal to Sanskrit the magic wand whose touch raised each of the languages from a level of patois to that of a literary idiom Sastri 1955 p309 Takahashi Takanobu 1995 Tamil love poetry and poetics Brill s Indological library v 9 Leiden E J Brill p16 18 The author endeavours to demonstrate that the entire Sangam poetic corpus follows the Kavya form of Sanskrit poetry Tieken Herman Joseph Hugo 2001 Kavya in South India old Tamil Caṅkam poetry Groningen Egbert Forsten J Bucher Ferdinand Kittel 1899 A Kannaḍa English school dictionary chiefly based on the labours of the Rev Dr F Kittel Basel Mission Book amp Tract Depository Sastri 1955 pp 364 365 The writing exalts the grain Ragi above all other grains that form the staple foods of much of modern Karnataka Sastri 1955 p365 Moorthy Vijaya 2001 Romance of the Raga Abinav publications p 67 ISBN 978 81 7017 382 3 Iyer 2006 p93 Sastri 1955 p365 Report on the administration of Mysore Page 90 Mysore 1864 There is no authentic record of the casting of the first Early Canarese printing Canarese type but a Canarese Grammar by Carey printed at Serampore in 1817 is extant About the same time a translation of the Scriptures was printed Missions in south India Page 56 Joseph Mullens 1854 Among those of the former are tracts on Caste on the Hindu gods Canarese Proverbs Henry and his Bearer the Pilgrim s Progress Barth s Bible Stories a Canarese hymn book Special Correspondent 20 September 2011 Jnanpith for Kambar The Hindu Welcome to Bhartiya Jnanpith jnanpith net Archived from the original on 13 October 2007 Retrieved 7 November 2008 Buchanan Francis Hamilton 1807 A Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore Canara and Malabar Volume 3 London Cadell ISBN 9781402146756 Naik Vinayak K Naik Yogesh 6 April 2007 HISTORY OF KOMARPANTHS hindu kshatriya komarpanth Atom GOA ON THE THRESHOLD OF THE 20TH CENTURY PDF ShodhGanga 1995 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Kamat K L Halakki Farmers of Uttara Kannada Kamat s Potpourri Uday Savita 18 August 2010 Tribes of Uttara Kannada The Halakki Tribe Buda Folklore K Bhumika 29 October 2014 Beauty in all its glory The Hindu Kannada The Record News DSAL Chicago Sherring Matthew A 1879 Hindu Tribes and Castes As Represented in Benares with Illustrations Thacker pp 113 114 Grierson George A 1906 Linguistic Survey of India dsal uchicago edu Government of India pp 362 406 Retrieved 14 May 2022 S Kiran Kumar 17 July 2015 The Kannada History of Maharashtra Region between Godavari Cauvery was once Karnataka Deccan Herald 5 November 2014 The People Population Nasik District Gazetteers Government of Maharashtra Ucida Norihiko Rajapurohit B B 2013 Kannada English etymological dictionary PDF Tokyo Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa Tokyo University of Foreign Studies ISBN 978 4 86337 128 6 OCLC 906810377 Archived PDF from the original on 21 October 2021 Retrieved 18 November 2021 Manjulakshi amp Bhat Kannada Dialect Dictionaries and Dictionaries in Subregional Languages of Karnataka Language in India Volume 5 9 September 2005 Central Institute of Indian Languages University of Mysore Retrieved 11 April 2007 Muralidhara Khajane 22 August 2012 Today s Paper NATIONAL 100 years on words never fail him The Hindu Johnson Language 20 August 2012 Language in India Kannada threatened at home The Economist Retrieved 12 February 2013 a b c Krishnamurti Bhadriraju 2003 The Dravidian Languages Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 77111 5 Krishnamurti 2003 p 120 Krishnamurti 2003 p 128 Krishnamurti 2003 p 106 Studies in Indian History Epigraphy and Culture By Govind Swamirao Gai pp 315 a b A Grammar of the Kannada Language F Kittel 1993 p 3 Ferdinand Kittel pp 30 Bhat D N S 2004 Pronouns Oxford Oxford University Press pp 13 14 Universal Declaration of Human Rights www un org 6 October 2015 Retrieved 29 March 2020 Bibliography EditBhat Thirumaleshwara 1993 Govinda Pai Sahitya Akademi ISBN 978 81 7201 540 4 Garg Ganga Ram 1992 Kannada literature Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World A Aj Volume 1 New Delhi Concept Publishing Company ISBN 978 81 7022 374 0 Kamath Suryanath U 2002 2001 A concise history of Karnata k a from pre historic times to the present Bangalore Jupiter books LCCN 80905179 OCLC 7796041 Kittel F 1993 A Grammar of the Kannada Language Comprising the Three Dialects of the Language Ancient Medieval and Modern New Delhi Madras Asian Educational Services ISBN 978 81 206 0056 0 Kloss and McConnell Heinz and Grant D 1978 The Written languages of the world a survey of the degree and modes of use vol 2 part1 Universite Laval ISBN 978 2 7637 7186 1 Kuiper Kathleen ed 2011 Dravidian Studies Kannada Understanding India The Culture of India New York Britannica educational Printing ISBN 978 1 61530 203 1 Narasimhacharya R 1988 History of Kannada Literature New Delhi Madras Asian Educational Services ISBN 978 81 206 0303 5 Narasimhacharya R 1934 History of Kannada Language University of Mysore Ramesh K V 1984 Chalukyas of Vatapi New Delhi Agam Kala Prakashan Rice E P 1982 1921 Kannada Literature New Delhi Asian Educational Services ISBN 978 81 206 0063 8 Rice B L 2001 1897 Mysore Gazetteer Compiled for Government vol 1 New Delhi Madras Asian Educational Services ISBN 978 81 206 0977 8 Sastri Nilakanta K A 2002 1955 A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar New Delhi Indian Branch Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 560686 7 Shapiro and Schiffman Michael C Harold F 1981 Language And Society in South Asia New Delhi Motilal Banarsidass Publishers ISBN 978 81 208 2607 6 Steever S B 1998 Kannada In Steever S B ed The Dravidian Languages Routledge Language Family Descriptions London Routledge pp 129 157 ISBN 978 0 415 10023 6 Various 1988 Encyclopaedia of Indian literature vol 2 Sahitya Akademi ISBN 978 81 260 1194 0 Zvelebil Kamil 1973 Smile of Murugan On Tamil Literature of South India Leiden Netherlands BRILL ISBN 978 90 04 03591 1 Further reading EditMasica Colin P 1991 1991 The Indo Aryan Languages Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 29944 2 Thapar Romila 2003 2003 The Penguin History of Early India New Delhi Penguin Books ISBN 978 0 14 302989 2 George M Moraes 1931 The Kadamba Kula A History of Ancient and Medieval Karnataka Asian Educational Services New Delhi Madras 1990 ISBN 81 206 0595 0 Varadpande Manohar Laxman 1987 1987 History of Indian Theatre Abhinav Publications ISBN 978 81 7017 221 5 Robert Zydenbos 2020 A Manual of Modern Kannada Heidelberg XAsia Books Open Access publication in PDF format External links Edit Indian inscriptions South Indian inscriptions Vol 20 18 17 15 11 and 9 Archaeological survey of India What Is India Publishers P Ltd Kannada at Wikipedia s sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Textbooks from Wikibooks Phrasebook from Wikivoyage Kannada Edition from Wikipedia Media related to Kannada language at Wikimedia Commons Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Kannada amp oldid 1131640699, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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