fbpx
Wikipedia

Philosophy

October 23, 2023

For other uses, see Philosophy (disambiguation).

Philosophy (love of wisdom in ancient Greek) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence, reason, knowledge, value, mind, and language. It is a rational and critical inquiry that reflects on its own methods and assumptions.

Historically, many of the individual sciences, like physics and psychology, formed part of philosophy. But they are considered separate academic disciplines in the modern sense of the term. The main traditions in the history of philosophy include Western, Arabic-Persian, Indian, and Chinese philosophy. Western philosophy originated in Ancient Greece and covers a wide area of philosophical subfields. A central topic in Arabic-Persian philosophy is the relation between reason and revelation. Indian philosophy combines the spiritual problem of how to reach enlightenment with the exploration of the nature of reality and the ways of arriving at knowledge. Chinese philosophy focuses on practical issues in relation to right social conduct, government, and self-cultivation.

Major branches of philosophy are epistemology, ethics, logic, and metaphysics. Epistemology studies what knowledge is and how to acquire it. Ethics investigates moral principles and what constitutes right conduct. Logic is the study of correct reasoning and explores how good arguments can be distinguished from bad ones. Metaphysics examines the most general features of reality, existence, objects, and properties. Other notable subfields are aesthetics, philosophy of language, philosophy of mind, philosophy of religion, philosophy of science, philosophy of history, and political philosophy.

Philosophers use a great variety of methods to arrive at philosophical knowledge. They include conceptual analysis, reliance on common sense and intuitions, use of thought experiments, analysis of ordinary language, description of experience, and critical questioning. Philosophy is related to many other fields, like the sciences, mathematics, business, law, and journalism. It provides an interdisciplinary perspective and studies their scope and fundamental concepts. It also investigates their methods and ethical implications.

Etymology

The word philosophy comes from the ancient Greek words φίλος (philos: 'love') and σοφία (sophia: 'wisdom').[1][2][3] Some sources say that the term was coined by the Presocratic philosopher Pythagoras, but this is not certain.[4][5]

 
Physics was originally part of philosophy, like Isaac Newton's observation of how gravity affects falling apples.

The word entered the English language primarily from Old French and Anglo-Norman starting around 1175 CE. The French philosophie is itself a borrowing from the Latin philosophia. The term philosophy acquired the meanings of "advanced study of the speculative subjects (logic, ethics, physics, and metaphysics)", "deep wisdom consisting of love of truth and virtuous living", "profound learning as transmitted by the ancient writers", and "the study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence, and the basic limits of human understanding".[6][1]

Before the modern age, the term philosophy was used in a wide sense. It included most forms of rational inquiry, like the individual sciences, as its subdisciplines.[1][7][8] For instance, natural philosophy was a major branch of philosophy.[9][10][11][12] This branch of philosophy encompassed a wide range of fields, including disciplines like physics, chemistry, and biology.[1][13] An example of this usage is the 1687 book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica by Isaac Newton. This book referred to natural philosophy in its title, but it is today considered a book of physics.[11][12][14]

The meaning of philosophy changed toward the end of the modern period when it acquired the more narrow meaning common today. In this new sense, the term is mainly associated with philosophical disciplines like metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. Among other topics, it covers the rational study of reality, knowledge, and values. However, it is distinguished from other disciplines of rational inquiry like the empirical sciences and mathematics.[15]

Conceptions of philosophy

See also: Metaphilosophy

General conception

The practice of philosophy is characterized by various general features: it is a form of rational inquiry, it aims to be systematic, and it tends to critically reflect on its own methods and presuppositions.[16] It requires thinking "as hard and as clearly...about some of the most interesting and enduring problems that human minds have ever encountered".[17]

According to the 18th-century philosopher Immanuel Kant, the task of philosophy is united by four questions: "What can I know?"; "What should I do?"; "What may I hope?"; and "What is the human being?" His entire career, as he conceived it, was devoted to systematically addressing these four questions.[18][19][20]

The theme of self-critical intellectual humility may be traced back to the origins of Western philosophy. Socrates, as depicted in Plato's dialogues, famously expresses incredulity when told by the Oracle at Delphi that he was the wisest person of all. What he comes to conclude is that his wisdom consists in his knowing that he does not possess the most exalted kind of wisdom, namely, that about what is truly fine and good.[21][22] Consistent with his well-known assertion that "the unexamined life is not worth living", Socrates arrives at the conclusion that the active pursuit of wisdom is good and valuable in itself, irrespective of whether one ever arrives at final definitions.[23][24] This is consistent with the view that the kind of knowledge that philosophy seeks is not information, but understanding.[25]

Confronting the unlikelihood of ever arriving at final answers to the great questions of philosophy, Bertrand Russell offers this justification for nevertheless undertaking the labor: "The man who has no tincture of philosophy goes through life imprisoned in the prejudices derived from common sense, from the habitual beliefs of his age or his nation, and from convictions which have grown up in his mind without the cooperation or consent of his deliberate reason."[26][27] This passage has been cited to advance an interpretation of philosophy as "freeing us from prejudice, self-deceptive notions, and half-truths".[28]

Academic definitions

Main article: Definitions of philosophy

Attempts to define philosophy in precise terms are controversial[29][14] and are studied in the subdiscipline known as metaphilosophy.[30] Some approaches argue that there is a set of essential features shared by all parts of philosophy. Others see only weaker family resemblances or contend that it is merely an empty blanket term.[31][32][33] Precise definitions are often only accepted by theorists belonging to a certain philosophical movement and are revisionistic according to Søren Overgaard et al. in that many presumed parts of philosophy would not deserve the title "philosophy" if they were true.[34][35]

Some definitions characterize philosophy in relation to its method, like pure reasoning. Others focus on its topic, for example, as the study of the biggest patterns of the world as a whole or as the attempt to answer the big questions.[36][37][38] Both approaches have the problem that they are usually either too wide, by including non-philosophical disciplines, or too narrow, by excluding some philosophical sub-disciplines.[36]

Many definitions of philosophy emphasize its intimate relation to science.[14] In this sense, philosophy is sometimes understood as a proper science in its own right. According to some naturalistic philosophers, like W. V. O. Quine, philosophy is an empirical yet abstract science that is concerned with wide-ranging empirical patterns instead of particular observations.[39][40] Science-based definitions usually face the problem of explaining why philosophy in its long history has not made the type of progress seen in other sciences.[41][42][43] This problem is avoided by seeing philosophy as an immature or provisional science whose subdisciplines cease to be philosophy once they have fully developed.[14][32][44] In this sense, philosophy is sometimes described as "the midwife of the sciences".[45][14]

Other definitions focus on the contrast between science and philosophy. A common theme among many such conceptions is that philosophy is concerned with meaning, understanding, or the clarification of language.[46][47] According to one view, philosophy is conceptual analysis, which involves finding the necessary and sufficient conditions for the application of concepts.[48][38][49]

Phenomenologists, such as Edmund Husserl, characterize philosophy as a "rigorous science" investigating essences.[50] They practice a radical suspension of theoretical assumptions about reality in order to get back to the "things themselves", that is, as originally given in experience. They contend that this base-level of experience provides the foundation for higher-order theoretical knowledge, and that one needs to understand the former in order to understand the latter.[51]

Another approach presents philosophy as a linguistic therapy. According to Ludwig Wittgenstein, for example, philosophy aims at dispelling misunderstandings to which humans are susceptible due to the confusing structure of natural language.[14][52][53]

An early approach found in ancient Greek and Roman philosophy, and later adopted by 20th-century philosophers such as Michel Foucault and Pierre Hadot, is that philosophy is the spiritual practice of developing one's rational capacities.[54][55] This practice is an expression of the philosopher's love of wisdom and has the aim of improving one's well-being by leading a reflective life.[56]

Another definition characterizes philosophy as thinking about thinking. This emphasizes its self-critical, reflective nature.[57][58]

History

Main article: History of philosophy

As a discipline, the history of philosophy aims to provide a systematic and chronological exposition of philosophical concepts and doctrines.[59][60][61] Some theorists see it as a part of intellectual history, but it also investigates questions not covered by intellectual history such as whether the theories of past philosophers are true and have remained philosophically relevant.[62] The history of philosophy is primarily concerned with theories based on rational inquiry and argumentation. However, some historians understand it in a looser sense that includes myths, religious teachings, and proverbial lore.[63]

The main traditions in the history of philosophy include Western, Arabic-Persian, Indian, and Chinese philosophy. Other influential philosophical traditions are Japanese philosophy, Latin American philosophy, and African philosophy.[64]

Western

Main article: Western philosophy
 
Statue of Aristotle, a major figure of ancient Greek philosophy, in Aristotle's Park, Stagira

Western philosophy originated in Ancient Greece in the 6th century BCE with the Presocratics. They attempted to provide rational explanations of the cosmos as a whole.[65][66][67] The philosophy following them was shaped by Socrates (469–399 BCE), Plato (427–347 BCE), and Aristotle (384–322 BCE). They expanded the range of topics to questions like how people should act, how to arrive at knowledge, and what the nature of reality and mind is.[68][69] The later part of the ancient period was marked by the emergence of philosophical movements like Epicureanism, Stoicism, Skepticism, and Neoplatonism.[70][71][72] The medieval period started in the 5th century CE. Its focus was on religious topics and many thinkers used ancient philosophy to explain and further elaborate Christian doctrines.[73][74][75]

The Renaissance period started in the 14th century and saw a renewed interest in various schools of Ancient philosophy, in particular Platonism. Humanism also emerged in this period.[76] The modern period started in the 17th century. One of its central concerns was how philosophical and scientific knowledge are created. Specific importance was given to the role of reason and sensory experience.[77][78] Many of these innovations were used in the Enlightenment movement to challenge traditional authorities.[79][80] Various attempts to develop all-inclusive systems of philosophy were made in the 19th century, for example, by German idealism.[81] Influential developments in 20th-century philosophy were the emergence and application of formal logic and the focus on the role of language as well as pragmatism and movements in continental philosophy like phenomenology, existentialism, and postmodernism.[82][83] The 20th century saw a rapid expansion of academic philosophy in terms of the number of philosophical publications and philosophers working at academic institutions.[82] There was also a noticeable growth in the number of female philosophers, but they still remained underrepresented.[84]

Arabic-Persian

Main articles: Islamic philosophy and Iranian philosophy

Arabic-Persian philosophy arose in the early 9th century CE as a response to discussions in the Islamic theological tradition. Its classical period lasted until the 12th century CE and was strongly influenced by Ancient Greek philosophers. It employed their ideas to elaborate and interpret the teachings of the Quran.[85]

 
An Iranian portrait of Avicenna on a Silver Vase. He was one of the most influential philosophers of the Islamic Golden Age.

Al-Kindi (801–873 CE) is usually regarded as the first philosopher of this tradition. He translated and interpreted many works of Aristotle and Neoplatonists in his attempt to show that there is a harmony between reason and faith.[86] Avicenna (980–1037 CE) also followed this goal and developed a comprehensive philosophical system to provide a rational understanding of reality encompassing science, religion, and mysticism.[87][88] Al-Ghazali (1058–1111 CE) was a strong critic of the idea that reason can arrive at a true understanding of reality and God. He formulated a detailed critique of philosophy and tried to assign philosophy a more limited place besides the teachings of the Quran and mystical insight.[89] Following Al-Ghazali and the end of the classical period, the influence of philosophical inquiry waned.[90][91] Mulla Sadra (1571–1636 CE) is often regarded as one of the most influential philosophers of the subsequent period.[92][93] The increasing influence of Western thought and institutions in the 19th and 20th centuries gave rise to the intellectual movement of Islamic modernism, which aims to understand the relation between traditional Islamic beliefs and modernity. [94][95][96]

Indian

Main article: Indian philosophy

One of the distinguishing features of Indian philosophy is that it integrates the exploration of the nature of reality, the ways of arriving at knowledge, and the spiritual question of how to reach enlightenment.[97][98] It started around 900 BCE when the Vedas were written. They are the foundational scriptures of Hinduism and contemplate issues concerning the relation between the self and ultimate reality as well as the question of how souls are reborn based on their past actions.[99] This period also saw the emergence of non-Vedic teachings, like Buddhism and Jainism.[100][101] Buddhism was founded by Gautama Siddhartha (563–483 BCE), who challenged the Vedic idea of a permanent self and proposed a path to liberate oneself from suffering.[100][101] Jainism was founded by Mahavira (599–527 BCE), who emphasized non-violence as well as respect toward all forms of life.[100][102][103]

The subsequent classical period started roughly 200 BCE and was characterized by the emergence of the six orthodox schools of Hinduism: Nyāyá, Vaiśeṣika, Sāṃkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā, and Vedanta.[104][105][106] The school of Advaita Vedanta developed later in this period. It was systematized by Adi Shankara (c.700–750 CE), who held that everything is one and that the impression of a universe consisting of many distinct entities is an illusion.[107][108][109] A slightly different perspective was defended by Ramanuja (1017–1137 CE)[a], who founded the school of Vishishtadvaita Vedanta and argued that individual entities are real as aspects or parts of the underlying unity.[111] He also helped to popularize the Bhakti movement, which taught devotion toward the divine as a spiritual path and lasted until the 17th to 18th centuries CE.[112] The modern period began roughly 1800 CE and was shaped by the encounter with Western thought.[113][114] Various philosophers tried to formulate comprehensive systems to harmonize diverse philosophical and religious teachings. For example, Swami Vivekananda (1863–1902 CE) used the teachings of Advaita Vedanta to argue that all the different religions are valid paths toward the one divine.[115]

Chinese

Main article: Chinese philosophy
 
The teachings of Confucius on ethics and society shaped subsequent Chinese philosophy.

Chinese philosophy is particularly interested in practical questions associated with right social conduct, government, and self-cultivation.[116] In competing attempts to resolve the politically turbulent 6th century BCE, many schools of thought emerged. The most prominent among them were Confucianism and Daoism.[117][118] Confucianism was founded by Confucius (551–479 BCE). It focused on different forms of moral virtues and explored how they lead to harmony in society.[119] Daoism was founded by Laozi (6th century BCE) and examined how humans can live in harmony with nature by following the Dao or the natural order of the universe.[120] Other influential early schools of thought were Mohism, which developed an early form of altruistic consequentialism,[121][122][123] and Legalism, which emphasized the importance of a strong state and strict laws.[121][124][125]

Buddhism was introduced to China in the 1st century CE and produced new forms of Buddhism.[126][127] Starting in the 3rd century CE, the school of Xuanxue emerged. It interpreted earlier Daoist works with a specific emphasis on metaphysical explanations.[126][127] Neo-Confucianism developed in the 11th century CE. It systematized previous Confucian teachings and sought a metaphysical foundation of ethics.[128][127] The modern period in Chinese philosophy began in the early 20th century and was shaped by the influence of and reactions to Western philosophy. The emergence of Chinese Marxism—which focused on class struggle, socialism, and communism—resulted in a significant transformation of the political landscape.[129] Another development was the emergence of New Confucianism, which aims to modernize and rethink Confucian teachings to explore their compatibility with democratic ideals and modern science.[130][131][132]

Core branches

See also: Outline of philosophy § Branches of philosophy, and Outline of philosophy § Philosophical schools of thought

Philosophical questions can be grouped into various branches. These groupings allow philosophers to focus on a set of similar topics and interact with other thinkers who are interested in the same questions. Epistemology, ethics, logic, and metaphysics are sometimes listed as the main branches.[133][134][135] There are many other subfields besides them and the different divisions are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive. For example, political philosophy, ethics, and aesthetics are sometimes linked under the general heading of value theory as they investigate normative or evaluative aspects.[136] Furthermore, philosophical inquiry sometimes overlaps with other disciplines in the natural and social sciences, religion, and mathematics.[137][138]

Epistemology

Main article: Epistemology

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies knowledge. It is also known as theory of knowledge and aims to understand what knowledge is, how it arises, what its limits are, and what value it has. It further examines the nature of truth, belief, justification, and rationality.[139] Some of the questions addressed by epistemologists include "By what method(s) can one acquire knowledge?"; "How is truth established?"; and "Can we prove causal relations?"[140]

Epistemology is primarily interested in declarative knowledge or knowledge of facts, like knowing that Princess Diana died in 1997. But it also investigates practical knowledge, like knowing how to ride a bicycle, and knowledge by acquaintance, like knowing a celebrity personally.[141][142][143]

One area in epistemology is the analysis of knowledge. It assumes that declarative knowledge is a combination of different parts and attempts to identify what those parts are. An influential theory in this area claims that knowledge has three components: it is a belief that is justified and true. This theory is controversial and the difficulties associated with it are known as the Gettier problem.[144][145]

Another area in epistemology asks how people acquire knowledge. Often-discussed sources of knowledge are perception, introspection, memory, inference, and testimony.[146][147] According to empiricists, all knowledge is based on some form of experience. Rationalists reject this view and hold that some forms of knowledge, like innate knowledge, are not acquired through experience.[148][149][150] The regress problem is a common issue in relation to the sources of knowledge and the justification they offer. It is based on the idea that beliefs require some kind of reason or evidence to be justified. The problem is that the source of justification may itself be in need of another source of justification. This leads to an infinite regress or circular reasoning. This idea is rejected by foundationalists, who argue that some sources can provide justification without requiring justification themselves.[151][152] Another solution is presented by coherentists, who state that a belief is justified if it coheres with other beliefs of the person.[153]

Many discussions in epistemology touch on the topic of philosophical skepticism, which raises doubts about some or all claims to knowledge. These doubts are often based on the idea that knowledge requires absolute certainty and that humans are unable to acquire it.[154][155][156]

Ethics

Main article: Ethics
 
"The utilitarian doctrine is, that happiness is desirable, and the only thing desirable, as an end; all other things being only desirable as means to that end." — John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism (1863)[157]

Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, studies what constitutes right conduct. It is also concerned with the moral evaluation of character traits and institutions. It explores what the standards of morality are and how to live a good life.[158][159][160] Philosophical ethics addresses such basic questions as "Are moral obligations relative?"; "Which has priority: well-being or obligation?"; and "What gives life meaning?"[161]

The main branches of ethics are meta-ethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics. Meta-ethics asks abstract questions about the nature and sources of morality. It analyzes the meaning of ethical concepts, like right action and obligation. It also investigates whether ethical theories can be true in an absolute sense and how to acquire knowledge of them. Normative ethics encompasses general theories of how to distinguish between right and wrong conduct. It helps guide moral decisions by examining what moral obligations and rights people have. Applied ethics studies the consequences of the general theories developed by normative ethics in specific situations, for example, in the workplace or for medical treatments.[162]

Within contemporary normative ethics, consequentialism, deontology, and virtue ethics are influential schools of thought.[163][164] Consequentialists judge actions based on their consequences. One such view is utilitarianism, which argues that actions should increase overall happiness while minimizing suffering. Deontologists judge actions based on whether they follow moral duties, like abstaining from lying or killing. According to them, what matters is that actions are in tune with those duties and not what consequences they have. Virtue theorists judge actions based on the moral character of the agent who performs them. According to this view, actions should conform to what an ideally virtuous agent would do by manifesting virtues like generosity and honesty.[163][164][165]

Logic

Main article: Logic

Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It aims to understand how to distinguish good from bad arguments.[166][167] It is usually divided into formal and informal logic. Formal logic uses artificial languages with a precise symbolic representation to investigate arguments. In this way, it formulates exact criteria and methods based on the structure of arguments to determine whether they are correct or incorrect. Informal logic uses non-formal criteria and standards to analyze and evaluate the correctness of arguments. It relies on additional factors such as content and context.[168]

Logic examines a variety of arguments. Deductive arguments are mainly studied by formal logic. An argument is deductively valid if the truth of its premises ensures the truth of its conclusion. Deductively valid arguments follow a rule of inference, like modus ponens, which has the following logical form: "p; if p then q; therefore q". An example is the argument "today is Sunday; if today is Sunday then I don't have to go to work today; therefore I don't have to go to work today".[169][170][171]

The premises of non-deductive arguments also support their conclusion. However, this support is not as certain and does not guarantee that the conclusion is true.[172][173] One form is inductive reasoning. It starts from a set of individual cases and uses generalization to arrive at a universal law governing all cases. An example is the inference that "all ravens are black" based on observations of many individual black ravens.[174][175][176] Another form is abductive reasoning. It starts from an observation and concludes that the best explanation of this observation must be true. This happens, for example, when a doctor diagnoses a disease based on the observed symptoms.[177][178][175]

Logic also investigates incorrect forms of reasoning. They are called fallacies and are divided into formal and informal fallacies based on whether the source of the error lies only in the form of the argument or also in its content and context.[179]

Metaphysics

Main article: Metaphysics
 
The beginning of Aristotle's Metaphysics in an incunabulum decorated with hand-painted miniatures

Metaphysics is the study of the most general features of reality, such as existence, objects and their properties, wholes and their parts, space and time, events, and causation.[180][181][182] There are disagreements about the precise definition of the term and its meaning has changed throughout the ages.[183] Metaphysicists attempt to answer basic questions like "Why is there something rather than nothing?"; "Of what does reality ultimately consist?"; and "Are humans free?"[184]

Metaphysics is sometimes divided into general metaphysics and specific or special metaphysics. General metaphysics investigates being as such. It examines the features that all entities have in common. Specific metaphysics is interested in different kinds of being, the features they have, and how they differ from one another.[180][181][185]

An important area in metaphysics is ontology. Some theorists identify it with general metaphysics. Ontology investigates concepts like being, becoming, and reality. It studies the categories of being and asks what exists on the most fundamental level.[186] Another subfield of metaphysics is philosophical cosmology. It is interested in the essence of the world as a whole. It asks questions like whether the universe has a beginning and an end and whether it was created by something else.[182][187]

A key topic in metaphysics concerns the question of whether reality only consists of physical things like matter and energy. Alternative suggestions are that mental entities (like souls and experiences) and abstract entities (like numbers) exist apart from physical things. Another topic in metaphysics concerns the problem of identity. It asks questions like how much an entity can change while still remaining the same entity.[182] According to one view, entities have essential and accidental features. They can change their accidental features but they cease to be the same entity if they lose an essential feature.[188][189] A central distinction in metaphysics is between particulars and universals. Universals, like the color red, can exist at different locations at the same time. This is not the case for particulars, like individual persons or specific objects.[190][191] Other metaphysical questions are whether the past fully determines the present and what implications this would have for the existence of free will.[192][193]

