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Our Lady of Guadalupe

November 11, 2023

This article is about the Mexican Marian title. For the Spanish Marian title, see Our Lady of Guadalupe in Extremadura.

19°29′04″N 99°07′02″W / 19.48444°N 99.11722°W / 19.48444; -99.11722

Our Lady of Guadalupe
Empress of the Americas
Patroness of Latin America
Queen of Mexico
LocationTepeyac Hill, Mexico City
Date9–12 December 1531 O.S.
(19-22 December 1531 N.S.)
WitnessJuan Diego
Juan Bernardino
TypeMarian apparition
ApprovalOctober 12, 1895 (canonical coronation granted by Pope Leo XIII)
Venerated inCatholic Church
ShrineBasilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe, Tepeyac Hill, Mexico City, Mexico
PatronageMexico City (1737)
New Spain (1754 by Pope Benedict XIV)
Ponce, Puerto Rico (1757)
Latin America (October 12, 1945)
Mexico and the Americas (2000 by Pope John Paul II)
Cebu (2002 by Ricardo Vidal)
AttributesA pregnant woman, eyes downcast, hands clasped in prayer, clothed in a pink tunic robe covered by a cerulean mantle with a black sash, emblazoned with eight-point stars; eclipsing a blazing sun while standing atop a darkened crescent moon, a cherubic angel carrying her train
Feast day12 December (Feast of Our Lady of Guadalupe)
Detail of the face, showing the discoloration on the top part of the head, where a crown is said to have been present at some point, now obscured by an enlarged frame for unknown reasons

Our Lady of Guadalupe (Spanish: Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe), also known as the Virgin of Guadalupe (Spanish: Virgen de Guadalupe), is a Catholic title of Mary, mother of Jesus associated with a series of five Marian apparitions to a Mexican peasant named Juan Diego and his uncle, Juan Bernardino, which are believed to have occurred in December 1531.

A venerated image on a cloak (tilmahtli) associated with the apparition is enshrined within the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Mexico City. Pope Leo XIII granted the image a decree of canonical coronation on February 8, 1887, and it was pontifically crowned on October 12, 1895. The basilica is the most-visited Catholic shrine in the world, and the world's third most-visited sacred site.[1][2]

Description of Marian apparitions edit

According to the Nican Mopohua, included in the 17th-century Huei tlamahuiçoltica, written in Nahuatl, the Virgin Mary appeared four times to Juan Diego, a Chichimec peasant, and once to his uncle, Juan Bernardino. The first apparition occurred on the morning of Saturday, December 9, 1531 (Julian calendar, which is December 19 on the (proleptic) Gregorian calendar in present use). Juan Diego experienced a vision of a young woman at a place called the Hill of Tepeyac, which later became part of Villa de Guadalupe, in a suburb of Mexico City.[3]

According to the accounts, the woman, speaking to Juan Diego in Nahuatl, his first language and the language of the former Aztec Empire, identified herself as the Mary, "mother of the very true deity".[4] She was said to have asked for a church to be erected at that site in her honor.[3]

Based on her words, Juan Diego then sought the Archbishop of Mexico City, Juan de Zumárraga, to tell him what had happened. Not unexpectedly, the Archbishop did not believe Diego. Later the same day, Juan Diego saw the young woman again (the second apparition), and she asked him to continue insisting.[3]

The next day, Sunday, December 10, 1531, in the Julian calendar, Juan Diego spoke to the Archbishop a second time. The latter instructed him to return to Tepeyac and to ask the woman for a truly acceptable, miraculous sign to prove her identity. Later that day, the third apparition appeared when Juan Diego returned to Tepeyac; encountering the same woman, he reported to her the Archbishop's request for a sign, which she consented to provide on the next day (December 11).[5]

On Monday, December 11, however, Juan Diego’s uncle fell ill and he was obliged to attend to him. In the early hours of Tuesday, December 12, as Juan Bernardino's condition deteriorated, Juan Diego journeyed to Tlatelolco in search of a Catholic priest to hear Juan Bernardino's confession and help minister to him on his deathbed.[3]

 
Preliminary drawing of the Mexican Coat of arms, c. 1743

To avoid being delayed by the Virgin and ashamed at having failed to meet her on Monday as agreed, Juan Diego chose another route around Tepeyac Hill, yet the Virgin intercepted him and asked where he was going (fourth apparition); Juan Diego explained what had happened and the Virgin gently chided him for not having made recourse to her. In the words which have become the most famous phrase of the Guadalupe apparitions and are inscribed above the main entrance to the Basilica of Guadalupe, she asked "¿No estoy yo aquí que soy tu madre?" ("Am I not here, I who am your mother?"). She assured him that Juan Bernardino had now recovered and told him to gather flowers from the summit of Tepeyac Hill, which was normally barren, especially in the cold of December. Juan Diego obeyed her instruction and he found Castilian roses, not native to Mexico, blooming there.[3]

According to the story, the Virgin arranged the flowers in Juan Diego's tilmàtli or cloak, and when Juan Diego opened his cloak later that day before Archbishop Zumárraga, the flowers fell to the floor, revealing on the fabric the image of the Virgin.[3]

The next day, December 13, Juan Diego found his uncle fully recovered as the Virgin had assured him, and Juan Bernardino recounted that he also had seen her after praying at his bedside (fifth apparition); that she had instructed him to inform the Archbishop of this apparition and of his miraculous cure; and that she had told him she desired to be known under the title of "Guadalupe".[3]

The Archbishop kept Juan Diego's mantle, first in his private chapel and then in the church on public display, where it attracted great attention. On December 26, 1531, a procession formed to transfer the miraculous image back to Tepeyac Hill where it was installed in a small, hastily erected chapel.[6] During this procession, the first miracle was allegedly performed when a native was mortally wounded in the neck by an arrow shot by accident during some stylized martial displays performed in honor of the Virgin. In great distress, the natives carried him before the Virgin's image and pleaded for his life. Upon the arrow being withdrawn, the victim fully and immediately recovered.[7]

Messages edit

The words spoken by Our Lady to Saint Juan Diego include:[8]

First Saturday edit

Juanito, the most humble of my sons, where are you going? Know and understand well, you the most humble of my son, that I am the ever virgin Holy Mary, Mother of the True God for whom we live, of the Creator of all things, Lord of heaven and the earth. I wish that a temple be erected here quickly, so I may therein exhibit and give all my love, compassion, help, and protection, because I am your merciful mother, to you, and to all the inhabitants on this land and all the rest who love me, invoke and confide in me; listen there to their lamentations, and remedy all their miseries, afflictions and sorrows. And to accomplish what my clemency pretends, go to the palace of the bishop of Mexico, and you will say to him that I manifest my great desire, that here on this plain a temple be built to me; you will accurately relate all you have seen and admired, and what you have heard. Be assured that I will be most grateful and will reward you, because I will make you happy and worthy of recompense for the effort and fatigue in what you will obtain of what I have entrusted. Behold, you have heard my mandate, my humble son; go and put forth all your effort.

Second Saturday edit

Hark, my son the least, you must understand that I have many servants and messengers, to whom I must entrust the delivery of my message, and carry my wish, but it is of precise detail that you yourself solicit and assist and that through your mediation my wish be complied. I earnestly implore, my son the least, and with sternness I command that you again go tomorrow and see the bishop. You go in my name, and make known my wish in its entirety that he has to start the erection of a temple which I ask of him. And again tell him that I, in person, the ever-virgin Holy Mary, Mother of God, sent you.

Sunday edit

Well and good, my little dear, you will return here tomorrow, so you may take to the bishop the sign he has requested. With this he will believe you, and in this regard he will not doubt you nor will he be suspicious of you; and know, my little dear, that I will reward your solicitude and effort and fatigue spent of my behalf. Lo! go now. I will await you here tomorrow.

Tuesday edit

Hear me and understand well, my son the least, that nothing should frighten or grieve you. Let not your heart be disturbed. Do not fear that sickness, nor any other sickness or anguish. Am I not here, who is your Mother? Are you not under my protection? Am I not your health? Are you not happily within my fold? What else do you wish? Do not grieve nor be disturbed by anything. Do not be afflicted by the illness of your uncle, who will not die now of it. Be assured that he is now cured. Climb, my son the least, to the top of the hill; there where you saw me and I gave you orders, you will find different flowers. Cut them, gather them, assemble them, then come and bring them before my presence. My son the least, this diversity of roses is the proof and the sign which you will take to the bishop. You will tell him in my name that he will see in them my wish and that he will have to comply to it. You are my ambassador, most worthy of all confidence. Rigorously I command you that only before the presence of the bishop will you unfold your mantle and disclose what you are carrying. You will relate all and well; you will tell that I ordered you to climb to the hilltop, to go and cut flowers; and all that you saw and admired, so you can induce the prelate to give his support, with the aim that a temple be built and erected as I have asked.

Pontifical approbations edit

  • Pope Benedict XIV — in the papal bull Non est Equidem of May 25, 1754, declared Our Lady of Guadalupe patroness of what was then named "New Spain", corresponding to Spanish Central and Northern America, and included liturgical texts for the Catholic Mass and the Roman Breviary in her honor.
  • Pope Leo XIII — granted a decree of coronation towards the original Mexican relic on February 8, 1887. The coronation rites were carried out on October 12, 1895. Through the Sacred Congregation of Rites, he issued an addendum epistle of endorsement on March 6, 1894.
  • Pope Pius X — declared her patroness of the Republic of Mexico on June 16, 1910, via decree Gratia Quae, signed and notarized by Cardinal Rafael Merry del Val.[9]
  • Pope Pius XI granted the following:
    • Granted a decree of canonical coronation for a namesake image enshrined in Santa Fe, Argentina, on August 10, 1924, executed by Archbishop Filippo Cortesi on April 22, 1928.
    • Issued a decree confirming the patronage of Guadalupe for the Diocese of Coro, Venezuela, at the “Second Marian National Congress” on December 12, 1928.
    • Declared Our Lady of Guadalupe as the "Heavenly Patroness of the Philippines" on July 16, 1935, signed by Vatican Secretary of State Cardinal Eugenio Pacelli.[10][11]
  • Pope Pius XII granted the following:
    • Rescinded the former decrees of July 1935 in replacement of Impositi Nobis on September 12, 1942,[12] and further redeclared it again via Quidquid ad Dilatandum on July 16, 1958,[13] in preference of the Patronal title "Immaculate Conception" for the Philippine islands.
    • Mentioned the venerated image via public radio address honoring its fiftieth anniversary of coronation on October 12, 1945.[14]
    • Granted a pontifical decree of coronation on 4 March 1949 towards a namesake image manufactured by the Vatican Mosaic studio, which was crowned by the Archbishop of Paris, Cardinal Emmanuel Célestin Suhard on April 26, 1949.
  • Pope Paul VI granted the following:
    • Granted the image a Golden Rose on March 20, 1966. In accordance with tradition, he blessed the rose, the work of the Roman sculptor Giuseppe Pirrone, on Laetare Sunday, March 20, 1966, and consigned it to Cardinal Carlo Confalonieri as his legate, who presented it at the Basilica on May 31, 1966.[15]
  • Pope John Paul II granted the following:
  • Pope Benedict XVI granted the following:
  • Pope Francis granted the following:
    • Granted the image a second Golden Rose via Cardinal Marc Ouellet for presentation at the Basilica on November 18, 2013.[16]
    • Granted a canonical coronation for the same namesake image in Villa Garcia, Zacatecas,[17] Mexico, on June 14, 2015.
    • Granted a new gold-plated silver crown with an accompanying prayer to the image during his apostolic visit to the Basilica on February 13, 2016. This second crown is stored within the chancery and is not publicly worn by the image enshrined at the altar.

Early history edit

Main article: Juan Diego
 
Virgin of Guadalupe in Monastery of Guadalupe, in Cáceres, Extremadura, Spain, illustrating the example of a black madonna

Origin in Guadalupe, Spain edit

Main article: Our Lady of Guadalupe in Extremadura

The shrine to Our Lady of Guadalupe in Guadalupe, Cáceres, in Extremadura, Spain was the most important of the shrines to the Virgin Mary in the medieval Kingdom of Castile.[18] It is one of the many dark- or black-skinned Madonnas in Spain and is revered in the Monastery of Santa María de Guadalupe, in the town of Guadalupe, from which numerous Spanish conquistadors stem. The name is derived from وَادِي ٱل‎ (wādī al- “valley of the”) + Latin lupum "wolf".

The shrine houses a statue reputed to have been carved by Luke the Evangelist and given to Archbishop Leander of Seville by Pope Gregory I. According to local legend, when Seville was taken by the Moors in 712, a group of priests fled northward and buried the statue in the hills near the Guadalupe River.

At the beginning of the 14th century, the Virgin appeared one day to a humble cowboy named Gil Cordero who was searching for a missing animal in the mountains.[19] Cordero claimed that Mary had appeared to him and ordered him to ask priests to dig at the site of the apparition. Excavating priests rediscovered the hidden statue and built a small shrine around it which became the great Guadalupe monastery.[citation needed]

Origin in Mexico edit

Following the Conquest in 1519–1521, the Marian cult was brought to the Americas and Franciscan friars often leveraged syncretism with existing religious beliefs as an instrument for evangelization. What is purported by some to be the earliest mention of the miraculous apparition of the Virgin is a page of parchment, the Codex Escalada from 1548, which was discovered in 1995 and, according to investigative analysis, dates from the sixteenth century.[20] This document bears two pictorial representations of Juan Diego and the apparition, several inscriptions in Nahuatl referring to Juan Diego by his Aztec name, and the date of his death: 1548, as well as the year that the then named Virgin Mary appeared: 1531. It also contains the glyph of Antonio Valeriano; and finally, the signature of Fray Bernardino de Sahagun which was authenticated by experts from the Banco de Mexico and Charles E. Dibble.[21] Scholarly doubts have been cast on the authenticity of the document.[22]

 
Nican mopohua

A more complete early description of the apparition occurs in a 16-page manuscript called the Nican mopohua, which has been reliably dated in 1556 and was acquired by the New York Public Library in 1880. This document, written in Nahuatl, but in Latin script, tells the story of the apparitions and the supernatural origin of the image. It was probably composed by a native Aztec man, Antonio Valeriano, who had been educated by Franciscans. The text of this document was later incorporated into a printed pamphlet which was widely circulated in 1649.[23][24][25][26]

In spite of these documents, there are no known 16th century written accounts of the Guadalupe vision by the archbishop Juan de Zumárraga.[27] In particular, the canonical account of the vision features archbishop Juan de Zumárraga as a major player in the story, but, although Zumárraga was a prolific writer, there is nothing in his extant writings that can confirm the indigenous story.[28]

The written record suggests the Catholic clergy in 16th century Mexico were deeply divided as to the orthodoxy of the native beliefs springing up around the image of Our Lady of Guadalupe, with the Franciscan order (who then had custody of the chapel at Tepeyac) being strongly opposed to the outside groups, while the Dominicans supported it.[29]

The main promoter of the story was the Dominican Alonso de Montúfar, who succeeded the Franciscan Juan de Zumárraga as archbishop of Mexico. In a 1556 sermon Montúfar commended popular devotion to "Our Lady of Guadalupe", referring to a painting on cloth (the tilma) in the chapel of the Virgin Mary at Tepeyac, where certain miracles had also occurred. Days later, Fray Francisco de Bustamante, local head of the Franciscan order, delivered a sermon denouncing the native belief and believers. He expressed concern that the Catholic Archbishop was promoting a superstitious regard for an indigenous image:[30]

The devotion at the chapel... to which they have given the name Guadalupe was prejudicial to the Indians because they believed that the image itself worked miracles, contrary to what the missionary friars had been teaching them, and because many were disappointed when it did not.

