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Adi Shankara

January 16, 2023

"Adi Shankaracharya" redirects here. For the 1983 Indian film, see Adi Shankaracharya (film).

Adi Shankara, also called Adi Shankaracharya (Sanskrit: आदि शङ्कर, आदि शङ्कराचार्य, romanized: Ādi Śaṅkara, Ādi Śaṅkarācārya, lit. 'First Shankaracharya',[note 1] pronounced [aːdɪ ɕɐŋkɐraːtɕaːrjɐ]),[note 2] was an 8th-century[note 3] Indian Vedic scholar and teacher (acharya).[4] His works present a harmonizing reading of the sastras, with liberating knowledge of the self at its core, synthesizing the Advaita Vedanta teachings of his time.[5][web 1]

Adi Shankara
Painting of Adi Shankara, exponent of Advaita Vedanta with his disciples by Raja Ravi Varma
Personal
Born
Shankara

c. 700 CE (disputed)[1]
Kalady, Chera Kingdom (present-day Kochi in Kerala, India)
Diedc. 750 CE (disputed)[1]
Kedarnath, Gurjara-Pratihara Empire (present-day Uttarakhand, India)
ReligionHinduism
Known forExpounded Advaita Vedanta
PhilosophyAdvaita Vedanta
Religious career
GuruGovinda Bhagavatpada
HonorsJagadguru

Due to his later fame, over 300 texts are attributed to him, including commentaries (Bhāṣya), introductory topical expositions (Prakaraṇa grantha) and poetry (Stotra).[6][7] However, most of these are likely to be written by admirers or pretenders or scholars with an eponymous name.[8][9] Works known to be written by Shankara himself are the Brahmasutrabhasya,[6] his commentaries on ten principal Upanishads,[6][8] his commentary on the Bhagavad Gita,[10] and the Upadeśasāhasrī.[11][12] The authenticity of Shankara being the author of Vivekacūḍāmaṇi has been questioned and mostly rejected by scholarship.[13][14]

The central postulation of Shankara's writings is the identity of the Self (Ātman) and Brahman,[12][15] defending the liberating knowledge of the Self, taking the Upanishads as an independent means of knowledge, against the ritually-oriented Mīmāṃsā school of Hinduism.[2][16][note 4][note 5] Shankara's Advaita shows influences from Mahayana Buddhism, despite Shankara's critiques;[17][18] and Hindu Vaishnava opponents have even accused Shankara of being a "crypto-Buddhist,"[19][20][21][note 6] a qualification which is rejected by the Advaita Vedanta tradition, highlighting their respective views on Atman, Anatta and Brahman.[22][note 7]

Shankara has an unparallelled status in the tradition of Advaita Vedanta,[2][23] but his influence on Hindu intellectual thought has been questioned.[24][25][26]

Until the 10th century Shankara was overshadowed by his older contemporary Maṇḍana Miśra,[25][27] and there is no mention of him in concurring Hindu, Buddhist or Jain sources until the 11th century.[28] The popular image Shankara started to take shape in the 14th century, centuries after his death, when Sringeri matha started to receive patronage from the kings of the Vijayanagara Empire[27][29][30][31] and shifted their allegiance from advaitic Agamic Saivism to Brahmanical Advaita orthodoxy.[32] Hagiographies dating from the 14th-17th centuries deified him as a ruler-renunciate, travelling on a digvijaya (conquest of the four quarters)[33][34] across the Indian subcontinent to propagate his philosophy, defeating his opponents in theological debates[35][36] These hagiographies portray him as founding four mathas ("monasteries"), and Adi Shankara also came to be regarded as the organiser of the Dashanami monastic order, and the unifier of the Shanmata tradition of worship.

The title of Shankaracharya, used by heads of certain monasteries in India, is derived from his name.

Dating

 
The birthplace of Adi Shankara at Kalady

Reliable information on Shankara's actual life is scanty.[37] His existing biographies were all written several centuries after his time and abound in legends and improbable events.[38] The records of the Sringeri Matha state that Shankara was born in the 14th year of the reign of "Vikramaditya", but it is unclear to which king this name refers.[39] Though some researchers identify the name with Chandragupta II (4th century CE), modern scholarship accepts the Vikramaditya as being from the Chalukya dynasty of Badami, most likely Vikramaditya II (733–746 CE).[39]

Several different dates have been proposed for Shankara:[40]

  • 509–477 BCE: This dating is based on records of the heads of the Shankara's cardinal institutions Maṭhas. The exact dates of birth of Adi Shankaracharya believed by four monasteries are Dvārakā at 491 BCE,[note 8] Jyotirmath at 485 BCE, Jagannatha Puri at 484 BCE and Sringeri at 483 BCE.[43] while according to the Kanchi Peetham Adi Shankara was born in Kali 2593 (509 BCE).[44][note 9]
  • 44–12 BCE: the commentator Anandagiri believed he was born at Chidambaram in 44 BCE and died in 12 BCE.[3]
  • 6th century CE: Telang placed him in this century. Sir R.G. Bhandarkar believed he was born in 680 CE.[3]
  • c. 700 – c. 750 CE: Late 20th-century and early 21st-century scholarship tends to place Shankara's life of 32 years in the first half of the 8th century.[38][47] According to the Indologist and Asian Religions scholar John Koller, there is considerable controversy regarding the dates of Shankara – widely regarded as one of India's greatest thinkers, and "the best recent scholarship argues that he was born in 700 and died in 750 CE".[1]
  • 788–820 CE: This was proposed by early twentieth century scholars and was customarily accepted by scholars such as Max Müller, Macdonnel, Pathok, Deussen and Radhakrishna.[3][48][49] The date 788–820 is also among those considered acceptable by Swami Tapasyananda, though he raises a number of questions.[50] Though the 788–820 CE dates are widespread in 20th-century publications, recent scholarship has questioned the 788–820 CE dates.[38]
  • 805–897 CE: Venkiteswara not only places Shankara later than most, but also had the opinion that it would not have been possible for him to have achieved all the works apportioned to him, and has him live ninety-two years.[3]

The popularly-accepted dating places Shankara to be a scholar from the first half of the 8th century CE.[2][51]

Works

Further information: Adi Shankara bibliography

Adi Shankara is highly esteemed in contemporary Advaita Vedanta, and over 300 texts are attributed to his name, including commentaries (Bhāṣya), original philosophical expositions (Prakaraṇa grantha) and poetry (Stotra).[6][7] However, most of these are not authentic works of Shankara, and are likely to be written by his admirers, or scholars whose name was also Shankaracharya.[8][9] Piantelli has published a complete list of works attributed to Adi Sankara, along with issues of authenticity for most.[52]

Authentic works

Shankara is most known for his systematic reviews and commentaries (Bhasyas) on ancient Indian texts. Shankara's masterpiece of commentary is the Brahmasutrabhasya (literally, commentary on Brahma Sutra), a fundamental text of the Vedanta school of Hinduism.[6]

His commentaries on ten Mukhya (principal) Upanishads are also considered authentic by scholars,[6][8] and these are: Bhasya on the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the Chandogya Upanishad, the Aitareya Upanishad, the Taittiriya Upanishad, the Kena Upanishad,[note 10] the Isha Upanishad, the Katha Upanishad, the Mundaka Upanishad, the Prashna Upanishad, and the Mandukya Upanishad.[54][55] Of these, the commentary on Mandukya, is actually a commentary on Madukya-Karikas by Gaudapada.[55]

Other authentic works of Shankara include commentaries on the Bhagavad Gita (part of his Prasthana Trayi Bhasya).[10] His Vivarana (tertiary notes) on the commentary by Vedavyasa on Yogasutras as well as those on Apastamba Dharma-sũtras (Adhyatama-patala-bhasya) are accepted by scholars as authentic works of Shankara.[54][11] Among the Stotra (poetic works), the Daksinamurti Stotra, the Bhajagovinda Stotra, the Sivanandalahari, the Carpata-panjarika, the Visnu-satpadi, the Harimide, the Dasa-shloki, and the Krishna-staka are likely to be authentic.[54][56]

Shankara also authored Upadesasahasri, his most important original philosophical work.[11][12] Of other original Prakaranas (प्रकरण, monographs, treatise), seventy-six works are attributed to Shankara. Modern era Indian scholars such as Belvalkar as well as Upadhyaya accept five and thirty-nine works respectively as authentic.[57]

Shankara's stotras considered authentic include those dedicated to Krishna (Vaishnavism) and one to Shiva (Shaivism) – often considered two different sects within Hinduism. Scholars suggest that these stotra are not sectarian, but essentially Advaitic and reach for a unified universal view of Vedanta.[56]

Shankara's commentary on the Brahma Sutras is the oldest surviving. However, in that commentary, he mentions older commentaries like those of Dravida, Bhartrprapancha and others which are either lost or yet to be found.[58]

Works of doubtful authenticity or not authentic

Commentaries on Nrisimha-Purvatatapaniya and Shveshvatara Upanishads are attributed to Shankara, but their authenticity is highly doubtful.[8][55][59] Similarly, commentaries on several early and later Upanishads attributed to Shankara are rejected by scholars[60] to be his works, and are likely works of later scholars; these include: Kaushitaki Upanishad, Maitri Upanishad, Kaivalya Upanishad, Paramahamsa Upanishad, Sakatayana Upanishad, Mandala Brahmana Upanishad, Maha Narayana Upanishad, Gopalatapaniya Upanishad. However, in Brahmasutra-Bhasya, Shankara cites some of these Upanishads as he develops his arguments, but the historical notes left by his companions and disciples, along with major differences in style and the content of the commentaries on later Upanishad have led scholars to conclude that the commentaries on later Upanishads were not Shankara's work.[55]

The authenticity of Shankara being the author of Vivekacūḍāmaṇi[61] has been questioned,[13][14] though it is "so closely interwoven into the spiritual heritage of Shankara that any analysis of his perspective which fails to consider [this work] would be incomplete."[14][note 11] According to Grimes, "modern scholars tend to reject its authenticity as a work by Shankara," while "traditionalists tend to accept it."[62] Nevertheless, does Grimes argue that "there is still a likelihood that Śaṅkara is the author of the Vivekacūḍāmaṇi," [62] noting that "it differs in certain respects from his other works in that it addresses itself to a different audience and has a different emphasis and purpose."[63]

The Aparokshanubhuti and Atma bodha are also attributed to Shankara, as his original philosophical treatises, but this is doubtful. Paul Hacker has also expressed some reservations that the compendium Sarva-darsana-siddhanta Sangraha was completely authored by Shankara, because of difference in style and thematic inconsistencies in parts.[60] Similarly, Gayatri-bhasya is doubtful to be Shankara's work.[55] Other commentaries that are highly unlikely to be Shankara's work include those on Uttaragita, Siva-gita, Brahma-gita, Lalita-shasranama, Suta-samhita and Sandhya-bhasya. The commentary on the Tantric work Lalita-trisati-bhasya attributed to Shankara is also unauthentic.[55]

Shankara is widely credited with commentaries on other scriptural works, such as the Vishnu sahasranāma and the Sānatsujātiya,[64] but both these are considered apocryphal by scholars who have expressed doubts.[55] Hastamalakiya-bhasya is also widely believed in India to be Shankara's work and it is included in Samata-edition of Shankara's works, but some scholars consider it to be the work of Shankara's student.[55]

Philosophy and practice

Atma Shatkam (The song of the Self):

I am Consciousness, I am Bliss, I am Shiva, I am Shiva.[note 12]

Without hate, without infatuation, without craving, without greed;
Neither arrogance, nor conceit, never jealous I am;
Neither dharma, nor artha, neither kama, nor moksha am I;
I am Consciousness, I am Bliss, I am Shiva, I am Shiva.

Without sins, without merits, without elation, without sorrow;
Neither mantra, nor rituals, neither pilgrimage, nor Vedas;
Neither the experiencer, nor experienced, nor the experience am I,
I am Consciousness, I am Bliss, I am Shiva, I am Shiva.