Other major branches

See also: List of philosophies

There are many additional subfields of philosophy besides its core branches. Some of the most prominent are aesthetics, philosophy of language, philosophy of mind, philosophy of religion, philosophy of science, and political philosophy.[194]

Aesthetics in the philosophical sense is the field that studies the nature and appreciation of beauty and other aesthetic properties, like the sublime.[195] Although it is often treated together with the philosophy of art, aesthetics is a broader category that encompasses other aspects of experience, such as natural beauty.[196][197] In a more general sense, aesthetics is the "critical reflection on art, culture, and nature".[198][199] A key question in aesthetics is whether beauty is an objective or mind-independent feature of entities. This view is rejected by subjectivists, who claim that beauty is not an inherent quality of objects, but depends on how people subjectively experience them.[197][200] Aesthetic philosophers also investigate the nature of aesthetic experiences and judgments. Further topics include the essence of works of art and the processes involved in creating them.[201][197]

The philosophy of language studies the nature and function of language. It examines the concepts of meaning, reference, and truth. It aims to answer questions like how words are related to things and how language affects human thought and understanding. It is closely related to the disciplines of logic and linguistics.[202][203][204] The philosophy of language rose to particular prominence in the early 20th century in analytic philosophy due to the works of Frege and Russell. One of its central topics is to understand how sentences get their meaning. There are two broad theoretical camps: those emphasizing the formal truth conditions of sentences[b] and those investigating circumstances that determine when it is suitable to use a sentence, the latter of which is associated with speech act theory.[206][207]

The philosophy of mind studies the nature of mental phenomena and how they are related to the physical world.[208][209] It aims to understand different types of conscious and unconscious mental states, like beliefs, desires, intentions, feelings, sensations, and free will.[210][211] An influential intuition in the philosophy of mind is the distinction between an inner world of experience of an object and the existence of this object in the outer world. The mind-body problem is the problem of explaining how matter and mind are related. The main traditional responses are materialism, which assumes that matter is more fundamental; idealism, which assumes that mind is more fundamental; and dualism, which assumes that mind and matter are distinct types of entities. In contemporary philosophy, a widely accepted position is functionalism, which understands mental states in terms of the functional or causal roles they play.[212] The mind-body problem is closely related to the hard problem of consciousness, which asks how the physical brain can produce qualitatively subjective experiences.[213][214]

The philosophy of religion investigates the basic concepts, assumptions, and arguments associated with religion. It critically reflects on what religion is, how to define the divine, and whether one or more gods exist. It also includes the discussion of worldviews that reject religious doctrines.[215] Further questions addressed by the philosophy of religion are: "How are we to interpret religious language, if not literally?";[216] "Is divine omniscience compatible with free will?";[217] and, "Are the great variety of world religions in some way compatible in spite of their apparently contradictory theological claims?"[218] It includes topics from nearly all branches of philosophy.[219][220] It differs from theology since theological debates typically take place within one religious tradition, while debates in the philosophy of religion transcend any particular set of theological assumptions.[221][222]

The philosophy of science examines the fundamental concepts, assumptions, and problems associated with science. It reflects on what science is and how to distinguish it from pseudoscience. It investigates the methods employed by scientists, how their application can result in knowledge, and on what assumptions they are based. It also studies the purpose and implications of science.[223] Some of its questions are "What counts as an adequate explanation?";[224] "Is a scientific law anything more than a description of a regularity?";[225] and "Can some special sciences be explained entirely in the terms of a more general science?"[226] It is a vast field that is commonly divided into the philosophy of the natural sciences and the philosophy of the social sciences, with further subdivisions for each of the individual sciences under these headings. How these branches are related to one another is also a question in the philosophy of science. Many of its philosophical issues overlap with the fields of metaphysics or epistemology.[227][228]

Political philosophy is the philosophical inquiry into the fundamental principles and ideas governing political systems and societies. It examines the basic concepts, assumptions, and arguments in the field of politics. It investigates the nature and purpose of government and compares its different forms.[229] It further asks under what circumstances the use of political power is legitimate, rather than a form of simple violence.[230][231] In this regard, it is concerned with the distribution of political power, social and material goods, as well as legal rights.[232] Other topics are justice, liberty, equality, sovereignty, and nationalism.[230] Political philosophy involves a general inquiry into normative matters and differs in this respect from political science, which aims to provide empirical descriptions of actually existing states.[233][230] Political philosophy is often treated as a subfield of ethics.[234] Influential schools of thought in political philosophy are liberalism, conservativism, socialism, and anarchism.[235][236]

Methods

Main article: Philosophical methodology

Methods of philosophy are ways of conducting philosophical inquiry. They include techniques for arriving at philosophical knowledge and justifying philosophical claims as well as principles used for choosing between competing theories.[237][238][239]

A great variety of methods has been employed throughout the history of philosophy. Many of them differ significantly from the methods used in the natural sciences in that they do not use experimental data obtained through measuring equipment.[240][241][242]

The choice of one's method usually has important implications both for how philosophical theories are constructed and for the arguments cited for or against them.[243][244][245] This choice is often guided by epistemological considerations about what constitutes philosophical evidence.[246][247][248]

Methodological disagreements can cause conflicts among philosophical theories or about the answers to philosophical questions. The discovery of new methods has often had important consequences both for how philosophers conduct their research and for what claims they defend.[249][239][243] Some philosophers engage in most of their theorizing using one particular method while others employ a wider range of methods based on which one fits the specific problem investigated best.[250]

Conceptual analysis is a common method in analytic philosophy. It aims to clarify the meaning of concepts by analyzing them into their component parts.[251][49][252] Another method often employed in analytic philosophy is based on common sense. It starts with commonly accepted beliefs and tries to draw unexpected conclusions from them, which it often employs in a negative sense to criticize philosophical theories that are too far removed from how the average person sees the issue.[242][253][254] It is similar to how ordinary language philosophy approaches philosophical questions by investigating how ordinary language is used.[239][255][256]

 
The trolley problem is a thought experiment that investigates the moral difference between doing and allowing harm. This issue is explored in an imaginary situation in which a person can sacrifice a single person by redirecting a trolley in order to save a group of people.[257][258]

Various methods in philosophy give particular importance to intuitions, that is, non-inferential impressions about the correctness of specific claims or general principles.[259][260] For example, they play an important role in thought experiments, which employ counterfactual thinking to evaluate the possible consequences of an imagined situation. These anticipated consequences can then be used to confirm or refute philosophical theories.[261][262][263] The method of reflective equilibrium also employs intuitions. It seeks to form a coherent position on a certain issue by examining all the relevant beliefs and intuitions, some of which often have to be deemphasized or reformulated in order to arrive at a coherent perspective.[264][265][266]

Pragmatists stress the significance of concrete practical consequences for assessing whether a philosophical theory is true.[267][268] According to the pragmatic maxim as formulated by Charles Sanders Peirce, the idea a person has of an object is nothing more than the totality of practical consequences they associate with this object. Pragmatists have also used this method to expose disagreements as merely verbal, that is, to show they make no genuine difference on the level of consequences.[269][270]

Phenomenologists seek knowledge of the realm of appearance and the structure of human experience. They insist upon the first-personal character of all experience and proceed by suspending theoretical judgments about the external world. This technique of phenomenological reduction is known as "bracketing" or epoché. The goal is to give an unbiased description of the appearances of things.[271]

Relation to other fields

Philosophy is closely related to many other fields. It is sometimes understood as a metadiscipline that clarifies their nature and limits. It does this by critically examining their basic concepts, background assumptions, and methods. In this regard, it plays a key role in providing an interdisciplinary perspective. It bridges the gap between different disciplines by analyzing which concepts and problems they have in common. It shows how they overlap while also delimiting their scope.[272] Historically, philosophy is often considered the "mother of all sciences" since most of the individual sciences formed part of philosophy until they reached their status as autonomous disciplines.[7][8]

The influence of philosophy is felt in various fields that require difficult practical decisions. In medicine, philosophical considerations related to bioethics affect issues like whether an embryo is already a person and under what conditions abortion is morally permissible. A closely related philosophical problem is how humans should treat other animals, for example, whether it is acceptable to use non-human animals as food or for research experiments.[273][274][275]

In relation to business and professional life, philosophy has contributed by providing ethical frameworks. They contain guidelines on which business practices are morally acceptable and cover the issue of corporate social responsibility. In the field of politics, philosophy addresses issues like how to assess whether a government policy is just.[276][274]

Philosophical inquiry is relevant to many fields that are concerned with what to believe and how to arrive at evidence for one's beliefs.[277] This is a key issue for the sciences, which have as one of their prime objectives the creation of scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge is based on empirical evidence but it is often not clear whether empirical observations are neutral or already include theoretical assumptions. A closely related problem is whether the available evidence is sufficient to decide between competing theories.[278][279]

In the fields of theology and religion, there are many doctrines associated with the existence and nature of God as well as rules governing correct behavior. A key issue is whether a rational person should believe these doctrines, for example, whether revelation in the form of holy books and religious experiences of the divine are sufficient evidence for these beliefs.[280][281][282]

A similar epistemological problem in relation to the law is what counts as evidence and how much evidence is required to find a person guilty of a crime. A related issue in journalism is how to ensure truth and objectivity when reporting on events.[272]

Philosophy in the form of logic has been influential in the fields of mathematics and computer science.[283][284][285] Further fields influenced by philosophy include psychology, sociology, linguistics, education, and the arts.[286] The close relation between philosophy and other fields in the contemporary period is reflected in the fact that many philosophy graduates go on to work in related fields rather than in philosophy itself.[287]

Philosophical ideas have also prepared and shaped changes in the field of politics. For example, ideals formulated in Enlightenment philosophy laid the foundation for constitutional democracy and played a role in the American Revolution and the French Revolution.[288] Marxist philosophy and its exposition of communism was one of the factors in the Russian Revolution and the Chinese Communist Revolution.[289][290][291] In India, Mahatma Gandhi's philosophy of non-violence shaped the Indian independence movement.[292][293]

An example of the cultural and critical role of philosophy is found in its influence on the feminist movement. It has shaped the understanding of key concepts in feminism, for instance, the meaning of gender, how it differs from biological sex, and what role it plays in the formation of personal identity. Philosophers have also investigated the concepts of justice and equality and their implications with respect to the prejudicial treatment of women in male-dominated societies.[294][295][296]

However, the idea that philosophy is useful for many aspects of life and society is sometimes rejected. According to one such view, philosophy is mainly done for its own sake and does not make significant contributions to existing practices or external goals.[297][298][299]

See also

Main article: Outline of philosophy

References

Notes

  1. ^ These dates are traditionally cited but some recent scholars suggest that his life ran from 1077 to 1157.[110]
  2. ^ The truth conditions of a sentence are the circumstances or states of affairs under which the sentence would be true.[205]

Citations

  1. ^ a b c d Harper 2022, Philosophy.
  2. ^ Simpson 2002, Philosophy.
  3. ^ Jacobs 2022, p. 23.
  4. ^ Bottin 1993, p. 151.
  5. ^ Jaroszyński 2018, p. 12.
  6. ^ OED staff 2022, Philosophy, n..
  7. ^ a b Tuomela 1985, p. 1.
  8. ^ a b Shivendra 2006, pp. 15–16.
  9. ^ Kenny 2009, p. 202.
  10. ^ Grant 2007, p. 163.
  11. ^ a b Cotterell 2017, p. 458.
  12. ^ a b Maddy 2022, p. 24.
  13. ^ Grant 2007, p. 318.
  14. ^ a b c d e f Sandkühler 2010a, Philosophiebegriffe.
  15. ^
  16. ^
  17. ^ Perry, Bratman & Fischer 2010, p. 4.
  18. ^ Guyer 2014, pp. 7–8.
  19. ^ Kant 1998, p. A805/B833.
  20. ^ Kant 1992, p. 9:25.
  21. ^ Bett 2011, p. 219.
  22. ^ Plato 1997, pp. 21b4–22e.
  23. ^ Bett 2011, p. 230.
  24. ^ Plato 1997, pp. 38a5–6.
  25. ^ Kenny 2004, p. xv.
  26. ^ Russell 1912, p. 91.
  27. ^ Blackwell 2013, p. 148.
  28. ^ Pojman & Vaughn 2009, p. 2.
  29. ^ Honderich 2005, p. 702, Philosophy.
  30. ^ Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. vii, 17.
  31. ^ Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. 20, 44, What is philosophy?.
  32. ^ a b Mittelstraß 2005, Philosophie.
  33. ^ Quine 2008, pp. 293–294, 41. A Letter to Mr. Ostermann.
  34. ^ Joll.
  35. ^ Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. 20–21, 25, 35, 39, What is philosophy?.
  36. ^ a b Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. 20–22, What is philosophy?.
  37. ^ Rescher 2013, pp. 1–3, 1. The Nature of Philosophy.
  38. ^ a b Nuttall 2013, pp. 12–13, 1. The Nature of Philosophy.
  39. ^ Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. 26–27, What is philosophy?.
  40. ^ Hylton & Kemp 2020.
  41. ^ Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. 25–27, What is philosophy?.
  42. ^ Chalmers 2015, pp. 3–4.
  43. ^ Dellsén, Lawler & Norton 2021, pp. 814–815.
  44. ^ Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. 27–30, What is philosophy?.
  45. ^ Hacker 2013, p. 6.
  46. ^ Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. 34–36, What is philosophy?.
  47. ^ Rescher 2013, pp. 1–2, 1. The Nature of Philosophy.
  48. ^ Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. 20–21, 29, What is philosophy?.
  49. ^ a b Shaffer 2015, pp. 555–556.
  50. ^
    • Joll, §4.a.i
    • Gelan 2020, p. 98, Husserl's Idea of Rigorous Science and Its Relevance for the Human and Social Sciences
    • Ingarden 1975, pp. 8–11, The Concept of Philosophy as Rigorous Science
    • Tieszen 2005, p. 100
  51. ^ Smith, §2.b.
  52. ^ Joll, lead section, §2c. Ordinary Language Philosophy and the Later Wittgenstein.
  53. ^ Biletzki & Matar 2021.
  54. ^ Banicki 2014, p. 7.
  55. ^ Hadot 1995, 11. Philosophy as a Way of Life.
  56. ^ Grimm & Cohoe 2021, pp. 236–237.
  57. ^ Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. 36–37, 43, What is philosophy?.
  58. ^ Nuttall 2013, p. 12, 1. The Nature of Philosophy.
  59. ^ Copleston 2003, pp. 4–6.
  60. ^ Santinello & Piaia 2010, pp. 487–488.
  61. ^ Verene 2008, pp. 6–8.
  62. ^
  63. ^
  64. ^
  65. ^ Blackson 2011, Introduction.
  66. ^ Graham 2023, lead section, 1. Presocratic Thought.
  67. ^ Duignan 2010, pp. 9–11.
  68. ^ Graham 2023, lead section, 2. Socrates, 3. Plato, 4. Aristotle.
  69. ^ Grayling 2019, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle.
  70. ^ Long 1986, p. 1.
  71. ^ Blackson 2011, Chapter 10.
  72. ^ Graham 2023, 6. Post-Hellenistic Thought.
  73. ^
  74. ^ Grayling 2019, Part II: Medieval and Renaissance Philosophy.
  75. ^ Adamson 2019, pp. 3–4.
  76. ^
  77. ^ Grayling 2019, The Rise of Modern Thought; The Eighteenth-century Enlightenment.
  78. ^ Anstey & Vanzo 2023, pp. 236–237.
  79. ^ Grayling 2019, The Eighteenth-Century Enlightenment.
  80. ^ Kenny 2006, pp. 90–92.
  81. ^ Grayling 2019, Philosophy in the Nineteenth Century.
  82. ^ a b Grayling 2019, Philosophy in the Twentieth Century.
  83. ^ Zack 2009, p. 255.
  84. ^ Waithe 1995, pp. xix–xxiii.
  85. ^
  86. ^
  87. ^ Gutas 2016.
  88. ^ Grayling 2019, Ibn Sina (Avicenna).
  89. ^
  90. ^ Grayling 2019, Ibn Rushd (Averroes).
  91. ^ Kaminski 2017, p. 32.
  92. ^ Rizvi 2021, lead section, 3. Metaphysics, 4. Noetics — Epistemology and Psychology.
  93. ^ Chamankhah 2019, p. 73.
  94. ^ Moaddel 2005, pp. 1–2.
  95. ^ Masud 2009, pp. 237–238.
  96. ^ Safi 2005, lead section.
  97. ^ Smart 2008, p. 3.
  98. ^ Grayling 2019, Indian Philosophy.
  99. ^
  100. ^ a b c Perrett 2016, The ancient period of Indian philosophy.
  101. ^ a b Ruether 2004, p. 57.
  102. ^ Juergensmeyer & Roof 2012, pp. 609–610.
  103. ^ Hindson & Caner 2008, p. 289.
  104. ^ Perrett 2016, Indian philosophy: a brief historical overview, The classical period of Indian philosophy, The medieval period of Indian philosophy.
  105. ^ Glenney & Silva 2019, p. 77.
  106. ^ Adamson & Ganeri 2020, pp. 101–102.
  107. ^ Perrett 2016, The medieval period of Indian philosophy.
  108. ^ Dalal 2021, lead section, 2. Metaphysics.
  109. ^ Menon, lead section.
  110. ^ Ranganathan, 1. Rāmānuja’s Life and Works.
  111. ^ Ranganathan, lead section, 2c. Substantive Theses.
  112. ^
  113. ^ Perrett 2016, Indian philosophy: a brief historical overview, The modern period of Indian philosophy.
  114. ^ EB staff 2023.
  115. ^
  116. ^
  117. ^ Perkins 2013, pp. 486–487.
  118. ^ Ma 2015, p. xiv.
  119. ^
  120. ^
  121. ^ a b Grayling 2019, Chinese Philosophy.
  122. ^ Littlejohn 2023, 1c. Mozi (c. 470-391 B.C.E.) and Mohism.
  123. ^ Defoort & Standaert 2013, p. 35.
  124. ^ Kim 2019, p. 161.
  125. ^ Littlejohn 2023, 2a. Syncretic Philosophies in the Qin and Han Periods.
  126. ^ a b Littlejohn 2023, §Early Buddhism in China.
  127. ^ a b c EB staff 2017, §Periods of development of Chinese philosophy.
  128. ^ Littlejohn 2023, 4b. Neo-Confucianism: The Original Way of Confucius for a New Era.
  129. ^
  130. ^ Van Norden 2022, §6. Influence.
  131. ^ Redse 2015, pp. 21–22.
  132. ^ Makeham 2003, pp. 94–95.
  133. ^ Brenner 1993, p. 16.
  134. ^ Palmquist 2010, p. 800.
  135. ^ Jenicek 2018, p. 31.
  136. ^ Schroeder 2021, Value Theory.
  137. ^ Kenny 2018, p. 20.
  138. ^ Lazerowitz & Ambrose 2012, pp. 9.
  139. ^
  140. ^ Mulvaney 2009, p. ix.
  141. ^ Steup & Neta 2020, lead section, 2. What is Knowledge?.
  142. ^ Truncellito, lead section, 1. Kinds of Knowledge.
  143. ^ Colman 2009a, declarative knowledge.
  144. ^ Martinich & Stroll 2023, The nature of knowledge.
  145. ^ Truncellito, lead section, 2. The Nature of Propositional Knowledge.
  146. ^ Steup & Neta 2020, 5. Sources of Knowledge and Justification.
  147. ^ Truncellito, lead section, 4a. Sources of Knowledge.
  148. ^ Hetherington, § 3c. Knowing Purely by Thinking.
  149. ^ Blackburn 2008, Empiricism.
  150. ^ Blackburn 2008, Rationalism.
  151. ^ Steup & Neta 2020, 4. The Structure of Knowledge and Justification.
  152. ^ Truncellito, 3. The Nature of Justification.
  153. ^ Olsson 2021, lead section, §1. Coherentism Versus Foundationalism.
  154. ^ Steup & Neta 2020, 6. The Limits of Cognitive Success.
  155. ^ Truncellito, 4. The Extent of Human Knowledge.
  156. ^ Johnstone 1991, p. 52.
  157. ^ Mill 1863, p. 51.
  158. ^ Audi 2006, pp. 325–326.
  159. ^ Nagel 2006, pp. 379–380.
  160. ^ Lambert 2023, p. 26.
  161. ^ Mulvaney 2009, pp. vii–xi.
  162. ^
  163. ^ a b Dittmer, 1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics.
  164. ^ a b Nagel 2006, pp. 382, 386–388.
  165. ^ Hursthouse & Pettigrove 2022, 1.2 Practical Wisdom.
  166. ^ Hintikka 2019.
  167. ^ Haack 1978, Philosophy of logics.
  168. ^
  169. ^ Velleman 2006, pp. 8, 103.
  170. ^ Johnson-Laird 2009, pp. 8–10.
  171. ^ Dowden 2020, pp. 334–336, 432.
  172. ^ Dowden 2020, pp. 432, 470.
  173. ^ Anshakov & Gergely 2010, p. 128.
  174. ^ Vickers 2022.
  175. ^ a b Nunes 2011, pp. 2066–2069, Logical Reasoning and Learning.
  176. ^ Dowden 2020, pp. 432–449, 470.
  177. ^ Douven 2022.
  178. ^ Koslowski 2017, pp. 366–368, Abductive reasoning and explanation.
  179. ^
  180. ^ a b van Inwagen, Sullivan & Bernstein 2023.
  181. ^ a b Craig 1998.
  182. ^ a b c Audi 2006, §Metaphysics.
  183. ^ van Inwagen, Sullivan & Bernstein 2023, lead section.
  184. ^ Mulvaney 2009, pp. ix–x.
  185. ^ Gracia 1999, p. 149.
  186. ^
  187. ^ Coughlin 2012, p. 15.
  188. ^ Robertson Ishii & Atkins 2023, lead section.
  189. ^ Espín & Nickoloff 2007, p. 8.
  190. ^ Honderich 2005, p. 683, particulars and non-particulars.
  191. ^ Sandkühler 2010b, Ontologie: 4.2.1 Einzeldinge und Universalien.
  192. ^ Kim, Sosa & Rosenkrantz 2009, pp. 22–23.
  193. ^ Sider, Hawthorne & Zimmerman 2013, p. 258.
  194. ^
  195. ^
  196. ^ Nanay 2019, p. 4.
  197. ^ a b c McQuillan 2015, pp. 122–123.
  198. ^ Kelly 1998, p. ix.
  199. ^ Riedel 1999.
  200. ^ Sartwell 2022, lead section, 1. Objectivity and Subjectivity.
  201. ^ Smith, Brown & Duncan 2019, p. 174.
  202. ^ Audi 2006, §Philosophy of Language.
  203. ^ Russell & Fara 2013, pp. ii, 1–2.
  204. ^ Blackburn 2022, lead section.
  205. ^ Birner 2012, p. 33.
  206. ^ Wolf 2023, §§1.a-b, 3–4.
  207. ^ Ifantidou 2014, p. 12.
  208. ^ Lowe 2000, pp. 1–2.
  209. ^ Crumley 2006, pp. 2–3.
  210. ^ Audi 2006, §Philosophy of Mind.
  211. ^ Heidemann 2014, p. 140.
  212. ^
  213. ^ Heil 2013, pp. 1–3, 12–13.
  214. ^ Weisberg, lead section, 1. Stating the Problem.
  215. ^
  216. ^ Taliaferro 2023, §1.
  217. ^ Taliaferro 2023, §5.1.1.
  218. ^ Taliaferro 2023, §6.
  219. ^ Taliaferro 2023, Introduction.
  220. ^ Audi 2006, §Philosophy of Religion.
  221. ^ Bayne 2018, pp. 1–2.
  222. ^ Louth & Thielicke 2014.
  223. ^
  224. ^ Newton-Smith 2000, pp. 7.
  225. ^ Newton-Smith 2000, pp. 5.
  226. ^ Papineau 2005, pp. 855–856.
  227. ^ Papineau 2005, p. 852.
  228. ^ Audi 2006, §Philosophy of Science.
  229. ^
  230. ^ a b c Molefe & Allsobrook 2021, pp. 8–9.
  231. ^ Howard 2010, p. 4.
  232. ^ Wolff 2006, pp. 1–2.
  233. ^ Moseley, lead section.
  234. ^ Audi 2006, §Subfields of Ethics.
  235. ^ Moseley, lead section, §3. Political Schools of Thought.
  236. ^ McQueen 2010, p. 162.
  237. ^ McKeon 2002, lead section, §Summation .
  238. ^ Overgaard & D'Oro 2017, pp. 1, 4–5, Introduction.
  239. ^ a b c Sandkühler 2010, Methode/Methodologie.
  240. ^ Daly 2010, p. 9, Introduction.
  241. ^ Williamson 2020.
  242. ^ a b Ichikawa 2011.
  243. ^ a b Overgaard & D'Oro 2017, pp. 1, 3–5, Introduction.
  244. ^ Nado 2017, pp. 447–449, 461–462.
  245. ^ Dever 2016, 3–6.
  246. ^ Daly 2010, pp. 9–11, Introduction.
  247. ^ Overgaard & D'Oro 2017, pp. 3, Introduction.
  248. ^ Dever 2016, pp. 3–4, What is Philosophical Methodology?.
  249. ^ Daly 2015, pp. 1–2, 5, Introduction and Historical Overview.
  250. ^
  251. ^ Eder, Lawler & van Riel 2020, pp. 915.
  252. ^ Audi 2006, §Philosophical Methods.
  253. ^ Reynolds 2010, pp. 231–232.
  254. ^ EB staff 2007.
  255. ^ Parker-Ryan, lead section, §1. Introduction.
  256. ^ EB staff 2022.
  257. ^ Woollard & Howard-Snyder 2022, §3. The Trolley Problem and the Doing/Allowing Distinction.
  258. ^ Rini, §8. Moral Cognition and Moral Epistemology.
  259. ^ Daly 2015, pp. 11–12, Introduction and Historical Overview.
  260. ^ Duignan 2009.
  261. ^ Brown & Fehige 2019, lead section.
  262. ^ Goffi & Roux 2011, pp. 165, 168–169.
  263. ^ Eder, Lawler & van Riel 2020, pp. 915–916.
  264. ^ Daly 2015, pp. 12–13, Introduction and Historical Overview.
  265. ^ Daniels 2020, lead section, §1. The Method of Reflective Equilibrium.
  266. ^ Little 1984, pp. 373–375.
  267. ^ McDermid, lead section.
  268. ^ Bawden 1904, pp. 421–422.
  269. ^ McDermid, lead section, §2a. A Method and A Maxim.
  270. ^ Legg & Hookway 2021, lead section, §2. The Pragmatic Maxim: Peirce.
  271. ^
    • Cogan, lead section, §5. The Structure, Nature and Performance of the Phenomenological Reduction
    • Sandkühler 2010, Methode/Methodologie
    • Smith 2018, lead section, §1. What is Phenomenology?
    • Smith, lead section, §2.Phenomenological Method
  272. ^ a b Audi 2006, pp. 332–337.
  273. ^ Dittmer, lead section, §3. Bioethics.
  274. ^ a b Lippert-Rasmussen, Brownlee & Coady 2017, pp. 4–5, 34–35.
  275. ^ Crary 2013, pp. 321–322.
  276. ^ Dittmer, lead section, §2. Business Ethics, §5. Professional Ethics.
  277. ^ Lippert-Rasmussen, Brownlee & Coady 2017, pp. 51–53.
  278. ^ Bird 2010, pp. 5–6, 8–9.
  279. ^ Rosenberg 2013, pp. 129, 155.
  280. ^ Clark 2022, lead section, §1. Reason/Rationality.
  281. ^ Forrest 2021, lead section.
  282. ^ Dougherty 2014, pp. 97–98.
  283. ^ Kakas & Sadri 2003, p. 588.
  284. ^ Li 2014, pp. ix–x.
  285. ^ Nievergelt 2015, pp. v–vi.
  286. ^
  287. ^ Cropper 1997.
  288. ^ Bristow 2023, lead section, §2.1 Political Theory.
  289. ^ Stockdale 2020, p. 29.
  290. ^ Wolff & Leopold 2021, §9. Marx's Legacy.
  291. ^ Shaw 2019, p. 124.
  292. ^ United Nations.
  293. ^ Bondurant 1988, pp. 23–24.
  294. ^ McAfee 2018, lead section, 2.1 Feminist Beliefs and Feminist Movements.
  295. ^ Honderich 2005, pp. 294–296.
  296. ^ Kittay & Alcoff 2008, pp. 148–151.
  297. ^ Jones & Bos 2007, p. 56.
  298. ^ Rickles 2020, p. 9.
  299. ^ Lockie 2015, pp. 24–28.