 
The banner of the Mexican conquistador Hernán Cortés from year 1521, which was kept within the Archbishop's villa during the time of the Guadalupe apparitions

Archbishop Montúfar opened an inquiry into the matter at which the Franciscans repeated their position that the image encouraged idolatry and superstition, and four witnesses testified to Bustamante's statement that the image was painted by an Indian, with one witness naming him "the Indian painter Marcos".[31] This could refer to the Aztec painter Marcos Cipac de Aquino, who was active at that time.[32][33]

Prof. Jody Brant Smith, referring to Philip Serna Callahan's examination of the tilma using infrared photography in 1979, wrote: "if Marcos did, he apparently did so without making a preliminary sketches – in itself then seen as a near-miraculous procedure... Cipac may well have had a hand in painting the Image, but only in painting the additions, such as the angel and moon at the Virgin's feet",[34]

Ultimately Archbishop Montúfar, himself a Dominican, decided to end Franciscan custody of the shrine.[35] From then on the shrine was kept and served by diocesan priests under the authority of the archbishop.[36] Moreover, Archbishop Montúfar authorized the construction of a much larger church at Tepeyac, in which the tilma was later mounted and displayed.[citation needed]

In the late 1570s, the Franciscan historian Bernardino de Sahagún denounced the cult at Tepeyac and the use of the name "Tonantzin" or to call her Our Lady in a personal digression in his General History of the Things of New Spain, also known as the "Florentine Codex":

At this place [Tepeyac], [the Indians] had a temple dedicated to the mother of the gods, whom they called Tonantzin, which means Our Mother. There they performed many sacrifices in honor of this goddess ... And now that a church of Our Lady of Guadalupe is built there, they also called her Tonantzin, being motivated by those preachers who called Our Lady, the Mother of God, Tonantzin. While it is not known for certain where the beginning of Tonantzin may have originated, but this we know for certain, that, from its first usage, the word refers to the ancient Tonantzin. And it was viewed as something that should be remedied, for their having [native] name of the Mother of God, Holy Mary, instead of Tonantzin, but Dios inantzin. It appears to be a Satanic invention to cloak idolatry under the confusion of this name, Tonantzin. And they now come to visit from very far away, as far away as before, which is also suspicious, because everywhere there are many churches of Our Lady and they do not go to them. They come from distant lands to this Tonantzin as in olden times.[37]

Sahagún's criticism of the indigenous group seems to have stemmed primarily from his concern about a syncretistic application of the native name Tonantzin to the Catholic Virgin Mary. However, Sahagún often used the same name in his sermons as late as the 1560s.[38]

First printed accounts in Mexico edit

 
Painting Virgin of Guadalupe, c. 1700, featuring a crown on the Virgin's head, later removed. Indianapolis Museum of Art.

One of the first printed accounts of the history of the apparitions and image occurs in Imagen de la Virgen Maria, Madre de Dios de Guadalupe, published in 1648 by Miguel Sánchez, a diocesan priest of Mexico City.[39]

Another account is the Codex Escalada, dating from the sixteenth century, a sheet of parchment recording apparitions of the Virgin Mary and the figure of Juan Diego, which reproduces the glyph of Antonio Valeriano alongside the signature of Fray Bernardino de Sahagún. It contains the following glosses: "1548 Also in that year of 1531 appeared to Cuahtlatoatzin our beloved mother the Lady of Guadalupe in Mexico. Cuahtlatoatzin died worthily"[40]

The next printed account was a 36-page tract in the Nahuatl language, Huei tlamahuiçoltica ("The Great Event"), which was published in 1649. This tract contains a section called the Nican mopohua ("Here it is recounted"), which has been already touched on above. The composition and authorship of the Huei tlamahuiçoltica is assigned by a majority of those scholars to Luis Laso de la Vega, vicar of the sanctuary of Tepeyac from 1647 to 1657.[41] Nevertheless, the most important section of the tract, the Nican Mopohua, appears to be much older. It has been attributed since the late 1600s to Antonio Valeriano (c. 1531–1605), a native Aztec man who had been educated by the Franciscans and who collaborated extensively with Bernardino de Sahagún.[23] A manuscript version of the Nican Mopohua, which is now held by the New York Public Library,[42] appears to be datable to the mid-1500s, and may have been the original work by Valeriano, as that was used by Laso in composing the Huei tlamahuiçoltica. Most authorities agree on the dating and on Valeriano's authorship.[24][25][26]

On the other hand, in 1666, the scholar Luis Becerra Tanco published in Mexico a book about the history of the apparitions under the name Origen milagroso del santuario de Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe, which was republished in Spain in 1675 as Felicidad de Mexico en la admirable aparición de la virgen María de Guadalupe y origen de su milagrosa Imagen, que se venera extramuros de aquella ciudad.[43] In the same way, in 1688, Jesuit Father Francisco de Florencia published La Estrella del Norte de México, giving the history of the same apparitions.[44]

Two separate accounts, one in Nahuatl from Juan Bautista del Barrio de San Juan from the 16th century,[45] and the other in Spanish by Servando Teresa de Mier[46] date the original apparition and native celebration on September 8 of the Julian calendar, but it is also said that the Spaniards celebrate it on December 12 instead.[citation needed]

 
The new (left) and old basilica church

According to the document Informaciones Jurídicas de 1666, a Catholic feast day in name of Our Lady of Guadalupe was requested and approved, as well as the transfer of the date of the feast of the Virgin of Guadalupe from September 8 to December 12, the latest date on which the Virgin supposedly appeared to Juan Diego. The initiative to perform them was made by Francisco de Siles who proposed to ask the Church of Rome, a Mass itself with allusive text to the apparitions and stamping of the image, along with the divine office itself, and the precept of hearing a Catholic Mass on December 12, the last date of the apparitions of the Virgin to Juan Diego as the new date to commemorate the apparitions (which until then was on September 8, the birth of the Virgin).[47]

In 1666, the Church in México began gathering information from people who reported having known Juan Diego, and in 1723 a formal investigation into his life was ordered, where more data was gathered to support his veneration. Because of the Informaciones Jurídicas de 1666 in the year 1754, the Sacred Congregation of Rites confirmed the true and valid value of the apparitions, and granted celebrating Mass and Office for the then Catholic version of the feast of Guadalupe on December 12.[48][49]

These published accounts of the origin of the image already venerated in Tepeyac, then increased interest in the identity of Juan Diego, who was the original recipient of the prime vision. A new Catholic Basilica church was built to house the image. Completed in 1709, it is now known as the Old Basilica.[50]

The crown ornament edit

 
Virgen de Guadalupe con las cuatro apariciones by Juan de Sáenz (Virgin of Guadalupe with the four apparitions by Juan de Sáenz), c. 1777, at the Museo Soumaya[51]

The image[which?] had originally featured a 12-point crown on the Virgin's head, but this disappeared in 1887–88. The change was first noticed on February 23, 1888, when the image was removed to a nearby church.[52] Eventually a painter confessed on his deathbed that he had been instructed by a clergyman to remove the crown. This may have been motivated by the fact that the gold paint was flaking off of the crown, leaving it looking dilapidated. But according to the historian David Brading, "the decision to remove rather than replace the crown was no doubt inspired by a desire to 'modernize' the image and reinforce its similarity to the nineteenth-century images of the Immaculate Conception which were exhibited at Lourdes and elsewhere... What is rarely mentioned is that the frame which surrounded the canvas was adjusted to leave almost no space above the Virgin's head, thereby obscuring the effects of the erasure."[53]

A different crown was installed to the image. On February 8, 1887, a Papal bull from Pope Leo XIII granted permission a Canonical Coronation of the image, which occurred on October 12, 1895.[54] Since then the Virgin of Guadalupe has been proclaimed "Queen of Mexico", "Patroness of the Americas", "Empress of Latin America", and "Protectress of Unborn Children" (the latter two titles given by Pope John Paul II in 1999).[10][55]

The beatification of Juan Diego edit

 
An 18th-century hagiographic painting of God the Father fashioning the image

Under Pope John Paul II the move to beatify Juan Diego intensified. John Paul II took a special interest in non-European Catholics and saints. During his leadership, the Congregation for the Causes of Saints declared Juan Diego "venerable" (in 1987), and the pope himself announced his beatification on May 6, 1990, during a Mass at the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Mexico City, declaring him "protector and advocate of the indigenous peoples", with December 9 established as his feast day.[56]

At that time historians revived doubts as to the quality of the evidence regarding Juan Diego. The writings of bishop Zumárraga, into whose hands Juan purportedly delivered the miraculous image, did not refer to him or the event. The record of the 1556 ecclesiastical inquiry omitted him, and he was not mentioned in documentation before the mid-17th century. In 1996 the 83-year-old abbot of the Basilica of Guadalupe, Guillermo Schulenburg, was forced to resign following an interview published in the Catholic magazine Ixthus, in which he was quoted as saying that Juan Diego was "a symbol, not a reality", and that his canonization would be the "recognition of a cult. It is not recognition of the physical, real existence of a person."[57] In 1883 Joaquín García Icazbalceta, historian and biographer of Zumárraga, in a confidential report on the Lady of Guadalupe for Bishop Labastida, had been hesitant to support the story of the vision. He concluded that Juan Diego had not existed.[58]

In 1995, Father Xavier Escalada, a Jesuit whose four volume Guadalupe encyclopedia had just been published, announced the existence of a sheet of parchment (known as Codex Escalada), which bore an illustrated account of the vision and some notations in Nahuatl concerning the life and death of Juan Diego. Previously unknown, the document was dated 1548. It bore the signatures of Antonio Valeriano and Bernardino de Sahagún, which are considered to verify its contents. The codex was the subject of an appendix to the Guadalupe encyclopedia, published in 1997.[22] Some scholars remained unconvinced, one describing the discovery of the Codex as "rather like finding a picture of St. Paul's vision of Christ on the road to Damascus, drawn by St. Luke and signed by St. Peter."[59]

Marian title edit

 
Virgin of Guadalupe, September 1, 1824. Oil on canvas by Isidro Escamilla. Brooklyn Museum.

In the earliest account of the apparition, the Nican Mopohua, the Virgin de Guadalupe, later called as if the Virgin Mary tells Juan Bernardino, the uncle of Juan Diego, that the image left on the tilma is to be known by the name "the Perfect Virgin, Holy Mary of Guadalupe".[60]

 
Oath of the board 1737 by Felix Parra

The Virgin of Guadalupe is a core element of Mexican identity and with the rise of Mexican nationalism and indigenist ideologies, there have been numerous efforts to find a pre-Hispanic origin in the cult, to the extreme of attempting to find a Nahuatl etymology to the name.[citation needed]

The first theory to promote a Nahuatl origin was that of Luis Becerra Tanco.[61] In his 1675 work Felicidad de Mexico, Becerra Tanco said that Juan Bernardino and Juan Diego would not have been able to understand the name Guadalupe because the "d" and "g" sounds do not exist in Nahuatl.[citation needed]

He proposed two Nahuatl alternative names that sound similar to "Guadalupe", Tecuatlanopeuh [tekʷat͡ɬaˈnopeʍ], which he translates as "she whose origins were in the rocky summit", and Tecuantlaxopeuh [tekʷant͡ɬaˈʃopeʍ], "she who banishes those who devoured us."[61]

Ondina and Justo González suggest that the name is a Spanish version of the Nahuatl term, Coātlaxopeuh [koaːt͡ɬaˈʃopeʍ], which they interpret as meaning "the one who crushes the serpent", and that it may seem to be referring to the feathered serpent Quetzalcoatl. In addition, the Virgin Mary was portrayed in European art as crushing the serpent of the Garden of Eden.[62]

According to another theory the juxtaposition of Guadalupe and a snake may indicate a nexus with the Aztec goddess of love and fertility, Tonantzin (in Nahuatl, "Our Revered Mother"), who was also known by the name Coatlícue ("The Serpent Skirt"). This appears to be borne out by the fact that this goddess already had a temple dedicated to her on the very Tepeyac Hill where Juan Diego had his vision, the same temple which had recently been destroyed at the behest of the new Spanish Catholic authorities. In the 16th century the Franciscans were suspicious that the followers of Guadalupe showed, or was susceptible to, elements of syncretism, i.e. the importation of an object of reverence in one belief system into another (see above).[citation needed]

The theory promoting the Spanish origin of the name says that:

  • Juan Diego and Juan Bernardino would have been familiar with the Spanish "g" and "d" sounds since their baptismal names contain those sounds.
  • There is no documentation of any other name for this Marian apparition during the almost 144 years between the apparition being recorded in 1531 and Becerra Tanco's proposed theory in 1675.
  • Documents written by contemporary Spaniards and Franciscan friars argue that for the name to be changed to a native name, such as Tepeaca or Tepeaquilla, would not make sense to them, if a Nahuatl name were already in use, and suggest the Spanish Guadalupe was the original.[61]

Venerated image and Diego's tilma edit

Iconographic description edit

 
The altar image of Our Lady of Guadalupe with St. John the Baptist, Juan de Zumárraga and St. Juan Diego by Miguel Cabrera

The venerated image of Our Lady of Guadalupe features a full-length representation of a young woman with delicate features and straight, dark hair in a centre parting. She stands facing the viewer's left, with her hands joined in prayer and head slightly inclined down, gazing with heavy-lidded eyes at a spot below and to her right (the left of the viewer).

The figure is dressed from neck to feet in a pink robe and cerulean mantle, one side folded within the arms, emblazoned with eight-pointed stars with two black tassels tied high around her waist, and wearing a neck brooch featuring a colonial-style cross. The robe is spangled with a small gold quatrefoil motif ornamented with vines and flowers, its sleeves reaching to her wrists where the cuffs of a white undergarment appear.

The figure stands on an upturned crescent moon, which was allegedly once silver in colour, and is now relatively dark. A feathered cherubic angel with outstretched arms carries the corners of her robe underneath her exposed feet. A sunburst of straight and wavy gold rays are projected behind her and around her and are enclosed within a mandorla. Beyond the mandorla to the right and left is an unpainted expanse, white in color with a faint blue tinge.

The present image shows the 1791 nitric acid spill on the top right side, unaffecting the subject matter's aureola.[A][63]

Physical description edit

The portrait was executed on a natural fibre fabric support constituted by two pieces (originally three) joined. The join is clearly visible as a seam passing from top to bottom, with the Virgin's face and hands and the head of the angel on the left piece, passing through the left wrist of the Virgin. The fabric is mounted on a large metal sheet to which it has been glued for some time.[64] The image, currently set in a massive frame protected behind bullet-proof glass, hangs inclined at a slight angle on the wall of the basilica behind the altar. At this point, there is a wide gap between the wall and the sanctuary facilitating closer viewing from moving walkways set on the floor beneath the main level of the basilica, carrying people a short distance in either direction. Viewed from the main body of the basilica, the image is located above and to the right of the altar and is retracted at night into a small vault (accessible by steps) set into the wall.[65] An intricate metal crown designed by the painter Salomé Pina according to plans devised by Rómulo Escudero and Pérez Gallardo, and executed by the Parisian goldsmith, Edgar Morgan, is fixed above the image by a rod, and a massive Mexican flag is draped around and below the frame.[66]

The nature of the fabric is discussed below. Its measurements were taken by José Ignacio Bartolache on December 29, 1786, in the presence of José Bernardo de Nava, a public notary: height 170 cm (67 in), width 105 cm (41 in).[67] The original height (before it was first shielded behind glass in the late 18th century, at which time the unpainted portion beyond the Virgin's head must have been cut down) was 229 cm (90 in).[68]

Technical analyses edit

 
The original tilma of Juan Diego, which hangs above the high altar of the Guadalupe Basilica. The suspended crown atop the image dates back to its Canonical Coronation on October 12, 1895. The image is protected by bulletproof glass and low-oxygen atmosphere.

Neither the fabric ("the support") nor the image (together, "the tilma") has been analyzed using the full range of resources now available to museum conservators. Four technical studies have been conducted so far. Of these, the findings of at least three have been published. Each study required the permission of the custodians of the tilma in the Basilica. However, Callahan's study was taken at the initiative of a third party: the custodians did not know in advance what his research would reveal.