Without fear, without death, without discrimination, without caste;
Neither father, nor mother, never born I am;
Neither kith, nor kin, neither teacher, nor student am I;
I am Consciousness, I am Bliss, I am Shiva, I am Shiva.

Without form, without figure, without resemblance am I;
Vitality of all senses, in everything I am;
Neither attached, nor released am I;
I am Consciousness, I am Bliss, I am Shiva, I am Shiva.

—Adi Shankara, Nirvana Shatakam, Hymns 3–6[66]

As per Nakamura, Shankara was not an original thinker, but systematised the works of preceding philosophers.[67] The central theme of Shankara's writings is the liberating knowledge of the identity of the Self (Ātman) and Brahman.[12][15] Moksha is attained in this life by recognizing the identity of Atman and Brahman,[12] as mediated by the Mahavakyas, especially Tat Tvam Asi, "That you are."

Systematizer of Advaita

According to Nakamura, comparison of the known teachings of the early Vedantins and Shankara's thought shows that most of the characteristics of Shankara's thought "were advocated by someone before Śankara".[68] Shankara "was the person who synthesized the Advaita-vāda which had previously existed before him".[68] According to Nakamura, after the growing influence of Buddhism on Vedānta, culminating in the works of Gauḍapāda, Adi Shankara gave a Vedantic character to the Buddhistic elements in these works,[69] synthesising and rejuvenating the doctrine of Advaita.[70]

According to Koller, using ideas in ancient Indian texts, Shankara systematized the foundation for Advaita Vedānta in the 8th century, reforming Badarayana's Vedānta tradition.[12] According to Mayeda, Shankara represents a turning point in the development of Vedānta,[69] yet he also notices that it is only since Deussens's praise that Shankara "has usually been regarded as the greatest philosopher of India."[71] Mayeda further notes that Shankara was primarily concerned with moksha, "and not with the establishment of a complete system of philosophy or theology,"[71] following Potter, who qualifies Shankara as a "speculative philosopher."[72] Lipner notes that Shankara's "main literary approach was commentarial and hence perforce disjointed rather than procedurally systematic [...] though a systematic philosophy can be derived from Samkara's thought."[73]

Shankara has been described as influenced by Shaivism and Shaktism, but his works and philosophy suggest greater overlap with Vaishnavism, influence of Yoga school of Hinduism, but most distinctly express his Advaitin convictions with a monistic view of spirituality,[51][12][74] and his commentaries mark a turn from realism to idealism.[75][76]

Moksha - liberating knowledge of Brahman

The central theme of Shankara's writings is the identity of the Self (Ātman) and Brahman,[12][15][note 13] One of Shankara's main concerns was explaining the liberating knowledge of the Self, and defending the Upanishads as an independent means of knowledge against the ritually-oriented Mīmāṃsā school of Hinduism.[16][2][note 4][note 5]

According to Shankara, the one unchanging entity (Brahman) alone is real, while changing entities do not have absolute existence. Shankara's primary objective was to explain how moksha is attained in this life by recognizing the identity of Atman and Brahman,[12] as mediated by the Mahāvākyas, especially Tat Tvam Asi, "That you are." Correct knowledge of Atman and Brahman is the attainment of Brahman, immortality,[77] and leads to moksha (liberation) from suffering[note 14] and samsara, the cycle of rebirth[78] This is stated by Shankara as follows:

I am other than name, form and action.
My nature is ever free!
I am Self, the supreme unconditioned Brahman.
I am pure Awareness, always non-dual.

— Adi Shankara, Upadesasahasri 11.7, [78]

Pramanas - means of knowledge

Shankara recognized the means of knowledge,[79][note 15] but his thematic focus was upon metaphysics and soteriology, and he took for granted the pramanas,[82] that is epistemology or "means to gain knowledge, reasoning methods that empower one to gain reliable knowledge".[citation needed] According to Sengaku Mayeda, "in no place in his works [...] does he give any systematic account of them,"[82] taking Atman-Brahman to be self-evident (svapramanaka) and self-established (svatahsiddha), and "an investigation of the means of knowledge is of no use for the attainment of final release."[82] Mayeda notes that Shankara's arguments are "strikingly realistic and not idealistic," arguing that jnana is based on existing things (vastutantra), and "not upon Vedic injunction (codanatantra) nor upon man (purusatantra).[82]

According to Michael Comans (aka Vasudevacharya), Shankara considered perception and inference as a primary most reliable epistemic means, and where these means to knowledge help one gain "what is beneficial and to avoid what is harmful", there is no need for or wisdom in referring to the scriptures.[83] In certain matters related to metaphysics and ethics, says Shankara, the testimony and wisdom in scriptures such as the Vedas and the Upanishads become important.[84]

Merrell-Wolff states that Shankara accepts Vedas and Upanishads as a source of knowledge as he develops his philosophical theses, yet he never rests his case on the ancient texts, rather proves each thesis, point by point using the pramanas (means of knowledge) of reason and experience.[85][86] Hacker and Phillips note that his insight into rules of reasoning and hierarchical emphasis on epistemic steps is "doubtlessly the suggestion" of Shankara in Brahma-sutra-bhasya, an insight that flowers in the works of his companion and disciple Padmapada.[87]

Logic versus revelation

Stcherbatsky in 1927 criticized Shankara for demanding the use of logic from Madhyamika Buddhists, while himself resorting to revelation as a source of knowledge.[17][note 16] Sircar in 1933 offered a different perspective and stated, "Sankara recognizes the value of the law of contrariety and self-alienation from the standpoint of idealistic logic; and it has consequently been possible for him to integrate appearance with reality."[88]

Recent scholarship states that Shankara's arguments on revelation are about apta vacana (Sanskrit: आप्तवचन, sayings of the wise, relying on word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).[89][90] It is part of his and Advaita Vedanta's epistemological foundation.[89] The Advaita Vedanta tradition considers such testimony epistemically valid, asserting that a human being needs to know numerous facts, and with the limited time and energy available, he can learn only a fraction of those facts and truths directly.[91] Shankara considered the teachings in the Vedas and Upanishads as apta vacana and a valid source of knowledge.[89] He suggests the importance of teacher-disciple relationship on combining logic and revelation to attain moksha in his text Upadeshasahasri.[92] Anantanand Rambachan and others state that Shankara did not rely exclusively on Vedic statements, but also used a range of logical methods and reasoning methodology and other pramanas.[93][94]

Anubhava

Anantanand Rambachan summarizes the widely held view on the role of anubhava in Shankara's epistemology as follows, before critiquing it:

According to these [widely represented contemporary] studies, Shankara only accorded a provisional validity to the knowledge gained by inquiry into the words of the Śruti (Vedas) and did not see the latter as the unique source (pramana) of Brahmajnana. The affirmations of the Śruti, it is argued, need to be verified and confirmed by the knowledge gained through direct experience (anubhava) and the authority of the Śruti, therefore, is only secondary.[10]

Yoga and contemplative exercises

Shankara considered the purity and steadiness of mind achieved in Yoga as an aid to gaining moksha knowledge, but such yogic state of mind cannot in itself give rise to such knowledge.[95] To Shankara, that knowledge of Brahman springs only from inquiry into the teachings of the Upanishads.[96] The method of yoga, encouraged in Shankara's teachings notes Comans, includes withdrawal of mind from sense objects as in Patanjali's system, but it is not complete thought suppression, instead it is a "meditative exercise of withdrawal from the particular and identification with the universal, leading to contemplation of oneself as the most universal, namely, Consciousness".[97] Describing Shankara's style of yogic practice, Comans writes:

the type of yoga which Sankara presents here is a method of merging, as it were, the particular (visesa) into the general (samanya). For example, diverse sounds are merged in the sense of hearing, which has greater generality insofar as the sense of hearing is the locus of all sounds. The sense of hearing is merged into the mind, whose nature consists of thinking about things, and the mind is in turn merged into the intellect, which Sankara then says is made into 'mere cognition' (vijnanamatra); that is, all particular cognitions resolve into their universal, which is cognition as such, thought without any particular object. And that in turn is merged into its universal, mere Consciousness (prajnafnaghana), upon which everything previously referred to ultimately depends.[97]

Shankara rejected those yoga system variations that suggest complete thought suppression leads to liberation, as well the view that the Shrutis teach liberation as something apart from the knowledge of the oneness of the Self. Knowledge alone and insights relating to true nature of things, taught Shankara, is what liberates. He placed great emphasis on the study of the Upanisads, emphasizing them as necessary and sufficient means to gain Self-liberating knowledge. Sankara also emphasized the need for and the role of Guru (Acharya, teacher) for such knowledge.[97]

Samanvayat Tatparya Linga

Shankara cautioned against cherrypicking a phrase or verse out of context from Vedic literature, and remarks in the opening chapter of his Brahmasutra-Bhasya that the Anvaya (theme or purport) of any treatise can only be correctly understood if one attends to the Samanvayat Tatparya Linga, that is six characteristics of the text under consideration: (1) the common in Upakrama (introductory statement) and Upasamhara (conclusions); (2) Abhyasa (message repeated); (3) Apurvata (unique proposition or novelty); (4) Phala (fruit or result derived); (5) Arthavada (explained meaning, praised point) and (6) Yukti (verifiable reasoning).[98][99] While this methodology has roots in the theoretical works of Nyaya school of Hinduism, Shankara consolidated and applied it with his unique exegetical method called Anvaya-Vyatireka, which states that for proper understanding one must "accept only meanings that are compatible with all characteristics" and "exclude meanings that are incompatible with any".[100][101]

The Mahavyakas - the identity of Ātman and Brahman

Moksha, liberation from suffering and rebirth and attaining immortality, is attained by disidentification from the body-mind complex and gaining self-knowledge as being in essence Atman, and attaining knowledge of the identity of Atman and Brahman.[78][77] According to Shankara, the individual Ātman and Brahman seem different at the empirical level of reality, but this difference is only an illusion, and at the highest level of reality they are really identical.[102] The real self is Sat, "the Existent," that is, Atman-Brahman.[103][104][note 17] Whereas the difference between Atman and non-Atman is deemed self-evident, knowledge of the identity of Atman and Brahman is revealed by the shruti, especially the Upanishadic statement tat tvam asi.

Mahavyakas

According to Shankara, a large number of Upanishadic statements reveal the identity of Atman and Brahman. In the Advaita Vedanta tradition, four of those statements, the Mahavakyas, which are taken literal, in contrast to other statements, have a special importance in revealing this identity.[105][106] They are:

That you are

The longest chapter of Shankara's Upadesasahasri, chapter 18, "That Art Thou," is devoted to considerations on the insight "I am ever-free, the existent" (sat), and the identity expressed in Chandogya Upanishad 6.8.7 in the mahavakya (great sentence) "tat tvam asi", "that thou art."[119][120] In this statement, according to Shankara, tat refers to Sat,[120] "the Existent"[110][111][121][122] Existence, Being,[123] or Brahman,[124] the Real, the "Root of the world,"[120][note 20] the true essence or root or origin of everything that exists.[111][121][123] "Tvam" refers to one's real I, pratyagatman or inner Self,[125] the "direct Witness within everything,"[126] "free from caste, family, and purifying ceremonies,"[127] the essence, Atman, which the individual at the core is.[128][129] As Shankara states in the Upadesasahasri:

Up.I.174: "Through such sentences as "Thou art That" one knows one's own Atman, the Witness of all the internal organs." Up.I.18.190: "Through such sentences as "[Thou art] the Existent" [...] right knowledge concerning the inner Atman will become clearer." Up.I.18.193-194: "In the sentence "Thou art That" [...] [t]he word "That" means inner Atman."[130]

The statement "tat tvam asi" sheds the false notion that Atman is different from Brahman.[131] According toNakamura, the non-duality of atman and Brahman "is a famous characteristic of Sankara's thought, but it was already taught by Sundarapandya"[132] (c.600 CE or earlier).[15] Shankara cites Sundarapandya in his comments to Brahma Sutra verse I.1.4:

When the metaphorical or false atman is non-existent, [the ideas of my] child, [my] body are sublated. Therefore, when it is realized that 'I am the existent Brahman, atman', how can anyduty exist?[133]