Bibliography

  • Adamson, Peter; Ganeri, Jonardon (2020). Classical Indian Philosophy: A History of Philosophy Without Any Gaps, Volume 5. Oxford University Press. pp. 101–109. ISBN 978-0-19-885176-9. from the original on 29 June 2023. Retrieved 30 June 2023.
  • Adamson, Peter; Taylor, Richard C. (9 December 2004). The Cambridge Companion to Arabic Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-49469-5. from the original on 7 June 2023. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
  • Adamson, Peter (2020). "Al-Kindi". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
  • Adamson, Peter (10 February 2022). Byzantine and Renaissance Philosophy: A History of Philosophy Without Any Gaps, Volume 6. Vol. 6. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-266992-6. from the original on 25 May 2023. Retrieved 25 May 2023.
  • Adamson, Peter (September 2019). Medieval Philosophy. A History of Philosophy Without Any Gaps. Vol. 4. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-884240-8. from the original on 25 May 2023. Retrieved 25 May 2023.
  • Adamson, Peter (2016). Philosophy in the Islamic World. A History of Philosophy Without Any Gaps. Vol. 3. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-957749-1. from the original on 25 May 2023. Retrieved 25 May 2023.
  • Adler, Mortimer J. (2000). How to Think About the Great Ideas: From the Great Books of Western Civilization. Open Court. ISBN 978-0-8126-9412-3.
  • AHD staff (2022). "The American Heritage Dictionary Entry: Philosophy". www.ahdictionary.com. HarperCollins. from the original on 3 September 2023. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
  • Andrea, Alfred J.; Overfield, James H. (1 January 2015). The Human Record: Sources of Global History, Volume I: To 1500. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-305-53746-0. from the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 10 June 2023.
  • Anshakov, Oleg M.; Gergely, Tamás (11 March 2010). Cognitive Reasoning: A Formal Approach. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 128. ISBN 978-3-540-68875-4. from the original on 10 February 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
  • Anstey, Peter R.; Vanzo, Alberto (31 January 2023). Experimental Philosophy and the Origins of Empiricism. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-03467-8. from the original on 3 June 2023. Retrieved 2 June 2023.
  • Audi, Robert (2006). "Philosophy". In Borchert, Donald M. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 7: Oakeshott - Presupposition (2. ed.). Thomson Gale, Macmillan Reference. pp. 332–337. ISBN 978-0-02-865787-5. from the original on 14 February 2022.
  • Baggini, Julian; Krauss, Lawrence (8 September 2012). "Philosophy v Science: Which Can Answer the Big Questions of Life?". the Guardian. from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 11 February 2022.
  • Bailey, Richard; Barrow, Robin; Carr, David; McCarthy, Christine (23 March 2010). The SAGE Handbook of Philosophy of Education. SAGE. ISBN 978-1-4462-0697-3. from the original on 3 September 2023. Retrieved 21 August 2023.
  • Banhatti, G. S. (1995). Life and Philosophy of Swami Vivekananda. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. ISBN 978-81-7156-291-6.
  • Banicki, Konrad (2014). "Philosophy As Therapy: Towards a Conceptual Model". Philosophical Papers. 43 (1): 7–31. doi:10.1080/05568641.2014.901692. S2CID 144901869. from the original on 13 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
  • Barsky, Allan E. (14 October 2009). Ethics and Values in Social Work: An Integrated Approach for a Comprehensive Curriculum. Oxford University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-19-971758-3. from the original on 3 September 2023. Retrieved 6 July 2023.
  • Bawden, H. Heath (1904). "What Is Pragmatism?". The Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods. 1 (16): 421–427. doi:10.2307/2011902. ISSN 0160-9335. JSTOR 2011902. from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
  • Bayne, Tim (2018). The Philosophy of Religion: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-875496-1.
  • Beaney, Michael (20 June 2013). The Oxford Handbook of The History of Analytic Philosophy. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-166266-9. from the original on 25 May 2023. Retrieved 25 May 2023..
  • Bett, Richard (2011). "Socratic Ignorance". In Morrison, Donald R. (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Socrates. Cambridge University Press. pp. 215–36. doi:10.1017/CCOL9780521833424.010. ISBN 978-0-521-83342-4.
  • Biletzki, Anat; Matar, Anat (2021). "Ludwig Wittgenstein: 3.7 The Nature of Philosophy". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. from the original on 8 September 2018. Retrieved 11 February 2022.
  • Bilimoria, Puruṣottama (2018). History of Indian Philosophy. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-30976-9.
  • Bird, Alexander (August 2010). "The Epistemology of Science—a Bird's-eye View". Synthese. 175 (S1): 5–16. doi:10.1007/s11229-010-9740-4. S2CID 15228491.
  • Birner, Betty J. (21 June 2012). Introduction to Pragmatics. John Wiley & Sons. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-118-34830-7. from the original on 3 September 2023. Retrieved 21 August 2023.
  • Blackburn, Simon W. (2022). "Philosophy of Language". www.britannica.com. from the original on 13 May 2021. Retrieved 18 July 2023.
  • Blackburn, Simon (2008). The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (2 ed.). OUP. ISBN 978-0-19-954143-0.
  • Blackson, Thomas A. (6 January 2011). Ancient Greek Philosophy: From the Presocratics to the Hellenistic Philosophers. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-9608-9. from the original on 28 May 2023. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
  • Blackwell, Kenneth (3 January 2013). The Spinozistic Ethics of Bertrand Russell. Routledge. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-135-10711-6.
  • Blair, J. Anthony; Johnson, Ralph H. (2000). "Informal Logic: An Overview". Informal Logic. 20 (2): 93–107. doi:10.22329/il.v20i2.2262. from the original on 9 December 2021. Retrieved 29 December 2021.
  • Bondurant, Joan Valérie (1988). Conquest of Violence: The Gandhian Philosophy of Conflict (New rev. ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-02281-9.
  • Bottin, Francesco (1993). Models of the History of Philosophy: From Its Origins in the Renaissance to the 'Historia Philosophica': Volume I: From Its Origins in the Renaissance to the 'Historia Philosophica'. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 151. ISBN 978-0-7923-2200-9. from the original on 3 September 2023. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
  • Bowle, John Edward; Arneson, Richard J. (17 July 2023). "Political Philosophy". www.britannica.com. from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  • Boyd, Craig A.; Timpe, Kevin (25 March 2021). The Virtues: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-258407-6. from the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 13 June 2023.
  • Brenner, William H. (30 September 1993). Logic and Philosophy: An Integrated Introduction. University of Notre Dame Press. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-268-15898-9. from the original on 30 June 2023. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
  • Bristow, William (2023). "Enlightenment". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 4 September 2023.
  • Brown, James Robert; Fehige, Yiftach (2019). "Thought Experiments". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. from the original on 21 November 2017. Retrieved 29 October 2021.
  • Burns, Elizabeth (2 October 2017). What Is This Thing Called Philosophy of Religion?. Routledge. pp. i, 1–3. ISBN 978-1-317-59546-5. from the original on 21 July 2023. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  • Chalmers, David J. (2015). "Why Isn't There More Progress in Philosophy?". Philosophy. 90 (1): 3–31. doi:10.1017/s0031819114000436. hdl:1885/57201. S2CID 170974260. from the original on 13 February 2022. Retrieved 27 February 2022.
  • Chamankhah, Leila (3 September 2019). The Conceptualization of Guardianship in Iranian Intellectual History (1800–1989): Reading Ibn ʿArabī's Theory of Wilāya in the Shīʿa World. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-030-22692-3. from the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 9 June 2023.
  • Chambre, Henri; Maurer, Armand; Stroll, Avrum; McLellan, David T.; Levi, Albert William; Wolin, Richard; Fritz, Kurt von (2023). "Western Philosophy". www.britannica.com. from the original on 13 May 2021. Retrieved 30 May 2023.
  • Clark, Kelly James (2022). "Religious Epistemology". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. from the original on 21 September 2022. Retrieved 21 September 2022.
  • Cogan, John. "Phenomenological Reduction, The". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. from the original on 4 April 2020. Retrieved 27 February 2022.
  • Colman, Andrew M. (1 January 2009a). "declarative knowledge". A Dictionary of Psychology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-953406-7. from the original on 30 March 2023. Retrieved 16 April 2023.
  • Copleston, Frederick (1 June 2003). History of Philosophy Volume 1: Greece and Rome. Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-6895-6. from the original on 25 May 2023. Retrieved 25 May 2023.
  • Cotterell, Brian (29 August 2017). Physics and Culture. World Scientific. p. 458. ISBN 978-1-78634-378-9. from the original on 25 August 2023. Retrieved 25 August 2023.
  • Coughlin, John J. (16 March 2012). Law, Person, and Community: Philosophical, Theological, and Comparative Perspectives on Canon Law. Oxford University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-19-987718-8. from the original on 16 July 2023. Retrieved 16 July 2023.
  • Craig, Edward (1996). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-07310-3. from the original on 16 January 2021. Retrieved 29 December 2021.
  • Craig, Edward (1998). "Metaphysics - Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy". www.rep.routledge.com. from the original on 1 August 2023. Retrieved 15 July 2023.
  • Crary, Alice (2013). "13. Eating and Experimenting on Animals". In Petrus, Klaus; Wild, Markus (eds.). Animal Minds & Animal Ethics. transcript Verlag. doi:10.1515/transcript.9783839424629.321 (inactive 1 August 2023). ISBN 978-3-8394-2462-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of August 2023 (link)
  • Cropper, Carol Marie (26 December 1997). "Philosophers Find the Degree Pays Off in Life and in Work". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. from the original on 28 January 2017. Retrieved 2 May 2016.
  • Crumley, Jack S (17 April 2006). A Brief Introduction to the Philosophy of Mind. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 2–3. ISBN 978-0-7425-7212-6. from the original on 19 July 2023. Retrieved 19 July 2023.
  • Dalal, Neil (2021). "Śaṅkara". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. from the original on 27 January 2022. Retrieved 19 June 2023.
  • Daly, Chris (2015). "Introduction and Historical Overview". The Palgrave Handbook of Philosophical Methods. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 1–30. doi:10.1057/9781137344557_1. ISBN 978-1-137-34455-7. from the original on 1 May 2022. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
  • Daly, Christopher (20 July 2010). "Introduction". An Introduction to Philosophical Methods. Broadview Press. ISBN 978-1-55111-934-2. from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 7 June 2022.
  • Daniels, Norman (2020). "Reflective Equilibrium". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. from the original on 22 February 2022. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
  • Defoort, Carine; Standaert, Nicolas (2013). The Mozi as an Evolving Text: Different Voices in Early Chinese Thought. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-23434-5. from the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 21 June 2023.
  • Dehsen, Christian von (13 September 2013). Philosophers and Religious Leaders. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-95102-3. from the original on 28 May 2023. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
  • Dellsén, Finnur; Lawler, Insa; Norton, James (29 June 2021). "Thinking about Progress: From Science to Philosophy". Noûs. 56 (4): 814–840. doi:10.1111/nous.12383. S2CID 235967433.
  • Dever, Josh (19 May 2016). "What is Philosophical Methodology?". In Cappelen, Herman; Gendler, Tamar Szabó; Hawthorne, John (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Philosophical Methodology. pp. 3–24. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199668779.013.34. ISBN 978-0-19-966877-9. from the original on 5 December 2020. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
  • Dittmer, Joel. "Ethics, Applied". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. from the original on 1 June 2023. Retrieved 2 July 2023.
  • Dougherty, Trent (12 June 2014). "Faith, Trust, and Testimony". Religious Faith and Intellectual Virtue: 97–123. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199672158.003.0005. ISBN 978-0-19-967215-8.
  • Douven, Igor (2022). "Abduction and Explanatory Reasoning". Oxford Bibliographies. Oxford University Press. from the original on 10 February 2023. Retrieved 18 January 2023.
  • Dowden, Bradley (2023). "Fallacies". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. from the original on 3 June 2019. Retrieved 22 January 2023.
  • Dowden, Bradley H. (2020). Logical Reasoning (PDF). (PDF) from the original on 2 June 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2023. (for an earlier version, see: Dowden, Bradley Harris (1993). Logical Reasoning. Wadsworth Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-534-17688-4. from the original on 10 February 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2023.)
  • Du, Wenjiang (3 December 2012). Informatics and Management Science II. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 784. ISBN 978-1-4471-4811-1. from the original on 7 July 2023. Retrieved 6 July 2023.
  • Duignan, Brian (2009). "Intuitionism (Ethics)". Encyclopædia Britannica. from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
  • Duignan, Brian (2010). Ancient Philosophy: From 600 BCE to 500 CE. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. ISBN 978-1-61530-141-6. from the original on 28 May 2023. Retrieved 30 June 2023.
  • Duignan, Brian, ed. (1 June 2012). The Science and Philosophy of Politics. Britannica Educational Publishing. pp. 5–6. ISBN 978-1-61530-748-7. from the original on 21 July 2023. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  • EB staff (2017). "Chinese Philosophy". www.britannica.com. from the original on 2 May 2015. Retrieved 12 June 2023.
  • EB staff (2023). "History and Periods of Indian Philosophy". www.britannica.com. from the original on 11 June 2023. Retrieved 10 June 2023.
  • EB staff (2020). "Islamic Philosophy". www.britannica.com. from the original on 7 June 2023. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
  • EB staff (2023a). "Philosophy". Encyclopædia Britannica. from the original on 23 February 2021. Retrieved 29 May 2022.
  • EB staff (2007). "Philosophy of Common Sense". Encyclopædia Britannica. from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 27 February 2022.
  • EB staff (2022). "Ordinary Language Analysis". Encyclopædia Britannica. from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
  • Eder, Anna-Maria A.; Lawler, Insa; van Riel, Raphael (1 March 2020). "Philosophical Methods Under Scrutiny: Introduction to the Special Issue Philosophical Methods". Synthese. 197 (3): 915–923. doi:10.1007/s11229-018-02051-2. ISSN 1573-0964. S2CID 54631297.
  • Espín, Orlando O.; Nickoloff, James B. (2007). An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies. Liturgical Press. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-8146-5856-7. from the original on 16 July 2023. Retrieved 16 July 2023.
  • Esposito, John L., ed. (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512559-7.
  • Fiet, James O. (8 March 2022). The Theoretical World of Entrepreneurship. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 133. ISBN 978-1-80037-147-7. from the original on 16 July 2023. Retrieved 16 July 2023.
  • Flavel, Sarah; Robbiano, Chiara (12 January 2023). Key Concepts in World Philosophies: A Toolkit for Philosophers. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 279. ISBN 978-1-350-16814-5. from the original on 19 August 2023. Retrieved 19 August 2023.
  • Forrest, Peter (2021). "The Epistemology of Religion". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. from the original on 10 July 2022. Retrieved 21 September 2022.
  • Frankena, William K.; Raybeck, Nathan; Burbules, Nicholas (2002). "Philosophy of Education". In Guthrie, James W. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Education (2nd ed.). Macmillan Reference. ISBN 978-0-02-865594-9.
  • Frede, Michael (2022). The Historiography of Philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-884072-5. from the original on 24 May 2023. Retrieved 24 May 2023.
  • Gelan, Victor Eugen (2020). "Husserl's Idea of Rigorous Science and its Relevance for the Human and Social Sciences". The Subject(s) of Phenomenology. Contributions to Phenomenology. Vol. 108. Springer International Publishing. pp. 97–105. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-29357-4_6. ISBN 978-3-030-29357-4. S2CID 213082313. from the original on 2 March 2022. Retrieved 27 February 2022.
  • Gell, Alfred (20 August 2020). The Art of Anthropology: Essays and Diagrams. Routledge. p. 174. ISBN 978-1-000-32446-4. from the original on 21 July 2023. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  • Glenney, Brian; Silva, José Filipe (21 February 2019). The Senses and the History of Philosophy. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-73106-5. from the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
  • Goffi, Jean-Yves; Roux, Sophie (2011). "On the Very Idea of a Thought Experiment". Thought Experiments in Methodological and Historical Contexts. Brill: 165–191. doi:10.1163/ej.9789004201767.i-233.35. ISBN 978-90-04-20177-4. S2CID 260640180. from the original on 30 October 2021. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
  • Gracia, Jorge J. E. (29 July 1999). Metaphysics and Its Task: The Search for the Categorial Foundation of Knowledge. State University of New York Press. p. 149. ISBN 978-0-7914-4214-2. from the original on 3 September 2023. Retrieved 16 July 2023.
  • Graham, Jacob N. (2023). "Ancient Greek Philosophy". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. from the original on 25 August 2022. Retrieved 25 May 2023.
  • Grant, Edward (29 January 2007). A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century. Cambridge University Press. p. 318. ISBN 978-0-521-86931-7. from the original on 7 July 2023. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
  • Grayling, A. C. (20 June 2019). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. from the original on 3 July 2023. Retrieved 30 June 2023.
  • Greco, John (2021). "Epistemology - Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy". www.rep.routledge.com. Routledge. from the original on 14 July 2023. Retrieved 14 July 2023.
  • Griffel, Frank (2020). "Al-Ghazali". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. from the original on 28 May 2023. Retrieved 19 June 2023.
  • Grimm, Stephen R.; Cohoe, Caleb (2021). "What Is Philosophy as a Way of Life? Why Philosophy as a Way of Life?". European Journal of Philosophy. 29 (1): 236–251. doi:10.1111/ejop.12562. ISSN 1468-0378. S2CID 225504495. from the original on 13 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
  • Groarke, Leo (2021). "Informal Logic". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 31 December 2021.
  • Gutas, Dimitri (2016). "Ibn Sina [Avicenna]". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. from the original on 27 April 2023. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
  • Guyer, Paul (5 March 2014). Kant. Routledge. pp. 7–8. ISBN 978-1-135-01563-3. from the original on 9 July 2023. Retrieved 9 July 2023.
  • Haack, Susan (1978). "1. 'Philosophy of logics'". Philosophy of Logics. London and New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–10. ISBN 978-0-521-29329-7. from the original on 7 December 2021. Retrieved 29 December 2021.
  • Haaparanta, Leila; Koskinen, Heikki J. (18 July 2012). Categories of Being: Essays on Metaphysics and Logic. Oxford University Press, USA. p. 454. ISBN 978-0-19-989057-6. from the original on 16 July 2023. Retrieved 16 July 2023.
  • Hacker, P. M. S. (November 2013). Wittgenstein: Comparisons and Context. OUP Oxford. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-19-967482-4. from the original on 10 July 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2023.
  • Hadot, Pierre (1995). "11. Philosophy as a Way of Life". Philosophy as a Way of Life: Spiritual Exercises From Socrates to Foucault. Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-18033-3. from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
  • Hansen, Hans (2020). "Fallacies". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. from the original on 29 March 2021. Retrieved 18 March 2021.
  • Harper, Douglas R. (2022). "Philosophy (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. from the original on 13 September 2017. Retrieved 21 March 2022.
  • Heidemann, Dietmar H. (11 June 2014). Kant and Non-conceptual Content. Routledge. p. 140. ISBN 978-1-317-98155-8. from the original on 3 September 2023. Retrieved 19 July 2023.
  • Heil, John Fergusson (2013). Philosophy of Mind: A Contemporary Introduction (3rd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-89175-2.
  • Hetherington, Stephen. "Knowledge". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. § 3c. Knowing Purely by Thinking. from the original on 2 June 2022. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
  • Hindson, Ed; Caner, Ergun (1 May 2008). The Popular Encyclopedia of Apologetics: Surveying the Evidence for the Truth of Christianity. Harvest House Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7369-3635-4. from the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 10 June 2023.
  • Hintikka, Jaakko J. (2019). "Philosophy of Logic". Encyclopædia Britannica. from the original on 28 April 2015. Retrieved 21 November 2021.
  • Honderich, Ted, ed. (2005). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926479-7. from the original on 29 January 2021. Retrieved 2 January 2022.
  • Howard, Dick (2010). The Primacy of the Political: A History of Political Thought From the Greeks to the French and American Revolutions. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-13595-5.