  • Miguel Cabrera, 1756 – in 1756 a prominent artist, Miguel Cabrera, published a report entitled Maravilla Americana, containing the results of the ocular and manual inspections by him and six other painters in 1751 and 1752.[69][70]
  • José Gómez, 1947 and 1973 – José Antonio Flores Gómez, an art restorer, discussed in a 2002 interview with the Mexican journal Proceso, certain technical issues relative to the tilma. He had worked on it in 1947 and 1973.[71]
  • Philip Callahan, 1979 – in 1979 Philip Callahan, a biophysicist, USDA entomologist, and NASA consultant specializing in infrared imaging, was allowed direct access to visually inspect, and photograph, the image. He took numerous infrared photographs of the front of the tilma. Taking notes that were later published, his assistant said that the original art work was neither cracked nor flaked, while later additions (gold leaf, silver plating the Moon) showed serious signs of wear, if not complete deterioration. Callahan could not explain the excellent state of preservation of the un-retouched areas of the image on the tilma, particularly the upper two-thirds of the image. His findings, with photographs, were published in 1981.[72][73]
  • José Rosales, 1982 – in 2002 Proceso published an interview with José Sol Rosales, formerly director of the Center for the Conservation and Listing of Heritage Artifacts (Patrimonio Artístico Mueble) of the National Institute of Fine Arts (INBA) in México City. The article included extracts from a report which Rosales had written in 1982 of his findings from his inspection of the tilma that year using raking and UV light. It was done at low magnification with a stereo microscope of the type used for surgery.[74][75][76]

Summary conclusions were ("contra" indicates a contrary finding):

  • Canvas support: The material of the support is soft to the touch (described as "almost silken" by Cabrera and "something like cotton" by Gómez) but to the eye suggests a coarse weave of palm threads called "pita" or the rough fiber called "cotense" (Cabrera), or a hemp and linen mixture (Rosales). It was traditionally held to be made from ixtle, an agave fiber.
  • Ground, or primer: Rosales asserted (Cabrera and Callahan contra) by ocular examination that the tilma was primed, though with primer "applied irregularly". Rosales does not clarify whether his observed "irregular" application entails that majorly the entire tilma was primed, or just certain areas—such as those areas of the tilma extrinsic to the image—where Callahan agrees had later additions. Cabrera, alternatively, observed that the image had soaked through to the reverse of the tilma.[77]
  • Under-drawing: Callahan asserted there was no under-drawing.
  • Brush-work: Rosales suggested (Callahan contra) there was some visible brushwork on the original image, but in a minute area of the image ("her eyes, including the irises, have outlines, apparently applied by a brush").
  • Condition of the surface layer: Callahan reports that the un-retouched portions of the image, particularly the blue mantle and the face, are in a very good state of preservation, with no flaking or peeling. The three most recent inspections (Gómez, Callahan and Rosales) agree (i) that additions have been made to the image (gold leaf added to the Sun's rays—which has flaked off; silver paint or other material to depict the Moon—which has discolored; and the re-construction or addition of the angel supporting the Marian image), and (ii) that portions of the original image have been abraded and re-touched in places. Some flaking is visible, though only in retouched areas (mostly along the line of the vertical seam, or at passages considered to be later additions).
  • Varnish: The tilma has never been varnished.
  • Binding medium: Rosales provisionally identified the pigments and binding medium (distemper) as consistent with 16th-century methods of painting sargas (Cabrera, Callahan contra for different reasons), but the color values and luminosity are in good condition. The technique of painting on fabric with water-soluble pigments (with or without primer or ground) is well-attested. The binding medium is generally animal glue or gum arabic (see distemper). Such an artifact is variously discussed in the literature as a tüchlein or sarga.[78][79] Tüchlein paintings are very fragile, and are not well preserved,[80] so the tilma's color values and state of preservation are very good.

Trans-religious significance edit

 
Painting of Our lady of Guadalupe at the Comayagua Catheral in Honduras

Religious imagery of Our Lady of Guadalupe appears in Roman Catholic parishes, especially those with Latin American heritage.[81] In addition, due to the growth of Hispanic communities in the United States, religious imagery of Our Lady of Guadalupe has started appearing in some Anglican, Lutheran, and Methodist churches.[81] Additionally, Our Lady of Guadalupe is venerated by some Mayan Orthodox Christians in Guatemala.[82]

The iconography of the Virgin is fully Catholic:[83] Miguel Sánchez, the author of the 1648 tract Imagen de la Virgen María, described her as the Woman of the Apocalypse from the New Testament's Revelation 12:1, "clothed with the sun, and the moon under her feet, and upon her head a crown of twelve stars." She is described as a representation of the Immaculate Conception.[59]

Virgil Elizondo says the image also had layers of meaning for the indigenous people of Mexico who associated her image with their polytheistic deities, which further contributed to her popularity.[84][85] Her blue-green mantle was the color reserved for the divine couple Ometecuhtli and Omecihuatl;[86] her belt is interpreted as a sign of pregnancy; and a cross-shaped image, symbolizing the cosmos and called nahui-ollin, is inscribed beneath the image's sash.[87] She was called "mother of maguey",[88] the source of the sacred beverage pulque.[89] Pulque was also known as "the milk of the Virgin".[90] The rays of light surrounding her are seen to also represent maguey spines.[88]

Cultural significance edit

Juan Diego's tilma has become Mexico's most popular religious and cultural symbol, and has received widespread ecclesiastical and popular veneration. In the 19th century it became the rallying cry of the Spaniards born in America, in what they denominated 'New Spain'. They said they considered the apparitions as legitimizing their own indigenous Mexican origin. They infused it with an almost messianic sense of mission and identity, thereby also justifying their armed rebellion against Spain.[91][92]

Symbol of Mexico edit

 
Luis de Mena, Virgin of Guadalupe and castas, 1750, a frequently reproduced painting, uniquely uniting the image Virgin and a depiction of the casta system
 
Allegory of the papal declaration in 1754 by pope Benedict XIV of Our Lady of Guadalupe patronage over the New Spain in the presence of the viceroyal authorities. Anonymous (Mexican) author, 18th century.

Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe became a recognized symbol of Catholic Mexicans. Miguel Sánchez, the author in 1648 of the first published account of the vision, identified Guadalupe as Revelation's Woman of the Apocalypse, and said:

... this New World has been won and conquered by the hand of the Virgin Mary ... [who had] prepared, disposed, and contrived her exquisite likeness in this, her Mexican land, which was conquered for such a glorious purpose, won that there should appear so Mexican an image.[59]

Throughout the Mexican national history of the 19th and 20th centuries, the Guadalupan name and image have been unifying national symbols; the first President of Mexico (1824–1829) changed his name from José Miguel Ramón Adaucto Fernández y Félix to Guadalupe Victoria in honor of the Virgin of Guadalupe.[93] Father Miguel Hidalgo, in the Mexican War of Independence (1810), and Emiliano Zapata, in the Mexican Revolution (1910), led their respective armed forces with Guadalupan flags emblazoned with an image of Our Lady of Guadalupe.[94] In 1999, the Church officially proclaimed her the Patroness of the Americas, the Empress of Latin America, and the Protectress of Unborn Children.

 
The revolutionary banner carried by Miguel Hidalgo and his insurgent army during the Mexican War of Independence

In 1810, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla initiated the bid for Mexican independence with his Grito de Dolores, with the cry "Death to the Spaniards and long live the Virgin of Guadalupe!" When Hidalgo's mestizo-indigenous army attacked Guanajuato and Valladolid, they placed "the image of the Virgin of Guadalupe, which was the insignia of their enterprise, on sticks or on reeds painted different colors" and "they all wore a print of the Virgin on their hats."[93] After Hidalgo's death, leadership of the revolution fell to a mestizo priest named José María Morelos, who led insurgent troops in the Mexican south. Morelos adopted the Virgin as the seal of his Congress of Chilpancingo, inscribing her feast day into the Chilpancingo constitution and declaring that Guadalupe was the power behind his victories:

New Spain puts less faith in its own efforts than in the power of God and the intercession of its Blessed Mother, who appeared within the precincts of Tepeyac as the miraculous image of Guadalupe that had come to comfort us, defend us, visibly be our protection.[93]

Simón Bolívar noticed the Guadalupan theme in these uprisings, and shortly before Morelos's execution in 1815 wrote: "the leaders of the independence struggle have put fanaticism to use by proclaiming the famous Virgin of Guadalupe as the queen of the patriots, praying to her in times of hardship and displaying her on their flags... the veneration for this image in Mexico far exceeds the greatest reverence that the shrewdest prophet might inspire."[59]

In 1912, Emiliano Zapata's peasant army rose out of the south against the government of Francisco Madero. Though Zapata's rebel forces were primarily interested in land reform—"tierra y libertad" ('land and liberty') was the slogan of the uprising—when his peasant troops penetrated Mexico City, they carried Guadalupan banners.[95] More recently, the contemporary Zapatista National Liberation Army (EZLN) named their "mobile city" in honor of the Virgin: it is called Guadalupe Tepeyac. EZLN spokesperson Subcomandante Marcos wrote a humorous letter in 1995 describing the EZLN bickering over what to do with a Guadalupe statue they had received as a gift.[96]

Mexican culture edit

 
Chapel of Our Lady of Guadalupe in the cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris, Paris, France
 
Reliquary in the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels in Los Angeles, United States, containing a fragment of the tilma of Juan Diego

Harringon argues that: The Aztecs... had an elaborate, coherent symbolic system for making sense of their lives. When this was destroyed by the Spaniards, something new was needed to fill the void and make sense of New Spain ... the image of Guadalupe served that purpose.[97]

Hernán Cortés, the Conquistador who overthrew the Aztec Empire in 1521, was a native of Extremadura, home to Our Lady of Guadalupe. By the 16th century, the Extremadura Guadalupe, a statue of the Virgin said to be carved by Luke the Evangelist, was already a national icon. It was found at the beginning of the 14th century, when the Virgin appeared to a humble shepherd and ordered him to dig at the site of the apparition. The recovered Virgin then miraculously helped to expel the Moors from Spain, and her small shrine evolved into the great Guadalupe monastery.

According to the traditional account, the name of Guadalupe, as the name was heard or understood by Spaniards, was chosen by the Virgin herself when she appeared on the hill outside Mexico City in 1531, ten years after the Conquest.[98]

Guadalupe continues to be a mixture of the cultures which blended to form Mexico, both racially and religiously,[99] "the first mestiza",[100] or "the first Mexican",[101] "bringing together people of distinct cultural heritages, while at the same time affirming their distinctness."[102] As Jacques Lafaye wrote in Quetzalcoatl and Guadalupe, "as the Christians built their first churches with the rubble and the columns of the ancient pagan temples, so they often borrowed pagan customs for their own cult purposes."[103] The author Judy King asserts that Guadalupe is a "common denominator" uniting Mexicans. Writing that Mexico is composed of a vast patchwork of differences—linguistic, ethnic, and class-based—King says "The Virgin of Guadalupe is the rubber band that binds this disparate nation into a whole."[101] The Mexican novelist, Carlos Fuentes, once said that "you cannot truly be considered a Mexican unless you believe in the Virgin of Guadalupe."[104] Nobel Literature laureate Octavio Paz wrote in 1974 that "The Mexican people, after more than two centuries of experiments and defeats, have faith only in the Virgin of Guadalupe and the National Lottery."[105]

Pious beliefs and devotions edit

Protection from damage edit

 
La Virgen de Guadalupe, in the Church of Santa María Asunción Tlaxiaco, Oaxaca, Mexico, in a glass case in the center of the retablo of the first altar along the left wall of the nave
 
Altar in a market of Mexico City

Catholic sources attest that the original image has many miraculous and supernatural properties, including that the tilma has maintained its structural integrity for approximately 500 years despite exposure to soot, candle wax, incense, constant manual veneration by devotees, the historical fact that the image was displayed without any protective glass for its first 115 years, while replicas normally endure for only circa 15 years before degrading,[106] and that it repaired itself with no external assistance after a 1791 accident in which nitric acid was spilled on its top right, causing considerable damage but leaving the aureola of the Virgin intact.

Furthermore, on November 14, 1921, a bomb hidden within a basket of flowers and left under the tilma by an anti-Catholic secularist exploded and damaged the altar of the Basilica that houses the original image, but the tilma was unharmed. A brass standing crucifix, bent by the explosion, is now preserved at the shrine's museum and is believed to be miraculous by devotees.[107][108]

Other supernatural qualities edit

In 1929 and 1951 photographers said they found a figure reflected in the Virgin's eyes; upon inspection they said that the reflection was tripled in what is called the Purkinje effect, commonly found in human eyes.[109] An ophthalmologist, Dr. Jose Aste Tonsmann, later enlarged an image of the Virgin's eyes by 2500x and said he found not only the aforementioned single figure, but images of all the witnesses present when the tilma was first revealed before Zumárraga in 1531, plus a small family group of mother, father, and a group of children, in the center of the Virgin's eyes, fourteen people in all (including a young Black girl, representing Zumárraga's slave whom he freed in his will).[110][111]

In 1936 biochemist Richard Kuhn reportedly analyzed a sample of the fabric and announced that the pigments used were from no known source, whether animal, mineral, or vegetable.[110] According to The Wonder of Guadalupe by Francis Johnston, this was requested by Professor Hahn and Professor Marcelino Junco, retired professor of organic chemistry at the National University of Mexico. This has been taken as further evidence of the tilma's miraculous nature. In late 2019, investigators from The Higher Institute of Guadalupano Studies concluded that there was no evidence Kuhn ever investigated the Lady of Guadalupe or made the statement attributed to him.[112]

Dr. Philip Serna Callahan, who photographed the icon under infrared light, declared from his photographs that portions of the face, hands, robe, and mantle had been painted in one step, with no sketches or corrections and no visible brush strokes.[113]

Veneration edit

The shrine of the Virgin of Guadalupe is the most visited Catholic pilgrimage destination in the world. Over the Friday and Saturday of December 11 to 12, 2009, a record number of 6.1 million pilgrims visited the Basilica of Guadalupe in Mexico City to commemorate the anniversary of the apparition.[114]

The Virgin of Guadalupe is considered the Patroness of Mexico and the Continental Americas; she is also venerated by Native Americans, on the account of the devotion calling for the conversion of the Americas.[115] Replicas of the tilma can be found in thousands of churches throughout the world, and numerous parishes bear her name.

Due to Mary's appearance as a pregnant mother and her claims as mother of all in the apparition, the Blessed Virgin Mary, under this title is popularly invoked as Patroness of the Unborn and a common image for the Pro-Life movement.[116][117][118]

In political movements edit

Due to her association as a crusader of social justice, the image of Our Lady of Guadalupe has been utilized as a symbol across regions to advance political movements and mobilize the masses. For instance, the image has most notably been utilized in Mexico's Independence movement in the early 19th century, the United Farm Worker Movement in the U.S. in the 20th century and in contemporary political causes like immigration.[119][120]

In Mexico's Independence, the image of Our Lady of Guadalupe became associated with the movement after Father Miguel Hidalgo rallied and united insurgents under her banner. In fact, the first president of the Mexican republic, José Miguel Ramón Adaucto Fernández y Félix, who was heavily involved in Mexico's Independence war, changed his name as to Guadalupe Victoria as a sign of devotion.[121][120]

In the United Farm Workers Union (UFW), its leader, Cesar Chavez, was a devout Catholic who drew on his religious beliefs to demand for better wages and labor practices for farm workers in the U.S.[122] He incorporated his religious beliefs in the movement by holding masses in the picket lines and prayers before meetings, and leading a pilgrimage from Delano to Sacramento in 1966 during Lent.[122] Similarly to Mexico's Independence movement, the famous pilgrimage in 1966 that drew national attention to the cause was lead under a banner with the image of Our Lady of Guadalupe.[123]

The image of Our Lady of Guadalupe is also present in the contemporary political discussion on immigration. Artists like Ester Hernandez and Consuelo Jimenez Underwood embed or reimagine her image on artworks that comment on immigration politics. For instance, Ester Hernandez's screen print titled Wanted (2010) and Consuelo Jimenez Underwood's Sacred Jump (1994) and Vigen de los Caminos (1994).[124][125][120]

In popular culture edit

Literature and film edit

 
Representation of some indigenous (Aztecs) venerating the Virgin of Guadalupe in the Basilica

One notable reference in literature to the image and its alleged predecessor, the Aztec Earth goddess Tonantzin, is in Sandra Cisneros' short story "Little Miracles, Kept Promises", from her collection Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories (1991). Cisneros' story is constructed out of brief notes that people give Our Lady of Guadalupe in thanks for favors received, which in Cisneros' hands becomes a portrait of an extended Chicano community living throughout Texas. "Little Miracles" ends with an extended narrative (pp. 124–129) of a feminist artist, Rosario "Chayo" de León, who at first did not allow images of La Virgen de Guadalupe in her home because she associated her with subservience and suffering, particularly by Mexican women. But when she learns that Guadalupe's shrine is built on the same hill in Mexico City that had a shrine to Tonantzin, the Aztec Earth goddess and serpent destroyer, Chayo comes to understand that there's a deep, syncretic connection between the Aztec goddess and the Mexican saint; together they inspire Chayo's new artistic creativity, inner strength, and independence. In Chayo's words, "I finally understood who you are. No longer Mary the mild, but our mother Tonantzin. Your church at Tepeyac built on the site of her temple" (128).[126]

The image and its alleged apparition was investigated several times, including in the 2013 documentary The Blood & The Rose, directed by Tim Watkins.[127] Documentarians have been portraying the message of Our Lady of Guadalupe since the 1990s, in an attempt to bring the message of the apparition to the North American audience.