From this, and a large number of other accordances, Nakamura concludes that Shankar was not an original thinker, but "a synthesizer of existing Advaita and the rejuvenator, as well as a defender, of ancient learning."[134]

Meditation on the Mahavyaka

In the Upadesasahasri Shankara, Shankara is ambivalent on the need for meditation on the Upanishadic mahavyaka. He states that "right knowledge arises at the moment of hearing,"[135] and rejects prasamcaksa or prasamkhyana meditation, that is, meditation on the meaning of the sentences, and in Up.II.3 recommends parisamkhyana,[136] separating Atman from everything that is not Atman, that is, the sense-objects and sense-organs, and the pleasant and unpleasant things and merit and demerit connected with them.[137] Yet, Shankara then concludes with declaring that only Atman exists, stating that "all the sentences of the Upanishads concerning non-duality of Atman should be fully contemplated, should be contemplated."[138] As Mayeda states, "how they [prasamcaksa or prasamkhyana versus parisamkhyana] differ from each other in not known."[139]

Prasamkhyana was advocated by Mandana Misra,[140] the older contemporary of Shankara who was the most influential Advaitin until the 10th century.[141][27][note 21] "According to Mandana, the mahavakyas are incapable, by themselves, of bringing about brahmajnana. The Vedanta-vakyas convey an indirect knowledge which is made direct only by deep meditation (prasamkhyana). The latter is a continuous contemplation of the purport of the mahavakyas.[142] Vācaspati Miśra, a student of Mandana Misra, agreed with Mandana Misra, and their stance is defended by the Bhamati-school, founded by Vācaspati Miśra.[143] In contrast, the Vivarana school founded by Prakasatman (c. 1200–1300)[144] follows Shankara closely, arguing that the mahavakyas are the direct cause of gaining knowledge.[145]

Renouncement of ritualism

Shankara, in his text Upadesasahasri, discourages ritual worship such as oblations to Deva (God), because that assumes the Self within is different from the Brahman.[note 4][note 5] The "doctrine of difference" is wrong, asserts Shankara, because, "he who knows the Brahman is one and he is another, does not know Brahman".[147][148] The false notion that Atman is different from Brahman[131] is connected with the novice's conviction that (Upadesasaharsi II.1.25)

...I am one [and] He is another; I am ignorant, experience pleasure and pain, am bound and a transmigrator [whereas] he is essentially different from me, the god not subject to transmigration. By worshipping Him with oblation, offerings, homage and the like through the [performance of] the actions prescribed for [my] class and stage of life, I wish to get out of the ocean of transmigratory existence. How am I he?[149]

Recognizing oneself as "the Existent-Brahman," which is mediated by scriptural teachings, is contrasted with the notion of "I act," which is mediated by relying on sense-perception and the like.[150] According to Shankara, the statement "Thou art That" "remove[s] the delusion of a hearer,"[151] "so through sentences as "Thou art That" one knows one's own Atman, the witness of all internal organs,"[152] and not from any actions.[153][note 22] With this realization, the performance of rituals is prohibited, "since [the use of] rituals and their requisites is contradictory to the realization of the identity [of Atman] with the highest Atman."[155]

However, Shankara also asserts that Self-knowledge is realized when one's mind is purified by an ethical life that observes Yamas such as Ahimsa (non-injury, non-violence to others in body, mind and thoughts) and Niyamas. Rituals and rites such as yajna (a fire ritual), asserts Shankara, can help draw and prepare the mind for the journey to Self-knowledge.[156] He emphasizes the need for ethics such as Akrodha and Yamas during Brahmacharya, stating the lack of ethics as causes that prevent students from attaining knowledge.[156][157]

Influences of Mahayana Buddhism

See also: Buddhist influences on Advaita Vedanta

Shankara's Vedanta shows similarities with Mahayana Buddhism; opponents have even accused Shankara of being a "crypto-Buddhist,"[20][19][21][note 6] a qualification which is rejected by the Advaita Vedanta tradition, given the differences between these two schools. According to Shankara, a major difference between Advaita and Mahayana Buddhism are their views on Atman and Brahman.[22] According to both Loy and Jayatilleke, more differences can be discerned.[158][159]

Similarities and influences

Despite Shankara's criticism of certain schools of Mahayana Buddhism, Shankara's philosophy shows strong similarities with the Mahayana Buddhist philosophy which he attacks.[17] According to S.N. Dasgupta,

Shankara and his followers borrowed much of their dialectic form of criticism from the Buddhists. His Brahman was very much like the sunya of Nagarjuna [...] The debts of Shankara to the self-luminosity of the Vijnanavada Buddhism can hardly be overestimated. There seems to be much truth in the accusations against Shankara by Vijnana Bhiksu and others that he was a hidden Buddhist himself. I am led to think that Shankara's philosophy is largely a compound of Vijnanavada and Sunyavada Buddhism with the Upanisad notion of the permanence of self superadded.[18]

According to Mudgal, Shankara's Advaita and the Buddhist Madhyamaka view of ultimate reality are compatible because they are both transcendental, indescribable, non-dual and only arrived at through a via negativa (neti neti). Mudgal concludes therefore that

... the difference between Sunyavada (Mahayana) philosophy of Buddhism and Advaita philosophy of Hinduism may be a matter of emphasis, not of kind.[160]

Some Hindu scholars criticized Advaita for its Maya and non-theistic doctrinal similarities with Buddhism.[161][162] Ramanuja, the founder of Vishishtadvaita Vedānta, accused Adi Shankara of being a Prachanna Bauddha, that is, a "crypto-Buddhist",[19][20] and someone who was undermining theistic Bhakti devotionalism.[162] The non-Advaita scholar Bhaskara of the Bhedabheda Vedānta tradition, similarly around 800 CE, accused Shankara's Advaita as "this despicable broken down Mayavada that has been chanted by the Mahayana Buddhists", and a school that is undermining the ritual duties set in Vedic orthodoxy.[162]

Differences

The qualification of "crypto-Buddhist" is rejected by the Advaita Vedanta tradition, highlighting their respective views on Atman, Anatta and Brahman.[22][note 7] There are differences in the conceptual means of "liberation." Nirvana, a term more often used in Buddhism, is the liberating 'blowing out' of craving, aided by the realization and acceptance that there is no Self (anatman) as the center of perception, craving, and delusion. Moksha, a term more common in Hinduism, is the similar liberating release from craving and ignorance, yet aided by the realization and acceptance that one's inner Self is not a personal 'ego-self', but a Universal Self.[158][163]

Historical and cultural impact

See also: History of Hinduism
 
Adi Sankara Keerthi Sthampa Mandapam, Kalady, Kochi

Historical context

Further information: History of India and History of Hinduism

Shankara lived in the time of the great "Late classical Hinduism",[164] which lasted from 650 till 1100 CE.[164] This era was one of political instability that followed the Gupta dynasty and King Harsha of the 7th century CE.[165] power became decentralised in India. Several larger kingdoms emerged, with "countless vasal states".[166][note 23] The kingdoms were ruled via a feudal system. Smaller kingdoms were dependent on the protection of the larger kingdoms. "The great king was remote, was exalted and deified",[166] as reflected in the Tantric Mandala, which could also depict the king as the centre of the mandala.[167]

The disintegration of central power also lead to regionalisation of religiosity, and religious rivalry.[168][note 24] Local cults and languages were enhanced, and the influence of "Brahmanic ritualistic Hinduism"[168] was diminished.[168] Rural and devotional movements arose, along with Shaivism, Vaisnavism, Bhakti and Tantra,[168] though "sectarian groupings were only at the beginning of their development".[168] Religious movements had to compete for recognition by the local lords,[168] and Buddhism, Jainism, Islam and various traditions within Hinduism were competing for members.[169][170][171] Buddhism in particular had emerged as a powerful influence in India's spiritual traditions in the first 700 years of the 1st millennium CE,[165][172] but lost its position after the 8th century, and began to disappear in India.[168] This was reflected in the change of puja-ceremonies at the courts in the 8th century, where Hindu gods replaced the Buddha as the "supreme, imperial deity".[note 25]

Influence on Hinduism

Traditional view

Shankara has an unparallelled status in the tradition of Advaita Vedanta. Hagiographies from the 14th-17th century portray him as a victor who travelled all over India to help restore the study of the Vedas[173] According to Frank Whaling, "Hindus of the Advaita persuasion (and others too) have seen in Sankara the one who restored the Hindu dharma against the attacks of the Buddhists (and Jains) and in the process helped to drive Buddhism out of India."[174] His teachings and tradition are central to Smartism and have influenced Sant Mat lineages.[175] Tradition portrays him as the one who reconciled the various sects (Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Saktism) with the introduction of the Pañcāyatana form of worship, the simultaneous worship of five deities – Ganesha, Surya, Vishnu, Shiva and Devi, arguing that all deities were but different forms of the one Brahman, the invisible Supreme Being,[176] implying that Advaita Vedanta stoos above all other traditions.[177]

According to Koller, Shankara, and his contemporaries, made a significant contribution in understanding Buddhism and the ancient Vedic traditions, then transforming the extant ideas, particularly reforming the Vedanta tradition of Hinduism, making it India's most important "spiritual tradition" for more than a thousand years.[178][note 26] Benedict Ashley credits Adi Shankara for unifying two seemingly disparate philosophical doctrines in Hinduism, namely Atman and Brahman.[179]

Critical assessment

Scholars have questioned Shankara's early influence in India.[29] The Buddhist scholar Richard E. King states,

Although it is common to find Western scholars and Hindus arguing that Sankaracarya was the most influential and important figure in the history of Hindu intellectual thought, this does not seem to be justified by the historical evidence.[25]

Prominence of Maṇḍana Miśra (until 10th century)

According to Clark, "Sankara was relatively unknown during his life-time, and probably for several centuries after, as there is no mention of him in Buddhist or jain sources for centuries; nor is he mentioned by other important philosophers of the ninth and tenth centuries."[28] According to King and Roodurmun, until the 10th century Shankara was overshadowed by his older contemporary Mandana-Misra, the latter considered to be the major representative of Advaita.[25][27] Maṇḍana Miśra, an older contemporary of Shankara,[24] was a Mimamsa scholar and a follower of Kumarila, but also wrote a seminal text on Advaita that has survived into the modern era, the Brahma-siddhi.[180][181] The "theory of error" set forth in the Brahma-siddhi became the normative Advaita Vedanta theory of error,[182] and for a couple of centuries he was the most influential Vedantin.[141][27][note 21] His student Vachaspati Miśra, who is believed to have been an incarnation of Shankara to popularize the Advaita view,[183] wrote the Bhamati, a commentary on Shankara's Brahma Sutra Bhashya, and the Brahmatattva-samiksa, a commentary on Mandana Mishra's Brahma-siddhi. His thought was mainly inspired by Mandana Miśra, and harmonises Shankara's thought with that of Mandana Miśra.[184][web 3] The Bhamati school takes an ontological approach. It sees the Jiva as the source of avidya.[web 3] It sees yogic practice and contemplation as the main factor in the acquirement of liberation, while the study of the Vedas and reflection are additional factors.[185][186] The later Advaita Vedanta tradition incorporated Maṇḍana Miśra into the Shankara-fold, by identifying him with Sureśvara (9th century),[187] believing that Maṇḍana Miśra became a disciple of Shankara after a public debate which Shankara won.[180][188]

According to Satchidanandendra Sarasvati, "almost all the later Advaitins were influenced by Mandana Misra and Bhaskara."[189] He argues that most of post-Shankara Advaita Vedanta actually deviates from Shankara, and that only his student Suresvara, who's had little influence, represents Shankara correctly.[190] In this view, Shankara's influential student Padmapada misunderstood Shankara, while his views were manitained by the Suresvara school.[190][note 27]

Vaishnavite Vedanta (10th-14th century)