  • Hursthouse, Rosalind; Pettigrove, Glen (2022). "Virtue Ethics". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. from the original on 25 June 2023. Retrieved 20 August 2023.
  • Hylton, Peter; Kemp, Gary (2020). "Willard Van Orman Quine: 3. The Analytic-Synthetic Distinction and the Argument Against Logical Empiricism". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 27 February 2022.
  • Ichikawa, Jonathan (3 April 2011). "Chris Daly: An Introduction to Philosophical Methods". Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews. from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 22 February 2022.
  • Ifantidou, Elly (12 June 2014). Pragmatic Competence and Relevance. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 12. ISBN 978-90-272-7037-5. from the original on 3 September 2023. Retrieved 21 August 2023.
  • Ingarden, Roman (1975). "The Concept of Philosophy as Rigorous Science". On the Motives which led Husserl to Transcendental Idealism. Phaenomenologica. Vol. 64. Springer Netherlands. pp. 8–11. doi:10.1007/978-94-010-1689-6_3. ISBN 978-94-010-1689-6. from the original on 13 February 2022. Retrieved 27 February 2022.
  • Jacobs, James M. (14 January 2022). Seat of Wisdom: An Introduction to Philosophy in the Catholic Tradition. CUA Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-8132-3465-6. from the original on 3 September 2023. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
  • Jaroszyński, Piotr (12 February 2018). Metaphysics or Ontology?. BRILL. p. 12. ISBN 978-90-04-35987-1. from the original on 7 July 2023. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
  • Jeanes, Emma (10 January 2019). A Dictionary of Organizational Behaviour. Oxford University Press. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-19-252756-1. from the original on 7 July 2023. Retrieved 6 July 2023.
  • Jenicek, Milos (6 August 2018). How to Think in Medicine: Reasoning, Decision Making, and Communication in Health Sciences and Professions. CRC Press. p. 31. ISBN 978-1-351-68402-6. from the original on 5 July 2023. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
  • Jha, Meenakshi (1 January 2022). Subaltern Saints in India: Women and Sudras in Bhakti Movement. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 217. ISBN 978-81-208-4299-1.
  • Johnson, Ralph H. (1999). "The Relation Between Formal and Informal Logic". Argumentation. 13 (3): 265–274. doi:10.1023/A:1007789101256. S2CID 141283158. from the original on 7 December 2021. Retrieved 2 January 2022.
  • Johnson-Laird, Phil (30 December 2009). "Deductive Reasoning". WIREs Cognitive Science. 1 (1): 8–17. doi:10.1002/wcs.20. ISSN 1939-5078. PMID 26272833. from the original on 24 January 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
  • Johnstone, Albert A. (1 January 1991). Rationalized Epistemology: Taking Solipsism Seriously. SUNY Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-7914-0787-5. from the original on 14 July 2023. Retrieved 14 July 2023.
  • Joll, Nicholas. "Metaphilosophy". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. from the original on 15 May 2019. Retrieved 1 February 2022.
  • Jones, Campbell; Bos, René ten (10 April 2007). Philosophy and Organization. Routledge. pp. 56–58. ISBN 978-1-134-19659-3. from the original on 4 July 2023. Retrieved 6 July 2023.
  • Juergensmeyer, Mark; Roof, Wade Clark (2012). Encyclopedia of Global Religion. SAGE. ISBN 978-0-7619-2729-7. from the original on 11 July 2023. Retrieved 10 June 2023.
  • Kakas, Antonis C.; Sadri, Fariba (2 August 2003). Computational Logic: Logic Programming and Beyond: Essays in Honour of Robert A. Kowalski, Part II. Springer. p. 588. ISBN 978-3-540-45632-2. from the original on 4 July 2023. Retrieved 6 July 2023.
  • Kaminski, Joseph J. (21 August 2017). The Contemporary Islamic Governed State: A Reconceptualization. Springer. p. 32. ISBN 978-3-319-57012-9. from the original on 29 June 2023. Retrieved 30 June 2023.
  • Kant, Immanuel (1992). Lectures on Logic [Immanuel Kant's Logic: A Handbook for Lectures, edited by G.B. Jäsche (1800)]. Translated by J. Michael Young. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-36013-5.
  • Kant, Immanuel (1998). Paul Guyer and Allen W. Wood (ed.). Critique of Pure Reason. Translated by Paul Guyer and Allen W. Wood. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-35402-8.
  • Kelly, Michael, ed. (1998). Encyclopedia of Aesthetics (1. ed.). Oxford Univ. Press. p. ix. ISBN 978-0-19-511307-5.
  • Kenny, Anthony (2004). A New History of Western Philosophy, vol.1: Ancient Philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-875272-1.
  • Kenny, Anthony (4 February 2009). An Illustrated Brief History of Western Philosophy. John Wiley & Sons. p. 202. ISBN 978-1-4051-7860-0. from the original on 7 July 2023. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
  • Kenny, Anthony (19 November 2018). An Illustrated Brief History of Western Philosophy, 20th Anniversary Edition. John Wiley & Sons. p. 20. ISBN 978-1-119-45279-9. from the original on 5 July 2023. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
  • Kenny, Anthony (2006). The Rise of Modern Philosophy. A new history of Western philosophy (1 ed.). Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-875277-6.
  • Kim, Jaekwon; Sosa, Ernest; Rosenkrantz, Gary S. (12 March 2009). A Companion to Metaphysics. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 22–23. ISBN 978-1-4443-0853-2.
  • Kim, Sungmoon (14 November 2019). Theorizing Confucian Virtue Politics: The Political Philosophy of Mencius and Xunzi. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-57739-7. from the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 14 June 2023.
  • Kitcher, Philip S. (2023). "Philosophy of Science". www.britannica.com. from the original on 29 June 2023. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  • Kittay, Eva Feder; Alcoff, Linda Martín (30 April 2008). The Blackwell Guide to Feminist Philosophy. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 148–151. ISBN 978-0-470-69538-8. from the original on 8 July 2023. Retrieved 8 July 2023.
  • Koslowski, Barbara (14 November 2017). "Abductive reasoning and explanation". International Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning. Routledge. pp. 366–382. doi:10.4324/9781315725697. ISBN 978-1-315-72569-7. from the original on 8 January 2022. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
  • Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (1998). A History of India. Psychology Press. p. 139. ISBN 978-0-415-15482-6.
  • Laerke, Mogens; Smith, Justin E. H.; Schliesser, Eric (August 2013). Philosophy and Its History: Aims and Methods in the Study of Early Modern Philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-985716-6.
  • Lagerlund, Henrik, ed. (2020). Encyclopedia of Medieval Philosophy: Philosophy Between 500 and 1500 (Second ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-94-024-1663-3.
  • Lambert, Joseph (22 March 2023). Translation Ethics. Taylor & Francis. p. 26. ISBN 978-1-000-84163-3. from the original on 7 July 2023. Retrieved 6 July 2023.
  • Lazerowitz, Morris; Ambrose, Alice (13 February 2012). Philosophical Theories. Walter de Gruyter. p. 9. ISBN 978-3-11-080708-0. from the original on 5 July 2023. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
  • Legg, Catherine; Hookway, Christopher (2021). "Pragmatism". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. from the original on 8 October 2020. Retrieved 22 February 2022.
  • Li, Wei (7 November 2014). Mathematical Logic: Foundations for Information Science. Springer. pp. ix–x. ISBN 978-3-0348-0862-0. from the original on 4 July 2023. Retrieved 6 July 2023.
  • Lippert-Rasmussen, Kasper; Brownlee, Kimberley; Coady, David, eds. (2017). A Companion to Applied Philosophy. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-86911-6.
  • Little, Daniel (1984). "Reflective Equilibrium and Justification". Southern Journal of Philosophy. 22 (3): 373–387. doi:10.1111/j.2041-6962.1984.tb00354.x. from the original on 1 May 2022. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
  • Littlejohn, Ronnie (2023). "Chinese Philosophy: Overview of History". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. from the original on 1 June 2023. Retrieved 12 June 2023.
  • Lockie, Robert (2015). "Is Philosophy Useless?". The Philosophers' Magazine (71): 24–28. doi:10.5840/tpm20157197. from the original on 11 August 2023. Retrieved 11 July 2023.
  • Long, A. A. (20 August 1986). Hellenistic Philosophy: Stoics, Epicureans, Sceptics. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-05808-8. from the original on 28 May 2023. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
  • Losee, John (1 March 2001). A Historical Introduction to the Philosophy of Science. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–3. ISBN 978-0-19-870055-5. from the original on 21 July 2023. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  • Louth, Andrew; Thielicke, Helmut (2014) [1999]. "Relationship to Philosophy Theology". from the original on 6 August 2020.
  • Lowe, E. Jonathan (20 January 2000). An Introduction to the Philosophy of Mind. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-0-521-65428-9. from the original on 19 July 2023. Retrieved 19 July 2023.
  • Ma, Licheng (23 September 2015). Leading Schools of Thought in Contemporary China. World Scientific. p. xiv. ISBN 978-981-4656-40-5. from the original on 3 September 2023. Retrieved 23 August 2023.
  • MacDonald, Scott; Kretzmann, Norman (1996). "Medieval philosophy". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-07310-3. from the original on 9 May 2023. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
  • Maddy, Penelope (2022). A Plea for Natural Philosophy: And Other Essays. Oxford University Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-19-750885-5. from the original on 25 August 2023. Retrieved 25 August 2023.
  • Makeham, J. (21 February 2003). New Confucianism: A Critical Examination. Springer. pp. 94–95. ISBN 978-1-4039-8241-4.
  • Marenbon, John (2023). "Medieval Philosophy". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 27 May 2023.
  • Marshev, Vadim I. (13 January 2021). History of Management Thought: Genesis and Development From Ancient Origins to the Present Day. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-030-62337-1. from the original on 24 June 2023. Retrieved 21 June 2023.
  • Martinich, A.P.; Stroll, Avrum (2023). "Epistemology". Encyclopædia Britannica. from the original on 10 July 2019. Retrieved 22 June 2020.
  • Masud, Muhammad Khalid (18 August 2009). Islam and Modernity: Key Issues and Debates. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 237–238. ISBN 978-0-7486-3794-2.
  • McAfee, Noëlle (2018). "Feminist Philosophy". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. from the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 8 July 2023.
  • McDermid, Douglas. "Pragmatism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. from the original on 23 May 2019. Retrieved 22 February 2022.
  • McKeon, R. (2002). "Methodology (Philosophy)". New Catholic Encyclopedia. Gale Research Inc. ISBN 978-0-7876-4004-0. from the original on 30 April 2022. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
  • McQueen, Paddy (14 July 2010). Key Concepts in Philosophy. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 162. ISBN 978-1-137-09339-4. from the original on 21 July 2023. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  • McQuillan, J. Colin (30 November 2015). Early Modern Aesthetics. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 122–123. ISBN 978-1-78348-213-9. from the original on 21 July 2023. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  • Meister, Chad. "Philosophy of Religion". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. from the original on 6 August 2023. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  • Menon, Sangeetha. "Vedanta, Advaita". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. from the original on 1 June 2023. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
  • Mill, John Stuart (1863). Utilitarianism. Parker, Son, and Bourn, West Strand. p. 51. OCLC 78070085. Archived from the original on 5 November 2022. Retrieved 5 November 2022.
  • Mittelstraß, Jürgen (2005). "Philosophie". Enzyklopädie Philosophie und Wissenschaftstheorie. Metzler. ISBN 978-3-476-02107-6. from the original on 20 October 2021. Retrieved 27 February 2022.
  • Moaddel, Mansoor (16 May 2005). Islamic Modernism, Nationalism, and Fundamentalism: Episode and Discourse. University of Chicago Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-0-226-53333-9. from the original on 23 August 2023. Retrieved 23 August 2023.
  • Molefe, Motsamai; Allsobrook, Christopher (16 February 2021). Towards an African Political Philosophy of Needs. Springer Nature. pp. 8–9. ISBN 978-3-030-64496-3. from the original on 21 July 2023. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  • Moseley, Alexander. "Political Philosophy: Methodology". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. from the original on 2 April 2009. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  • Mou, Bo, ed. (2009). History of Chinese Philosophy. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-00286-5.
  • Mulvaney, Robert J. (2009). Classical Philosophical Questions, 13 ed. Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-600652-7.
  • Nado, Jennifer (1 September 2017). "How to Think About Philosophical Methodology". Journal of Indian Council of Philosophical Research. 34 (3): 447–463. doi:10.1007/s40961-017-0116-8. ISSN 2363-9962. S2CID 171569977. from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
  • Nagel, Thomas (2006). Borchert, Donald M. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 3: Determinables–Fuzzy Logic (2. ed.). Thomson Gale, Macmillan Reference. pp. 332–337. ISBN 978-0-02-866072-1.
  • Nanay, Bence (2019). Aesthetics: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-882661-3.
  • Nasr, Seyyed Hossein; Leaman, Oliver (7 March 2013). History of Islamic Philosophy. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-78043-1. from the original on 7 June 2023. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
  • Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (11 May 2006). Islamic Philosophy From Its Origin to the Present: Philosophy in the Land of Prophecy. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-6800-5. from the original on 7 June 2023. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
  • Newton-Smith, W. H. (2000). "Introduction". In W. H. Newton-Smith (ed.). A Companion to the Philosophy of Science. Blackwell. pp. 1–8. ISBN 978-0-631-23020-5.
  • Nievergelt, Yves (2015). Logic, Mathematics, and Computer Science: Modern Foundations With Practical Applications (2. ed.). Springer. pp. v–vi. ISBN 978-1-4939-3222-1.
  • Nunes, Terezinha (5 October 2011). "Logical Reasoning and Learning". In Seel, Norbert M. (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 2066–2069. ISBN 978-1-4419-1427-9. from the original on 10 February 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
  • Nuttall, Jon (3 July 2013). "1. The Nature of Philosophy". An Introduction to Philosophy. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-7456-6807-9. from the original on 13 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
  • OED staff (2022). "Philosophy, n.". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). OUP.
  • Oglesby, Carole A.; Henige, Kim; McLaughlin, Douglas W.; Stillwell, Belinda (18 March 2021). Foundations of Kinesiology. Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 242. ISBN 978-1-284-19830-0. from the original on 21 July 2023. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  • Olsson, Erik (2021). "Coherentist Theories of Epistemic Justification". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 5 September 2023.
  • OUP staff (2020). . Lexico. University of Oxford Press. Archived from the original on 28 March 2019. Retrieved 28 March 2019.
  • Overgaard, Søren; D'Oro, Giuseppina (2017). "Introduction". The Cambridge Companion to Philosophical Methodology. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–10. ISBN 978-1-107-54736-0. from the original on 1 May 2022. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
  • Overgaard, Søren; Gilbert, Paul; Burwood, Stephen (2013). "What is philosophy?". An Introduction to Metaphilosophy. Cambridge University Press. pp. 17–44. ISBN 978-0-521-19341-2. from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
  • Palmquist, Stephen (2010). Cultivating Personhood: Kant and Asian Philosophy. Walter de Gruyter. p. 800. ISBN 978-3-11-022623-2. from the original on 5 July 2023. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
  • Papineau, David (2005). "science, problems of the philosophy of". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926479-7. Retrieved 13 July 2023.
  • Parker-Ryan, Sally. "Ordinary Language Philosophy". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
  • Parkinson, G. H. R., ed. (2005). IV. The Renaissance and Seventeenth-Century Rationalism. Routledge History of Philosophy. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-02914-5.
  • Perkins, Dorothy (19 November 2013). Encyclopedia of China: History and Culture. Routledge. pp. 486–487. ISBN 978-1-135-93562-7.
  • Perrett, Roy W. (4 February 2016). An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85356-9. from the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 9 June 2023.
  • Perry, John; Bratman, Michael; Fischer, John Martin (2010). Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings (5th ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-19-539036-0. from the original on 9 July 2023. Retrieved 9 July 2023.
  • Plato (1997). Cooper, John M. (ed.). Plato: Complete Works. Hackett. ISBN 978-0-87220-349-5.
  • Pojman, Louis P.; Vaughn, Lewis, eds. (2009). Philosophy: The Quest for Truth (7th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-998108-3.
  • Polger, Thomas W. "Functionalism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. from the original on 19 May 2019. Retrieved 19 July 2023.
  • Pooley, Jefferson D.; Rothenbuhler, Eric W. (31 October 2016). The International Encyclopedia of Communication Theory and Philosophy, 4 Volume Set. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-29073-6. from the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
  • Qi, Xiaoying (21 January 2014). Globalized Knowledge Flows and Chinese Social Theory. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-69162-3. from the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 14 June 2023.
  • Quine, Willard Van Orman (2008). "41. A Letter to Mr. Ostermann". Quine in Dialogue. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03083-1. from the original on 13 February 2022. Retrieved 27 February 2022.
  • Rambachan, Anantanand (1 January 1994). The Limits of Scripture: Vivekananda's Reinterpretation of the Vedas. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1542-4. from the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
  • Ramos, Christine Carmela R., ed. (2004). Introduction to Philosophy' 2004 Ed.- Ramos. Rex Bookstore, Inc. p. 4. ISBN 978-971-23-3955-4. from the original on 30 June 2023. Retrieved 21 August 2023.
  • Ranganathan, Shyam. "Ramanuja". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 7 September 2023.
October 23, 2023