Visual arts edit

Drawing on the significance of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Chicano culture, many Chicano artists revere her image and visually reimagine the religious figure within a feminist and contemporary context.[128][129][125] More than just a religious symbol, Chicano artists view Our Lady of Guadalupe as an empowering feminist icon and a proclamation of Indigenous pride. However, these re-envisioned artworks have not been without controversy, as many artists have faced intense backlash from Catholic groups who view these artworks as "disrespectful and irreverent".[130] One of the most famous controversies was sparked by Alma López's Our Lady digital collage, which later led to a book titled Our Lady of Controversy: Alma López's Irreverent Apparition.[131][132] Despite this, Chicano artists such as Yolanda López, Alma López, Margarita 'Mita' Cuaron, Ester Hernández, and Consuelo Jimenez Underwood, among others, have used Our Lady of Guadalupe's portrait to explore themes of repression, feminine strength, and to uplift women.[133][134]

See also edit

References edit

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  2. ^ . Archived from the original on May 7, 2016. Retrieved June 12, 2009.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g English translation of the , a 17th-century account written in the native Nahuatl language.
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  5. ^ This apparition is somewhat elided in the Nican Mopohua but is implicit in three brief passages (Sousa et al., pp. 75, 77, 83). It is fully described in the Imagen de la Virgen María of Miguel Sánchez published in 1648.
  6. ^ The date does not appear in the Nican Mopohua, but in Sanchez's Imagen.
  7. ^ The procession and miracle are not part of the Nican Mopohua proper, yet introduce the Nican Mopectana that immediately follows the Nican Mopohua in the Huei Tlamahuiçoltica.
  8. ^ Miracle Hunter: Message of Guadalupe
  9. ^ Pope Pius X (June 16, 1910). "Gratiae, quae" (in Latin). Retrieved June 28, 2022.
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  14. ^ Pope Pius XII (October 12, 1945). "Radiomensaje de Su Santidad Pío XII a los fieles mexicanos en el 50 aniversario de la coronación canónica de la Virgen de Guadalupe" [Radio message of His Holiness Pius XII to the Mexican faithful on the 50th anniversary of the canonical coronation of the Virgin of Guadalupe] (in Spanish). Retrieved March 20, 2022.
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  35. ^ Francis Johnston, The Wonder of Guadalupe, TAN Books, 1981, p. 47
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  37. ^ Bernardino de Sahagún, Florentine Codex: Introduction and Indices, Arthur J.O. Anderson and Charles Dibble, translators. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1982, p. 90.
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  1. ^ Pure gold does not react with nitric acid, though pure gold does react with aqua regia, a mixture of concentrated nitric acid and hydrochloric acid.

Works cited edit

  • Poole, Stafford (1995). Our Lady of Guadalupe: The Origins and Sources of a Mexican National Symbol, 1531–1797. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.

Further reading edit

Primary sources edit

  • Cabrera, Miguel, Maravilla americana y conjunto de raras maravillas ... en la prodigiosa imagen de Nuestra Srs. de Guadalupe de México (1756). Facsimile edition, Mexico City: Editorial Jus 1977.
  • Cayetano de Cabrera y Quintero, Escudo de armas de México: Celestial protección de esta nobilissima ciudad de la Nueva-España Ma. Santissima en su portentosa imagen del Mexico Guadalupe. Mexico City: Impreso por la Viuda de don Joseph Bernardo de Hogal 1746.
  • The Story of Guadalupe: Luis Laso de la Vega's "Huei tlmahuiçoltica" of 1649. edited and translated by Lisa Sousa, Stafford Poole, and James Lockhart. Vol. 84 of UCLA Latin American Center Publications. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1998.
  • Noguez, Xavier. Documentos Guadalupanos. Mexico City: El Colegio Mexiquense and Fondo de Cultura Económia 1993.

Secondary sources edit

  • Sister Mary Amatora, O.S.F.. The Queen's Portrait: The Story of Guadalupe (1961, 1972) ISBN 0682474681 (Hardcover) ISBN 0682474797 (Paperback) (Hymn To Our Lady Of Guadalupe p. 118.)
  • Brading, D.A., Mexican Phoenix: Our Lady of Guadalupe: Image and Tradition across Five Centuries. New York: Cambridge University Press 2001.
  • Burkhart, Louise. "The Cult of the Virgin of Guadalupe in Mexico" in South and Meso-American Native Spirituality, ed. Gary H. Gossen and Miguel León-Portilla, pp. 198–227. New York: Crossroad Press 1993.
  • Burkhart, Louise. Before Guadalupe: The Virgin Mary in Early Colonial Nahuatl Literature. Albany: Institute for Mesoamerican Studies and the University of Texas Press 2001.
  • Cline, Sarah (August 1, 2015). "Guadalupe and the Castas". Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos. 31 (2): 218–247. doi:10.1525/mex.2015.31.2.218.
  • Deutsch, James (December 11, 2017). "A New Way to Show Your Devotion in Mexico City: Wear a T-Shirt". Smithsonian Magazine.
  • Elizondo, Virgil. Guadalupe, Mother of a New Creation. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1997
  • Lafaye, Jacques. Quetzalcoatl and Guadalupe: The Formation of Mexican National Consciousness, 1532–1815. Trans. Benjamin Keen. Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1976.
  • Maza, Francisco de la. El Guadalupismo mexicano. Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica 1953, 1981.
  • Peterson, Jeanette Favrot (December 1992). "The Virgin of Guadalupe: Symbol of Conquest or Liberation?". Art Journal. 51 (4): 39–47. doi:10.1080/00043249.1992.10791596. ProQuest 223311874.
  • Peterson, Jeanette Favrot. Visualizing Guadalupe: From Black Madonna to Queen of the Americas. Austin: University of Texas Press 2014.
  • Poole, Stafford (July 2005). "History Versus Juan Diego". The Americas. 62 (1): 1–16. doi:10.1353/tam.2005.0133. S2CID 144263333.
  • Sánchez, David A. (2008). From Patmos to the Barrio: Subverting Imperial Myths. Fortress Press. ISBN 978-1-4514-0589-7.
  • Taylor, William B. (February 1987). "The Virgin of Guadalupe in New Spain: an inquiry into the social history of Marian devotion". American Ethnologist. 14 (1): 9–33. doi:10.1525/ae.1987.14.1.02a00020. JSTOR 645631.

External links edit

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Our Lady of Guadalupe (Tepeyac).