Hajime Nakamura states that prior to Shankara, views similar to his already existed, but did not occupy a dominant position within the Vedanta.[191] Until the 11th century, Vedanta itself was a peripheral school of thought;[192] Vedanta became a major influence when it was utilized by various sects of Hinduism to ground their doctrines.[193] The early Vedanta scholars were from the upper classes of society, well-educated in traditional culture. They formed a social elite, "sharply distinguished from the general practitioners and theologians of Hinduism."[194] Their teachings were "transmitted among a small number of selected intellectuals".[194] Works of the early Vedanta schools do not contain references to Vishnu or Shiva.[195] It was only after Shankara that "the theologians of the various sects of Hinduism utilized Vedanta philosophy to a greater or lesser degree to form the basis of their doctrines,"[196] whereby "its theoretical influence upon the whole of Indian society became final and definitive."[194] Examples are Ramanuja (11th c.), who aligned bhakti, "the major force in the religions of Hinduism," with philosophical thought, meanwhile rejecting Shankara's views,[web 4] and the Nath-tradition.[197]

Vijayanagara Empire and Vidyaranya (14th century)

In medieval times, Advaita Vedanta position as most influential Hindu darsana started to take shape, as Advaitins in the Vijayanagara Empire competed for patronage from the royal court, and tried to convert others to their sect.[198] It is only during this period that the historical fame and cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedanta was established.[29][199][200] Many of Shankara's biographies were created and published in and after the 14th century, such as Vidyaranya's widely cited Śankara-vijaya. Vidyaranya, also known as Madhava, who was the 12th Jagadguru of the Śringeri Śarada Pītham from 1380 to 1386[201] and a minister in the Vijayanagara Empire,[202] inspired the re-creation of the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire of South India. This may have been in response to the devastation caused by the Islamic Delhi Sultanate,[29][199][200][202] but his efforts were also targeted at Sri Vaishnava groups, especially Visishtadvaita, which was dominant in territories conquered by the Vijayanagara Empire.[203] Furthermore, sects competed for patronage from the royal court, and tried to convert others to their own sectarian system.[198] Vidyaranya and his brothers, note Paul Hacker and other scholars,[29][199] wrote extensive Advaitic commentaries on the Vedas and Dharma to make "the authoritative literature of the Aryan religion" more accessible.[204] Vidyaranya was an influential Advaitin, and he created legends to turn Shankara, whose elevated philosophy had no appeal to gain widespread popularity, into a "divine folk-hero who spread his teaching through his digvijaya ("universal conquest") all over India like a victorious conqueror."[204][205] In his doxography Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha ("Summary of all views") Vidyaranya presented Shankara's teachings as the summit of all darsanas, presenting the other darsanas as partial truths which converged in Shankara's teachings, which was regarded to be the most inclusive system.[206][204] The Vaishanava traditions of Dvaita and Visishtadvaita were not classified as Vedanta, and placed just above Buddhism and Jainism, reflecting the threat they posed for Vidyaranya's Advaita allegiance.[207] Bhedabheda wasn't mentioned at all, "literally written out of the history of Indian philosophy."[208] Such was the influence of the Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha, that early Indologists also regarded Advaita Vedanta as the most accurate interpretation of the Upanishads.[207] And Vidyaranya founded a matha, proclaiming that it was established by Shankara himself.[204][205] Vidyaranya enjoyed royal support,[202] and his sponsorship and methodical efforts helped establish Shankara as a rallying symbol of values, spread historical and cultural influence of Shankara's Vedānta philosophies, and establish monasteries (mathas) to expand the cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedānta.[29]

Neo-Vedanta (19-20th century)

Shankara's position was further established in the 19th and 20th-century, when neo-Vedantins and western Orientalists elevated Advaita Vedanta "as the connecting theological thread that united Hinduism into a single religious tradition."[209] Shankara became "an iconic representation of Hindu religion and culture," despite the fact that most Hindus do not adhere to Advaita Vedanta.[210]

Digvijaya - "The conquests of Shankara"

Sources

Main article: Digvijaya

There are at least fourteen different known hagiographies of Adi Shankara's life.[51] These, as well as other hagiographical works on Shankara, were written many centuries to a thousand years after Shankara's death,[211] in Sanskrit and non-Sanskrit languages, and the hagiographies are filled with legends and fiction, often mutually contradictory.[51][note 28]

Many of these are called the Śankara Vijaya ('The conquests (digvijaya) of Shankara'), while some are called Guruvijaya, Sankarabhyudaya and Shankaracaryacarita. Of these, the Brhat-Sankara-Vijaya by Citsukha is the oldest hagiography but only available in excerpts, while Sankaradigvijaya by Mādhava (17th c.) and Sankaravijaya by Anandagiri are the most cited.[51][37] Other significant hagiographies are the Cidvilāsīya Śaṅkara Vijayaṃ (of Cidvilāsa, c. between the 15th and 17th centuries), and the Keraļīya Śaṅkara Vijayaṃ (of the Kerala region, extant from c. the 17th century).[212][213]}

Scholars note that one of the most cited Shankara hagiographies, Anandagiri's, includes stories and legends about historically different people, but all bearing the same name of Sri Shankaracarya or also referred to as Shankara but likely meaning more ancient scholars with names such as Vidya-sankara, Sankara-misra and Sankara-nanda.[37] Some hagiographies are probably written by those who sought to create a historical basis for their rituals or theories.[37][211]

Life

 
Murti of Shankara at his Samadhi Mandir, behind Kedarnath Temple, in Kedarnath, India
 
Murti of Shankara at the SAT Temple in Santa Cruz, California

According to the oldest hagiographies, Shankara was born in the southern Indian state of Kerala, in a village named Kaladi[214][51] sometimes spelled as Kalati or Karati.[215][note 29] He was born to Nambudiri Brahmin parents.[216][217] His parents were an aged, childless, couple who led a devout life of service to the poor. They named their child Shankara, meaning "giver of prosperity".[218] His father died while Shankara was very young.[51] Shankara's upanayanam, the initiation into student-life, had to be delayed due to the death of his father, and was then performed by his mother.[219]

Shankara's hagiography describe him as someone who was attracted to the life of Sannyasa (hermit) from early childhood. His mother disapproved. A story, found in all hagiographies, describe Shankara at age eight going to a river with his mother, Sivataraka, to bathe, and where he is caught by a crocodile.[220] Shankara called out to his mother to give him permission to become a Sannyasin or else the crocodile will kill him. The mother agrees, Shankara is freed and leaves his home for education. He reaches a Saivite sanctuary along a river in a north-central state of India, and becomes the disciple of a teacher named Govinda Bhagavatpada.[220][221] The stories in various hagiographies diverge in details about the first meeting between Shankara and his Guru, where they met, as well as what happened later.[220] Several texts suggest Shankara schooling with Govindapada happened along the river Narmada in Omkareshwar, a few place it along river Ganges in Kashi (Varanasi) as well as Badari (Badrinath in the Himalayas).[221]

The hagiographies vary in their description of where he went, who he met and debated and many other details of his life. Most mention Shankara studying the Vedas, Upanishads and Brahmasutra with Govindapada, and Shankara authoring several key works in his youth, while he was studying with his teacher.[222] It is with his teacher Govinda, that Shankara studied Gaudapadiya Karika, as Govinda was himself taught by Gaudapada.[51] Most also mention a meeting with scholars of the Mimamsa school of Hinduism namely Kumarila and Prabhakara, as well as Mandana and various Buddhists, in Shastrartha (an Indian tradition of public philosophical debates attended by large number of people, sometimes with royalty).[221] Thereafter, the hagiographies about Shankara vary significantly. Different and widely inconsistent accounts of his life include diverse journeys, pilgrimages, public debates, installation of yantras and lingas, as well as the founding of monastic centers in north, east, west and south India.[37][221]

Digvijaya and disciples

While the details and chronology vary, most hagiographies present Shankara as traveling widely within India, Gujarat to Bengal, and participating in public philosophical debates with different orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, as well as heterodox traditions such as Buddhists, Jains, Arhatas, Saugatas, and Charvakas.[223][224][page needed][225][page needed] The hagiographies credit him with starting several Matha (monasteries), but this is uncertain.[223] Ten monastic orders in different parts of India are generally attributed to Shankara's travel-inspired Sannyasin schools, each with Advaita notions, of which four have continued in his tradition: Bharati (Sringeri), Sarasvati (Kanchi), Tirtha and Asramin (Dvaraka).[226] Other monasteries that record Shankara's visit include Giri, Puri, Vana, Aranya, Parvata and Sagara – all names traceable to Ashrama system in Hinduism and Vedic literature.[226]

Shankara had a number of disciple scholars during his travels, including Padmapadacharya (also called Sanandana, associated with the text Atma-bodha), Sureśvaracharya, Totakacharya, Hastamalakacharya, Chitsukha, Prthividhara, Chidvilasayati, Bodhendra, Brahmendra, Sadananda and others, who authored their own literature on Shankara and Advaita Vedanta.[223][227]

Death

Adi Sankara is believed to have died aged 32, at Kedarnath in the northern Indian state of Uttarakhand, a Hindu pilgrimage site in the Himalayas.[226][6] Texts say that he was last seen by his disciples behind the Kedarnath temple, walking in the Himalayas until he was not traced. Some texts locate his death in alternate locations such as Kanchipuram (Tamil Nadu) and somewhere in the state of Kerala.[221]

A statue of Adi Shankara has been built behind Kedarnath Temple to commemorate his life and work as part of the temples redevelopment after the 2013 deluge in the area.[228] The 12-foot statue inaugurated by Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi on 5 November 2019, is made of chlorite schist and weighs 35 tonnes.[229]

Mathas and Smarta tradition

See also: Dashanami Sampradaya
 
Vidyashankara temple at Sringeri Sharada Peetham, Shringeri

Shankara is regarded as the founder of the Daśanāmi Sampradāya of Hindu monasticism, and the Panchayatana puja and Ṣaṇmata of the Smarta tradition.

Dashanami Sampradaya and mathas

Advaita Vedanta is, at least in the west, primarily known as a philosophical system. But it is also a tradition of renunciation. Philosophy and renunciation are closely related:[web 5]

Most of the notable authors in the advaita tradition were members of the sannyasa tradition, and both sides of the tradition share the same values, attitudes and metaphysics.[web 5]

Shankara was a Vaishnavite who came to be presented as an incarnation of Shiva in the 14th century,[230][web 5] to facilitate the adoption of his teachings by previously Saiva-oriented mathas in the Vijayanagara Empire. From the 14th century onwards hagiographies were composed, in which he is portrayed as establishing the Daśanāmi Sampradaya,[231] organizing a section of the Ekadandi monks under an umbrella grouping of ten names.[web 5] Several other Hindu monastic and Ekadandi traditions remained outside the organisation of the Dasanāmis.[232][233]

According to tradition, Adi Sankara organised the Hindu monks of these ten sects or names under four Maṭhas (Sanskrit: मठ) (monasteries), with the headquarters at Dvārakā in the West, Jagannatha Puri in the East, Sringeri in the South and Badrikashrama in the North.[web 5] Each matha was headed by one of his four main disciples, who each continues the Vedanta Sampradaya.