philosophy, other, uses, disambiguation, love, wisdom, ancient, greek, systematic, study, general, fundamental, questions, concerning, topics, like, existence, reason, knowledge, value, mind, language, rational, critical, inquiry, that, reflects, methods, assu. For other uses see Philosophy disambiguation Philosophy love of wisdom in ancient Greek is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence reason knowledge value mind and language It is a rational and critical inquiry that reflects on its own methods and assumptions Historically many of the individual sciences like physics and psychology formed part of philosophy But they are considered separate academic disciplines in the modern sense of the term The main traditions in the history of philosophy include Western Arabic Persian Indian and Chinese philosophy Western philosophy originated in Ancient Greece and covers a wide area of philosophical subfields A central topic in Arabic Persian philosophy is the relation between reason and revelation Indian philosophy combines the spiritual problem of how to reach enlightenment with the exploration of the nature of reality and the ways of arriving at knowledge Chinese philosophy focuses on practical issues in relation to right social conduct government and self cultivation Major branches of philosophy are epistemology ethics logic and metaphysics Epistemology studies what knowledge is and how to acquire it Ethics investigates moral principles and what constitutes right conduct Logic is the study of correct reasoning and explores how good arguments can be distinguished from bad ones Metaphysics examines the most general features of reality existence objects and properties Other notable subfields are aesthetics philosophy of language philosophy of mind philosophy of religion philosophy of science philosophy of history and political philosophy Philosophers use a great variety of methods to arrive at philosophical knowledge They include conceptual analysis reliance on common sense and intuitions use of thought experiments analysis of ordinary language description of experience and critical questioning Philosophy is related to many other fields like the sciences mathematics business law and journalism It provides an interdisciplinary perspective and studies their scope and fundamental concepts It also investigates their methods and ethical implications Contents 1 Etymology 2 Conceptions of philosophy 2 1 General conception 2 2 Academic definitions 3 History 3 1 Western 3 2 Arabic Persian 3 3 Indian 3 4 Chinese 4 Core branches 4 1 Epistemology 4 2 Ethics 4 3 Logic 4 4 Metaphysics 4 5 Other major branches 5 Methods 6 Relation to other fields 7 See also 8 References 8 1 Notes 8 2 Citations 8 3 Bibliography 9 External linksEtymologyThe word philosophy comes from the ancient Greek words filos philos love and sofia sophia wisdom 1 2 3 Some sources say that the term was coined by the Presocratic philosopher Pythagoras but this is not certain 4 5 nbsp Physics was originally part of philosophy like Isaac Newton s observation of how gravity affects falling apples The word entered the English language primarily from Old French and Anglo Norman starting around 1175 CE The French philosophie is itself a borrowing from the Latin philosophia The term philosophy acquired the meanings of advanced study of the speculative subjects logic ethics physics and metaphysics deep wisdom consisting of love of truth and virtuous living profound learning as transmitted by the ancient writers and the study of the fundamental nature of knowledge reality and existence and the basic limits of human understanding 6 1 Before the modern age the term philosophy was used in a wide sense It included most forms of rational inquiry like the individual sciences as its subdisciplines 1 7 8 For instance natural philosophy was a major branch of philosophy 9 10 11 12 This branch of philosophy encompassed a wide range of fields including disciplines like physics chemistry and biology 1 13 An example of this usage is the 1687 book Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica by Isaac Newton This book referred to natural philosophy in its title but it is today considered a book of physics 11 12 14 The meaning of philosophy changed toward the end of the modern period when it acquired the more narrow meaning common today In this new sense the term is mainly associated with philosophical disciplines like metaphysics epistemology and ethics Among other topics it covers the rational study of reality knowledge and values However it is distinguished from other disciplines of rational inquiry like the empirical sciences and mathematics 15 Conceptions of philosophySee also Metaphilosophy General conception The practice of philosophy is characterized by various general features it is a form of rational inquiry it aims to be systematic and it tends to critically reflect on its own methods and presuppositions 16 It requires thinking as hard and as clearly about some of the most interesting and enduring problems that human minds have ever encountered 17 According to the 18th century philosopher Immanuel Kant the task of philosophy is united by four questions What can I know What should I do What may I hope and What is the human being His entire career as he conceived it was devoted to systematically addressing these four questions 18 19 20 The theme of self critical intellectual humility may be traced back to the origins of Western philosophy Socrates as depicted in Plato s dialogues famously expresses incredulity when told by the Oracle at Delphi that he was the wisest person of all What he comes to conclude is that his wisdom consists in his knowing that he does not possess the most exalted kind of wisdom namely that about what is truly fine and good 21 22 Consistent with his well known assertion that the unexamined life is not worth living Socrates arrives at the conclusion that the active pursuit of wisdom is good and valuable in itself irrespective of whether one ever arrives at final definitions 23 24 This is consistent with the view that the kind of knowledge that philosophy seeks is not information but understanding 25 Confronting the unlikelihood of ever arriving at final answers to the great questions of philosophy Bertrand Russell offers this justification for nevertheless undertaking the labor The man who has no tincture of philosophy goes through life imprisoned in the prejudices derived from common sense from the habitual beliefs of his age or his nation and from convictions which have grown up in his mind without the cooperation or consent of his deliberate reason 26 27 This passage has been cited to advance an interpretation of philosophy as freeing us from prejudice self deceptive notions and half truths 28 Academic definitions Main article Definitions of philosophy Attempts to define philosophy in precise terms are controversial 29 14 and are studied in the subdiscipline known as metaphilosophy 30 Some approaches argue that there is a set of essential features shared by all parts of philosophy Others see only weaker family resemblances or contend that it is merely an empty blanket term 31 32 33 Precise definitions are often only accepted by theorists belonging to a certain philosophical movement and are revisionistic according to Soren Overgaard et al in that many presumed parts of philosophy would not deserve the title philosophy if they were true 34 35 Some definitions characterize philosophy in relation to its method like pure reasoning Others focus on its topic for example as the study of the biggest patterns of the world as a whole or as the attempt to answer the big questions 36 37 38 Both approaches have the problem that they are usually either too wide by including non philosophical disciplines or too narrow by excluding some philosophical sub disciplines 36 Many definitions of philosophy emphasize its intimate relation to science 14 In this sense philosophy is sometimes understood as a proper science in its own right According to some naturalistic philosophers like W V O Quine philosophy is an empirical yet abstract science that is concerned with wide ranging empirical patterns instead of particular observations 39 40 Science based definitions usually face the problem of explaining why philosophy in its long history has not made the type of progress seen in other sciences 41 42 43 This problem is avoided by seeing philosophy as an immature or provisional science whose subdisciplines cease to be philosophy once they have fully developed 14 32 44 In this sense philosophy is sometimes described as the midwife of the sciences 45 14 Other definitions focus on the contrast between science and philosophy A common theme among many such conceptions is that philosophy is concerned with meaning understanding or the clarification of language 46 47 According to one view philosophy is conceptual analysis which involves finding the necessary and sufficient conditions for the application of concepts 48 38 49 Phenomenologists such as Edmund Husserl characterize philosophy as a rigorous science investigating essences 50 They practice a radical suspension of theoretical assumptions about reality in order to get back to the things themselves that is as originally given in experience They contend that this base level of experience provides the foundation for higher order theoretical knowledge and that one needs to understand the former in order to understand the latter 51 Another approach presents philosophy as a linguistic therapy According to Ludwig Wittgenstein for example philosophy aims at dispelling misunderstandings to which humans are susceptible due to the confusing structure of natural language 14 52 53 An early approach found in ancient Greek and Roman philosophy and later adopted by 20th century philosophers such as Michel Foucault and Pierre Hadot is that philosophy is the spiritual practice of developing one s rational capacities 54 55 This practice is an expression of the philosopher s love of wisdom and has the aim of improving one s well being by leading a reflective life 56 Another definition characterizes philosophy as thinking about thinking This emphasizes its self critical reflective nature 57 58 HistoryMain article History of philosophy As a discipline the history of philosophy aims to provide a systematic and chronological exposition of philosophical concepts and doctrines 59 60 61 Some theorists see it as a part of intellectual history but it also investigates questions not covered by intellectual history such as whether the theories of past philosophers are true and have remained philosophically relevant 62 The history of philosophy is primarily concerned with theories based on rational inquiry and argumentation However some historians understand it in a looser sense that includes myths religious teachings and proverbial lore 63 The main traditions in the history of philosophy include Western Arabic Persian Indian and Chinese philosophy Other influential philosophical traditions are Japanese philosophy Latin American philosophy and African philosophy 64 Western Main article Western philosophy nbsp Statue of Aristotle a major figure of ancient Greek philosophy in Aristotle s Park StagiraWestern philosophy originated in Ancient Greece in the 6th century BCE with the Presocratics They attempted to provide rational explanations of the cosmos as a whole 65 66 67 The philosophy following them was shaped by Socrates 469 399 BCE Plato 427 347 BCE and Aristotle 384 322 BCE They expanded the range of topics to questions like how people should act how to arrive at knowledge and what the nature of reality and mind is 68 69 The later part of the ancient period was marked by the emergence of philosophical movements like Epicureanism Stoicism Skepticism and Neoplatonism 70 71 72 The medieval period started in the 5th century CE Its focus was on religious topics and many thinkers used ancient philosophy to explain and further elaborate Christian doctrines 73 74 75 The Renaissance period started in the 14th century and saw a renewed interest in various schools of Ancient philosophy in particular Platonism Humanism also emerged in this period 76 The modern period started in the 17th century One of its central concerns was how philosophical and scientific knowledge are created Specific importance was given to the role of reason and sensory experience 77 78 Many of these innovations were used in the Enlightenment movement to challenge traditional authorities 79 80 Various attempts to develop all inclusive systems of philosophy were made in the 19th century for example by German idealism 81 Influential developments in 20th century philosophy were the emergence and application of formal logic and the focus on the role of language as well as pragmatism and movements in continental philosophy like phenomenology existentialism and postmodernism 82 83 The 20th century saw a rapid expansion of academic philosophy in terms of the number of philosophical publications and philosophers working at academic institutions 82 There was also a noticeable growth in the number of female philosophers but they still remained underrepresented 84 Arabic Persian Main articles Islamic philosophy and Iranian philosophy Arabic Persian philosophy arose in the early 9th century CE as a response to discussions in the Islamic theological tradition Its classical period lasted until the 12th century CE and was strongly influenced by Ancient Greek philosophers It employed their ideas to elaborate and interpret the teachings of the Quran 85 nbsp An Iranian portrait of Avicenna on a Silver Vase He was one of the most influential philosophers of the Islamic Golden Age Al Kindi 801 873 CE is usually regarded as the first philosopher of this tradition He translated and interpreted many works of Aristotle and Neoplatonists in his attempt to show that there is a harmony between reason and faith 86 Avicenna 980 1037 CE also followed this goal and developed a comprehensive philosophical system to provide a rational understanding of reality encompassing science religion and mysticism 87 88 Al Ghazali 1058 1111 CE was a strong critic of the idea that reason can arrive at a true understanding of reality and God He formulated a detailed critique of philosophy and tried to assign philosophy a more limited place besides the teachings of the Quran and mystical insight 89 Following Al Ghazali and the end of the classical period the influence of philosophical inquiry waned 90 91 Mulla Sadra 1571 1636 CE is often regarded as one of the most influential philosophers of the subsequent period 92 93 The increasing influence of Western thought and institutions in the 19th and 20th centuries gave rise to the intellectual movement of Islamic modernism which aims to understand the relation between traditional Islamic beliefs and modernity 94 95 96 Indian Main article Indian philosophy One of the distinguishing features of Indian philosophy is that it integrates the exploration of the nature of reality the ways of arriving at knowledge and the spiritual question of how to reach enlightenment 97 98 It started around 900 BCE when the Vedas were written They are the foundational scriptures of Hinduism and contemplate issues concerning the relation between the self and ultimate reality as well as the question of how souls are reborn based on their past actions 99 This period also saw the emergence of non Vedic teachings like Buddhism and Jainism 100 101 Buddhism was founded by Gautama Siddhartha 563 483 BCE who challenged the Vedic idea of a permanent self and proposed a path to liberate oneself from suffering 100 101 Jainism was founded by Mahavira 599 527 BCE who emphasized non violence as well as respect toward all forms of life 100 102 103 The subsequent classical period started roughly 200 BCE and was characterized by the emergence of the six orthodox schools of Hinduism Nyaya Vaiseṣika Saṃkhya Yoga Mimaṃsa and Vedanta 104 105 106 The school of Advaita Vedanta developed later in this period It was systematized by Adi Shankara c 700 750 CE who held that everything is one and that the impression of a universe consisting of many distinct entities is an illusion 107 108 109 A slightly different perspective was defended by Ramanuja 1017 1137 CE a who founded the school of Vishishtadvaita Vedanta and argued that individual entities are real as aspects or parts of the underlying unity 111 He also helped to popularize the Bhakti movement which taught devotion toward the divine as a spiritual path and lasted until the 17th to 18th centuries CE 112 The modern period began roughly 1800 CE and was shaped by the encounter with Western thought 113 114 Various philosophers tried to formulate comprehensive systems to harmonize diverse philosophical and religious teachings For example Swami Vivekananda 1863 1902 CE used the teachings of Advaita Vedanta to argue that all the different religions are valid paths toward the one divine 115 Chinese Main article Chinese philosophy nbsp The teachings of Confucius on ethics and society shaped subsequent Chinese philosophy Chinese philosophy is particularly interested in practical questions associated with right social conduct government and self cultivation 116 In competing attempts to resolve the politically turbulent 6th century BCE many schools of thought emerged The most prominent among them were Confucianism and Daoism 117 118 Confucianism was founded by Confucius 551 479 BCE It focused on different forms of moral virtues and explored how they lead to harmony in society 119 Daoism was founded by Laozi 6th century BCE and examined how humans can live in harmony with nature by following the Dao or the natural order of the universe 120 Other influential early schools of thought were Mohism which developed an early form of altruistic consequentialism 121 122 123 and Legalism which emphasized the importance of a strong state and strict laws 121 124 125 Buddhism was introduced to China in the 1st century CE and produced new forms of Buddhism 126 127 Starting in the 3rd century CE the school of Xuanxue emerged It interpreted earlier Daoist works with a specific emphasis on metaphysical explanations 126 127 Neo Confucianism developed in the 11th century CE It systematized previous Confucian teachings and sought a metaphysical foundation of ethics 128 127 The modern period in Chinese philosophy began in the early 20th century and was shaped by the influence of and reactions to Western philosophy The emergence of Chinese Marxism which focused on class struggle socialism and communism resulted in a significant transformation of the political landscape 129 Another development was the emergence of New Confucianism which aims to modernize and rethink Confucian teachings to explore their compatibility with democratic ideals and modern science 130 131 132 Core branchesSee also Outline of philosophy Branches of philosophy and Outline of philosophy Philosophical schools of thought Philosophical questions can be grouped into various branches These groupings allow philosophers to focus on a set of similar topics and interact with other thinkers who are interested in the same questions Epistemology ethics logic and metaphysics are sometimes listed as the main branches 133 134 135 There are many other subfields besides them and the different divisions are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive For example political philosophy ethics and aesthetics are sometimes linked under the general heading of value theory as they investigate normative or evaluative aspects 136 Furthermore philosophical inquiry sometimes overlaps with other disciplines in the natural and social sciences religion and mathematics 137 138 Epistemology Main article Epistemology Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies knowledge It is also known as theory of knowledge and aims to understand what knowledge is how it arises what its limits are and what value it has It further examines the nature of truth belief justification and rationality 139 Some of the questions addressed by epistemologists include By what method s can one acquire knowledge How is truth established and Can we prove causal relations 140 Epistemology is primarily interested in declarative knowledge or knowledge of facts like knowing that Princess Diana died in 1997 But it also investigates practical knowledge like knowing how to ride a bicycle and knowledge by acquaintance like knowing a celebrity personally 141 142 143 One area in epistemology is the analysis of knowledge It assumes that declarative knowledge is a combination of different parts and attempts to identify what those parts are An influential theory in this area claims that knowledge has three components it is a belief that is justified and true This theory is controversial and the difficulties associated with it are known as the Gettier problem 144 145 Another area in epistemology asks how people acquire knowledge Often discussed sources of knowledge are perception introspection memory inference and testimony 146 147 According to empiricists all knowledge is based on some form of experience Rationalists reject this view and hold that some forms of knowledge like innate knowledge are not acquired through experience 148 149 150 The regress problem is a common issue in relation to the sources of knowledge and the justification they offer It is based on the idea that beliefs require some kind of reason or evidence to be justified The problem is that the source of justification may itself be in need of another source of justification This leads to an infinite regress or circular reasoning This idea is rejected by foundationalists who argue that some sources can provide justification without requiring justification themselves 151 152 Another solution is presented by coherentists who state that a belief is justified if it coheres with other beliefs of the person 153 Many discussions in epistemology touch on the topic of philosophical skepticism which raises doubts about some or all claims to knowledge These doubts are often based on the idea that knowledge requires absolute certainty and that humans are unable to acquire it 154 155 156 Ethics Main article Ethics nbsp The utilitarian doctrine is that happiness is desirable and the only thing desirable as an end all other things being only desirable as means to that end John Stuart Mill Utilitarianism 1863 157 Ethics also known as moral philosophy studies what constitutes right conduct It is also concerned with the moral evaluation of character traits and institutions It explores what the standards of morality are and how to live a good life 158 159 160 Philosophical ethics addresses such basic questions as Are moral obligations relative Which has priority well being or obligation and What gives life meaning 161 The main branches of ethics are meta ethics normative ethics and applied ethics Meta ethics asks abstract questions about the nature and sources of morality It analyzes the meaning of ethical concepts like right action and obligation It also investigates whether ethical theories can be true in an absolute sense and how to acquire knowledge of them Normative ethics encompasses general theories of how to distinguish between right and wrong conduct It helps guide moral decisions by examining what moral obligations and rights people have Applied ethics studies the consequences of the general theories developed by normative ethics in specific situations for example in the workplace or for medical treatments 162 Within contemporary normative ethics consequentialism deontology and virtue ethics are influential schools of thought 163 164 Consequentialists judge actions based on their consequences One such view is utilitarianism which argues that actions should increase overall happiness while minimizing suffering Deontologists judge actions based on whether they follow moral duties like abstaining from lying or killing According to them what matters is that actions are in tune with those duties and not what consequences they have Virtue theorists judge actions based on the moral character of the agent who performs them According to this view actions should conform to what an ideally virtuous agent would do by manifesting virtues like generosity and honesty 163 164 165 Logic Main article Logic Logic is the study of correct reasoning It aims to understand how to distinguish good from bad arguments 166 167 It is usually divided into formal and informal logic Formal logic uses artificial languages with a precise symbolic representation to investigate arguments In this way it formulates exact criteria and methods based on the structure of arguments to determine whether they are correct or incorrect Informal logic uses non formal criteria and standards to analyze and evaluate the correctness of arguments It relies on additional factors such as content and context 168 Logic examines a variety of arguments Deductive arguments are mainly studied by formal logic An argument is deductively valid if the truth of its premises ensures the truth of its conclusion Deductively valid arguments follow a rule of inference like modus ponens which has the following logical form p if p then q therefore q An example is the argument today is Sunday if today is Sunday then I don t have to go to work today therefore I don t have to go to work today 169 170 171 The premises of non deductive arguments also support their conclusion However this support is not as certain and does not guarantee that the conclusion is true 172 173 One form is inductive reasoning It starts from a set of individual cases and uses generalization to arrive at a universal law governing all cases An example is the inference that all ravens are black based on observations of many individual black ravens 174 175 176 Another form is abductive reasoning It starts from an observation and concludes that the best explanation of this observation must be true This happens for example when a doctor diagnoses a disease based on the observed symptoms 177 178 175 Logic also investigates incorrect forms of reasoning They are called fallacies and are divided into formal