November 11, 2023
lady, guadalupe, this, article, about, mexican, marian, title, spanish, marian, title, extremadura, 48444, 11722, 48444, 11722, empress, americaspatroness, latin, americaqueen, mexicolocationtepeyac, hill, mexico, citydate9, december, 1531, december, 1531, wit. This article is about the Mexican Marian title For the Spanish Marian title see Our Lady of Guadalupe in Extremadura 19 29 04 N 99 07 02 W 19 48444 N 99 11722 W 19 48444 99 11722 Our Lady of GuadalupeEmpress of the AmericasPatroness of Latin AmericaQueen of MexicoLocationTepeyac Hill Mexico CityDate9 12 December 1531 O S 19 22 December 1531 N S WitnessJuan DiegoJuan BernardinoTypeMarian apparitionApprovalOctober 12 1895 canonical coronation granted by Pope Leo XIII Venerated inCatholic ChurchShrineBasilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe Tepeyac Hill Mexico City MexicoPatronageMexico City 1737 New Spain 1754 by Pope Benedict XIV Ponce Puerto Rico 1757 Latin America October 12 1945 Mexico and the Americas 2000 by Pope John Paul II Cebu 2002 by Ricardo Vidal AttributesA pregnant woman eyes downcast hands clasped in prayer clothed in a pink tunic robe covered by a cerulean mantle with a black sash emblazoned with eight point stars eclipsing a blazing sun while standing atop a darkened crescent moon a cherubic angel carrying her trainFeast day12 December Feast of Our Lady of Guadalupe Detail of the face showing the discoloration on the top part of the head where a crown is said to have been present at some point now obscured by an enlarged frame for unknown reasonsOur Lady of Guadalupe Spanish Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe also known as the Virgin of Guadalupe Spanish Virgen de Guadalupe is a Catholic title of Mary mother of Jesus associated with a series of five Marian apparitions to a Mexican peasant named Juan Diego and his uncle Juan Bernardino which are believed to have occurred in December 1531 A venerated image on a cloak tilmahtli associated with the apparition is enshrined within the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Mexico City Pope Leo XIII granted the image a decree of canonical coronation on February 8 1887 and it was pontifically crowned on October 12 1895 The basilica is the most visited Catholic shrine in the world and the world s third most visited sacred site 1 2 Contents 1 Description of Marian apparitions 1 1 Messages 1 1 1 First Saturday 1 1 2 Second Saturday 1 1 3 Sunday 1 1 4 Tuesday 2 Pontifical approbations 3 Early history 3 1 Origin in Guadalupe Spain 3 2 Origin in Mexico 3 3 First printed accounts in Mexico 3 4 The crown ornament 4 The beatification of Juan Diego 5 Marian title 6 Venerated image and Diego s tilma 6 1 Iconographic description 6 2 Physical description 6 3 Technical analyses 7 Trans religious significance 8 Cultural significance 8 1 Symbol of Mexico 8 2 Mexican culture 9 Pious beliefs and devotions 9 1 Protection from damage 9 2 Other supernatural qualities 9 3 Veneration 10 In political movements 11 In popular culture 11 1 Literature and film 11 2 Visual arts 12 See also 13 References 13 1 Works cited 14 Further reading 14 1 Primary sources 14 2 Secondary sources 15 External linksDescription of Marian apparitions editAccording to the Nican Mopohua included in the 17th century Huei tlamahuicoltica written in Nahuatl the Virgin Mary appeared four times to Juan Diego a Chichimec peasant and once to his uncle Juan Bernardino The first apparition occurred on the morning of Saturday December 9 1531 Julian calendar which is December 19 on the proleptic Gregorian calendar in present use Juan Diego experienced a vision of a young woman at a place called the Hill of Tepeyac which later became part of Villa de Guadalupe in a suburb of Mexico City 3 According to the accounts the woman speaking to Juan Diego in Nahuatl his first language and the language of the former Aztec Empire identified herself as the Mary mother of the very true deity 4 She was said to have asked for a church to be erected at that site in her honor 3 Based on her words Juan Diego then sought the Archbishop of Mexico City Juan de Zumarraga to tell him what had happened Not unexpectedly the Archbishop did not believe Diego Later the same day Juan Diego saw the young woman again the second apparition and she asked him to continue insisting 3 The next day Sunday December 10 1531 in the Julian calendar Juan Diego spoke to the Archbishop a second time The latter instructed him to return to Tepeyac and to ask the woman for a truly acceptable miraculous sign to prove her identity Later that day the third apparition appeared when Juan Diego returned to Tepeyac encountering the same woman he reported to her the Archbishop s request for a sign which she consented to provide on the next day December 11 5 On Monday December 11 however Juan Diego s uncle fell ill and he was obliged to attend to him In the early hours of Tuesday December 12 as Juan Bernardino s condition deteriorated Juan Diego journeyed to Tlatelolco in search of a Catholic priest to hear Juan Bernardino s confession and help minister to him on his deathbed 3 nbsp Preliminary drawing of the Mexican Coat of arms c 1743To avoid being delayed by the Virgin and ashamed at having failed to meet her on Monday as agreed Juan Diego chose another route around Tepeyac Hill yet the Virgin intercepted him and asked where he was going fourth apparition Juan Diego explained what had happened and the Virgin gently chided him for not having made recourse to her In the words which have become the most famous phrase of the Guadalupe apparitions and are inscribed above the main entrance to the Basilica of Guadalupe she asked No estoy yo aqui que soy tu madre Am I not here I who am your mother She assured him that Juan Bernardino had now recovered and told him to gather flowers from the summit of Tepeyac Hill which was normally barren especially in the cold of December Juan Diego obeyed her instruction and he found Castilian roses not native to Mexico blooming there 3 According to the story the Virgin arranged the flowers in Juan Diego s tilmatli or cloak and when Juan Diego opened his cloak later that day before Archbishop Zumarraga the flowers fell to the floor revealing on the fabric the image of the Virgin 3 The next day December 13 Juan Diego found his uncle fully recovered as the Virgin had assured him and Juan Bernardino recounted that he also had seen her after praying at his bedside fifth apparition that she had instructed him to inform the Archbishop of this apparition and of his miraculous cure and that she had told him she desired to be known under the title of Guadalupe 3 The Archbishop kept Juan Diego s mantle first in his private chapel and then in the church on public display where it attracted great attention On December 26 1531 a procession formed to transfer the miraculous image back to Tepeyac Hill where it was installed in a small hastily erected chapel 6 During this procession the first miracle was allegedly performed when a native was mortally wounded in the neck by an arrow shot by accident during some stylized martial displays performed in honor of the Virgin In great distress the natives carried him before the Virgin s image and pleaded for his life Upon the arrow being withdrawn the victim fully and immediately recovered 7 Messages edit The words spoken by Our Lady to Saint Juan Diego include 8 First Saturday edit Juanito the most humble of my sons where are you going Know and understand well you the most humble of my son that I am the ever virgin Holy Mary Mother of the True God for whom we live of the Creator of all things Lord of heaven and the earth I wish that a temple be erected here quickly so I may therein exhibit and give all my love compassion help and protection because I am your merciful mother to you and to all the inhabitants on this land and all the rest who love me invoke and confide in me listen there to their lamentations and remedy all their miseries afflictions and sorrows And to accomplish what my clemency pretends go to the palace of the bishop of Mexico and you will say to him that I manifest my great desire that here on this plain a temple be built to me you will accurately relate all you have seen and admired and what you have heard Be assured that I will be most grateful and will reward you because I will make you happy and worthy of recompense for the effort and fatigue in what you will obtain of what I have entrusted Behold you have heard my mandate my humble son go and put forth all your effort Second Saturday edit Hark my son the least you must understand that I have many servants and messengers to whom I must entrust the delivery of my message and carry my wish but it is of precise detail that you yourself solicit and assist and that through your mediation my wish be complied I earnestly implore my son the least and with sternness I command that you again go tomorrow and see the bishop You go in my name and make known my wish in its entirety that he has to start the erection of a temple which I ask of him And again tell him that I in person the ever virgin Holy Mary Mother of God sent you Sunday edit Well and good my little dear you will return here tomorrow so you may take to the bishop the sign he has requested With this he will believe you and in this regard he will not doubt you nor will he be suspicious of you and know my little dear that I will reward your solicitude and effort and fatigue spent of my behalf Lo go now I will await you here tomorrow Tuesday edit Hear me and understand well my son the least that nothing should frighten or grieve you Let not your heart be disturbed Do not fear that sickness nor any other sickness or anguish Am I not here who is your Mother Are you not under my protection Am I not your health Are you not happily within my fold What else do you wish Do not grieve nor be disturbed by anything Do not be afflicted by the illness of your uncle who will not die now of it Be assured that he is now cured Climb my son the least to the top of the hill there where you saw me and I gave you orders you will find different flowers Cut them gather them assemble them then come and bring them before my presence My son the least this diversity of roses is the proof and the sign which you will take to the bishop You will tell him in my name that he will see in them my wish and that he will have to comply to it You are my ambassador most worthy of all confidence Rigorously I command you that only before the presence of the bishop will you unfold your mantle and disclose what you are carrying You will relate all and well you will tell that I ordered you to climb to the hilltop to go and cut flowers and all that you saw and admired so you can induce the prelate to give his support with the aim that a temple be built and erected as I have asked Pontifical approbations editPope Benedict XIV in the papal bull Non est Equidem of May 25 1754 declared Our Lady of Guadalupe patroness of what was then named New Spain corresponding to Spanish Central and Northern America and included liturgical texts for the Catholic Mass and the Roman Breviary in her honor Pope Leo XIII granted a decree of coronation towards the original Mexican relic on February 8 1887 The coronation rites were carried out on October 12 1895 Through the Sacred Congregation of Rites he issued an addendum epistle of endorsement on March 6 1894 Pope Pius X declared her patroness of the Republic of Mexico on June 16 1910 via decree Gratia Quae signed and notarized by Cardinal Rafael Merry del Val 9 Pope Pius XI granted the following Granted a decree of canonical coronation for a namesake image enshrined in Santa Fe Argentina on August 10 1924 executed by Archbishop Filippo Cortesi on April 22 1928 Issued a decree confirming the patronage of Guadalupe for the Diocese of Coro Venezuela at the Second Marian National Congress on December 12 1928 Declared Our Lady of Guadalupe as the Heavenly Patroness of the Philippines on July 16 1935 signed by Vatican Secretary of State Cardinal Eugenio Pacelli 10 11 Pope Pius XII granted the following Rescinded the former decrees of July 1935 in replacement of Impositi Nobis on September 12 1942 12 and further redeclared it again via Quidquid ad Dilatandum on July 16 1958 13 in preference of the Patronal title Immaculate Conception for the Philippine islands Mentioned the venerated image via public radio address honoring its fiftieth anniversary of coronation on October 12 1945 14 Granted a pontifical decree of coronation on 4 March 1949 towards a namesake image manufactured by the Vatican Mosaic studio which was crowned by the Archbishop of Paris Cardinal Emmanuel Celestin Suhard on April 26 1949 Pope Paul VI granted the following Granted the image a Golden Rose on March 20 1966 In accordance with tradition he blessed the rose the work of the Roman sculptor Giuseppe Pirrone on Laetare Sunday March 20 1966 and consigned it to Cardinal Carlo Confalonieri as his legate who presented it at the Basilica on May 31 1966 15 Pope John Paul II granted the following Visited her shrine on January 26 1979 and again when he beatified Juan Diego there on May 6 1990 Issued a decree of Canonical coronation for the same namesake image for the cloister of the Claretian Order of sisters on December 10 1980 in Suginami Tokyo Japan citation needed On May 12 1992 he dedicated a namesake chapel within the grottoes under Saint Peter s Basilica at the Vatican Granted a decree of coronation for a statue image bearing the same name in Coro Venezuela on October 8 1992 which was crowned on December 12 1992 Granted a decree of coronation for the image venerated in Manzanillo Mexico on September 15 1994 Included the liturgical celebration of this Marian title in the General Roman Calendar as an optional memorial in 2002 Pope Benedict XVI granted the following Granted a decree of canonical coronation for the same namesake image for Cebu Philippines on May 9 2006 which was later crowned on 16 July the same year marking his second decree of coronation citation needed Issued a decree raising the shrine of Guadalupe in Coro Venezuela to the status of Minor Basilica on December 6 2008 Pope Francis granted the following Granted the image a second Golden Rose via Cardinal Marc Ouellet for presentation at the Basilica on November 18 2013 16 Granted a canonical coronation for the same namesake image in Villa Garcia Zacatecas 17 Mexico on June 14 2015 Granted a new gold plated silver crown with an accompanying prayer to the image during his apostolic visit to the Basilica on February 13 2016 This second crown is stored within the chancery and is not publicly worn by the image enshrined at the altar Early history editMain article Juan Diego nbsp Virgin of Guadalupe in Monastery of Guadalupe in Caceres Extremadura Spain illustrating the example of a black madonnaOrigin in Guadalupe Spain edit Main article Our Lady of Guadalupe in Extremadura The shrine to Our Lady of Guadalupe in Guadalupe Caceres in Extremadura Spain was the most important of the shrines to the Virgin Mary in the medieval Kingdom of Castile 18 It is one of the many dark or black skinned Madonnas in Spain and is revered in the Monastery of Santa Maria de Guadalupe in the town of Guadalupe from which numerous Spanish conquistadors stem The name is derived from و اد ي ٱل wadi al valley of the Latin lupum wolf The shrine houses a statue reputed to have been carved by Luke the Evangelist and given to Archbishop Leander of Seville by Pope Gregory I According to local legend when Seville was taken by the Moors in 712 a group of priests fled northward and buried the statue in the hills near the Guadalupe River At the beginning of the 14th century the Virgin appeared one day to a humble cowboy named Gil Cordero who was searching for a missing animal in the mountains 19 Cordero claimed that Mary had appeared to him and ordered him to ask priests to dig at the site of the apparition Excavating priests rediscovered the hidden statue and built a small shrine around it which became the great Guadalupe monastery citation needed Origin in Mexico edit Following the Conquest in 1519 1521 the Marian cult was brought to the Americas and Franciscan friars often leveraged syncretism with existing religious beliefs as an instrument for evangelization What is purported by some to be the earliest mention of the miraculous apparition of the Virgin is a page of parchment the Codex Escalada from 1548 which was discovered in 1995 and according to investigative analysis dates from the sixteenth century 20 This document bears two pictorial representations of Juan Diego and the apparition several inscriptions in Nahuatl referring to Juan Diego by his Aztec name and the date of his death 1548 as well as the year that the then named Virgin Mary appeared 1531 It also contains the glyph of Antonio Valeriano and finally the signature of Fray Bernardino de Sahagun which was authenticated by experts from the Banco de Mexico and Charles E Dibble 21 Scholarly doubts have been cast on the authenticity of the document 22 nbsp Nican mopohuaA more complete early description of the apparition occurs in a 16 page manuscript called the Nican mopohua which has been reliably dated in 1556 and was acquired by the New York Public Library in 1880 This document written in Nahuatl but in Latin script tells the story of the apparitions and the supernatural origin of the image It was probably composed by a native Aztec man Antonio Valeriano who had been educated by Franciscans The text of this document was later incorporated into a printed pamphlet which was widely circulated in 1649 23 24 25 26 In spite of these documents there are no known 16th century written accounts of the Guadalupe vision by the archbishop Juan de Zumarraga 27 In particular the canonical account of the vision features archbishop Juan de Zumarraga as a major player in the story but although Zumarraga was a prolific writer there is nothing in his extant writings that can confirm the indigenous story 28 The written record suggests the Catholic clergy in 16th century Mexico were deeply divided as to the orthodoxy of the native beliefs springing up around the image of Our Lady of Guadalupe with the Franciscan order who then had custody of the chapel at Tepeyac being strongly opposed to the outside groups while the Dominicans supported it 29 The main promoter of the story was the Dominican Alonso de Montufar who succeeded the Franciscan Juan de Zumarraga as archbishop of Mexico In a 1556 sermon Montufar commended popular devotion to Our Lady of Guadalupe referring to a painting on cloth the tilma in the chapel of the Virgin Mary at Tepeyac where certain miracles had also occurred Days later Fray Francisco de Bustamante local head of the Franciscan order delivered a sermon denouncing the native belief and believers He expressed concern that the Catholic Archbishop was promoting a superstitious regard for an indigenous image 30 The devotion at the chapel to which they have given the name Guadalupe was prejudicial to the Indians because they believed that the image itself worked miracles contrary to what the missionary friars had been teaching them and because many were disappointed when it did not nbsp The banner of the Mexican conquistador Hernan Cortes from year 1521 which was kept within the Archbishop s villa during the time of the Guadalupe apparitionsArchbishop Montufar opened an inquiry into the matter at which the Franciscans repeated their position that the image encouraged idolatry and superstition and four witnesses testified to Bustamante s statement that the image was painted by an Indian with one witness naming him the Indian painter Marcos 31 This could refer to the Aztec painter Marcos Cipac de Aquino who was active at that time 32 33 Prof Jody Brant Smith referring to Philip Serna Callahan