According to Paul Hacker, the system may have been initiated by Vidyaranya (14th c.), who may have founded a matha, proclaiming that it was established by Shankara himself, as part of his campaign to propagate Shankara's Advaita Vedanta.[204][205] Vidyaranya enjoyed royal support,[202] and his sponsorship and methodical efforts helped establish Shankara as a rallying symbol of values, spread historical and cultural influence of Shankara's Vedānta philosophies, and establish monasteries (mathas) to expand the cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedānta.[29]

Smarta Tradition

Main article: Smarta Tradition

Traditionally, Shankara is regarded as the greatest teacher[234][235] and reformer of the Smartism sampradaya, which is one of four major sampradaya of Hinduism.[236][235] According to Alf Hiltebeitel, Shankara established the nondualist interpretation of the Upanishads as the touchstone of a revived smarta tradition:

Practically, Shankara fostered a rapprochement between Advaita and smarta orthodoxy, which by his time had not only continued to defend the varnasramadharma theory as defining the path of karman, but had developed the practice of pancayatanapuja ("five-shrine worship") as a solution to varied and conflicting devotional practices. Thus one could worship any one of five deities (Vishnu, Siva, Durga, Surya, Ganesa) as one's istadevata ("deity of choice").[237]

Panchayatana puja (IAST Pañcāyatana pūjā) is a system of puja (worship) in the Smarta tradition.[238] It consists of the worship of five deities set in a quincunx pattern,[239] the five deities being Shiva, Vishnu, Devi, Surya, and an Ishta Devata such as Kartikeya, or Ganesha or any personal god of devotee's preference.[240][241] Sometimes the Ishta Devata is the sixth deity in the mandala.[238] while in the Shanmata system,[242] Skanda, also known as Kartikeya and Murugan, is added. Panchayatana puja is a practice that became popular in medieval India,[238] and has been attributed to Adi Shankara.[243] However, archaeological evidence suggests that this practice long predates the birth of Adi Shankara.[note 30]

Films

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Adi means "first", to distinguish him from other Shankaras.
  2. ^ He is also known as Shankara Bhagavatpada (Śaṅkara Bhagavatpāda), Shankara Bhagavatpadacharya (Śaṅkara Bhagavatpādācārya) or Shankaracharya, sometimes spelled Sankaracharya.
  3. ^ Modern scholarship places Shankara in the earlier part of the 8th century CE (c. 700–750).[2] Earlier generations of scholars proposed 788–820 CE.[2] Other proposals are 686–718 CE,[citation needed] 44 BCE,[3] or as early as 509–477 BCE.
  4. ^ a b c Shankara, himself, had renounced all religious ritual acts.[146]
    For an example of Shankara's reasoning "why rites and ritual actions should be given up", see Karl Potter on p. 220;
    Elsewhere, Shankara's Bhasya on various Upanishads repeat "give up rituals and rites", see for example Shankara's Bhasya on Brihadaranyaka Upanishad pp. 348–350, 754–757</ref>
  5. ^ a b c Compare Mookerji 2011 on Svādhyāya (Vedic learning). Mookerji (2011, pp. 29–31) notes that the Rigveda, and Sayana's commentary, contain passages criticizing as fruitless mere recitation of the Ŗik (words) without understanding their inner meaning or essence, the knowledge of dharma and Parabrahman. Mookerji (2011, pp. 29, 34) concludes that in the Rigvedic education of the mantras "the contemplation and comprehension of their meaning was considered as more important and vital to education than their mere mechanical repetition and correct pronunciation." Mookerji (2011, p. 35) refers to Sayana as stating that "the mastery of texts, akshara-praptī, is followed by artha-bodha, perception of their meaning." (Artha may also mean "goal, purpose or essence," depending on the context. See: Sanskrit English Dictionary University of Kloen, Germany (2009); Karl Potter (1998), Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 4, ISBN 81-208-0310-8, Motilal Banarsidass, pp 610 (note 17).) According to Mookerji (2011, p. 36), "the realization of Truth" and the knowledge of paramatman as revealed to the rishis is the real aim of Vedic learning, and not the mere recitation of texts.
  6. ^ a b King (1995, p. 183): "It is well-known that Sankara was criticized by later (rival) Vedantins as a crypto-Buddhist (pracchana bauddha).
  7. ^ a b Atman versus anatman:
    • (Isaeva 1993, pp. 60, 145–154)
    • KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, ISBN 978-81-208-0619-1, p. 246–249, from note 385 onwards
    • Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-2217-5, p. 64: "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of Ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence."
    • Edward Roer (Translator), Shankara's Introduction at Google Books
    • Katie Javanaud (2013), Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?, Philosophy Now
    • John C. Plott et al. (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0158-5, p. 63: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism".
  8. ^ Arun Kumar Upadhyay: "The copper-plate of King Sudhanwa, said{ to have been issued to Sankara and now in the possession of Government on behalf of Dwärká Mutt, bears the date as Yudhisthira Saka 2663, Åsvin Sukla 15. This gives us 476 B.C. as the relevant year of his death. The copper-plate seems to have been issued to Sankara right towards the end of his career. King Sudhanwa is referred to not only by Jinavijaya but also by biographers like Mädhava and Sadánanda."[41] Citsukha's Brhat-Sankara Vijaya also gives us the year of 2663 of Yudhi. Saka i.e, 476 B.C. as the year of Sankara's passing away.[42]
  9. ^ The successive heads of the Kanchi and all other major Hindu Advaita tradition monasteries have been called Shankaracharya leading to some confusion, discrepancies and scholarly disputes. The chronology stated in Kanchi Matha texts recognizes five major Shankaras: Adi, Kripa, Ujjvala, Muka and Abhinava. According to the Kanchi Matha tradition, it is "Abhinava Shankara" that western scholarship recognizes as the Advaita scholar Shankara, while the monastery continues to recognize its 509 BCE chronology.[44][45] Also, as per astronomical details given in books Shankara Satpatha, Shankara Vijaya, Brihat Shakara Vijaya and Prachina Shankara Vijaya, it is believed that Shankaracharya was born in 509 BCE.[citation needed] According to Kanhi Peetham, having established his divine mission, the incomparable Sankara attained his BrahmTbhava (identity with Brahman) at Kanchi, in the precincts of Sri Kamakshi, in his 32nd year, in 2625 Kali, in the cyclic year Raktakshi, corresponding to 476 B.C.[46]
  10. ^ Kena Upanishad has two commentaries that are attributed to Shankara – Kenopnishad Vakyabhasya and Kenopnishad Padabhasya; scholars contest whether both are authentic, several suggesting that the Vakyabhasya is unlikely to be authentic.[53]
  11. ^ See also IndiaDivine.org, Authorship of Vivekachudamani and arshabodha.org, Sri Sankara's Vivekachudamani, pp. 3–4, The Question of Authorship of Vivekachudamani
  12. ^ Swami Vivekananda translates Shivoham, Shivoham as "I am he, I am he".[65]
  13. ^ Brahman is not to be confused with the personalised godhead Brahma.
  14. ^ The suffering created by the workings of the mind entangled with physical reality
  15. ^ Mayeda refers to statements from Shankara regarding epistemology (pramana-janya) in section 1.18.133 of Upadesasahasri, and section 1.1.4 of Brahmasutra-bhasya.[80][81] NB: some manuscripts list Upadesasahasri verse 1.18.133 as 2.18.133, while Mayeda lists it as 1.18.133, because of interchanged chapter numbering. See Upadesa Sahasri: A Thousand Teachings, S Jagadananda (Translator, 1949), ISBN 978-81-7120-059-7, Verse 2.8.133, p. 258; Karl H Potter (2014), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 3, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-61486-1, p. 249
  16. ^ Shcherbatsky: "Shankara accuses them of disregarding all logic and refuses to enter in a controversy with them. The position of Shankara is interesting because, at heart, he is in full agreement with the Madhyamikas, at least in the main lines, since both maintain the reality of the One-without-a-second, and the mirage of the manifold. But Shankara, as an ardent hater of Buddhism, would never confess that. He therefore treats the Madhyamika with great contempt [...] on the charge that the Madhyamika denies the possibility of cognizing the Absolute by logical methods (pramana). Vachaspati Mishra in the Bhamati rightly interprets this point as referring to the opinion of the Madhyamikas that logic is incapable to solve the question about what existence or non-existence really are. This opinion Shankara himself, as is well known, shares. He does not accept the authority of logic as a means of cognizing the Absolute, but he deems it a privilege of the Vedantin to fare without logic, since he has Revelation to fall back upon. From all his opponents, he requires strict logical methods."[17]
  17. ^ Highest self:
    • Shankara, Upadesasahasri I.18.3: "I am ever-free, the existent" (Sat). I.18.6: "The two [contradictory] notions "I am the Existent-Brahman" and "I act," have Atman as their witness. It is considered more reasonable to give up only [that one] of the two [notions] which arises from ignorance. I.18.7: "The notion, "I am the Existent," arises from right means of knowledge [while] the other notion has its origin in fallacious means of knowledge."[249]
    • Sivananda 1993, p. 219: "Brahman (the Absolute) is alone real; this world is unreal; and the Jiva or individual soul is non-different from Brahman."
    • Deutsch 1973, p. 54: "[the] essential status [of the individual human person] is that of unqualified reality, of identity with the Absolute [...] the self (jiva) is only misperceived: the self is really Brahman."
    • Koller 2013, pp. 100–101: "Atman, which is identical to Brahman, is ultimately the only reality and [...] the appearance of plurality is entirely the work of ignorance [...] the self is ultimately of the nature of Atman/Brahman [...] Brahman alone is ultimately real."
    • Bowker 2000: "There is only Brahman, which is necessarily undifferentiated. It follows that there cannot even be a difference, or duality, between the human subject, or self, and Brahman, for Brahman must be that very self (since Brahman is the reality underlying all appearance). The goal of human life and wisdom must, therefore, be the realization that the self (ātman) is Brahman."
    • Menon 2012: "The experiencing self (jīva) and the transcendental self of the Universe (ātman) are in reality identical (both are Brahman), though the individual self seems different as space within a container seems different from space as such. These cardinal doctrines are represented in the anonymous verse "brahma satyam jagan mithya; jīvo brahmaiva na aparah" (Brahman is alone True, and this world of plurality is an error; the individual self is not different from Brahman)."
    Hacker (1995, p. 88) notes that Shankara uses two groups of words to denote 'atman': "One group - principally jiva, vijnanatman, and sarira - expresses the illusory aspect of the soul [...] But in addition there are the two expressions atman and pratyagatman. These also designate the individual soul, but in its real aspect." Mayeda (1992, pp. 11, 14) uses the word pratyagatman; Sivananda (1993, p. 219), Deutsch (1973, p. 54), and Menon (2012) use the term jiva when referring to the identity of atman and Brahman.
  18. ^ "Consciousness",[117][web 2] "intelligence",[118][116] "wisdom"
  19. ^ "the Absolute",[117][web 2] "infinite",[web 2] "the Highest truth"[web 2]
  20. ^ While the Vedanta tradition equates sat ("the Existent") with Brahman, the Chandogya Upanishad itself does not refer to Brahman.[111][109] Deutsch & Dalvi (2004, p. 8): "Although the text does not use the term brahman, the Vedanta tradition is that the Existent (sat) referred to is no other than Brahman."
  21. ^ a b King 2002, p. 128: "Although it is common to find Western scholars and Hindus arguing that Sankaracarya was the most influential and important figure in the history of Hindu intellectual thought, this does not seem to be justified by the historical evidence."
  22. ^ Up.I.18.219: "The renunciation of all actions becomes the means for discriminating the meaning of the word "Thou" since there is an [Upanisadic] teaching, "Having become calm, self-controlled [..., one sees Atman there in oneself]" (Bhr. Up. IV, 4, 23)."[154]
  23. ^ Michaels (2004, p. 41):
  24. ^ McRae (2003): This resembles the development of Chinese Chán during the An Lu-shan rebellion and the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (907–960/979), during which power became decentralised end new Chán-schools emerged.
  25. ^ Inden (1998, p. 67): "Before the eighth century, the Buddha was accorded the position of universal deity and ceremonies by which a king attained to imperial status were elaborate donative ceremonies entailing gifts to Buddhist monks and the installation of a symbolic Buddha in a stupa ... This pattern changed in the eighth century. The Buddha was replaced as the supreme, imperial deity by one of the Hindu gods (except under the Palas of eastern India, the Buddha's homeland) ... Previously the Buddha had been accorded imperial-style worship (puja). Now as one of the Hindu gods replaced the Buddha at the imperial centre and pinnacle of the cosmo-political system, the image or symbol of the Hindu god comes to be housed in a monumental temple and given increasingly elaborate imperial-style puja worship."
  26. ^ This includes also the dualistic Vaishna bhakti traditions, which have also commented on the Upanishads and the Brahma Sutras, but take a different stance.
  27. ^ Potter (2006, pp. 6–7): "...these modern interpreters are implying that most Advaitins after Samkara's time are confused and basically mistaken, and that 99% of the extant classical interpretive literature on Samkara's philosophy is off the mark. This is clearly a remarkably radical conclusion. Yet, there is good reason to think that it may well be true.
  28. ^ The hagiographies of Shankara mirror the pattern of synthesizing facts, fiction and legends as with other ancient and medieval era Indian scholars. Some hagiographic poems depict Shankara as a reincarnation of deity Shiva, much like other Indian scholars are revered as reincarnation of other deities; for example, Mandana-misra is depicted as an embodiment of deity Brahma, Citsukha of deity Varuna, Anandagiri of Agni, among others. See Isaeva (1993, pp. 69–72).
  29. ^ This may be the present day Kalady in central Kerala. The house he was born is still maintained as Melpazhur Mana.
  30. ^ Many Panchayatana mandalas and temples have been uncovered that are from the Gupta Empire period, and one Panchayatana set from the village of Nand (about 24 kilometers from Ajmer) has been dated to belong to the Kushan Empire era (pre-300 CE).[244] The Kushan period set includes Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Brahma and one deity whose identity is unclear.[244] According to James Harle, major Hindu temples from 1st millennium CE embed the pancayatana architecture very commonly, from Odisha to Karnataka to Kashmir; and the temples containing fusion deities such as Harihara (half Shiva, half Vishnu) are set in Panchayatana worship style.[239]

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  1. ^ Neil Dalal (2021), Shankara, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
  2. ^ a b c d Jiddu Krishnamurti, Saanen 2nd Conversation with Swami Venkatesananda 26 July 1969
  3. ^ a b The Bhamati and Vivarana Schools
  4. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, Ramanajua
  5. ^ a b c d e . Archived from the original on 8 May 2012.