and informal fallacies based on whether the source of the error lies only in the form of the argument or also in its content and context 179 Metaphysics Main article Metaphysics nbsp The beginning of Aristotle s Metaphysics in an incunabulum decorated with hand painted miniaturesMetaphysics is the study of the most general features of reality such as existence objects and their properties wholes and their parts space and time events and causation 180 181 182 There are disagreements about the precise definition of the term and its meaning has changed throughout the ages 183 Metaphysicists attempt to answer basic questions like Why is there something rather than nothing Of what does reality ultimately consist and Are humans free 184 Metaphysics is sometimes divided into general metaphysics and specific or special metaphysics General metaphysics investigates being as such It examines the features that all entities have in common Specific metaphysics is interested in different kinds of being the features they have and how they differ from one another 180 181 185 An important area in metaphysics is ontology Some theorists identify it with general metaphysics Ontology investigates concepts like being becoming and reality It studies the categories of being and asks what exists on the most fundamental level 186 Another subfield of metaphysics is philosophical cosmology It is interested in the essence of the world as a whole It asks questions like whether the universe has a beginning and an end and whether it was created by something else 182 187 A key topic in metaphysics concerns the question of whether reality only consists of physical things like matter and energy Alternative suggestions are that mental entities like souls and experiences and abstract entities like numbers exist apart from physical things Another topic in metaphysics concerns the problem of identity It asks questions like how much an entity can change while still remaining the same entity 182 According to one view entities have essential and accidental features They can change their accidental features but they cease to be the same entity if they lose an essential feature 188 189 A central distinction in metaphysics is between particulars and universals Universals like the color red can exist at different locations at the same time This is not the case for particulars like individual persons or specific objects 190 191 Other metaphysical questions are whether the past fully determines the present and what implications this would have for the existence of free will 192 193 Other major branches See also List of philosophies There are many additional subfields of philosophy besides its core branches Some of the most prominent are aesthetics philosophy of language philosophy of mind philosophy of religion philosophy of science and political philosophy 194 Aesthetics in the philosophical sense is the field that studies the nature and appreciation of beauty and other aesthetic properties like the sublime 195 Although it is often treated together with the philosophy of art aesthetics is a broader category that encompasses other aspects of experience such as natural beauty 196 197 In a more general sense aesthetics is the critical reflection on art culture and nature 198 199 A key question in aesthetics is whether beauty is an objective or mind independent feature of entities This view is rejected by subjectivists who claim that beauty is not an inherent quality of objects but depends on how people subjectively experience them 197 200 Aesthetic philosophers also investigate the nature of aesthetic experiences and judgments Further topics include the essence of works of art and the processes involved in creating them 201 197 The philosophy of language studies the nature and function of language It examines the concepts of meaning reference and truth It aims to answer questions like how words are related to things and how language affects human thought and understanding It is closely related to the disciplines of logic and linguistics 202 203 204 The philosophy of language rose to particular prominence in the early 20th century in analytic philosophy due to the works of Frege and Russell One of its central topics is to understand how sentences get their meaning There are two broad theoretical camps those emphasizing the formal truth conditions of sentences b and those investigating circumstances that determine when it is suitable to use a sentence the latter of which is associated with speech act theory 206 207 The philosophy of mind studies the nature of mental phenomena and how they are related to the physical world 208 209 It aims to understand different types of conscious and unconscious mental states like beliefs desires intentions feelings sensations and free will 210 211 An influential intuition in the philosophy of mind is the distinction between an inner world of experience of an object and the existence of this object in the outer world The mind body problem is the problem of explaining how matter and mind are related The main traditional responses are materialism which assumes that matter is more fundamental idealism which assumes that mind is more fundamental and dualism which assumes that mind and matter are distinct types of entities In contemporary philosophy a widely accepted position is functionalism which understands mental states in terms of the functional or causal roles they play 212 The mind body problem is closely related to the hard problem of consciousness which asks how the physical brain can produce qualitatively subjective experiences 213 214 The philosophy of religion investigates the basic concepts assumptions and arguments associated with religion It critically reflects on what religion is how to define the divine and whether one or more gods exist It also includes the discussion of worldviews that reject religious doctrines 215 Further questions addressed by the philosophy of religion are How are we to interpret religious language if not literally 216 Is divine omniscience compatible with free will 217 and Are the great variety of world religions in some way compatible in spite of their apparently contradictory theological claims 218 It includes topics from nearly all branches of philosophy 219 220 It differs from theology since theological debates typically take place within one religious tradition while debates in the philosophy of religion transcend any particular set of theological assumptions 221 222 The philosophy of science examines the fundamental concepts assumptions and problems associated with science It reflects on what science is and how to distinguish it from pseudoscience It investigates the methods employed by scientists how their application can result in knowledge and on what assumptions they are based It also studies the purpose and implications of science 223 Some of its questions are What counts as an adequate explanation 224 Is a scientific law anything more than a description of a regularity 225 and Can some special sciences be explained entirely in the terms of a more general science 226 It is a vast field that is commonly divided into the philosophy of the natural sciences and the philosophy of the social sciences with further subdivisions for each of the individual sciences under these headings How these branches are related to one another is also a question in the philosophy of science Many of its philosophical issues overlap with the fields of metaphysics or epistemology 227 228 Political philosophy is the philosophical inquiry into the fundamental principles and ideas governing political systems and societies It examines the basic concepts assumptions and arguments in the field of politics It investigates the nature and purpose of government and compares its different forms 229 It further asks under what circumstances the use of political power is legitimate rather than a form of simple violence 230 231 In this regard it is concerned with the distribution of political power social and material goods as well as legal rights 232 Other topics are justice liberty equality sovereignty and nationalism 230 Political philosophy involves a general inquiry into normative matters and differs in this respect from political science which aims to provide empirical descriptions of actually existing states 233 230 Political philosophy is often treated as a subfield of ethics 234 Influential schools of thought in political philosophy are liberalism conservativism socialism and anarchism 235 236 MethodsMain article Philosophical methodology Methods of philosophy are ways of conducting philosophical inquiry They include techniques for arriving at philosophical knowledge and justifying philosophical claims as well as principles used for choosing between competing theories 237 238 239 A great variety of methods has been employed throughout the history of philosophy Many of them differ significantly from the methods used in the natural sciences in that they do not use experimental data obtained through measuring equipment 240 241 242 The choice of one s method usually has important implications both for how philosophical theories are constructed and for the arguments cited for or against them 243 244 245 This choice is often guided by epistemological considerations about what constitutes philosophical evidence 246 247 248 Methodological disagreements can cause conflicts among philosophical theories or about the answers to philosophical questions The discovery of new methods has often had important consequences both for how philosophers conduct their research and for what claims they defend 249 239 243 Some philosophers engage in most of their theorizing using one particular method while others employ a wider range of methods based on which one fits the specific problem investigated best 250 Conceptual analysis is a common method in analytic philosophy It aims to clarify the meaning of concepts by analyzing them into their component parts 251 49 252 Another method often employed in analytic philosophy is based on common sense It starts with commonly accepted beliefs and tries to draw unexpected conclusions from them which it often employs in a negative sense to criticize philosophical theories that are too far removed from how the average person sees the issue 242 253 254 It is similar to how ordinary language philosophy approaches philosophical questions by investigating how ordinary language is used 239 255 256 nbsp The trolley problem is a thought experiment that investigates the moral difference between doing and allowing harm This issue is explored in an imaginary situation in which a person can sacrifice a single person by redirecting a trolley in order to save a group of people 257 258 Various methods in philosophy give particular importance to intuitions that is non inferential impressions about the correctness of specific claims or general principles 259 260 For example they play an important role in thought experiments which employ counterfactual thinking to evaluate the possible consequences of an imagined situation These anticipated consequences can then be used to confirm or refute philosophical theories 261 262 263 The method of reflective equilibrium also employs intuitions It seeks to form a coherent position on a certain issue by examining all the relevant beliefs and intuitions some of which often have to be deemphasized or reformulated in order to arrive at a coherent perspective 264 265 266 Pragmatists stress the significance of concrete practical consequences for assessing whether a philosophical theory is true 267 268 According to the pragmatic maxim as formulated by Charles Sanders Peirce the idea a person has of an object is nothing more than the totality of practical consequences they associate with this object Pragmatists have also used this method to expose disagreements as merely verbal that is to show they make no genuine difference on the level of consequences 269 270 Phenomenologists seek knowledge of the realm of appearance and the structure of human experience They insist upon the first personal character of all experience and proceed by suspending theoretical judgments about the external world This technique of phenomenological reduction is known as bracketing or epoche The goal is to give an unbiased description of the appearances of things 271 Relation to other fieldsPhilosophy is closely related to many other fields It is sometimes understood as a metadiscipline that clarifies their nature and limits It does this by critically examining their basic concepts background assumptions and methods In this regard it plays a key role in providing an interdisciplinary perspective It bridges the gap between different disciplines by analyzing which concepts and problems they have in common It shows how they overlap while also delimiting their scope 272 Historically philosophy is often considered the mother of all sciences since most of the individual sciences formed part of philosophy until they reached their status as autonomous disciplines 7 8 The influence of philosophy is felt in various fields that require difficult practical decisions In medicine philosophical considerations related to bioethics affect issues like whether an embryo is already a person and under what conditions abortion is morally permissible A closely related philosophical problem is how humans should treat other animals for example whether it is acceptable to use non human animals as food or for research experiments 273 274 275 In relation to business and professional life philosophy has contributed by providing ethical frameworks They contain guidelines on which business practices are morally acceptable and cover the issue of corporate social responsibility In the field of politics philosophy addresses issues like how to assess whether a government policy is just 276 274 Philosophical inquiry is relevant to many fields that are concerned with what to believe and how to arrive at evidence for one s beliefs 277 This is a key issue for the sciences which have as one of their prime objectives the creation of scientific knowledge Scientific knowledge is based on empirical evidence but it is often not clear whether empirical observations are neutral or already include theoretical assumptions A closely related problem is whether the available evidence is sufficient to decide between competing theories 278 279 In the fields of theology and religion there are many doctrines associated with the existence and nature of God as well as rules governing correct behavior A key issue is whether a rational person should believe these doctrines for example whether revelation in the form of holy books and religious experiences of the divine are sufficient evidence for these beliefs 280 281 282 A similar epistemological problem in relation to the law is what counts as evidence and how much evidence is required to find a person guilty of a crime A related issue in journalism is how to ensure truth and objectivity when reporting on events 272 Philosophy in the form of logic has been influential in the fields of mathematics and computer science 283 284 285 Further fields influenced by philosophy include psychology sociology linguistics education and the arts 286 The close relation between philosophy and other fields in the contemporary period is reflected in the fact that many philosophy graduates go on to work in related fields rather than in philosophy itself 287 Philosophical ideas have also prepared and shaped changes in the field of politics For example ideals formulated in Enlightenment philosophy laid the foundation for constitutional democracy and played a role in the American Revolution and the French Revolution 288 Marxist philosophy and its exposition of communism was one of the factors in the Russian Revolution and the Chinese Communist Revolution 289 290 291 In India Mahatma Gandhi s philosophy of non violence shaped the Indian independence movement 292 293 An example of the cultural and critical role of philosophy is found in its influence on the feminist movement It has shaped the understanding of key concepts in feminism for instance the meaning of gender how it differs from biological sex and what role it plays in the formation of personal identity Philosophers have also investigated the concepts of justice and equality and their implications with respect to the prejudicial treatment of women in male dominated societies 294 295 296 However the idea that philosophy is useful for many aspects of life and society is sometimes rejected According to one such view philosophy is mainly done for its own sake and does not make significant contributions to existing practices or external goals 297 298 299 See alsoMain article Outline of philosophy nbsp Philosophy portalList of important publications in philosophy Lists of philosophers List of philosophy awards List of philosophy journals List of unsolved problems in philosophy List of years in philosophyReferencesNotes These dates are traditionally cited but some recent scholars suggest that his life ran from 1077 to 1157 110 The truth conditions of a sentence are the circumstances or states of affairs under which the sentence would be true 205 Citations a b c d Harper 2022 Philosophy Simpson 2002 Philosophy Jacobs 2022 p 23 Bottin 1993 p 151 Jaroszynski 2018 p 12 OED staff 2022 Philosophy n a b Tuomela 1985 p 1 a b Shivendra 2006 pp 15 16 Kenny 2009 p 202 Grant 2007 p 163 a b Cotterell 2017 p 458 a b Maddy 2022 p 24 Grant 2007 p 318 a b c d e f Sandkuhler 2010a Philosophiebegriffe Grayling 2019 Philosophy in the Nineteenth CenturySandkuhler 2010aHarper 2022 PhilosophyAHD staff 2022Baggini amp Krauss 2012 Audi 2006 lead section ConclusionHonderich 2005 p 702 PhilosophySandkuhler 2010a PhilosophiebegriffeEB staff 2023aOUP staff 2020Adler 2000 Perry Bratman amp Fischer 2010 p 4 Guyer 2014 pp 7 8 Kant 1998 p A805 B833 Kant 1992 p 9 25 Bett 2011 p 219 Plato 1997 pp 21b4 22e Bett 2011 p 230 Plato 1997 pp 38a5 6 Kenny 2004 p xv Russell 1912 p 91 Blackwell 2013 p 148 Pojman amp Vaughn 2009 p 2 Honderich 2005 p 702 Philosophy Overgaard Gilbert amp Burwood 2013 pp vii 17 Overgaard Gilbert amp Burwood 2013 pp 20 44 What is philosophy a b Mittelstrass 2005 Philosophie Quine 2008 pp 293 294 41 A Letter to Mr Ostermann Joll Overgaard Gilbert amp Burwood 2013 pp 20 21 25 35 39 What is philosophy a b Overgaard Gilbert amp Burwood 2013 pp 20 22 What is philosophy Rescher 2013 pp 1 3 1 The Nature of Philosophy a b Nuttall 2013 pp 12 13 1 The Nature of Philosophy Overgaard Gilbert amp Burwood 2013 pp 26 27 What is philosophy Hylton amp Kemp 2020 Overgaard Gilbert amp Burwood 2013 pp 25 27 What is philosophy Chalmers 2015 pp 3 4 Dellsen Lawler amp Norton 2021 pp 814 815 Overgaard Gilbert amp Burwood 2013 pp 27 30 What is philosophy Hacker 2013 p 6 Overgaard Gilbert amp Burwood 2013 pp 34 36 What is philosophy Rescher 2013 pp 1 2 1 The Nature of Philosophy Overgaard Gilbert amp Burwood 2013 pp 20 21 29 What is philosophy a b Shaffer 2015 pp 555 556 Joll 4 a iGelan 2020 p 98 Husserl s Idea of Rigorous Science and Its Relevance for the Human and Social SciencesIngarden 1975 pp 8 11 The Concept of Philosophy as Rigorous ScienceTieszen 2005 p 100 Smith 2 b Joll lead section 2c Ordinary Language Philosophy and the Later Wittgenstein Biletzki amp Matar 2021 Banicki 2014 p 7 Hadot 1995 11 Philosophy as a Way of Life Grimm amp Cohoe 2021 pp 236 237 Overgaard Gilbert amp Burwood 2013 pp 36 37 43 What is philosophy Nuttall 2013 p 12 1 The Nature of Philosophy Copleston 2003 pp 4 6 Santinello amp Piaia 2010 pp 487 488 Verene 2008 pp 6 8 Laerke Smith amp Schliesser 2013 pp 115 118Verene 2008 pp 6 8Frede 2022 p xBeaney 2013 p 60 Scharfstein 1998 pp 1 4Perrett 2016 Is there Indian philosophy Smart 2008 pp 1 3Rescher 2014 p 173Parkinson 2005 pp 1 2 Smart 2008 pp v 1 12Flavel amp Robbiano 2023 p 279Solomon amp Higgins 2003 pp xv xviGrayling 2019 Contents Preface Blackson 2011 Introduction Graham 2023 lead section 1 Presocratic Thought Duignan 2010 pp 9 11 Graham 2023 lead section 2 Socrates 3 Plato 4 Aristotle Grayling 2019 Socrates Plato Aristotle Long 1986 p 1 Blackson 2011 Chapter 10 Graham 2023 6 Post Hellenistic Thought Duignan 2010 p 9Lagerlund 2020 p vMarenbon 2023 lead sectionMacDonald amp Kretzmann 1996 lead section Grayling 2019 Part II Medieval and Renaissance Philosophy Adamson 2019 pp 3 4 Parkinson 2005 pp 1 3Adamson 2022 pp 155 157Grayling 2019 Philosophy in the RenaissanceChambre et al 2023 Renaissance philosophy Grayling 2019 The Rise of Modern Thought The Eighteenth century Enlightenment Anstey amp Vanzo 2023 pp 236 237 Grayling 2019 The Eighteenth Century Enlightenment Kenny 2006 pp 90 92 Grayling 2019 Philosophy in the Nineteenth Century a b Grayling 2019 Philosophy in the Twentieth Century Zack 2009 p 255 Waithe 1995 pp xix xxiii Adamson amp Taylor 2004 p 1EB staff 2020Grayling 2019 Arabic Persian PhilosophyAdamson 2016 pp 5 6 Esposito 2003 p 246Nasr amp Leaman 2013 11 Al KindiNasr 2006 pp 109 110Adamson 2020 lead section Gutas 2016 Grayling 2019 Ibn Sina Avicenna Adamson 2016 pp 140 146Dehsen 2013 p 75Griffel 2020 lead section 3 Al Ghazali s Refutations of falsafa and Isma ilism 4 The Place of Falsafa in Islam Grayling 2019 Ibn Rushd Averroes Kaminski 2017 p 32 Rizvi 2021 lead section 3 Metaphysics 4 Noetics Epistemology and Psychology Chamankhah 2019 p 73 Moaddel 2005 pp 1 2 Masud 2009 pp 237 238 Safi 2005 lead section Smart 2008 p 3 Grayling 2019 Indian Philosophy Perrett 2016 Indian philosophy a brief historical overview The ancient period of Indian philosophyGrayling 2019 Indian PhilosophyPooley amp Rothenbuhler 2016 p 1468Andrea amp Overfield 2015 pp 71 a b c Perrett 2016 The ancient period of Indian philosophy a b Ruether 2004 p 57 Juergensmeyer amp Roof 2012 pp 609 610 Hindson amp Caner 2008 p 289 Perrett 2016 Indian philosophy a brief historical overview The classical period of Indian philosophy The medieval period of Indian philosophy Glenney amp Silva 2019 p 77 Adamson amp Ganeri 2020 pp 101 102 Perrett 2016 The medieval period of Indian philosophy Dalal 2021 lead section 2 Metaphysics Menon lead section Ranganathan 1 Ramanuja s Life and Works Ranganathan lead section 2c Substantive Theses Ranganathan 4 Ramanuja s SoteriologyKulke amp Rothermund 1998 p 139Seshadri 1996 pp 297Jha 2022 p 217 Perrett 2016 Indian philosophy a brief historical overview The modern period of Indian philosophy EB staff 2023 Banhatti 1995 pp 151 154Bilimoria 2018 pp 529 531Rambachan 1994 pp 91 92 Smart 2008 pp 3 70 71EB staff 2017 lead section Periods of development of Chinese philosophyLittlejohn 2023Grayling 2019 Chinese PhilosophyMou 2009 pp 43 45Wei Ming lead section Perkins 2013 pp 486 487 Ma 2015 p xiv EB staff 2017 lead section Periods of development of Chinese philosophySmart 2008 pp 70 76Littlejohn 2023 1b Confucius 551 479 B C E of the AnalectsBoyd amp Timpe 2021 pp 64 66Marshev 