s examination of the tilma using infrared photography in 1979 wrote if Marcos did he apparently did so without making a preliminary sketches in itself then seen as a near miraculous procedure Cipac may well have had a hand in painting the Image but only in painting the additions such as the angel and moon at the Virgin s feet 34 Ultimately Archbishop Montufar himself a Dominican decided to end Franciscan custody of the shrine 35 From then on the shrine was kept and served by diocesan priests under the authority of the archbishop 36 Moreover Archbishop Montufar authorized the construction of a much larger church at Tepeyac in which the tilma was later mounted and displayed citation needed In the late 1570s the Franciscan historian Bernardino de Sahagun denounced the cult at Tepeyac and the use of the name Tonantzin or to call her Our Lady in a personal digression in his General History of the Things of New Spain also known as the Florentine Codex At this place Tepeyac the Indians had a temple dedicated to the mother of the gods whom they called Tonantzin which means Our Mother There they performed many sacrifices in honor of this goddess And now that a church of Our Lady of Guadalupe is built there they also called her Tonantzin being motivated by those preachers who called Our Lady the Mother of God Tonantzin While it is not known for certain where the beginning of Tonantzin may have originated but this we know for certain that from its first usage the word refers to the ancient Tonantzin And it was viewed as something that should be remedied for their having native name of the Mother of God Holy Mary instead of Tonantzin but Dios inantzin It appears to be a Satanic invention to cloak idolatry under the confusion of this name Tonantzin And they now come to visit from very far away as far away as before which is also suspicious because everywhere there are many churches of Our Lady and they do not go to them They come from distant lands to this Tonantzin as in olden times 37 Sahagun s criticism of the indigenous group seems to have stemmed primarily from his concern about a syncretistic application of the native name Tonantzin to the Catholic Virgin Mary However Sahagun often used the same name in his sermons as late as the 1560s 38 First printed accounts in Mexico edit nbsp Painting Virgin of Guadalupe c 1700 featuring a crown on the Virgin s head later removed Indianapolis Museum of Art One of the first printed accounts of the history of the apparitions and image occurs in Imagen de la Virgen Maria Madre de Dios de Guadalupe published in 1648 by Miguel Sanchez a diocesan priest of Mexico City 39 Another account is the Codex Escalada dating from the sixteenth century a sheet of parchment recording apparitions of the Virgin Mary and the figure of Juan Diego which reproduces the glyph of Antonio Valeriano alongside the signature of Fray Bernardino de Sahagun It contains the following glosses 1548 Also in that year of 1531 appeared to Cuahtlatoatzin our beloved mother the Lady of Guadalupe in Mexico Cuahtlatoatzin died worthily 40 The next printed account was a 36 page tract in the Nahuatl language Huei tlamahuicoltica The Great Event which was published in 1649 This tract contains a section called the Nican mopohua Here it is recounted which has been already touched on above The composition and authorship of the Huei tlamahuicoltica is assigned by a majority of those scholars to Luis Laso de la Vega vicar of the sanctuary of Tepeyac from 1647 to 1657 41 Nevertheless the most important section of the tract the Nican Mopohua appears to be much older It has been attributed since the late 1600s to Antonio Valeriano c 1531 1605 a native Aztec man who had been educated by the Franciscans and who collaborated extensively with Bernardino de Sahagun 23 A manuscript version of the Nican Mopohua which is now held by the New York Public Library 42 appears to be datable to the mid 1500s and may have been the original work by Valeriano as that was used by Laso in composing the Huei tlamahuicoltica Most authorities agree on the dating and on Valeriano s authorship 24 25 26 On the other hand in 1666 the scholar Luis Becerra Tanco published in Mexico a book about the history of the apparitions under the name Origen milagroso del santuario de Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe which was republished in Spain in 1675 as Felicidad de Mexico en la admirable aparicion de la virgen Maria de Guadalupe y origen de su milagrosa Imagen que se venera extramuros de aquella ciudad 43 In the same way in 1688 Jesuit Father Francisco de Florencia published La Estrella del Norte de Mexico giving the history of the same apparitions 44 Two separate accounts one in Nahuatl from Juan Bautista del Barrio de San Juan from the 16th century 45 and the other in Spanish by Servando Teresa de Mier 46 date the original apparition and native celebration on September 8 of the Julian calendar but it is also said that the Spaniards celebrate it on December 12 instead citation needed nbsp The new left and old basilica churchAccording to the document Informaciones Juridicas de 1666 a Catholic feast day in name of Our Lady of Guadalupe was requested and approved as well as the transfer of the date of the feast of the Virgin of Guadalupe from September 8 to December 12 the latest date on which the Virgin supposedly appeared to Juan Diego The initiative to perform them was made by Francisco de Siles who proposed to ask the Church of Rome a Mass itself with allusive text to the apparitions and stamping of the image along with the divine office itself and the precept of hearing a Catholic Mass on December 12 the last date of the apparitions of the Virgin to Juan Diego as the new date to commemorate the apparitions which until then was on September 8 the birth of the Virgin 47 In 1666 the Church in Mexico began gathering information from people who reported having known Juan Diego and in 1723 a formal investigation into his life was ordered where more data was gathered to support his veneration Because of the Informaciones Juridicas de 1666 in the year 1754 the Sacred Congregation of Rites confirmed the true and valid value of the apparitions and granted celebrating Mass and Office for the then Catholic version of the feast of Guadalupe on December 12 48 49 These published accounts of the origin of the image already venerated in Tepeyac then increased interest in the identity of Juan Diego who was the original recipient of the prime vision A new Catholic Basilica church was built to house the image Completed in 1709 it is now known as the Old Basilica 50 The crown ornament edit nbsp Virgen de Guadalupe con las cuatro apariciones by Juan de Saenz Virgin of Guadalupe with the four apparitions by Juan de Saenz c 1777 at the Museo Soumaya 51 The image which had originally featured a 12 point crown on the Virgin s head but this disappeared in 1887 88 The change was first noticed on February 23 1888 when the image was removed to a nearby church 52 Eventually a painter confessed on his deathbed that he had been instructed by a clergyman to remove the crown This may have been motivated by the fact that the gold paint was flaking off of the crown leaving it looking dilapidated But according to the historian David Brading the decision to remove rather than replace the crown was no doubt inspired by a desire to modernize the image and reinforce its similarity to the nineteenth century images of the Immaculate Conception which were exhibited at Lourdes and elsewhere What is rarely mentioned is that the frame which surrounded the canvas was adjusted to leave almost no space above the Virgin s head thereby obscuring the effects of the erasure 53 A different crown was installed to the image On February 8 1887 a Papal bull from Pope Leo XIII granted permission a Canonical Coronation of the image which occurred on October 12 1895 54 Since then the Virgin of Guadalupe has been proclaimed Queen of Mexico Patroness of the Americas Empress of Latin America and Protectress of Unborn Children the latter two titles given by Pope John Paul II in 1999 10 55 The beatification of Juan Diego edit nbsp An 18th century hagiographic painting of God the Father fashioning the imageUnder Pope John Paul II the move to beatify Juan Diego intensified John Paul II took a special interest in non European Catholics and saints During his leadership the Congregation for the Causes of Saints declared Juan Diego venerable in 1987 and the pope himself announced his beatification on May 6 1990 during a Mass at the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Mexico City declaring him protector and advocate of the indigenous peoples with December 9 established as his feast day 56 At that time historians revived doubts as to the quality of the evidence regarding Juan Diego The writings of bishop Zumarraga into whose hands Juan purportedly delivered the miraculous image did not refer to him or the event The record of the 1556 ecclesiastical inquiry omitted him and he was not mentioned in documentation before the mid 17th century In 1996 the 83 year old abbot of the Basilica of Guadalupe Guillermo Schulenburg was forced to resign following an interview published in the Catholic magazine Ixthus in which he was quoted as saying that Juan Diego was a symbol not a reality and that his canonization would be the recognition of a cult It is not recognition of the physical real existence of a person 57 In 1883 Joaquin Garcia Icazbalceta historian and biographer of Zumarraga in a confidential report on the Lady of Guadalupe for Bishop Labastida had been hesitant to support the story of the vision He concluded that Juan Diego had not existed 58 In 1995 Father Xavier Escalada a Jesuit whose four volume Guadalupe encyclopedia had just been published announced the existence of a sheet of parchment known as Codex Escalada which bore an illustrated account of the vision and some notations in Nahuatl concerning the life and death of Juan Diego Previously unknown the document was dated 1548 It bore the signatures of Antonio Valeriano and Bernardino de Sahagun which are considered to verify its contents The codex was the subject of an appendix to the Guadalupe encyclopedia published in 1997 22 Some scholars remained unconvinced one describing the discovery of the Codex as rather like finding a picture of St Paul s vision of Christ on the road to Damascus drawn by St Luke and signed by St Peter 59 Marian title edit nbsp Virgin of Guadalupe September 1 1824 Oil on canvas by Isidro Escamilla Brooklyn Museum In the earliest account of the apparition the Nican Mopohua the Virgin de Guadalupe later called as if the Virgin Mary tells Juan Bernardino the uncle of Juan Diego that the image left on the tilma is to be known by the name the Perfect Virgin Holy Mary of Guadalupe 60 nbsp Oath of the board 1737 by Felix ParraThe Virgin of Guadalupe is a core element of Mexican identity and with the rise of Mexican nationalism and indigenist ideologies there have been numerous efforts to find a pre Hispanic origin in the cult to the extreme of attempting to find a Nahuatl etymology to the name citation needed The first theory to promote a Nahuatl origin was that of Luis Becerra Tanco 61 In his 1675 work Felicidad de Mexico Becerra Tanco said that Juan Bernardino and Juan Diego would not have been able to understand the name Guadalupe because the d and g sounds do not exist in Nahuatl citation needed He proposed two Nahuatl alternative names that sound similar to Guadalupe Tecuatlanopeuh tekʷat ɬaˈnopeʍ which he translates as she whose origins were in the rocky summit and Tecuantlaxopeuh tekʷant ɬaˈʃopeʍ she who banishes those who devoured us 61 Ondina and Justo Gonzalez suggest that the name is a Spanish version of the Nahuatl term Coatlaxopeuh koaːt ɬaˈʃopeʍ which they interpret as meaning the one who crushes the serpent and that it may seem to be referring to the feathered serpent Quetzalcoatl In addition the Virgin Mary was portrayed in European art as crushing the serpent of the Garden of Eden 62 According to another theory the juxtaposition of Guadalupe and a snake may indicate a nexus with the Aztec goddess of love and fertility Tonantzin in Nahuatl Our Revered Mother who was also known by the name Coatlicue The Serpent Skirt This appears to be borne out by the fact that this goddess already had a temple dedicated to her on the very Tepeyac Hill where Juan Diego had his vision the same temple which had recently been destroyed at the behest of the new Spanish Catholic authorities In the 16th century the Franciscans were suspicious that the followers of Guadalupe showed or was susceptible to elements of syncretism i e the importation of an object of reverence in one belief system into another see above citation needed The theory promoting the Spanish origin of the name says that Juan Diego and Juan Bernardino would have been familiar with the Spanish g and d sounds since their baptismal names contain those sounds There is no documentation of any other name for this Marian apparition during the almost 144 years between the apparition being recorded in 1531 and Becerra Tanco s proposed theory in 1675 Documents written by contemporary Spaniards and Franciscan friars argue that for the name to be changed to a native name such as Tepeaca or Tepeaquilla would not make sense to them if a Nahuatl name were already in use and suggest the Spanish Guadalupe was the original 61 Venerated image and Diego s tilma editIconographic description edit nbsp The altar image of Our Lady of Guadalupe with St John the Baptist Juan de Zumarraga and St Juan Diego by Miguel CabreraThe venerated image of Our Lady of Guadalupe features a full length representation of a young woman with delicate features and straight dark hair in a centre parting She stands facing the viewer s left with her hands joined in prayer and head slightly inclined down gazing with heavy lidded eyes at a spot below and to her right the left of the viewer The figure is dressed from neck to feet in a pink robe and cerulean mantle one side folded within the arms emblazoned with eight pointed stars with two black tassels tied high around her waist and wearing a neck brooch featuring a colonial style cross The robe is spangled with a small gold quatrefoil motif ornamented with vines and flowers its sleeves reaching to her wrists where the cuffs of a white undergarment appear The figure stands on an upturned crescent moon which was allegedly once silver in colour and is now relatively dark A feathered cherubic angel with outstretched arms carries the corners of her robe underneath her exposed feet A sunburst of straight and wavy gold rays are projected behind her and around her and are enclosed within a mandorla Beyond the mandorla to the right and left is an unpainted expanse white in color with a faint blue tinge The present image shows the 1791 nitric acid spill on the top right side unaffecting the subject matter s aureola A 63 Physical description edit The portrait was executed on a natural fibre fabric support constituted by two pieces originally three joined The join is clearly visible as a seam passing from top to bottom with the Virgin s face and hands and the head of the angel on the left piece passing through the left wrist of the Virgin The fabric is mounted on a large metal sheet to which it has been glued for some time 64 The image currently set in a massive frame protected behind bullet proof glass hangs inclined at a slight angle on the wall of the basilica behind the altar At this point there is a wide gap between the wall and the sanctuary facilitating closer viewing from moving walkways set on the floor beneath the main level of the basilica carrying people a short distance in either direction Viewed from the main body of the basilica the image is located above and to the right of the altar and is retracted at night into a small vault accessible by steps set into the wall 65 An intricate metal crown designed by the painter Salome Pina according to plans devised by Romulo Escudero and Perez Gallardo and executed by the Parisian goldsmith Edgar Morgan is fixed above the image by a rod and a massive Mexican flag is draped around and below the frame 66 The nature of the fabric is discussed below Its measurements were taken by Jose Ignacio Bartolache on December 29 1786 in the presence of Jose Bernardo de Nava a public notary height 170 cm 67 in width 105 cm 41 in 67 The original height before it was first shielded behind glass in the late 18th century at which time the unpainted portion beyond the Virgin s head must have been cut down was 229 cm 90 in 68 Technical analyses edit nbsp The original tilma of Juan Diego which hangs above the high altar of the Guadalupe Basilica The suspended crown atop the image dates back to its Canonical Coronation on October 12 1895 The image is protected by bulletproof glass and low oxygen atmosphere Neither the fabric the support nor the image together the tilma has been analyzed using the full range of resources now available to museum conservators Four technical studies have been conducted so far Of these the findings of at least three have been published Each study required the permission of the custodians of the tilma in the Basilica However Callahan s study was taken at the initiative of a third party the custodians did not know in advance what his research would reveal Miguel Cabrera 1756 in 1756 a prominent artist Miguel Cabrera published a report entitled Maravilla Americana containing the results of the ocular and manual inspections by him and six other painters in 1751 and 1752 69 70 Jose Gomez 1947 and 1973 Jose Antonio Flores Gomez an art restorer discussed in a 2002 interview with the Mexican journal Proceso certain technical issues relative to the tilma He had worked on it in 1947 and 1973 71 Philip Callahan 1979 in 1979 Philip Callahan a biophysicist USDA entomologist and NASA consultant specializing in infrared imaging was allowed direct access to visually inspect and photograph the image He took numerous infrared photographs of the front of the tilma Taking notes that were later published his assistant said that the original art work was neither cracked nor flaked while later additions gold leaf silver plating the Moon showed serious signs of wear if not complete deterioration Callahan could not explain the excellent state of preservation of the un retouched areas of the image on the tilma particularly the upper two thirds of the image His findings with photographs were published in 1981 72 73 Jose Rosales 1982 in 2002 Proceso published an interview with Jose Sol Rosales formerly director of the Center for the Conservation and Listing of Heritage Artifacts Patrimonio Artistico Mueble of the National Institute of Fine Arts INBA in Mexico City The article included extracts from a report which Rosales had written in 1982 of his findings from his inspection of the tilma that year using raking and UV light It was done at low magnification with a stereo microscope of the type used for surgery 74 75 76 Summary conclusions were contra indicates a contrary finding Canvas support The material of the support is soft to the touch described as almost silken by Cabrera and something like cotton by Gomez but to the eye suggests a coarse weave of palm threads called pita or the rough fiber called cotense Cabrera or a hemp and linen mixture Rosales It was traditionally held to be made from ixtle an agave fiber Ground or primer Rosales asserted Cabrera and Callahan contra by ocular examination that the tilma was primed though with primer applied irregularly Rosales does not clarify whether his observed irregular application entails that majorly the entire tilma was primed or just certain areas such as those areas of the tilma extrinsic to the image where Callahan agrees had later additions