Further reading

  • Fort, Andrew O. (1998). Jivanmukti in Transformation: Embodied Liberation in Advaita and Neo-Vedanta. SUNY Press.
  • Fuller, C.J. (2004). The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12048-5.
  • Ingalls, Daniel H.H. (1954). . Philosophy East and West. 3 (4): 291–306. doi:10.2307/1397287. JSTOR 1397287. Archived from the original on 28 June 2011.
  • Succession of Shankaracharyas (a chronology) 1 November 2019 at the Wayback Machine (from Gaudapada onwards)
  • Reigle, David (2001). "The Original Sankaracarya" (PDF). Fohat. 5 (3): 57–60, 70–71.
  • Frank Whaling (1979), Śankara and Buddhism, Journal of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 1–42
  • "Sri Shankaracharya in Cambodia..?" by S. Srikanta Sastri
  • Navone, J.J. (1956). "Sankara and the Vedic Tradition". Philosophy and Phenomenological Research. 17 (2): 248–255. doi:10.2307/2104222. JSTOR 2104222.
  • Rukmani, T.S. (2003). "Dr. Richard de Smet and Sankara's Advaita". Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies. 16. doi:10.7825/2164-6279.1295.
  • A Questioning Approach: Learning from Sankara's Pedagogic Techniques 30 September 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Jacqueline Hirst, Contemporary Education Dialogue, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 137–169