2021 pp 100 101 EB staff 2017 lead section Periods of development of Chinese philosophySlingerland 2007 pp 77 78Grayling 2019 Chinese Philosophy a b Grayling 2019 Chinese Philosophy Littlejohn 2023 1c Mozi c 470 391 B C E and Mohism Defoort amp Standaert 2013 p 35 Kim 2019 p 161 Littlejohn 2023 2a Syncretic Philosophies in the Qin and Han Periods a b Littlejohn 2023 Early Buddhism in China a b c EB staff 2017 Periods of development of Chinese philosophy Littlejohn 2023 4b Neo Confucianism The Original Way of Confucius for a New Era Littlejohn 2023 5 The Chinese and Western Encounter in PhilosophyMou 2009 pp 473 480 512 513Qi 2014 pp 99 100 Van Norden 2022 6 Influence Redse 2015 pp 21 22 Makeham 2003 pp 94 95 Brenner 1993 p 16 Palmquist 2010 p 800 Jenicek 2018 p 31 Schroeder 2021 Value Theory Kenny 2018 p 20 Lazerowitz amp Ambrose 2012 pp 9 Martinich amp Stroll 2023 lead section The nature of epistemologySteup amp Neta 2020 lead sectionTruncellito lead sectionGreco 2021 Article Summary Mulvaney 2009 p ix Steup amp Neta 2020 lead section 2 What is Knowledge Truncellito lead section 1 Kinds of Knowledge Colman 2009a declarative knowledge Martinich amp Stroll 2023 The nature of knowledge Truncellito lead section 2 The Nature of Propositional Knowledge Steup amp Neta 2020 5 Sources of Knowledge and Justification Truncellito lead section 4a Sources of Knowledge Hetherington 3c Knowing Purely by Thinking Blackburn 2008 Empiricism Blackburn 2008 Rationalism Steup amp Neta 2020 4 The Structure of Knowledge and Justification Truncellito 3 The Nature of Justification Olsson 2021 lead section 1 Coherentism Versus Foundationalism Steup amp Neta 2020 6 The Limits of Cognitive Success Truncellito 4 The Extent of Human Knowledge Johnstone 1991 p 52 Mill 1863 p 51 Audi 2006 pp 325 326 Nagel 2006 pp 379 380 Lambert 2023 p 26 Mulvaney 2009 pp vii xi Dittmer 1 Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and MetaethicsBarsky 2009 p 3Du 2012 p 784Jeanes 2019 p 66Nagel 2006 pp 379 380 390 391 a b Dittmer 1 Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics a b Nagel 2006 pp 382 386 388 Hursthouse amp Pettigrove 2022 1 2 Practical Wisdom Hintikka 2019 Haack 1978 Philosophy of logics Blair amp Johnson 2000 pp 94 96Craig 1996 Formal and informal logicHonderich 2005 p 532 logic informalJohnson 1999 pp 265 267Groarke 2021 Velleman 2006 pp 8 103 Johnson Laird 2009 pp 8 10 Dowden 2020 pp 334 336 432 Dowden 2020 pp 432 470 Anshakov amp Gergely 2010 p 128 Vickers 2022 a b Nunes 2011 pp 2066 2069 Logical Reasoning and Learning Dowden 2020 pp 432 449 470 Douven 2022 Koslowski 2017 pp 366 368 Abductive reasoning and explanation Hansen 2020Dowden 2023Dowden 2020 p 290Vleet 2011 p ix a b van Inwagen Sullivan amp Bernstein 2023 a b Craig 1998 a b c Audi 2006 Metaphysics van Inwagen Sullivan amp Bernstein 2023 lead section Mulvaney 2009 pp ix x Gracia 1999 p 149 Haaparanta amp Koskinen 2012 p 454Fiet 2022 p 133Audi 2006 Metaphysicsvan Inwagen Sullivan amp Bernstein 2023 1 The Word Metaphysics and the Concept of Metaphysics Coughlin 2012 p 15 Robertson Ishii amp Atkins 2023 lead section Espin amp Nickoloff 2007 p 8 Honderich 2005 p 683 particulars and non particulars Sandkuhler 2010b Ontologie 4 2 1 Einzeldinge und Universalien Kim Sosa amp Rosenkrantz 2009 pp 22 23 Sider Hawthorne amp Zimmerman 2013 p 258 Stambaugh 1987 Philosophy An OverviewBailey et al 2010 p 16Ramos 2004 p 4Shand 2004 pp 9 10 Oglesby et al 2021 p 242Gell 2020 p 174Smith Brown amp Duncan 2019 p 174McQuillan 2015 pp 122 123 Nanay 2019 p 4 a b c McQuillan 2015 pp 122 123 Kelly 1998 p ix Riedel 1999 Sartwell 2022 lead section 1 Objectivity and Subjectivity Smith Brown amp Duncan 2019 p 174 Audi 2006 Philosophy of Language Russell amp Fara 2013 pp ii 1 2 Blackburn 2022 lead section Birner 2012 p 33 Wolf 2023 1 a b 3 4 Ifantidou 2014 p 12 Lowe 2000 pp 1 2 Crumley 2006 pp 2 3 Audi 2006 Philosophy of Mind Heidemann 2014 p 140 Heil 2013 pp 1 3 9 12 13Weir 2023 pp 10 11Shiraev 2010 pp 83 84Polger lead section Heil 2013 pp 1 3 12 13 Weisberg lead section 1 Stating the Problem Taliaferro 2023 lead section 5 2Burns 2017 pp i 1 3Audi 2006 Philosophy of ReligionMeister lead section Taliaferro 2023 1 Taliaferro 2023 5 1 1 Taliaferro 2023 6 Taliaferro 2023 Introduction Audi 2006 Philosophy of Religion Bayne 2018 pp 1 2 Louth amp Thielicke 2014 Audi 2006 Philosophy of ScienceKitcher 2023Losee 2001 pp 1 3Wei 2020 p 127Newton Smith 2000 pp 2 3 Newton Smith 2000 pp 7 Newton Smith 2000 pp 5 Papineau 2005 pp 855 856 Papineau 2005 p 852 Audi 2006 Philosophy of Science Molefe amp Allsobrook 2021 pp 8 9Moseley lead sectionDuignan 2012 pp 5 6Bowle amp Arneson 2023 lead sectionMcQueen 2010 p 162 a b c Molefe amp Allsobrook 2021 pp 8 9 Howard 2010 p 4 Wolff 2006 pp 1 2 Moseley lead section Audi 2006 Subfields of Ethics Moseley lead section 3 Political Schools of Thought McQueen 2010 p 162 McKeon 2002 lead section Summation Overgaard amp D Oro 2017 pp 1 4 5 Introduction a b c Sandkuhler 2010 Methode Methodologie Daly 2010 p 9 Introduction Williamson 2020 a b Ichikawa 2011 a b Overgaard amp D Oro 2017 pp 1 3 5 Introduction Nado 2017 pp 447 449 461 462 Dever 2016 3 6 Daly 2010 pp 9 11 Introduction Overgaard amp D Oro 2017 pp 3 Introduction Dever 2016 pp 3 4 What is Philosophical Methodology Daly 2015 pp 1 2 5 Introduction and Historical Overview Williamson 2020Singer 1974 pp 420 421Venturinha 2013 p 76Walsh Teo amp Baydala 2014 p 68 Eder Lawler amp van Riel 2020 pp 915 Audi 2006 Philosophical Methods Reynolds 2010 pp 231 232 EB staff 2007 Parker Ryan lead section 1 Introduction EB staff 2022 Woollard amp Howard Snyder 2022 3 The Trolley Problem and the Doing Allowing Distinction Rini 8 Moral Cognition and Moral Epistemology Daly 2015 pp 11 12 Introduction and Historical Overview Duignan 2009 Brown amp Fehige 2019 lead section Goffi amp Roux 2011 pp 165 168 169 Eder Lawler amp van Riel 2020 pp 915 916 Daly 2015 pp 12 13 Introduction and Historical Overview Daniels 2020 lead section 1 The Method of Reflective Equilibrium Little 1984 pp 373 375 McDermid lead section Bawden 1904 pp 421 422 McDermid lead section 2a A Method and A Maxim Legg amp Hookway 2021 lead section 2 The Pragmatic Maxim Peirce Cogan lead section 5 The Structure Nature and Performance of the Phenomenological ReductionSandkuhler 2010 Methode MethodologieSmith 2018 lead section 1 What is Phenomenology Smith lead section 2 Phenomenological Method a b Audi 2006 pp 332 337 Dittmer lead section 3 Bioethics a b Lippert Rasmussen Brownlee amp Coady 2017 pp 4 5 34 35 Crary 2013 pp 321 322 Dittmer lead section 2 Business Ethics 5 Professional Ethics Lippert Rasmussen Brownlee amp Coady 2017 pp 51 53 Bird 2010 pp 5 6 8 9 Rosenberg 2013 pp 129 155 Clark 2022 lead section 1 Reason Rationality Forrest 2021 lead section Dougherty 2014 pp 97 98 Kakas amp Sadri 2003 p 588 Li 2014 pp ix x Nievergelt 2015 pp v vi Audi 2006 pp 332 37Zack 2009 p 244Dittmer lead section table of contentsFrankena Raybeck amp Burbules 2002 Definition Cropper 1997 Bristow 2023 lead section 2 1 Political Theory Stockdale 2020 p 29 Wolff amp Leopold 2021 9 Marx s Legacy Shaw 2019 p 124 United Nations Bondurant 1988 pp 23 24 McAfee 2018 lead section 2 1 Feminist Beliefs and Feminist Movements Honderich 2005 pp 294 296 Kittay amp Alcoff 2008 pp 148 151 Jones amp Bos 2007 p 56 Rickles 2020 p 9 Lockie 2015 pp 24 28 Bibliography Adamson Peter Ganeri Jonardon 2020 Classical Indian Philosophy A History of Philosophy Without Any Gaps Volume 5 Oxford University Press pp 101 109 ISBN 978 0 19 885176 9 Archived from the original on 29 June 2023 Retrieved 30 June 2023 Adamson Peter Taylor Richard C 9 December 2004 The Cambridge Companion to Arabic Philosophy Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 107 49469 5 Archived from the original on 7 June 2023 Retrieved 7 June 2023 Adamson Peter 2020 Al Kindi The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University Archived from the original on 21 May 2019 Retrieved 7 June 2023 Adamson Peter 10 February 2022 Byzantine and Renaissance Philosophy A History of Philosophy Without Any Gaps Volume 6 Vol 6 Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 266992 6 Archived from the original on 25 May 2023 Retrieved 25 May 2023 Adamson Peter September 2019 Medieval Philosophy A History of Philosophy Without Any Gaps Vol 4 Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 884240 8 Archived from the original on 25 May 2023 Retrieved 25 May 2023 Adamson Peter 2016 Philosophy in the Islamic World A History of Philosophy Without Any Gaps Vol 3 Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 957749 1 Archived from the original on 25 May 2023 Retrieved 25 May 2023 Adler Mortimer J 2000 How to Think About the Great Ideas From the Great Books of Western Civilization Open Court ISBN 978 0 8126 9412 3 AHD staff 2022 The American Heritage Dictionary Entry Philosophy www ahdictionary com HarperCollins Archived from the original on 3 September 2023 Retrieved 7 July 2023 Andrea Alfred J Overfield James H 1 January 2015 The Human Record Sources of Global History Volume I To 1500 Cengage Learning ISBN 978 1 305 53746 0 Archived from the original on 22 June 2023 Retrieved 10 June 2023 Anshakov Oleg M Gergely Tamas 11 March 2010 Cognitive Reasoning A Formal Approach Springer Science amp Business Media p 128 ISBN 978 3 540 68875 4 Archived from the original on 10 February 2023 Retrieved 17 July 2023 Anstey Peter R Vanzo Alberto 31 January 2023 Experimental Philosophy and the Origins of Empiricism Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 009 03467 8 Archived from the original on 3 June 2023 Retrieved 2 June 2023 Audi Robert 2006 Philosophy In Borchert Donald M ed Encyclopedia of Philosophy 7 Oakeshott Presupposition 2 ed Thomson Gale Macmillan Reference pp 332 337 ISBN 978 0 02 865787 5 Archived from the original on 14 February 2022 Baggini Julian Krauss Lawrence 8 September 2012 Philosophy v Science Which Can Answer the Big Questions of Life the Guardian Archived from the original on 14 February 2022 Retrieved 11 February 2022 Bailey Richard Barrow Robin Carr David McCarthy Christine 23 March 2010 The SAGE Handbook of Philosophy of Education SAGE ISBN 978 1 4462 0697 3 Archived from the original on 3 September 2023 Retrieved 21 August 2023 Banhatti G S 1995 Life and Philosophy of Swami Vivekananda Atlantic Publishers amp Dist ISBN 978 81 7156 291 6 Banicki Konrad 2014 Philosophy As Therapy Towards a Conceptual Model Philosophical Papers 43 1 7 31 doi 10 1080 05568641 2014 901692 S2CID 144901869 Archived from the original on 13 February 2022 Retrieved 15 February 2022 Barsky Allan E 14 October 2009 Ethics and Values in Social Work An Integrated Approach for a Comprehensive Curriculum Oxford University Press p 3 ISBN 978 0 19 971758 3 Archived from the original on 3 September 2023 Retrieved 6 July 2023 Bawden H Heath 1904 What Is Pragmatism The Journal of Philosophy Psychology and Scientific Methods 1 16 421 427 doi 10 2307 2011902 ISSN 0160 9335 JSTOR 2011902 Archived from the original on 7 March 2022 Retrieved 18 April 2022 Bayne Tim 2018 The Philosophy of Religion A Very Short Introduction Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 875496 1 Beaney Michael 20 June 2013 The Oxford Handbook of The History of Analytic Philosophy OUP Oxford ISBN 978 0 19 166266 9 Archived from the original on 25 May 2023 Retrieved 25 May 2023 Bett Richard 2011 Socratic Ignorance In Morrison Donald R ed The Cambridge Companion to Socrates Cambridge University Press pp 215 36 doi 10 1017 CCOL9780521833424 010 ISBN 978 0 521 83342 4 Biletzki Anat Matar Anat 2021 Ludwig Wittgenstein 3 7 The Nature of Philosophy The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University Archived from the original on 8 September 2018 Retrieved 11 February 2022 Bilimoria Puruṣottama 2018 History of Indian Philosophy Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 30976 9 Bird Alexander August 2010 The Epistemology of Science a Bird s eye View Synthese 175 S1 5 16 doi 10 1007 s11229 010 9740 4 S2CID 15228491 Birner Betty J 21 June 2012 Introduction to Pragmatics John Wiley amp Sons p 33 ISBN 978 1 118 34830 7 Archived from the original on 3 September 2023 Retrieved 21 August 2023 Blackburn Simon W 2022 Philosophy of Language www britannica com Archived from the original on 13 May 2021 Retrieved 18 July 2023 Blackburn Simon 2008 The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy 2 ed OUP ISBN 978 0 19 954143 0 Blackson Thomas A 6 January 2011 Ancient Greek Philosophy From the Presocratics to the Hellenistic Philosophers John Wiley amp Sons ISBN 978 1 4443 9608 9 Archived from the original on 28 May 2023 Retrieved 28 May 2023 Blackwell Kenneth 3 January 2013 The Spinozistic Ethics of Bertrand Russell Routledge p 148 ISBN 978 1 135 10711 6 Blair J Anthony Johnson Ralph H 2000 Informal Logic An Overview Informal Logic 20 2 93 107 doi 10 22329 il v20i2 2262 Archived from the original on 9 December 2021 Retrieved 29 December 2021 Bondurant Joan Valerie 1988 Conquest of Violence The Gandhian Philosophy of Conflict New rev ed Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 02281 9 Bottin Francesco 1993 Models of the History of Philosophy From Its Origins in the Renaissance to the Historia Philosophica Volume I From Its Origins in the Renaissance to the Historia Philosophica Springer Science amp Business Media p 151 ISBN 978 0 7923 2200 9 Archived from the original on 3 September 2023 Retrieved 7 July 2023 Bowle John Edward Arneson Richard J 17 July 2023 Political Philosophy www britannica com Archived from the original on 15 April 2021 Retrieved 21 July 2023 Boyd Craig A Timpe Kevin 25 March 2021 The Virtues A Very Short Introduction Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 258407 6 Archived from the original on 22 June 2023 Retrieved 13 June 2023 Brenner William H 30 September 1993 Logic and Philosophy An Integrated Introduction University of Notre Dame Press p 16 ISBN 978 0 268 15898 9 Archived from the original on 30 June 2023 Retrieved 5 July 2023 Bristow William 2023 Enlightenment The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University Retrieved 4 September 2023 Brown James Robert Fehige Yiftach 2019 Thought Experiments The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University Archived from the original on 21 November 2017 Retrieved 29 October 2021 Burns Elizabeth 2 October 2017 What Is This Thing Called Philosophy of Religion Routledge pp i 1 3 ISBN 978 1 317 59546 5 Archived from the original on 21 July 2023 Retrieved 21 July 2023 Chalmers David J 2015 Why Isn t There More Progress in Philosophy Philosophy 90 1 3 31 doi 10 1017 s0031819114000436 hdl 1885 57201 S2CID 170974260 Archived from the original on 13 February 2022 Retrieved 27 February 2022 Chamankhah Leila 3 September 2019 The Conceptualization of Guardianship in Iranian Intellectual History 1800 1989 Reading Ibn ʿArabi s Theory of Wilaya in the Shiʿa World Springer Nature ISBN 978 3 030 22692 3 Archived from the original on 22 June 2023 Retrieved 9 June 2023 Chambre Henri Maurer Armand Stroll Avrum McLellan David T Levi Albert William Wolin Richard Fritz Kurt von 2023 Western Philosophy www britannica com Archived from the original on 13 May 2021 Retrieved 30 May 2023 Clark Kelly James 2022 Religious Epistemology Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Archived from the original on 21 September 2022 Retrieved 21 September 2022 Cogan John Phenomenological Reduction The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Archived from the original on 4 April 2020 Retrieved 27 February 2022 Colman Andrew M 1 January 2009a declarative knowledge A Dictionary of Psychology Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 953406 7 Archived from the original on 30 March 2023 Retrieved 16 April 2023 Copleston Frederick 1 June 2003 History of Philosophy Volume 1 Greece and Rome Continuum ISBN 978 0 8264 6895 6 Archived from the original on 25 May 2023 Retrieved 25 May 2023 Cotterell Brian 29 August 2017 Physics and Culture World Scientific p 458 ISBN 978 1 78634 378 9 Archived from the original on 25 August 2023 Retrieved 25 August 2023 Coughlin John J 16 March 2012 Law Person and Community Philosophical Theological and Comparative Perspectives on Canon Law Oxford University Press p 15 ISBN 978 0 19 987718 8 Archived from the original on 16 July 2023 Retrieved 16 July 2023 Craig Edward 1996 Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 07310 3 Archived from the original on 16 January 2021 Retrieved 29 December 2021 Craig Edward 1998 Metaphysics Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy www rep routledge com Archived from the original on 1 August 2023 Retrieved 15 July 2023 Crary Alice 2013 13 Eating and Experimenting on Animals In Petrus Klaus Wild Markus eds Animal Minds amp Animal Ethics transcript Verlag doi 10 1515 transcript 9783839424629 321 inactive 1 August 2023 ISBN 978 3 8394 2462 9 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint DOI inactive as of August 2023 link Cropper Carol Marie 26 December 1997 Philosophers Find the Degree Pays Off in Life and in Work The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Archived from the original on 28 January 2017 Retrieved 2 May 2016 Crumley Jack S 17 April 2006 A Brief Introduction to the Philosophy of Mind Rowman amp Littlefield Publishers pp 2 3 ISBN 978 0 7425 7212 6 Archived from the original on 19 July 2023 Retrieved 19 July 2023 Dalal Neil 2021 Saṅkara The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University Archived from the original on 27 January 2022 Retrieved 19 June 2023 Daly Chris 2015 Introduction and Historical Overview The Palgrave Handbook of Philosophical Methods Palgrave Macmillan UK pp 1 30 doi 10 1057 9781137344557 1 ISBN 978 1 137 34455 7 Archived from the original on 1 May 2022 Retrieved 18 April 2022 Daly Christopher 20 July 2010 Introduction An Introduction to Philosophical Methods Broadview Press ISBN 978 1 55111 934 2 Archived from the original on 30 July 2022 Retrieved 7 June 2022 Daniels Norman 2020 Reflective Equilibrium The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University Archived from the original on 22 February 2022 Retrieved 28 February 2022 Defoort Carine Standaert Nicolas 2013 The Mozi as an Evolving Text Different Voices in Early Chinese Thought BRILL ISBN 978 90 04 23434 5 Archived from the original on 22 June 2023 Retrieved 21 June 2023 Dehsen Christian von 13 September 2013 Philosophers and Religious Leaders Routledge ISBN 978 1 135 95102 3 Archived from the original on 28 May 2023 Retrieved 28 May 2023 Dellsen Finnur Lawler Insa Norton James 29 June 2021 Thinking about Progress From Science to Philosophy Nous 56 4 814 840 doi 10 1111 nous 12383 S2CID 235967433 Dever Josh 19 May 2016 What is Philosophical Methodology In Cappelen Herman Gendler Tamar Szabo Hawthorne John eds The Oxford Handbook of Philosophical Methodology pp 3 24 doi 10 1093 oxfordhb 9780199668779 013 34 ISBN 978 0 19 966877 9 Archived from the original on 5 December 2020 Retrieved 18 April 2022 Dittmer Joel Ethics Applied Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Archived from the original on 1 June 2023 Retrieved 2 July 2023 Dougherty Trent 12 June 2014 Faith Trust and Testimony Religious Faith and Intellectual Virtue 97 123 doi 10 1093 acprof oso 9780199672158 003 0005 ISBN 978 0 19 967215 8 Douven Igor 2022 Abduction and Explanatory Reasoning Oxford Bibliographies Oxford University Press Archived from the original on 10 February 2023 Retrieved 18 January 2023 Dowden Bradley 2023 Fallacies Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Archived from the original on 3 June 2019 Retrieved 22 January 2023 Dowden Bradley H 2020 Logical Reasoning PDF Archived PDF from the original on 2 June 2023 Retrieved 17 July 2023 for an earlier version see Dowden Bradley Harris 1993 Logical Reasoning Wadsworth Publishing Company ISBN 978 0 534 17688 4 Archived from the original on 10 February 2023 Retrieved 17 July 2023 Du Wenjiang 3 December 2012 Informatics and Management Science II Springer Science amp Business Media p 784 ISBN 978 1 4471 4811 1 Archived from the original on 7 July 2023 Retrieved 6 July 2023 Duignan Brian 2009 Intuitionism Ethics Encyclopaedia Britannica Archived from the original on 7 March 2022 Retrieved 28 February 2022 Duignan Brian 2010 Ancient Philosophy From 600 BCE to 500 CE The Rosen Publishing Group Inc ISBN 978 1 61530 141 6 Archived from the original on 28 May 2023 Retrieved 30 June 2023 Duignan Brian ed 1 June 2012 The Science and Philosophy of Politics Britannica Educational Publishing pp 5 6 ISBN 978 1 61530 748 7 Archived from the original on 21 July 2023 Retrieved 21 July 2023 EB staff 2017 Chinese Philosophy www britannica com Archived from the original on 2 May 2015 Retrieved 12 June 2023 EB staff 2023 History and Periods of Indian Philosophy www britannica com Archived from the original on 11 June 2023 Retrieved 10 June 2023 EB staff 2020 Islamic Philosophy www britannica com Archived from the original on 7 June 2023 Retrieved 7 June 2023 EB staff 2023a Philosophy Encyclopaedia Britannica Archived from the original on 23 February 2021 Retrieved 29 May 2022 EB staff 2007 Philosophy of Common Sense Encyclopaedia Britannica Archived from the original on 7 March 2022 Retrieved 27 February 2022 EB staff 2022 Ordinary Language Analysis Encyclopaedia Britannica Archived from the original on 7 March 2022 Retrieved 28 February 2022 Eder Anna Maria A Lawler Insa van Riel Raphael 1 March 2020 Philosophical Methods Under Scrutiny Introduction to the Special Issue Philosophical Methods Synthese 197 3 915 923 doi 10 1007 s11229 018 02051 2 ISSN 1573 0964 S2CID 54631297 Espin Orlando O Nickoloff James B 2007 An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies Liturgical Press p 8 ISBN 978 0 8146 5856 7 Archived from the original on 16 July 2023 Retrieved 16 July 2023 Esposito John L ed 2003 The Oxford Dictionary of Islam Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 512559 7 Fiet James O 8 March 2022 The Theoretical World of Entrepreneurship Edward Elgar Publishing p 133 ISBN 978 1 80037 147 7 Archived from the original on 16 July 2023 Retrieved 16 July 2023 Flavel Sarah Robbiano Chiara 12 January 2023 Key Concepts in World Philosophies A Toolkit for Philosophers Bloomsbury Publishing p 279 ISBN 978 1 350 16814 5 Archived from the original on 19 August 2023 Retrieved 19 August 2023 Forrest Peter 2021 The Epistemology of Religion The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University Archived from the original on 10 July 2022 Retrieved 21 September 2022 Frankena William K Raybeck Nathan Burbules Nicholas 2002 Philosophy of Education In Guthrie James W ed Encyclopedia of Education 2nd ed Macmillan Reference ISBN 978 0 02 865594 9 Frede Michael 2022 The Historiography of Philosophy Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 884072 5 