Cabrera alternatively observed that the image had soaked through to the reverse of the tilma 77 Under drawing Callahan asserted there was no under drawing Brush work Rosales suggested Callahan contra there was some visible brushwork on the original image but in a minute area of the image her eyes including the irises have outlines apparently applied by a brush Condition of the surface layer Callahan reports that the un retouched portions of the image particularly the blue mantle and the face are in a very good state of preservation with no flaking or peeling The three most recent inspections Gomez Callahan and Rosales agree i that additions have been made to the image gold leaf added to the Sun s rays which has flaked off silver paint or other material to depict the Moon which has discolored and the re construction or addition of the angel supporting the Marian image and ii that portions of the original image have been abraded and re touched in places Some flaking is visible though only in retouched areas mostly along the line of the vertical seam or at passages considered to be later additions Varnish The tilma has never been varnished Binding medium Rosales provisionally identified the pigments and binding medium distemper as consistent with 16th century methods of painting sargas Cabrera Callahan contra for different reasons but the color values and luminosity are in good condition The technique of painting on fabric with water soluble pigments with or without primer or ground is well attested The binding medium is generally animal glue or gum arabic see distemper Such an artifact is variously discussed in the literature as a tuchlein or sarga 78 79 Tuchlein paintings are very fragile and are not well preserved 80 so the tilma s color values and state of preservation are very good Trans religious significance edit nbsp Painting of Our lady of Guadalupe at the Comayagua Catheral in HondurasReligious imagery of Our Lady of Guadalupe appears in Roman Catholic parishes especially those with Latin American heritage 81 In addition due to the growth of Hispanic communities in the United States religious imagery of Our Lady of Guadalupe has started appearing in some Anglican Lutheran and Methodist churches 81 Additionally Our Lady of Guadalupe is venerated by some Mayan Orthodox Christians in Guatemala 82 The iconography of the Virgin is fully Catholic 83 Miguel Sanchez the author of the 1648 tract Imagen de la Virgen Maria described her as the Woman of the Apocalypse from the New Testament s Revelation 12 1 clothed with the sun and the moon under her feet and upon her head a crown of twelve stars She is described as a representation of the Immaculate Conception 59 Virgil Elizondo says the image also had layers of meaning for the indigenous people of Mexico who associated her image with their polytheistic deities which further contributed to her popularity 84 85 Her blue green mantle was the color reserved for the divine couple Ometecuhtli and Omecihuatl 86 her belt is interpreted as a sign of pregnancy and a cross shaped image symbolizing the cosmos and called nahui ollin is inscribed beneath the image s sash 87 She was called mother of maguey 88 the source of the sacred beverage pulque 89 Pulque was also known as the milk of the Virgin 90 The rays of light surrounding her are seen to also represent maguey spines 88 Cultural significance editJuan Diego s tilma has become Mexico s most popular religious and cultural symbol and has received widespread ecclesiastical and popular veneration In the 19th century it became the rallying cry of the Spaniards born in America in what they denominated New Spain They said they considered the apparitions as legitimizing their own indigenous Mexican origin They infused it with an almost messianic sense of mission and identity thereby also justifying their armed rebellion against Spain 91 92 Symbol of Mexico edit nbsp Luis de Mena Virgin of Guadalupe and castas 1750 a frequently reproduced painting uniquely uniting the image Virgin and a depiction of the casta system nbsp Allegory of the papal declaration in 1754 by pope Benedict XIV of Our Lady of Guadalupe patronage over the New Spain in the presence of the viceroyal authorities Anonymous Mexican author 18th century Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe became a recognized symbol of Catholic Mexicans Miguel Sanchez the author in 1648 of the first published account of the vision identified Guadalupe as Revelation s Woman of the Apocalypse and said this New World has been won and conquered by the hand of the Virgin Mary who had prepared disposed and contrived her exquisite likeness in this her Mexican land which was conquered for such a glorious purpose won that there should appear so Mexican an image 59 Throughout the Mexican national history of the 19th and 20th centuries the Guadalupan name and image have been unifying national symbols the first President of Mexico 1824 1829 changed his name from Jose Miguel Ramon Adaucto Fernandez y Felix to Guadalupe Victoria in honor of the Virgin of Guadalupe 93 Father Miguel Hidalgo in the Mexican War of Independence 1810 and Emiliano Zapata in the Mexican Revolution 1910 led their respective armed forces with Guadalupan flags emblazoned with an image of Our Lady of Guadalupe 94 In 1999 the Church officially proclaimed her the Patroness of the Americas the Empress of Latin America and the Protectress of Unborn Children nbsp The revolutionary banner carried by Miguel Hidalgo and his insurgent army during the Mexican War of IndependenceIn 1810 Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla initiated the bid for Mexican independence with his Grito de Dolores with the cry Death to the Spaniards and long live the Virgin of Guadalupe When Hidalgo s mestizo indigenous army attacked Guanajuato and Valladolid they placed the image of the Virgin of Guadalupe which was the insignia of their enterprise on sticks or on reeds painted different colors and they all wore a print of the Virgin on their hats 93 After Hidalgo s death leadership of the revolution fell to a mestizo priest named Jose Maria Morelos who led insurgent troops in the Mexican south Morelos adopted the Virgin as the seal of his Congress of Chilpancingo inscribing her feast day into the Chilpancingo constitution and declaring that Guadalupe was the power behind his victories New Spain puts less faith in its own efforts than in the power of God and the intercession of its Blessed Mother who appeared within the precincts of Tepeyac as the miraculous image of Guadalupe that had come to comfort us defend us visibly be our protection 93 Simon Bolivar noticed the Guadalupan theme in these uprisings and shortly before Morelos s execution in 1815 wrote the leaders of the independence struggle have put fanaticism to use by proclaiming the famous Virgin of Guadalupe as the queen of the patriots praying to her in times of hardship and displaying her on their flags the veneration for this image in Mexico far exceeds the greatest reverence that the shrewdest prophet might inspire 59 In 1912 Emiliano Zapata s peasant army rose out of the south against the government of Francisco Madero Though Zapata s rebel forces were primarily interested in land reform tierra y libertad land and liberty was the slogan of the uprising when his peasant troops penetrated Mexico City they carried Guadalupan banners 95 More recently the contemporary Zapatista National Liberation Army EZLN named their mobile city in honor of the Virgin it is called Guadalupe Tepeyac EZLN spokesperson Subcomandante Marcos wrote a humorous letter in 1995 describing the EZLN bickering over what to do with a Guadalupe statue they had received as a gift 96 Mexican culture edit nbsp Chapel of Our Lady of Guadalupe in the cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris Paris France nbsp Reliquary in the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels in Los Angeles United States containing a fragment of the tilma of Juan DiegoHarringon argues that The Aztecs had an elaborate coherent symbolic system for making sense of their lives When this was destroyed by the Spaniards something new was needed to fill the void and make sense of New Spain the image of Guadalupe served that purpose 97 Hernan Cortes the Conquistador who overthrew the Aztec Empire in 1521 was a native of Extremadura home to Our Lady of Guadalupe By the 16th century the Extremadura Guadalupe a statue of the Virgin said to be carved by Luke the Evangelist was already a national icon It was found at the beginning of the 14th century when the Virgin appeared to a humble shepherd and ordered him to dig at the site of the apparition The recovered Virgin then miraculously helped to expel the Moors from Spain and her small shrine evolved into the great Guadalupe monastery According to the traditional account the name of Guadalupe as the name was heard or understood by Spaniards was chosen by the Virgin herself when she appeared on the hill outside Mexico City in 1531 ten years after the Conquest 98 Guadalupe continues to be a mixture of the cultures which blended to form Mexico both racially and religiously 99 the first mestiza 100 or the first Mexican 101 bringing together people of distinct cultural heritages while at the same time affirming their distinctness 102 As Jacques Lafaye wrote in Quetzalcoatl and Guadalupe as the Christians built their first churches with the rubble and the columns of the ancient pagan temples so they often borrowed pagan customs for their own cult purposes 103 The author Judy King asserts that Guadalupe is a common denominator uniting Mexicans Writing that Mexico is composed of a vast patchwork of differences linguistic ethnic and class based King says The Virgin of Guadalupe is the rubber band that binds this disparate nation into a whole 101 The Mexican novelist Carlos Fuentes once said that you cannot truly be considered a Mexican unless you believe in the Virgin of Guadalupe 104 Nobel Literature laureate Octavio Paz wrote in 1974 that The Mexican people after more than two centuries of experiments and defeats have faith only in the Virgin of Guadalupe and the National Lottery 105 Pious beliefs and devotions editProtection from damage edit nbsp La Virgen de Guadalupe in the Church of Santa Maria Asuncion Tlaxiaco Oaxaca Mexico in a glass case in the center of the retablo of the first altar along the left wall of the nave nbsp Altar in a market of Mexico CityCatholic sources attest that the original image has many miraculous and supernatural properties including that the tilma has maintained its structural integrity for approximately 500 years despite exposure to soot candle wax incense constant manual veneration by devotees the historical fact that the image was displayed without any protective glass for its first 115 years while replicas normally endure for only circa 15 years before degrading 106 and that it repaired itself with no external assistance after a 1791 accident in which nitric acid was spilled on its top right causing considerable damage but leaving the aureola of the Virgin intact Furthermore on November 14 1921 a bomb hidden within a basket of flowers and left under the tilma by an anti Catholic secularist exploded and damaged the altar of the Basilica that houses the original image but the tilma was unharmed A brass standing crucifix bent by the explosion is now preserved at the shrine s museum and is believed to be miraculous by devotees 107 108 Other supernatural qualities edit In 1929 and 1951 photographers said they found a figure reflected in the Virgin s eyes upon inspection they said that the reflection was tripled in what is called the Purkinje effect commonly found in human eyes 109 An ophthalmologist Dr Jose Aste Tonsmann later enlarged an image of the Virgin s eyes by 2500x and said he found not only the aforementioned single figure but images of all the witnesses present when the tilma was first revealed before Zumarraga in 1531 plus a small family group of mother father and a group of children in the center of the Virgin s eyes fourteen people in all including a young Black girl representing Zumarraga s slave whom he freed in his will 110 111 In 1936 biochemist Richard Kuhn reportedly analyzed a sample of the fabric and announced that the pigments used were from no known source whether animal mineral or vegetable 110 According to The Wonder of Guadalupe by Francis Johnston this was requested by Professor Hahn and Professor Marcelino Junco retired professor of organic chemistry at the National University of Mexico This has been taken as further evidence of the tilma s miraculous nature In late 2019 investigators from The Higher Institute of Guadalupano Studies concluded that there was no evidence Kuhn ever investigated the Lady of Guadalupe or made the statement attributed to him 112 Dr Philip Serna Callahan who photographed the icon under infrared light declared from his photographs that portions of the face hands robe and mantle had been painted in one step with no sketches or corrections and no visible brush strokes 113 Veneration edit The shrine of the Virgin of Guadalupe is the most visited Catholic pilgrimage destination in the world Over the Friday and Saturday of December 11 to 12 2009 a record number of 6 1 million pilgrims visited the Basilica of Guadalupe in Mexico City to commemorate the anniversary of the apparition 114 The Virgin of Guadalupe is considered the Patroness of Mexico and the Continental Americas she is also venerated by Native Americans on the account of the devotion calling for the conversion of the Americas 115 Replicas of the tilma can be found in thousands of churches throughout the world and numerous parishes bear her name Due to Mary s appearance as a pregnant mother and her claims as mother of all in the apparition the Blessed Virgin Mary under this title is popularly invoked as Patroness of the Unborn and a common image for the Pro Life movement 116 117 118 In political movements editDue to her association as a crusader of social justice the image of Our Lady of Guadalupe has been utilized as a symbol across regions to advance political movements and mobilize the masses For instance the image has most notably been utilized in Mexico s Independence movement in the early 19th century the United Farm Worker Movement in the U S in the 20th century and in contemporary political causes like immigration 119 120 In Mexico s Independence the image of Our Lady of Guadalupe became associated with the movement after Father Miguel Hidalgo rallied and united insurgents under her banner In fact the first president of the Mexican republic Jose Miguel Ramon Adaucto Fernandez y Felix who was heavily involved in Mexico s Independence war changed his name as to Guadalupe Victoria as a sign of devotion 121 120 In the United Farm Workers Union UFW its leader Cesar Chavez was a devout Catholic who drew on his religious beliefs to demand for better wages and labor practices for farm workers in the U S 122 He incorporated his religious beliefs in the movement by holding masses in the picket lines and prayers before meetings and leading a pilgrimage from Delano to Sacramento in 1966 during Lent 122 Similarly to Mexico s Independence movement the famous pilgrimage in 1966 that drew national attention to the cause was lead under a banner with the image of Our Lady of Guadalupe 123 The image of Our Lady of Guadalupe is also present in the contemporary political discussion on immigration Artists like Ester Hernandez and Consuelo Jimenez Underwood embed or reimagine her image on artworks that comment on immigration politics For instance Ester Hernandez s screen print titled Wanted 2010 and Consuelo Jimenez Underwood s Sacred Jump 1994 and Vigen de los Caminos 1994 124 125 120 In popular culture editLiterature and film edit nbsp Representation of some indigenous Aztecs venerating the Virgin of Guadalupe in the BasilicaOne notable reference in literature to the image and its alleged predecessor the Aztec Earth goddess Tonantzin is in Sandra Cisneros short story Little Miracles Kept Promises from her collection Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories 1991 Cisneros story is constructed out of brief notes that people give Our Lady of Guadalupe in thanks for favors received which in Cisneros hands becomes a portrait of an extended Chicano community living throughout Texas Little Miracles ends with an extended narrative pp 124 129 of a feminist artist Rosario Chayo de Leon who at first did not allow images of La Virgen de Guadalupe in her home because she associated her with subservience and suffering particularly by Mexican women But when she learns that Guadalupe s shrine is built on the same hill in Mexico City that had a shrine to Tonantzin the Aztec Earth goddess and serpent destroyer Chayo comes to understand that there s a deep syncretic connection between the Aztec goddess and the Mexican saint together they inspire Chayo s new artistic creativity inner strength and independence In Chayo s words I finally understood who you are No longer Mary the mild but our mother Tonantzin Your church at Tepeyac built on the site of her temple 128 126 The image and its alleged apparition was investigated several times including in the 2013 documentary The Blood amp The Rose directed by Tim Watkins 127 Documentarians have been portraying the message of Our Lady of Guadalupe since the 1990s in an attempt to bring the message of the apparition to the North American audience Visual arts edit Drawing on the significance of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Chicano culture many Chicano artists revere her image and visually reimagine the religious figure within a feminist and contemporary context 128 129 125 More than just a religious symbol Chicano artists view Our Lady of Guadalupe as an empowering feminist icon and a proclamation of Indigenous pride However these re envisioned artworks have not been without controversy as many artists have faced intense backlash from Catholic groups who view these artworks as disrespectful and irreverent 130 One of the most famous controversies was sparked by Alma Lopez s Our Lady digital collage which later led to a book titled Our Lady of Controversy Alma Lopez s Irreverent Apparition 131 132 Despite this Chicano artists such as Yolanda Lopez Alma Lopez Margarita Mita Cuaron Ester Hernandez and Consuelo Jimenez Underwood among others have used Our Lady of Guadalupe s portrait to explore themes of repression feminine strength and to uplift women 133 134 See also edit nbsp Mexico portal nbsp Catholicism portal nbsp Christianity portalAcheiropoieta Cathedral of Our Lady of Guadalupe List of churches dedicated to Our Lady of Guadalupe Lord of Miracles of Buga Mariology Miracle of the roses Codex Cumanicus Huei tlamahuicolticaReferences edit World s Most Visited Sacred Sites Travel and Leisure January 2012 Shrine of Guadalupe Most Popular in the World Zenit June 13 1999 Archived from the original on May 7 2016 Retrieved June 12 2009 a b c d e f g English translation of the Nican Mopohua a 17th century account written in the native Nahuatl language Sousa Lisa Poole Stafford Lockhart James 1998 The Story of Guadalupe Luis Laso de la Vega sHuei tlamahuicolticaof 1649 UCLA Latin American studies vol 84 Nahuatl studies series no 5 Stanford amp Los Angeles California Stanford University Press UCLA Latin American Center Publications p 65 ISBN 0 8047 3482 8 OCLC 39455844 This apparition is somewhat elided in the Nican Mopohua but is implicit in three brief passages Sousa et al pp 75 77 83 It is fully described in the Imagen de la Virgen Maria of Miguel Sanchez published in 1648 The date does not appear in the Nican Mopohua but in Sanchez s Imagen The procession and miracle are not part of the Nican Mopohua proper yet introduce the Nican Mopectana