External links

January 16, 2023
shankara, charya, redirects, here, 1983, indian, film, charya, film, also, called, charya, sanskrit, आद, शङ, कर, आद, शङ, कर, romanized, Ādi, Śaṅkara, Ādi, Śaṅkarācārya, first, shankaracharya, note, pronounced, aːdɪ, ɕɐŋkɐraːtɕaːrjɐ, note, century, note, indian. Adi Shankaracharya redirects here For the 1983 Indian film see Adi Shankaracharya film Adi Shankara also called Adi Shankaracharya Sanskrit आद शङ कर आद शङ कर च र य romanized Adi Saṅkara Adi Saṅkaracarya lit First Shankaracharya note 1 pronounced aːdɪ ɕɐŋkɐraːtɕaːrjɐ note 2 was an 8th century note 3 Indian Vedic scholar and teacher acharya 4 His works present a harmonizing reading of the sastras with liberating knowledge of the self at its core synthesizing the Advaita Vedanta teachings of his time 5 web 1 Adi ShankaraPainting of Adi Shankara exponent of Advaita Vedanta with his disciples by Raja Ravi VarmaPersonalBornShankarac 700 CE disputed 1 Kalady Chera Kingdom present day Kochi in Kerala India Diedc 750 CE disputed 1 Kedarnath Gurjara Pratihara Empire present day Uttarakhand India ReligionHinduismKnown forExpounded Advaita VedantaPhilosophyAdvaita VedantaReligious careerGuruGovinda BhagavatpadaHonorsJagadguruDue to his later fame over 300 texts are attributed to him including commentaries Bhaṣya introductory topical expositions Prakaraṇa grantha and poetry Stotra 6 7 However most of these are likely to be written by admirers or pretenders or scholars with an eponymous name 8 9 Works known to be written by Shankara himself are the Brahmasutrabhasya 6 his commentaries on ten principal Upanishads 6 8 his commentary on the Bhagavad Gita 10 and the Upadesasahasri 11 12 The authenticity of Shankara being the author of Vivekacuḍamaṇi has been questioned and mostly rejected by scholarship 13 14 The central postulation of Shankara s writings is the identity of the Self Atman and Brahman 12 15 defending the liberating knowledge of the Self taking the Upanishads as an independent means of knowledge against the ritually oriented Mimaṃsa school of Hinduism 2 16 note 4 note 5 Shankara s Advaita shows influences from Mahayana Buddhism despite Shankara s critiques 17 18 and Hindu Vaishnava opponents have even accused Shankara of being a crypto Buddhist 19 20 21 note 6 a qualification which is rejected by the Advaita Vedanta tradition highlighting their respective views on Atman Anatta and Brahman 22 note 7 Shankara has an unparallelled status in the tradition of Advaita Vedanta 2 23 but his influence on Hindu intellectual thought has been questioned 24 25 26 Until the 10th century Shankara was overshadowed by his older contemporary Maṇḍana Misra 25 27 and there is no mention of him in concurring Hindu Buddhist or Jain sources until the 11th century 28 The popular image Shankara started to take shape in the 14th century centuries after his death when Sringeri matha started to receive patronage from the kings of the Vijayanagara Empire 27 29 30 31 and shifted their allegiance from advaitic Agamic Saivism to Brahmanical Advaita orthodoxy 32 Hagiographies dating from the 14th 17th centuries deified him as a ruler renunciate travelling on a digvijaya conquest of the four quarters 33 34 across the Indian subcontinent to propagate his philosophy defeating his opponents in theological debates 35 36 These hagiographies portray him as founding four mathas monasteries and Adi Shankara also came to be regarded as the organiser of the Dashanami monastic order and the unifier of the Shanmata tradition of worship The title of Shankaracharya used by heads of certain monasteries in India is derived from his name Contents 1 Dating 2 Works 2 1 Authentic works 2 2 Works of doubtful authenticity or not authentic 3 Philosophy and practice 3 1 Systematizer of Advaita 3 2 Moksha liberating knowledge of Brahman 3 3 Pramanas means of knowledge 3 3 1 Logic versus revelation 3 3 2 Anubhava 3 3 3 Yoga and contemplative exercises 3 3 4 Samanvayat Tatparya Linga 3 4 The Mahavyakas the identity of Atman and Brahman 3 4 1 Mahavyakas 3 4 2 That you are 3 4 3 Meditation on the Mahavyaka 3 4 4 Renouncement of ritualism 4 Influences of Mahayana Buddhism 4 1 Similarities and influences 4 2 Differences 5 Historical and cultural impact 5 1 Historical context 5 2 Influence on Hinduism 5 2 1 Traditional view 5 2 2 Critical assessment 5 2 2 1 Prominence of Maṇḍana Misra until 10th century 5 2 2 2 Vaishnavite Vedanta 10th 14th century 5 2 2 3 Vijayanagara Empire and Vidyaranya 14th century 5 2 2 4 Neo Vedanta 19 20th century 6 Digvijaya The conquests of Shankara 6 1 Sources 6 2 Life 6 3 Digvijaya and disciples 6 4 Death 7 Mathas and Smarta tradition 7 1 Dashanami Sampradaya and mathas 7 2 Smarta Tradition 8 Films 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Sources 13 Further reading 14 External linksDating The birthplace of Adi Shankara at Kalady Reliable information on Shankara s actual life is scanty 37 His existing biographies were all written several centuries after his time and abound in legends and improbable events 38 The records of the Sringeri Matha state that Shankara was born in the 14th year of the reign of Vikramaditya but it is unclear to which king this name refers 39 Though some researchers identify the name with Chandragupta II 4th century CE modern scholarship accepts the Vikramaditya as being from the Chalukya dynasty of Badami most likely Vikramaditya II 733 746 CE 39 Several different dates have been proposed for Shankara 40 509 477 BCE This dating is based on records of the heads of the Shankara s cardinal institutions Maṭha s The exact dates of birth of Adi Shankaracharya believed by four monasteries are Dvaraka at 491 BCE note 8 Jyotirmath at 485 BCE Jagannatha Puri at 484 BCE and Sringeri at 483 BCE 43 while according to the Kanchi Peetham Adi Shankara was born in Kali 2593 509 BCE 44 note 9 44 12 BCE the commentator Anandagiri believed he was born at Chidambaram in 44 BCE and died in 12 BCE 3 6th century CE Telang placed him in this century Sir R G Bhandarkar believed he was born in 680 CE 3 c 700 c 750 CE Late 20th century and early 21st century scholarship tends to place Shankara s life of 32 years in the first half of the 8th century 38 47 According to the Indologist and Asian Religions scholar John Koller there is considerable controversy regarding the dates of Shankara widely regarded as one of India s greatest thinkers and the best recent scholarship argues that he was born in 700 and died in 750 CE 1 788 820 CE This was proposed by early twentieth century scholars and was customarily accepted by scholars such as Max Muller Macdonnel Pathok Deussen and Radhakrishna 3 48 49 The date 788 820 is also among those considered acceptable by Swami Tapasyananda though he raises a number of questions 50 Though the 788 820 CE dates are widespread in 20th century publications recent scholarship has questioned the 788 820 CE dates 38 805 897 CE Venkiteswara not only places Shankara later than most but also had the opinion that it would not have been possible for him to have achieved all the works apportioned to him and has him live ninety two years 3 The popularly accepted dating places Shankara to be a scholar from the first half of the 8th century CE 2 51 WorksFurther information Adi Shankara bibliography Adi Shankara is highly esteemed in contemporary Advaita Vedanta and over 300 texts are attributed to his name including commentaries Bhaṣya original philosophical expositions Prakaraṇa grantha and poetry Stotra 6 7 However most of these are not authentic works of Shankara and are likely to be written by his admirers or scholars whose name was also Shankaracharya 8 9 Piantelli has published a complete list of works attributed to Adi Sankara along with issues of authenticity for most 52 Authentic works Shankara is most known for his systematic reviews and commentaries Bhasyas on ancient Indian texts Shankara s masterpiece of commentary is the Brahmasutrabhasya literally commentary on Brahma Sutra a fundamental text of the Vedanta school of Hinduism 6 His commentaries on ten Mukhya principal Upanishads are also considered authentic by scholars 6 8 and these are Bhasya on the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad the Chandogya Upanishad the Aitareya Upanishad the Taittiriya Upanishad the Kena Upanishad note 10 the Isha Upanishad the Katha Upanishad the Mundaka Upanishad the Prashna Upanishad and the Mandukya Upanishad 54 55 Of these the commentary on Mandukya is actually a commentary on Madukya Karikas by Gaudapada 55 Other authentic works of Shankara include commentaries on the Bhagavad Gita part of his Prasthana Trayi Bhasya 10 His Vivarana tertiary notes on the commentary by Vedavyasa on Yogasutras as well as those on Apastamba Dharma sũtras Adhyatama patala bhasya are accepted by scholars as authentic works of Shankara 54 11 Among the Stotra poetic works the Daksinamurti Stotra the Bhajagovinda Stotra the Sivanandalahari the Carpata panjarika the Visnu satpadi the Harimide the Dasa shloki and the Krishna staka are likely to be authentic 54 56 Shankara also authored Upadesasahasri his most important original philosophical work 11 12 Of other original Prakaranas प रकरण monographs treatise seventy six works are attributed to Shankara Modern era Indian scholars such as Belvalkar as well as Upadhyaya accept five and thirty nine works respectively as authentic 57 Shankara s stotras considered authentic include those dedicated to Krishna Vaishnavism and one to Shiva Shaivism often considered two different sects within Hinduism Scholars suggest that these stotra are not sectarian but essentially Advaitic and reach for a unified universal view of Vedanta 56 Shankara s commentary on the Brahma Sutras is the oldest surviving However in that commentary he mentions older commentaries like those of Dravida Bhartrprapancha and others which are either lost or yet to be found 58 Works of doubtful authenticity or not authentic Commentaries on Nrisimha Purvatatapaniya and Shveshvatara Upanishads are attributed to Shankara but their authenticity is highly doubtful 8 55 59 Similarly commentaries on several early and later Upanishads attributed to Shankara are rejected by scholars 60 to be his works and are likely works of later scholars these include Kaushitaki Upanishad Maitri Upanishad Kaivalya Upanishad Paramahamsa Upanishad Sakatayana Upanishad Mandala Brahmana Upanishad Maha Narayana Upanishad Gopalatapaniya Upanishad However in Brahmasutra Bhasya Shankara cites some of these Upanishads as he develops his arguments but the historical notes left by his companions and disciples along with major differences in style and the content of the commentaries on later Upanishad have led scholars to conclude that the commentaries on later Upanishads were not Shankara s work 55 The authenticity of Shankara being the author of Vivekacuḍamaṇi 61 has been questioned 13 14 though it is so closely interwoven into the spiritual heritage of Shankara that any analysis of his perspective which fails to consider this work would be incomplete 14 note 11 According to Grimes modern scholars tend to reject its authenticity as a work by Shankara while traditionalists tend to accept it 62 Nevertheless does Grimes argue that there is still a likelihood that Saṅkara is the author of the Vivekacuḍamaṇi 62 noting that it differs in certain respects from his other works in that it addresses itself to a different audience and has a different emphasis and purpose 63 The Aparokshanubhuti and Atma bodha are also attributed to Shankara as his original philosophical treatises but this is doubtful Paul Hacker has also expressed some reservations that the compendium Sarva darsana siddhanta Sangraha was completely authored by Shankara because of difference in style and thematic inconsistencies in parts 60 Similarly Gayatri bhasya is doubtful to be Shankara s work 55 Other commentaries that are highly unlikely to be Shankara s work include those on Uttaragita Siva gita Brahma gita Lalita shasranama Suta samhita and Sandhya bhasya The commentary on the Tantric work Lalita trisati bhasya attributed to Shankara is also unauthentic 55 Shankara is widely credited with commentaries on other scriptural works such as the Vishnu sahasranama and the Sanatsujatiya 64 but both these are considered apocryphal by scholars who have expressed doubts 55 Hastamalakiya bhasya is also widely believed in India to be Shankara s work and it is included in Samata edition of Shankara s works but some scholars consider it to be the work of Shankara s student 55 Philosophy and practiceAtma Shatkam The song of the Self I am Consciousness I am Bliss I am Shiva I am Shiva note 12 Without hate without infatuation without craving without greed Neither arrogance nor conceit never jealous I am Neither dharma nor artha neither kama nor moksha am I I am Consciousness I am Bliss I am Shiva I am Shiva Without sins without merits without elation without sorrow Neither mantra nor rituals neither pilgrimage nor Vedas Neither the experiencer nor experienced nor the experience am I I am Consciousness I am Bliss I am Shiva I am Shiva Without fear without death without discrimination without caste Neither father nor mother never born I am Neither kith nor kin neither teacher nor student am I I am Consciousness I am Bliss I am Shiva I am Shiva Without form without figure without resemblance am I Vitality of all senses in everything I am Neither attached nor released am I I am Consciousness I am Bliss I am Shiva I am Shiva Adi Shankara Nirvana Shatakam Hymns 3 6 66 As per Nakamura Shankara was not an original thinker but systematised the works of preceding philosophers 67 The central theme of Shankara s writings is the liberating knowledge of the identity of the Self Atman and Brahman 12 15 Moksha is attained in this life by recognizing the identity of Atman and Brahman 12 as mediated by the Mahavakyas especially Tat Tvam Asi That you are Systematizer of Advaita According to Nakamura comparison of the known teachings of the early Vedantins and Shankara s thought shows that most of the characteristics of Shankara s thought were advocated by someone before Sankara 68 Shankara was the person who synthesized the Advaita vada which had previously existed before him 68 According to Nakamura after the growing influence of Buddhism on Vedanta culminating in the works of Gauḍapada Adi Shankara gave a Vedantic character to the Buddhistic elements in these works 69 synthesising and rejuvenating the doctrine of Advaita 70 According to Koller using ideas in ancient Indian texts Shankara systematized the foundation for Advaita Vedanta in the 8th century reforming Badarayana s Vedanta tradition 12 According to Mayeda Shankara represents a turning point in the development of Vedanta 69 yet he also notices that it is only since Deussens s praise that Shankara has usually been regarded as the greatest philosopher of India 71 Mayeda further notes that Shankara was primarily concerned with moksha and not with the establishment of a complete system of philosophy or theology 71 following Potter who qualifies Shankara as a speculative philosopher 72 Lipner notes that Shankara s main literary approach was commentarial and hence perforce disjointed rather than procedurally systematic though a systematic philosophy can be derived from Samkara s thought 73 Shankara has been described as influenced by Shaivism and Shaktism but his works and philosophy suggest greater overlap with Vaishnavism influence of Yoga school of Hinduism but most distinctly express his Advaitin convictions with a monistic view of spirituality 51 12 74 and his commentaries mark a turn from realism to idealism 75 76 Moksha liberating knowledge of Brahman The central theme of Shankara s writings is the identity of the Self Atman and Brahman 12 15 note 13 One of Shankara s main concerns was explaining the liberating knowledge of the Self and defending the Upanishads as an independent means of knowledge against the ritually oriented Mimaṃsa school of Hinduism 16 2 note 4 note 5 According to Shankara the one unchanging entity Brahman alone is real while changing entities do not have absolute existence Shankara s primary objective was to explain how moksha is attained in this life by recognizing the identity of Atman and Brahman 12 as mediated by the Mahavakyas especially Tat Tvam Asi That you are Correct knowledge of Atman and Brahman is the attainment of Brahman immortality 77 and leads to moksha liberation from suffering note 14 and samsara the cycle of rebirth 78 This is stated by Shankara as follows I am other than name form and action My nature is ever free I am Self the supreme unconditioned Brahman I am pure Awareness always non dual Adi Shankara Upadesasahasri 11 7 78 Pramanas means of knowledge Shankara recognized the means of knowledge 79 note 15 but his thematic focus was upon metaphysics and soteriology and he took for granted the pramanas 82 that is epistemology or means to gain knowledge reasoning methods that empower one to gain reliable knowledge citation needed According to Sengaku Mayeda in no place in his works does he give any systematic account of them 82 taking Atman Brahman to be self evident svapramanaka and self established svatahsiddha and an investigation of the means of knowledge is of no use for the attainment of final release 82 Mayeda notes that Shankara s arguments are strikingly realistic and not idealistic arguing that jnana is based on existing things vastutantra and not upon Vedic injunction codanatantra nor upon man purusatantra 82 According to Michael Comans aka Vasudevacharya Shankara considered perception and inference as a primary most reliable epistemic means and where these means to knowledge help one gain what is beneficial and to avoid what is harmful there is no need for or wisdom in referring to the scriptures 83 In certain matters related to metaphysics and ethics says Shankara the testimony and wisdom in scriptures such as the Vedas and the Upanishads become important 84 Merrell Wolff states that Shankara accepts Vedas and Upanishads as a source of knowledge as he develops his philosophical theses yet he never rests his case on the ancient texts rather proves each thesis point by point using the pramanas means of knowledge of reason and experience 85 86 Hacker and Phillips note that his insight into rules of reasoning and hierarchical emphasis on epistemic steps is doubtlessly the suggestion of Shankara in Brahma sutra bhasya an insight that flowers in the works of his companion and disciple Padmapada 87 Logic versus revelation