Archived from the original on 24 May 2023 Retrieved 24 May 2023 Gelan Victor Eugen 2020 Husserl s Idea of Rigorous Science and its Relevance for the Human and Social Sciences The Subject s of Phenomenology Contributions to Phenomenology Vol 108 Springer International Publishing pp 97 105 doi 10 1007 978 3 030 29357 4 6 ISBN 978 3 030 29357 4 S2CID 213082313 Archived from the original on 2 March 2022 Retrieved 27 February 2022 Gell Alfred 20 August 2020 The Art of Anthropology Essays and Diagrams Routledge p 174 ISBN 978 1 000 32446 4 Archived from the original on 21 July 2023 Retrieved 21 July 2023 Glenney Brian Silva Jose Filipe 21 February 2019 The Senses and the History of Philosophy Routledge ISBN 978 1 351 73106 5 Archived from the original on 22 June 2023 Retrieved 16 June 2023 Goffi Jean Yves Roux Sophie 2011 On the Very Idea of a Thought Experiment Thought Experiments in Methodological and Historical Contexts Brill 165 191 doi 10 1163 ej 9789004201767 i 233 35 ISBN 978 90 04 20177 4 S2CID 260640180 Archived from the original on 30 October 2021 Retrieved 18 April 2022 Gracia Jorge J E 29 July 1999 Metaphysics and Its Task The Search for the Categorial Foundation of Knowledge State University of New York Press p 149 ISBN 978 0 7914 4214 2 Archived from the original on 3 September 2023 Retrieved 16 July 2023 Graham Jacob N 2023 Ancient Greek Philosophy Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Archived from the original on 25 August 2022 Retrieved 25 May 2023 Grant Edward 29 January 2007 A History of Natural Philosophy From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century Cambridge University Press p 318 ISBN 978 0 521 86931 7 Archived from the original on 7 July 2023 Retrieved 7 July 2023 Grayling A C 20 June 2019 The History of Philosophy Penguin UK ISBN 978 0 241 98086 6 Archived from the original on 3 July 2023 Retrieved 30 June 2023 Greco John 2021 Epistemology Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy www rep routledge com Routledge Archived from the original on 14 July 2023 Retrieved 14 July 2023 Griffel Frank 2020 Al Ghazali The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University Archived from the original on 28 May 2023 Retrieved 19 June 2023 Grimm Stephen R Cohoe Caleb 2021 What Is Philosophy as a Way of Life Why Philosophy as a Way of Life European Journal of Philosophy 29 1 236 251 doi 10 1111 ejop 12562 ISSN 1468 0378 S2CID 225504495 Archived from the original on 13 February 2022 Retrieved 15 February 2022 Groarke Leo 2021 Informal Logic The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University Archived from the original on 12 January 2022 Retrieved 31 December 2021 Gutas Dimitri 2016 Ibn Sina Avicenna The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University Archived from the original on 27 April 2023 Retrieved 7 June 2023 Guyer Paul 5 March 2014 Kant Routledge pp 7 8 ISBN 978 1 135 01563 3 Archived from the original on 9 July 2023 Retrieved 9 July 2023 Haack Susan 1978 1 Philosophy of logics Philosophy of Logics London and New York Cambridge University Press pp 1 10 ISBN 978 0 521 29329 7 Archived from the original on 7 December 2021 Retrieved 29 December 2021 Haaparanta Leila Koskinen Heikki J 18 July 2012 Categories of Being Essays on Metaphysics and Logic Oxford University Press USA p 454 ISBN 978 0 19 989057 6 Archived from the original on 16 July 2023 Retrieved 16 July 2023 Hacker P M S November 2013 Wittgenstein Comparisons and Context OUP Oxford p 6 ISBN 978 0 19 967482 4 Archived from the original on 10 July 2023 Retrieved 10 July 2023 Hadot Pierre 1995 11 Philosophy as a Way of Life Philosophy as a Way of Life Spiritual Exercises From Socrates to Foucault Blackwell ISBN 978 0 631 18033 3 Archived from the original on 14 February 2022 Retrieved 15 February 2022 Hansen Hans 2020 Fallacies The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University Archived from the original on 29 March 2021 Retrieved 18 March 2021 Harper Douglas R 2022 Philosophy n Online Etymology Dictionary Archived from the original on 13 September 2017 Retrieved 21 March 2022 Heidemann Dietmar H 11 June 2014 Kant and Non conceptual Content Routledge p 140 ISBN 978 1 317 98155 8 Archived from the original on 3 September 2023 Retrieved 19 July 2023 Heil John Fergusson 2013 Philosophy of Mind A Contemporary Introduction 3rd ed Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 89175 2 Hetherington Stephen Knowledge Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3c Knowing Purely by Thinking Archived from the original on 2 June 2022 Retrieved 22 July 2023 Hindson Ed Caner Ergun 1 May 2008 The Popular Encyclopedia of Apologetics Surveying the Evidence for the Truth of Christianity Harvest House Publishers ISBN 978 0 7369 3635 4 Archived from the original on 22 June 2023 Retrieved 10 June 2023 Hintikka Jaakko J 2019 Philosophy of Logic Encyclopaedia Britannica Archived from the original on 28 April 2015 Retrieved 21 November 2021 Honderich Ted ed 2005 The Oxford Companion to Philosophy Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 926479 7 Archived from the original on 29 January 2021 Retrieved 2 January 2022 Howard Dick 2010 The Primacy of the Political A History of Political Thought From the Greeks to the French and American Revolutions Columbia University Press ISBN 978 0 231 13595 5 Hursthouse Rosalind Pettigrove Glen 2022 Virtue Ethics The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University Archived from the original on 25 June 2023 Retrieved 20 August 2023 Hylton Peter Kemp Gary 2020 Willard Van Orman Quine 3 The Analytic Synthetic Distinction and the Argument Against Logical Empiricism The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University Archived from the original on 25 February 2021 Retrieved 27 February 2022 Ichikawa Jonathan 3 April 2011 Chris Daly An Introduction to Philosophical Methods Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews Archived from the original on 7 March 2022 Retrieved 22 February 2022 Ifantidou Elly 12 June 2014 Pragmatic Competence and Relevance John Benjamins Publishing Company p 12 ISBN 978 90 272 7037 5 Archived from the original on 3 September 2023 Retrieved 21 August 2023 Ingarden Roman 1975 The Concept of Philosophy as Rigorous Science On the Motives which led Husserl to Transcendental Idealism Phaenomenologica Vol 64 Springer Netherlands pp 8 11 doi 10 1007 978 94 010 1689 6 3 ISBN 978 94 010 1689 6 Archived from the original on 13 February 2022 Retrieved 27 February 2022 Jacobs James M 14 January 2022 Seat of Wisdom An Introduction to Philosophy in the Catholic Tradition CUA Press p 23 ISBN 978 0 8132 3465 6 Archived from the original on 3 September 2023 Retrieved 7 July 2023 Jaroszynski Piotr 12 February 2018 Metaphysics or Ontology BRILL p 12 ISBN 978 90 04 35987 1 Archived from the original on 7 July 2023 Retrieved 7 July 2023 Jeanes Emma 10 January 2019 A Dictionary of Organizational Behaviour Oxford University Press p 66 ISBN 978 0 19 252756 1 Archived from the original on 7 July 2023 Retrieved 6 July 2023 Jenicek Milos 6 August 2018 How to Think in Medicine Reasoning Decision Making and Communication in Health Sciences and Professions CRC Press p 31 ISBN 978 1 351 68402 6 Archived from the original on 5 July 2023 Retrieved 5 July 2023 Jha Meenakshi 1 January 2022 Subaltern Saints in India Women and Sudras in Bhakti Movement Motilal Banarsidass p 217 ISBN 978 81 208 4299 1 Johnson Ralph H 1999 The Relation Between Formal and Informal Logic Argumentation 13 3 265 274 doi 10 1023 A 1007789101256 S2CID 141283158 Archived from the original on 7 December 2021 Retrieved 2 January 2022 Johnson Laird Phil 30 December 2009 Deductive Reasoning WIREs Cognitive Science 1 1 8 17 doi 10 1002 wcs 20 ISSN 1939 5078 PMID 26272833 Archived from the original on 24 January 2023 Retrieved 17 July 2023 Johnstone Albert A 1 January 1991 Rationalized Epistemology Taking Solipsism Seriously SUNY Press p 52 ISBN 978 0 7914 0787 5 Archived from the original on 14 July 2023 Retrieved 14 July 2023 Joll Nicholas Metaphilosophy Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Archived from the original on 15 May 2019 Retrieved 1 February 2022 Jones Campbell Bos Rene ten 10 April 2007 Philosophy and Organization Routledge pp 56 58 ISBN 978 1 134 19659 3 Archived from the original on 4 July 2023 Retrieved 6 July 2023 Juergensmeyer Mark Roof Wade Clark 2012 Encyclopedia of Global Religion SAGE ISBN 978 0 7619 2729 7 Archived from the original on 11 July 2023 Retrieved 10 June 2023 Kakas Antonis C Sadri Fariba 2 August 2003 Computational Logic Logic Programming and Beyond Essays in Honour of Robert A Kowalski Part II Springer p 588 ISBN 978 3 540 45632 2 Archived from the original on 4 July 2023 Retrieved 6 July 2023 Kaminski Joseph J 21 August 2017 The Contemporary Islamic Governed State A Reconceptualization Springer p 32 ISBN 978 3 319 57012 9 Archived from the original on 29 June 2023 Retrieved 30 June 2023 Kant Immanuel 1992 Lectures on Logic Immanuel Kant s Logic A Handbook for Lectures edited by G B Jasche 1800 Translated by J Michael Young Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 36013 5 Kant Immanuel 1998 Paul Guyer and Allen W Wood ed Critique of Pure Reason Translated by Paul Guyer and Allen W Wood Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 35402 8 Kelly Michael ed 1998 Encyclopedia of Aesthetics 1 ed Oxford Univ Press p ix ISBN 978 0 19 511307 5 Kenny Anthony 2004 A New History of Western Philosophy vol 1 Ancient Philosophy Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 875272 1 Kenny Anthony 4 February 2009 An Illustrated Brief History of Western Philosophy John Wiley amp Sons p 202 ISBN 978 1 4051 7860 0 Archived from the original on 7 July 2023 Retrieved 7 July 2023 Kenny Anthony 19 November 2018 An Illustrated Brief History of Western Philosophy 20th Anniversary Edition John Wiley amp Sons p 20 ISBN 978 1 119 45279 9 Archived from the original on 5 July 2023 Retrieved 5 July 2023 Kenny Anthony 2006 The Rise of Modern Philosophy A new history of Western philosophy 1 ed Clarendon Press ISBN 978 0 19 875277 6 Kim Jaekwon Sosa Ernest Rosenkrantz Gary S 12 March 2009 A Companion to Metaphysics John Wiley amp Sons pp 22 23 ISBN 978 1 4443 0853 2 Kim Sungmoon 14 November 2019 Theorizing Confucian Virtue Politics The Political Philosophy of Mencius and Xunzi Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 108 57739 7 Archived from the original on 22 June 2023 Retrieved 14 June 2023 Kitcher Philip S 2023 Philosophy of Science www britannica com Archived from the original on 29 June 2023 Retrieved 21 July 2023 Kittay Eva Feder Alcoff Linda Martin 30 April 2008 The Blackwell Guide to Feminist Philosophy John Wiley amp Sons pp 148 151 ISBN 978 0 470 69538 8 Archived from the original on 8 July 2023 Retrieved 8 July 2023 Koslowski Barbara 14 November 2017 Abductive reasoning and explanation International Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning Routledge pp 366 382 doi 10 4324 9781315725697 ISBN 978 1 315 72569 7 Archived from the original on 8 January 2022 Retrieved 17 July 2023 Kulke Hermann Rothermund Dietmar 1998 A History of India Psychology Press p 139 ISBN 978 0 415 15482 6 Laerke Mogens Smith Justin E H Schliesser Eric August 2013 Philosophy and Its History Aims and Methods in the Study of Early Modern Philosophy Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 985716 6 Lagerlund Henrik ed 2020 Encyclopedia of Medieval Philosophy Philosophy Between 500 and 1500 Second ed Springer ISBN 978 94 024 1663 3 Lambert Joseph 22 March 2023 Translation Ethics Taylor amp Francis p 26 ISBN 978 1 000 84163 3 Archived from the original on 7 July 2023 Retrieved 6 July 2023 Lazerowitz Morris Ambrose Alice 13 February 2012 Philosophical Theories Walter de Gruyter p 9 ISBN 978 3 11 080708 0 Archived from the original on 5 July 2023 Retrieved 5 July 2023 Legg Catherine Hookway Christopher 2021 Pragmatism The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University Archived from the original on 8 October 2020 Retrieved 22 February 2022 Li Wei 7 November 2014 Mathematical Logic Foundations for Information Science Springer pp ix x ISBN 978 3 0348 0862 0 Archived from the original on 4 July 2023 Retrieved 6 July 2023 Lippert Rasmussen Kasper Brownlee Kimberley Coady David eds 2017 A Companion to Applied Philosophy John Wiley amp Sons ISBN 978 1 118 86911 6 Little Daniel 1984 Reflective Equilibrium and Justification Southern Journal of Philosophy 22 3 373 387 doi 10 1111 j 2041 6962 1984 tb00354 x Archived from the original on 1 May 2022 Retrieved 18 April 2022 Littlejohn Ronnie 2023 Chinese Philosophy Overview of History Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Archived from the original on 1 June 2023 Retrieved 12 June 2023 Lockie Robert 2015 Is Philosophy Useless The Philosophers Magazine 71 24 28 doi 10 5840 tpm20157197 Archived from the original on 11 August 2023 Retrieved 11 July 2023 Long A A 20 August 1986 Hellenistic Philosophy Stoics Epicureans Sceptics University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 05808 8 Archived from the original on 28 May 2023 Retrieved 28 May 2023 Losee John 1 March 2001 A Historical Introduction to the Philosophy of Science Oxford University Press pp 1 3 ISBN 978 0 19 870055 5 Archived from the original on 21 July 2023 Retrieved 21 July 2023 Louth Andrew Thielicke Helmut 2014 1999 Relationship to Philosophy Theology Archived from the original on 6 August 2020 Lowe E Jonathan 20 January 2000 An Introduction to the Philosophy of Mind Cambridge University Press pp 1 2 ISBN 978 0 521 65428 9 Archived from the original on 19 July 2023 Retrieved 19 July 2023 Ma Licheng 23 September 2015 Leading Schools of Thought in Contemporary China World Scientific p xiv ISBN 978 981 4656 40 5 Archived from the original on 3 September 2023 Retrieved 23 August 2023 MacDonald Scott Kretzmann Norman 1996 Medieval philosophy Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 07310 3 Archived from the original on 9 May 2023 Retrieved 28 May 2023 Maddy Penelope 2022 A Plea for Natural Philosophy And Other Essays Oxford University Press p 24 ISBN 978 0 19 750885 5 Archived from the original on 25 August 2023 Retrieved 25 August 2023 Makeham J 21 February 2003 New Confucianism A Critical Examination Springer pp 94 95 ISBN 978 1 4039 8241 4 Marenbon John 2023 Medieval Philosophy The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University Archived from the original on 26 March 2023 Retrieved 27 May 2023 Marshev Vadim I 13 January 2021 History of Management Thought Genesis and Development From Ancient Origins to the Present Day Springer Nature ISBN 978 3 030 62337 1 Archived from the original on 24 June 2023 Retrieved 21 June 2023 Martinich A P Stroll Avrum 2023 Epistemology Encyclopaedia Britannica Archived from the original on 10 July 2019 Retrieved 22 June 2020 Masud Muhammad Khalid 18 August 2009 Islam and Modernity Key Issues and Debates Edinburgh University Press pp 237 238 ISBN 978 0 7486 3794 2 McAfee Noelle 2018 Feminist Philosophy The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University Archived from the original on 22 June 2023 Retrieved 8 July 2023 McDermid Douglas Pragmatism Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Archived from the original on 23 May 2019 Retrieved 22 February 2022 McKeon R 2002 Methodology Philosophy New Catholic Encyclopedia Gale Research Inc ISBN 978 0 7876 4004 0 Archived from the original on 30 April 2022 Retrieved 18 April 2022 McQueen Paddy 14 July 2010 Key Concepts in Philosophy Bloomsbury Publishing p 162 ISBN 978 1 137 09339 4 Archived from the original on 21 July 2023 Retrieved 21 July 2023 McQuillan J Colin 30 November 2015 Early Modern Aesthetics Rowman amp Littlefield pp 122 123 ISBN 978 1 78348 213 9 Archived from the original on 21 July 2023 Retrieved 21 July 2023 Meister Chad Philosophy of Religion Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Archived from the original on 6 August 2023 Retrieved 21 July 2023 Menon Sangeetha Vedanta Advaita Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Archived from the original on 1 June 2023 Retrieved 16 June 2023 Mill John Stuart 1863 Utilitarianism Parker Son and Bourn West Strand p 51 OCLC 78070085 Archived from the original on 5 November 2022 Retrieved 5 November 2022 Mittelstrass Jurgen 2005 Philosophie Enzyklopadie Philosophie und Wissenschaftstheorie Metzler ISBN 978 3 476 02107 6 Archived from the original on 20 October 2021 Retrieved 27 February 2022 Moaddel Mansoor 16 May 2005 Islamic Modernism Nationalism and Fundamentalism Episode and Discourse University of Chicago Press pp 1 2 ISBN 978 0 226 53333 9 Archived from the original on 23 August 2023 Retrieved 23 August 2023 Molefe Motsamai Allsobrook Christopher 16 February 2021 Towards an African Political Philosophy of Needs Springer Nature pp 8 9 ISBN 978 3 030 64496 3 Archived from the original on 21 July 2023 Retrieved 21 July 2023 Moseley Alexander Political Philosophy Methodology Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Archived from the original on 2 April 2009 Retrieved 21 July 2023 Mou Bo ed 2009 History of Chinese Philosophy Routledge ISBN 978 0 203 00286 5 Mulvaney Robert J 2009 Classical Philosophical Questions 13 ed Prentice Hall ISBN 978 0 13 600652 7 Nado Jennifer 1 September 2017 How to Think About Philosophical Methodology Journal of Indian Council of Philosophical Research 34 3 447 463 doi 10 1007 s40961 017 0116 8 ISSN 2363 9962 S2CID 171569977 Archived from the original on 7 March 2022 Retrieved 18 April 2022 Nagel Thomas 2006 Borchert Donald M ed Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3 Determinables Fuzzy Logic 2 ed Thomson Gale Macmillan Reference pp 332 337 ISBN 978 0 02 866072 1 Nanay Bence 2019 Aesthetics A Very Short Introduction Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 882661 3 Nasr Seyyed Hossein Leaman Oliver 7 March 2013 History of Islamic Philosophy Routledge ISBN 978 1 136 78043 1 Archived from the original on 7 June 2023 Retrieved 7 June 2023 Nasr Seyyed Hossein 11 May 2006 Islamic Philosophy From Its Origin to the Present Philosophy in the Land of Prophecy SUNY Press ISBN 978 0 7914 6800 5 Archived from the original on 7 June 2023 Retrieved 7 June 2023 Newton Smith W H 2000 Introduction In W H Newton Smith ed A Companion to the Philosophy of Science Blackwell pp 1 8 ISBN 978 0 631 23020 5 Nievergelt Yves 2015 Logic Mathematics and Computer Science Modern Foundations With Practical Applications 2 ed Springer pp v vi ISBN 978 1 4939 3222 1 Nunes Terezinha 5 October 2011 Logical Reasoning and Learning In Seel Norbert M ed Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning Springer Science amp Business Media pp 2066 2069 ISBN 978 1 4419 1427 9 Archived from the original on 10 February 2023 Retrieved 17 July 2023 Nuttall Jon 3 July 2013 1 The Nature of Philosophy An Introduction to Philosophy John Wiley amp Sons ISBN 978 0 7456 6807 9 Archived from the original on 13 February 2022 Retrieved 15 February 2022 OED staff 2022 Philosophy n Oxford English Dictionary 3rd ed OUP Oglesby Carole A Henige Kim McLaughlin Douglas W Stillwell Belinda 18 March 2021 Foundations of Kinesiology Jones amp Bartlett Learning p 242 ISBN 978 1 284 19830 0 Archived from the original on 21 July 2023 Retrieved 21 July 2023 Olsson Erik 2021 Coherentist Theories of Epistemic Justification The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Metaphysics Research Lab Stanford University Retrieved 5 September 2023 OUP staff 2020 Philosophy Lexico University of Oxford Press Archived from the original on 28 March 2019 Retrieved 28 March 2019 Overgaard Soren D Oro Giuseppina 2017 Introduction The Cambridge Companion to Philosophical Methodology Cambridge University Press pp 1 10 ISBN 978 1 107 54736 0 Archived from the original on 1 May 2022 Retrieved 18 April 2022 Overgaard Soren Gilbert Paul Burwood Stephen 2013 What is philosophy An Introduction to Metaphilosophy Cambridge University Press pp 17 44 ISBN 978 0 521 19341 2 Archived from the original on 14 February 2022 Retrieved 15 February 2022 Palmquist Stephen 2010 Cultivating Personhood Kant and Asian Philosophy Walter de Gruyter p 800 ISBN 978 3 11 022623 2 Archived from the original on 5 July 2023 Retrieved 5 July 2023 Papineau David 2005 science problems of the philosophy of In Honderich Ted ed The Oxford Companion to Philosophy 2nd ed Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 926479 7 Retrieved 13 July 2023 Parker Ryan Sally Ordinary Language Philosophy Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Archived from the original on 7 March 2022 Retrieved 28 February 2022 Parkinson G H R ed 2005 IV The Renaissance and Seventeenth Century Rationalism Routledge History of Philosophy Routledge ISBN 978 0 203 02914 5 Perkins Dorothy 19 November 2013 Encyclopedia of China History and Culture Routledge pp 486 487 ISBN 978 1 135 93562 7 Perrett Roy W 4 February 2016 An Introduction to Indian Philosophy Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 85356 9 Archived from the original on 22 June 2023 Retrieved 9 June 2023 Perry John Bratman Michael Fischer John Martin 2010 Introduction to Philosophy Classical and Contemporary Readings 5th ed Oxford University Press p 4 ISBN 978 0 19 539036 0 Archived from the original on 9 July 2023 Retrieved 9 July 2023 Plato 1997 Cooper John M ed Plato Complete Works Hackett ISBN 978 0 87220 349 5 Pojman Louis P Vaughn Lewis eds 2009 Philosophy The Quest for Truth 7th ed Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 998108 3 Polger Thomas W Functionalism Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Archived from the original on 19 May 2019 Retrieved 19 July 2023 Pooley Jefferson D Rothenbuhler Eric W 31 October 2016 The International Encyclopedia of Communication Theory and Philosophy 4 Volume Set John Wiley amp Sons ISBN 978 1 118 29073 6 Archived from the original on 22 June 2023 Retrieved 16 June 2023 Qi Xiaoying 21 January 2014 Globalized Knowledge Flows and Chinese Social Theory Routledge ISBN 978 1 134 69162 3 Archived from the original on 22 June 2023 Retrieved 14 June 2023 Quine Willard Van Orman 2008 41 A Letter to Mr Ostermann Quine in Dialogue Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 03083 1 Archived from the original on 13 February 2022 Retrieved 27 February 2022 Rambachan Anantanand 1 January 1994 The Limits of Scripture Vivekananda s Reinterpretation of the Vedas University of Hawaii Press ISBN 978 0 8248 1542 4 Archived from the original on 22 June 2023 Retrieved 16 June 2023 Ramos Christine Carmela R ed 2004 Introduction to Philosophy 2004 Ed Ramos Rex Bookstore Inc p 4 ISBN 978 971 23 3955 4 Archived from the original on 30 June 2023 Retrieved 21 August 2023 Ranganathan Shyam Ramanuja Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Retrieved 7 September 2023 cite cl, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.