that immediately follows the Nican Mopohua in the Huei Tlamahuicoltica Miracle Hunter Message of Guadalupe Pope Pius X June 16 1910 Gratiae quae in Latin Retrieved June 28 2022 a b Virgen de Guadalupe Mariologia org Archived from the original on April 26 2012 Retrieved August 13 2012 Pope Pius XI July 16 1935 Acta Apostolicae Sedis PDF in Latin Vol XXVIII pp 63 64 Retrieved March 20 2022 Pope Pius XII September 12 1942 Acta Apostolicae Sedis PDF in Latin Vol XXXIV pp 336 337 Retrieved March 20 2022 Pope Pius XII July 16 1958 Acta Apostolicae Sedis PDF in Latin Vol LI p 32 Retrieved March 20 2022 Pope Pius XII October 12 1945 Radiomensaje de Su Santidad Pio XII a los fieles mexicanos en el 50 aniversario de la coronacion canonica de la Virgen de Guadalupe Radio message of His Holiness Pius XII to the Mexican faithful on the 50th anniversary of the canonical coronation of the Virgin of Guadalupe in Spanish Retrieved March 20 2022 Pope Paul VI May 31 1966 Radiomensaje del Santo Padre Pablo VI con motivo de la entrega de la Rosa de Oro a la Basilica de Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe Radio message of the Holy Father Paul VI on the occasion of the presentation of the Golden Rose to the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Spanish Retrieved March 22 2022 Pope Francis sends golden rose to Our Lady of Guadalupe Catholic News Agency November 22 2013 Retrieved March 25 2015 La Virgen del Agostadero en Villa Garcia Zacatecas turimexico com in Spanish August 26 2016 Retrieved December 21 2021 Dysinger Luke The Virgin Mary in Art St John s Seminary Camarillo Our Lady of Guadalupe in Spain Our Lady in the Old World and New Medieval Southwest Texas Tech University Castano Victor Manuel coordinador general Estudio fisico quimico y tecnico del codice 1548 Coleccion Privada Herdez 1997 Ciencia Hoy La detectivesca ciencia de los documentos antiguos el caso de codice 1548 a 29 April b 6 May and c 13 May 2008 Codice 1548 o Escalada in Spanish Inigne y Nacional Basilica de Santa Maria de Guadalupe Archived from the original on January 8 2015 a b Peralta Alberto 2003 El Codice 1548 Critica a una supuesta fuente Guadalupana del Siglo XVI Articulos in Spanish Proyecto Guadalupe Archived from the original on February 9 2007 Retrieved December 1 2006 Poole Stafford July 2005 History vs Juan Diego The Americas 62 1 16 doi 10 1353 tam 2005 0133 S2CID 144263333 Poole Stafford 2006 The Guadalupan Controversies in Mexico Stanford California Stanford University Press ISBN 978 0 8047 5252 7 OCLC 64427328 a b D Brading 2001 Mexican Phoenix Our Lady of Guadalupe Image and Tradition Across Five Centuries Cambridge University Press pp 117 118 cf p 359 a b Leon Portilla Miguel Antonio Valeriano 2000 Tonantzin Guadalupe pensamiento nahuatl y mensaje cristiano en el Nican mopōhua in Spanish Mexico Colegio Nacional Fondo de Cultura Economico ISBN 968 16 6209 1 a b Burrus S J Ernest J 1981 The Oldest Copy of the Nican Mopohua Cara Studies in Popular Devotion Washington D C Center for Applied Research in the Apostolate Georgetown University II Guadalupan Studies 4 OCLC 9593292 a b O Gorman Edmundo 1991 Destierro de sombras luz en el origen de la imagen y culto de Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe del Tepeyac in Spanish Mexico Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico ISBN 968 837 870 4 Robert Ricard The Spiritual Conquest of Mexico Translated by Lesley Byrd Simpson Berkeley University of California Press 1966 p 188 de la Torre Villar Ernesto Navarro de Anda Ramiro 2007 Nuevos testimonios historicos guadalupanos Mexico D F Fondo de Cultura Economica p 1448 ISBN 978 968 16 7551 6 Retrieved May 25 2013 Ricard Spiritual Conquest p 189 Poole 1995 p 60 Poole 1995 pp 60 62 Dunning Brian April 13 2010 Skeptoid 201 The Virgin of Guadalupe Skeptoid Retrieved June 22 2017 J Nickell Image of Guadalupe myth perception Skeptical Inquirer 21 1 January February 1997 p 9 Jody Brant Smith The image of Guadalupe Mercer University Press 1994 p 73 Francis Johnston The Wonder of Guadalupe TAN Books 1981 p 47 Ricard Spiritual Conquest p 190 Bernardino de Sahagun Florentine Codex Introduction and Indices Arthur J O Anderson and Charles Dibble translators Salt Lake City University of Utah Press 1982 p 90 L Burkhart 2001 Before Guadalupe the Virgin Mary in early colonial Nahuatl literature Austin University of Texas Press D A Brading Mexican Phoenix Our Lady of Guadalupe Cambridge University Press 2001 p 5 Insigne y Nacional Basilica de Santa Maria de Guadalupe basilica mxv mx Retrieved December 5 2017 Sousa Lisa Poole Stafford Lockhart James 1998 The Story of Guadalupe Luis Laso de la Vega sHuei tlamahuicolticaof 1649 UCLA Latin American studies vol 84 Nahuatl studies series no 5 Stanford amp Los Angeles California Stanford University Press UCLA Latin American Center Publications pp 42 47 ISBN 0 8047 3482 8 OCLC 39455844 Story of the manuscript as was told by Thomas Lannon assistant curator of the New York Public Library A digital scan of the manuscript is available here Brading p 344 Trevino Eduardo Chavez translated from Spanish by Carmen Montano Veronica 2006 Our Lady of Guadalupe and Saint Juan Diego the historical evidence Lanham Md Rowman amp Littlefield Publishers p 121 of 212 ISBN 0742551059 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Anales de Juan Bautista Folio 6r Cartas Sobre la Tradicion de Ntra Sra de Guadalupe de Mexico Servando Teresa De Mier 1797 p 53 Vera Fortino Hipolito 1889 Informaciones sobre la milagrosa aparicion de la santisima Virgin de Guadalupe recibidas en 1666 y 1723 in Spanish Imp catolica OCLC 682107928 page needed Guadalupe Informaciones juridicas de 1666 Archived December 8 2015 at the Wayback Machine Informaciones de 1666 Archived from the original on January 5 2016 Retrieved December 8 2015 Vicaria de Guadalupe Antecedentes historicos Antigua Basilica de Santa Maria de Guadalupe Archived from the original on July 22 2011 Retrieved November 17 2021 Virgen de Guadalupe con las cuatro apariciones y una vista del Santuario de Tepeyac Google Arts amp Culture Stafford Poole The Guadalupan Controversies in Mexico Stanford University Press 2006 p 60 Brading 2002 Mexican Phoenix p 307 Enciclopedia Guadalupana p 267 vol II Britannica com Saragoza Alex 2012 Mexico Today An Encyclopedia of Life in the Republic ABC CLIO p 95 ISBN 978 0 313 34948 5 Daily Catholic Archived October 16 2007 at the Wayback Machine December 7 1999 accessed November 30 2006 Juan Diego y las Apariciones el pimo Tepeyac Paperback by Joaquin Garcia Icazbalceta ISBN 970 92771 3 8 a b c d D A Brading Mexican Phoenix Our Lady of Guadalupe Image and Tradition Across Five Centuries 2001 p 58 Nican Mopohua Here It Is Told Archived November 21 2011 at the Wayback Machine p 208 UC San Diego a b c Anderson Carl and Chavez Eduardo Our Lady of Guadalupe Mother of the Civilization of Love Doubleday New York 2009 p 205 Gonzalez Ondina E and Justo L Gonzalez Christianity in Latin America A History p 59 Cambridge University Press 2008 See Callahan Philip Serna The Tilma under Infrared Radiation CARA Studies on Popular Devotion vol II Guadalupanan Studies No 3 pp 6 16 Callahan Philip Serna The Tilma under Infrared Radiation CARA Studies on Popular Devotion vol II Guadalupanan Studies No 3 p 16 For a brief description of the vault see Callahan Philip Serna The Tilma under Infrared Radiation CARA Studies on Popular Devotion vol II Guadalupanan Studies No 3 at p 6 See Enciclopedia Guadalupana p 267 vol 2 See Enciclopedia Guadalupana pp 536f vol 3 The December 2001 issue special edition of Guia Mexico Desconocido p 86 dedicated to the Virgen de Guadalupe has a fact box on p 21 which gives slightly different dimensions height 178 by 103 cm wide 70 by 41 in See Fernandez de Echeverria y Veytia 1718 1780 Baluartes de Mexico published posthumously 1820 p 32 Cabrera Miguel Maravilla Americana y conjunto de varias maravillas observadas con la direccion de las reglas del arte de la pintura en la prodigiosa imagen de Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe Mexico 1756 facs ed Mexico 1977 Brading D A Mexican Phoenix Our Lady of Guadalupe Image and Tradition Across Five Centuries Cambridge University Press 2001 pp 169 172 Vera Rodrigo July 27 2002 Un restaurador de la guadalupana expone detalles tecnicos que desmitifican a la imagen Proceso No 1343 Callahan Philip S 1981 The Tilma Under Infra red Radiation An Infrared and Artistic Analysis of the Image of the Virgin Mary in the Basilica of Guadalupe Center for Applied Research in the Apostolate OCLC 11200397 page needed Leatham Miguel 1989 Indigenista Hermeneutics and the Historical Meaning of Our Lady of Guadalupe of Mexico Folklore Forum 22 1 2 27 39 hdl 2022 2068 Vera Rodrigo May 19 2002 El analisis que oculto el Vaticano Proceso No 1333 1 manos humanas pintaron la guadalupana permanent dead link Brading 2001 Mexican Phoenix p 170 Bomford David Roy Ashok Smith Alistair 1986 The Techniques of Dieric Bouts Two Paintings Contrasted National Gallery Technical Bulletin 10 Santos Gomez Sonia San Andres Moya Margarita March 30 2004 La pintura de sargas Archivo Espanol de Arte 77 305 59 74 doi 10 3989 aearte 2004 v77 i305 256 Doherty T amp Woollett A T 2009 Looking at paintings a guide to technical terms Getty Publications page needed a b Johnson Maxwell E 2015 The Church in Act Lutheran Liturgical Theology in Ecumenical Conversation Fortress Press p 187 ISBN 978 1451496680 Jesse Brandow Missionary to Guatemala and Mexico www facebook com Retrieved January 3 2019 McMenamin M 2006 Our Lady of Guadalupe and Eucharistic Adoration Numismatics International Bulletin 41 5 91 97 Elizondo Virgil Guadalupe Mother of a New Creation Maryknoll New York Orbis Books 1997 A short history of Tonantzin Our Lady of Guadalupe Indian Country News Archived from the original on March 6 2019 Retrieved March 4 2019 UTPA edu La Virgen de Guadalupe accessed November 30 2006 Tonantzin Guadalupe by Joaquin Flores Segura Editorial Progreso 1997 ISBN 970 641 145 3 978 970 641 145 7 pp 66 77 a b Taylor William B 1979 Drinking Homicide and Rebellion in Colonial Mexican Villages Stanford Stanford University Press ISBN 9780804711128 What is Pulque Del Maguey Single Village Mezcal Archived from the original on October 16 2020 Retrieved October 13 2020 Bushnell John 1958 La Virgen de Guadalupe as Surrogate Mother in San Juan Aztingo American Anthropologist 60 2 261 doi 10 1525 aa 1958 60 2 02a00050 Poole Stafford Our Lady of Guadalupe The Origins and Sources of a Mexican National Symbol 1531 1797 1995 Taylor William B Shrines and Miraculous Images Religious Life in Mexico Before the Reforma 2011 a b c Krauze Enrique Mexico Biography of Power A History of Modern Mexico 1810 1996 HarperCollins New York 1997 Galeano Eduardo January 1997 Open Veins of Latin America Five Centuries of the Pillage of a Continent p 46 ISBN 978 0853459910 Documentary footage of Zapata and Pancho Villa s armies entering Mexico City can be seen at YouTube com Zapata s men can be seen carrying the flag of the Guadalupana about 38 seconds in Subcomandante Marcos Flag blackened net Zapatistas Guadalupanos and the Virgin of Guadalupe March 24 1995 accessed December 11 2006 Harrington Patricia 1988 Mother of Death Mother of Rebirth The Mexican Virgin of Guadalupe Journal of the American Academy of Religion 56 1 25 50 doi 10 1093 jaarel LVI 1 25 JSTOR 1464830 Sancta org Archived October 29 2007 at the Wayback Machine Why the name of Guadalupe accessed November 30 2006 Elizondo Virgil AmericanCatholic org Archived October 26 2007 at the Wayback Machine Our Lady of Guadalupe A Guide for the New Millennium St Anthony Messenger Magazine Online December 1999 accessed December 3 2006 Lopez Lydia Undocumented Virgin Guadalupe Narrative Crosses Borders for New Understanding Episcopal News Service December 10 2004 a b King Judy May 29 2020 La Virgen de Guadalupe Mother of all Mexico MexConnect O Connor Mary 1989 The Virgin of Guadalupe and the Economics of Symbolic Behavior Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 28 2 105 119 doi 10 2307 1387053 JSTOR 1387053 Lafaye Jacques Quetzalcoatl and Guadalupe The Formation of Mexican National Consciousness Chicago University of Chicago Press 1976 Demarest Donald Guadalupe Cult In the Lives of Mexicans p 114 in A Handbook on Guadalupe Franciscan Friars of the Immaculate eds Waite Park MN Park Press Inc 1996 Paz Octavio 1987 Foreword In Lafaye Jacques ed Quetzalcoatl and Guadalupe The Formation of Mexican National Consciousness 1531 1813 University of Chicago Press pp ix xxii ISBN 978 0 226 46788 7 Guerra Giulio Dante 1992 La Madonna di Guadalupe un caso di inculturazione miracolosa Cristianita No 205 206 Brading D A 2001 Mexican Phoenix Our Lady of Guadalupe Image and Tradition Across Five Centuries Cambridge University Press p 314 ISBN 978 0 521 53160 3 Poole Stafford 2006 The Guadalupan Controversies in Mexico Stanford University Press p 110 ISBN 978 0 8047 5252 7 https web archive org web 20071209175102 http www interlupe com mx 8 e html Web archive org unreliable source The Eyes Interlupe Accessed December 3 a b Science Sees What Mary Saw From Juan Diego s Tilma catholiceducation org Archived June 20 2010 at the Wayback Machine Our Lady s eyes www messengersaintanthony com September 30 2016 Retrieved May 22 2022 Investigacion en Documentos del Dr Richard Khun en Alemania Morenita Archived from the original on October 24 2020 Retrieved October 14 2020 Sennott Br Thomas Mary MotherOfAllPeoples com Archived June 8 2017 at the Wayback Machine The Tilma of Guadalupe A Scientific Analysis Znit org Archived November 13 2011 at the Wayback Machine Our Lady of Guadalupe Description History amp Facts Britannica The Patroness of the Unborn Our Lady of Guadalupe Human Life International December 13 2012 Retrieved November 28 2021 Knots in Mary s Garments University of Dayton Ohio Goan Churches Information on all Churches in Goa Cano Gustavo April 15 2004 The Virgin the Priest and the Flag Political Mobilization of Mexican Immigrants in Chicago Houston and New York a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help a b c Galvez Alyshia 2010 Guadalupe in New York Devotion and the Struggle for Citizenship Rights Among Mexican Immigrants NYU Press Espinosa Gaston and Mario T Garcia 2008 Mexican American Religions Spirituality Activism and Culture Duke University Press a b Stephen R Lloyd Moffet Holy Activist Secular Saint Religion and the Social Activism of Cesar Chavez Mexican American Religions Duke University Press 2008 berkeley primo exlibrisgroup com doi 10 2307 j ctv11smnj0 8 Thurber Dani Research Guides A Latinx Resource Guide Civil Rights Cases and Events in the United States 1962 United Farm Workers Union guides loc gov Retrieved August 3 2023 Roman Odio Clara Globalization and Chicana Politics of Representation Sacred Iconographies in Chicana Cultural Productions Palgrave Macmillan US pp 99 117 berkeley primo exlibrisgroup com doi 10 1057 9781137077714 5 a b Perez Laura Elisa Chicana Art the Politics of Spiritual and Aesthetic Altarities Durham Duke University Press 2007 Print Cisneros Sandra Little Miracles Kept Promises Woman Hollering Creed and Other Stories New York Random House 1991 116 129 The Blood amp the Rose at IMDb Lara Irene 2008 Tonanlupanisma Re Membering Tonantzin Guadalupe in Chicana Visual Art Aztlan 33 2 61 90 Roman Odio Clara Sacred Iconographies in Chicana Cultural Productions 1st ed New York NY Palgrave Macmillan 2013 Print Walker Hollis April 4 2001 Depiction of the Virgin of Guadalupe Stirs Objections Los Angeles Times Retrieved August 3 2023 Gaspar de Alba Alicia Alma Lopez and Alma Lopez 2011 Our Lady of Controversy Alma Lopez s Irreverent Apparition Austin University of Texas Press Our Lady of Guadalupe is a powerful symbol of Mexican identity NBC News December 12 2016 Retrieved August 3 2023 Blackwell Maylei WOMEN WHO MAKE THEIR OWN WORLDS THE LIFE AND WORK OF ESTER HERNANDEZ Chicana Movidas New Narratives of Activism and Feminism in the Movement Era edited by Dionne Espinoza et al University of Texas Press 2018 pp 138 58 JSTOR http www jstor org stable 10 7560 315583 11 LaDuke Betty Yolanda Lopez Breaking Chicana Stereotypes Feminist Studies 20 no 1 1994 117 30 doi 10 2307 3178436 Pure gold does not react with nitric acid though pure gold does react with aqua regia a mixture of concentrated nitric acid and hydrochloric acid Works cited edit Poole Stafford 1995 Our Lady of Guadalupe The Origins and Sources of a Mexican National Symbol 1531 1797 Tucson University of Arizona Press Further reading editPrimary sources edit Cabrera Miguel Maravilla americana y conjunto de raras maravillas en la prodigiosa imagen de Nuestra Srs de Guadalupe de Mexico 1756 Facsimile edition Mexico City Editorial Jus 1977 Cayetano de Cabrera y Quintero Escudo de armas de Mexico Celestial proteccion de esta nobilissima ciudad de la Nueva Espana Ma Santissima en su portentosa imagen del Mexico Guadalupe Mexico City Impreso por la Viuda de don Joseph Bernardo de Hogal 1746 The Story of Guadalupe Luis Laso de la Vega s Huei tlmahuicoltica of 1649 edited and translated by Lisa Sousa Stafford Poole and James Lockhart Vol 84 of UCLA Latin American Center Publications Stanford Stanford University Press 1998 Noguez Xavier Documentos Guadalupanos Mexico City El Colegio Mexiquense and Fondo de Cultura Economia 1993 Secondary sources edit Sister Mary Amatora O S F The Queen s Portrait The Story of Guadalupe 1961 1972 ISBN 0682474681 Hardcover ISBN 0682474797 Paperback Hymn To Our Lady Of Guadalupe p 118 Brading D A Mexican Phoenix Our Lady of Guadalupe Image and Tradition across Five Centuries New York Cambridge University Press 2001 Burkhart Louise The Cult of the Virgin of Guadalupe in Mexico in South and Meso American Native Spirituality ed Gary H Gossen and Miguel Leon Portilla pp 198 227 New York Crossroad Press 1993 Burkhart Louise Before Guadalupe The Virgin Mary in Early Colonial Nahuatl Literature Albany Institute for Mesoamerican Studies and the University of Texas Press 2001 Cline Sarah August 1 2015 Guadalupe and the Castas Mexican Studies Estudios Mexicanos 31 2 218 247 doi 10 1525 mex 2015 31 2 218 Deutsch James December 11 2017 A New Way to Show Your Devotion in Mexico City Wear a T Shirt Smithsonian Magazine Elizondo Virgil Guadalupe Mother of a New Creation Maryknoll New York Orbis Books 1997 Lafaye Jacques Quetzalcoatl and Guadalupe The Formation of Mexican National Consciousness 1532 1815 Trans Benjamin Keen Chicago University of Chicago Press 1976 Maza Francisco de la El Guadalupismo mexicano Mexico City Fondo de Cultura Economica 1953 1981 Peterson Jeanette Favrot December 1992 The Virgin of Guadalupe Symbol of Conquest or Liberation Art Journal 51 4 39 47 doi 10 1080 00043249 1992 10791596 ProQuest 223311874 Peterson Jeanette Favrot Visualizing Guadalupe From Black Madonna to Queen of the Americas Austin University of Texas Press 2014 Poole Stafford July 2005 History Versus Juan Diego The Americas 62 1 1 16 doi 10 1353 tam 2005 0133 S2CID 144263333 Sanchez David A 2008 From Patmos to the Barrio Subverting Imperial Myths Fortress Press ISBN 978 1 4514 0589 7 Taylor William B February 1987 The Virgin of Guadalupe in New Spain an inquiry into the social history of Marian devotion American Ethnologist 14 1 9 33 doi 10 1525 ae 1987 14 1 02a00020 JSTOR 645631 External links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Our Lady of Guadalupe Tepeyac Lady of Guadalupe film Directed by Pedro Brenner 2021 NEWS BBC co uk BBC photo essay of December 12 festivities in San Miguel de Allende Gto Shrine of Guadalupe on the Catholic Encyclopedia Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Our Lady of Guadalupe amp oldid 1183864755, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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