Stcherbatsky in 1927 criticized Shankara for demanding the use of logic from Madhyamika Buddhists while himself resorting to revelation as a source of knowledge 17 note 16 Sircar in 1933 offered a different perspective and stated Sankara recognizes the value of the law of contrariety and self alienation from the standpoint of idealistic logic and it has consequently been possible for him to integrate appearance with reality 88 Recent scholarship states that Shankara s arguments on revelation are about apta vacana Sanskrit आप तवचन sayings of the wise relying on word testimony of past or present reliable experts 89 90 It is part of his and Advaita Vedanta s epistemological foundation 89 The Advaita Vedanta tradition considers such testimony epistemically valid asserting that a human being needs to know numerous facts and with the limited time and energy available he can learn only a fraction of those facts and truths directly 91 Shankara considered the teachings in the Vedas and Upanishads as apta vacana and a valid source of knowledge 89 He suggests the importance of teacher disciple relationship on combining logic and revelation to attain moksha in his text Upadeshasahasri 92 Anantanand Rambachan and others state that Shankara did not rely exclusively on Vedic statements but also used a range of logical methods and reasoning methodology and other pramanas 93 94 Anubhava Anantanand Rambachan summarizes the widely held view on the role of anubhava in Shankara s epistemology as follows before critiquing it According to these widely represented contemporary studies Shankara only accorded a provisional validity to the knowledge gained by inquiry into the words of the Sruti Vedas and did not see the latter as the unique source pramana of Brahmajnana The affirmations of the Sruti it is argued need to be verified and confirmed by the knowledge gained through direct experience anubhava and the authority of the Sruti therefore is only secondary 10 Yoga and contemplative exercises Shankara considered the purity and steadiness of mind achieved in Yoga as an aid to gaining moksha knowledge but such yogic state of mind cannot in itself give rise to such knowledge 95 To Shankara that knowledge of Brahman springs only from inquiry into the teachings of the Upanishads 96 The method of yoga encouraged in Shankara s teachings notes Comans includes withdrawal of mind from sense objects as in Patanjali s system but it is not complete thought suppression instead it is a meditative exercise of withdrawal from the particular and identification with the universal leading to contemplation of oneself as the most universal namely Consciousness 97 Describing Shankara s style of yogic practice Comans writes the type of yoga which Sankara presents here is a method of merging as it were the particular visesa into the general samanya For example diverse sounds are merged in the sense of hearing which has greater generality insofar as the sense of hearing is the locus of all sounds The sense of hearing is merged into the mind whose nature consists of thinking about things and the mind is in turn merged into the intellect which Sankara then says is made into mere cognition vijnanamatra that is all particular cognitions resolve into their universal which is cognition as such thought without any particular object And that in turn is merged into its universal mere Consciousness prajnafnaghana upon which everything previously referred to ultimately depends 97 Shankara rejected those yoga system variations that suggest complete thought suppression leads to liberation as well the view that the Shrutis teach liberation as something apart from the knowledge of the oneness of the Self Knowledge alone and insights relating to true nature of things taught Shankara is what liberates He placed great emphasis on the study of the Upanisads emphasizing them as necessary and sufficient means to gain Self liberating knowledge Sankara also emphasized the need for and the role of Guru Acharya teacher for such knowledge 97 Samanvayat Tatparya Linga Shankara cautioned against cherrypicking a phrase or verse out of context from Vedic literature and remarks in the opening chapter of his Brahmasutra Bhasya that the Anvaya theme or purport of any treatise can only be correctly understood if one attends to the Samanvayat Tatparya Linga that is six characteristics of the text under consideration 1 the common in Upakrama introductory statement and Upasamhara conclusions 2 Abhyasa message repeated 3 Apurvata unique proposition or novelty 4 Phala fruit or result derived 5 Arthavada explained meaning praised point and 6 Yukti verifiable reasoning 98 99 While this methodology has roots in the theoretical works of Nyaya school of Hinduism Shankara consolidated and applied it with his unique exegetical method called Anvaya Vyatireka which states that for proper understanding one must accept only meanings that are compatible with all characteristics and exclude meanings that are incompatible with any 100 101 The Mahavyakas the identity of Atman and Brahman Moksha liberation from suffering and rebirth and attaining immortality is attained by disidentification from the body mind complex and gaining self knowledge as being in essence Atman and attaining knowledge of the identity of Atman and Brahman 78 77 According to Shankara the individual Atman and Brahman seem different at the empirical level of reality but this difference is only an illusion and at the highest level of reality they are really identical 102 The real self is Sat the Existent that is Atman Brahman 103 104 note 17 Whereas the difference between Atman and non Atman is deemed self evident knowledge of the identity of Atman and Brahman is revealed by the shruti especially the Upanishadic statement tat tvam asi Mahavyakas According to Shankara a large number of Upanishadic statements reveal the identity of Atman and Brahman In the Advaita Vedanta tradition four of those statements the Mahavakyas which are taken literal in contrast to other statements have a special importance in revealing this identity 105 106 They are तत त वमस tat tvam asi Chandogya VI 8 7 Traditionally rendered as That Thou Art that you are 107 108 109 with tat in Ch U 6 8 7 referring to sat the Existent 110 111 112 correctly translated as That s how thus you are 107 109 113 with tat in Ch U 6 12 3 it original location from where it was copied to other verses 107 referring to the very nature of all existence as permeated by the finest essence 114 115 अह ब रह म स म aham brahmasmi Brhadaranyaka I 4 10 I am Brahman or I am Divine 116 प रज ञ न ब रह म prajnanam brahma Aitareya V 3 Prajnanam note 18 is Brahman note 19 अयम त म ब रह म ayamatma brahma Mandukya II This Atman is Brahman That you are The longest chapter of Shankara s Upadesasahasri chapter 18 That Art Thou is devoted to considerations on the insight I am ever free the existent sat and the identity expressed in Chandogya Upanishad 6 8 7 in the mahavakya great sentence tat tvam asi that thou art 119 120 In this statement according to Shankara tat refers to Sat 120 the Existent 110 111 121 122 Existence Being 123 or Brahman 124 the Real the Root of the world 120 note 20 the true essence or root or origin of everything that exists 111 121 123 Tvam refers to one s real I pratyagatman or inner Self 125 the direct Witness within everything 126 free from caste family and purifying ceremonies 127 the essence Atman which the individual at the core is 128 129 As Shankara states in the Upadesasahasri Up I 174 Through such sentences as Thou art That one knows one s own Atman the Witness of all the internal organs Up I 18 190 Through such sentences as Thou art the Existent right knowledge concerning the inner Atman will become clearer Up I 18 193 194 In the sentence Thou art That t he word That means inner Atman 130 The statement tat tvam asi sheds the false notion that Atman is different from Brahman 131 According toNakamura the non duality of atman and Brahman is a famous characteristic of Sankara s thought but it was already taught by Sundarapandya 132 c 600 CE or earlier 15 Shankara cites Sundarapandya in his comments to Brahma Sutra verse I 1 4 When the metaphorical or false atman is non existent the ideas of my child my body are sublated Therefore when it is realized that I am the existent Brahman atman how can anyduty exist 133 From this and a large number of other accordances Nakamura concludes that Shankar was not an original thinker but a synthesizer of existing Advaita and the rejuvenator as well as a defender of ancient learning 134 Meditation on the Mahavyaka In the Upadesasahasri Shankara Shankara is ambivalent on the need for meditation on the Upanishadic mahavyaka He states that right knowledge arises at the moment of hearing 135 and rejects prasamcaksa or prasamkhyana meditation that is meditation on the meaning of the sentences and in Up II 3 recommends parisamkhyana 136 separating Atman from everything that is not Atman that is the sense objects and sense organs and the pleasant and unpleasant things and merit and demerit connected with them 137 Yet Shankara then concludes with declaring that only Atman exists stating that all the sentences of the Upanishads concerning non duality of Atman should be fully contemplated should be contemplated 138 As Mayeda states how they prasamcaksa or prasamkhyana versus parisamkhyana differ from each other in not known 139 Prasamkhyana was advocated by Mandana Misra 140 the older contemporary of Shankara who was the most influential Advaitin until the 10th century 141 27 note 21 According to Mandana the mahavakyas are incapable by themselves of bringing about brahmajnana The Vedanta vakyas convey an indirect knowledge which is made direct only by deep meditation prasamkhyana The latter is a continuous contemplation of the purport of the mahavakyas 142 Vacaspati Misra a student of Mandana Misra agreed with Mandana Misra and their stance is defended by the Bhamati school founded by Vacaspati Misra 143 In contrast the Vivarana school founded by Prakasatman c 1200 1300 144 follows Shankara closely arguing that the mahavakyas are the direct cause of gaining knowledge 145 Renouncement of ritualism Shankara in his text Upadesasahasri discourages ritual worship such as oblations to Deva God because that assumes the Self within is different from the Brahman note 4 note 5 The doctrine of difference is wrong asserts Shankara because he who knows the Brahman is one and he is another does not know Brahman 147 148 The false notion that Atman is different from Brahman 131 is connected with the novice s conviction that Upadesasaharsi II 1 25 I am one and He is another I am ignorant experience pleasure and pain am bound and a transmigrator whereas he is essentially different from me the god not subject to transmigration By worshipping Him with oblation offerings homage and the like through the performance of the actions prescribed for my class and stage of life I wish to get out of the ocean of transmigratory existence How am I he 149 Recognizing oneself as the Existent Brahman which is mediated by scriptural teachings is contrasted with the notion of I act which is mediated by relying on sense perception and the like 150 According to Shankara the statement Thou art That remove s the delusion of a hearer 151 so through sentences as Thou art That one knows one s own Atman the witness of all internal organs 152 and not from any actions 153 note 22 With this realization the performance of rituals is prohibited since the use of rituals and their requisites is contradictory to the realization of the identity of Atman with the highest Atman 155 However Shankara also asserts that Self knowledge is realized when one s mind is purified by an ethical life that observes Yamas such as Ahimsa non injury non violence to others in body mind and thoughts and Niyamas Rituals and rites such as yajna a fire ritual asserts Shankara can help draw and prepare the mind for the journey to Self knowledge 156 He emphasizes the need for ethics such as Akrodha and Yamas during Brahmacharya stating the lack of ethics as causes that prevent students from attaining knowledge 156 157 Influences of Mahayana BuddhismSee also Buddhist influences on Advaita Vedanta Shankara s Vedanta shows similarities with Mahayana Buddhism opponents have even accused Shankara of being a crypto Buddhist 20 19 21 note 6 a qualification which is rejected by the Advaita Vedanta tradition given the differences between these two schools According to Shankara a major difference between Advaita and Mahayana Buddhism are their views on Atman and Brahman 22 According to both Loy and Jayatilleke more differences can be discerned 158 159 Similarities and influences Despite Shankara s criticism of certain schools of Mahayana Buddhism Shankara s philosophy shows strong similarities with the Mahayana Buddhist philosophy which he attacks 17 According to S N Dasgupta Shankara and his followers borrowed much of their dialectic form of criticism from the Buddhists His Brahman was very much like the sunya of Nagarjuna The debts of Shankara to the self luminosity of the Vijnanavada Buddhism can hardly be overestimated There seems to be much truth in the accusations against Shankara by Vijnana Bhiksu and others that he was a hidden Buddhist himself I am led to think that Shankara s philosophy is largely a compound of Vijnanavada and Sunyavada Buddhism with the Upanisad notion of the permanence of self superadded 18 According to Mudgal Shankara s Advaita and the Buddhist Madhyamaka view of ultimate reality are compatible because they are both transcendental indescribable non dual and only arrived at through a via negativa neti neti Mudgal concludes therefore that the difference between Sunyavada Mahayana philosophy of Buddhism and Advaita philosophy of Hinduism may be a matter of emphasis not of kind 160 Some Hindu scholars criticized Advaita for its Maya and non theistic doctrinal similarities with Buddhism 161 162 Ramanuja the founder of Vishishtadvaita Vedanta accused Adi Shankara of being a Prachanna Bauddha that is a crypto Buddhist 19 20 and someone who was undermining theistic Bhakti devotionalism 162 The non Advaita scholar Bhaskara of the Bhedabheda Vedanta tradition similarly around 800 CE accused Shankara s Advaita as this despicable broken down Mayavada that has been chanted by the Mahayana Buddhists and a school that is undermining the ritual duties set in Vedic orthodoxy 162 Differences The qualification of crypto Buddhist is rejected by the Advaita Vedanta tradition highlighting their respective views on Atman Anatta and Brahman 22 note 7 There are differences in the conceptual means of liberation Nirvana a term more often used in Buddhism is the liberating blowing out of craving aided by the realization and acceptance that there is no Self anatman as the center of perception craving and delusion Moksha a term more common in Hinduism is the similar liberating release from craving and ignorance yet aided by the realization and acceptance that one s inner Self is not a personal ego self but a Universal Self 158 163 Historical and cultural impactSee also History of Hinduism Adi Sankara Keerthi Sthampa Mandapam Kalady Kochi Historical context Further information History of India and History of Hinduism Shankara lived in the time of the great Late classical Hinduism 164 which lasted from 650 till 1100 CE 164 This era was one of political instability that followed the Gupta dynasty and King Harsha of the 7th century CE 165 power became decentralised in India Several larger kingdoms emerged with countless vasal states 166 note 23 The kingdoms were ruled via a feudal system Smaller kingdoms were dependent on the protection of the larger kingdoms The great king was remote was exalted and deified 166 as reflected in the Tantric Mandala which could also depict the king as the centre of the mandala 167 The disintegration of central power also lead to regionalisation of religiosity and religious rivalry 168 note 24 Local cults and languages were enhanced and the influence of Brahmanic ritualistic Hinduism 168 was diminished 168 Rural and devotional movements arose along with Shaivism Vaisnavism Bhakti and Tantra 168 though sectarian groupings were only at the beginning of their development 168 Religious movements had to compete for recognition by the local lords 168 and Buddhism Jainism Islam and various traditions within Hinduism were competing for members 169 170 171 Buddhism in particular had emerged as a powerful influence in India s spiritual traditions in the first 700 years of the 1st millennium CE 165 172 but lost its position after the 8th century and began to disappear in India 168 This was reflected in the change of puja ceremonies at the courts in the 8th century where Hindu gods replaced the Buddha as the supreme imperial deity note 25 Influence on Hinduism Traditional view Shankara has an unparallelled status in the tradition of Advaita Vedanta Hagiographies from the 14th 17th century portray him as a victor who travelled all over India to help restore the study of the Vedas 173 According to Frank Whaling Hindus of the Advaita persuasion and others too have seen in Sankara the one who restored the Hindu dharma against the attacks of the Buddhists and Jains and in the process helped to drive Buddhism out of India 174 His teachings and tradition are central to Smartism and have influenced Sant Mat lineages 175 Tradition portrays him as the one who reconciled the various sects Vaishnavism Shaivism and Saktism with the introduction of the Pancayatana form of worship the simultaneous worship of five deities Ganesha Surya Vishnu Shiva and Devi arguing that all deities were but different forms of the one Brahman the invisible Supreme Being 176 implying that Advaita Vedanta stoos above all other traditions 177 According to Koller Shankara and his contemporaries made a significant contribution in understanding Buddhism and the ancient Vedic traditions then transforming the extant ideas particularly reforming the Vedanta tradition of Hinduism making it India s most important spiritual tradition for more than a thousand years 178 note 26 Benedict Ashley credits Adi Shankara for unifying two seemingly disparate philosophical doctrines in Hinduism namely Atman and Brahman 179 Critical assessment Scholars have questioned Shankara s early influence in India 29 The Buddhist scholar Richard E King states Although it is common to find Western scholars and Hindus arguing that Sankaracarya was the most influential and important figure in the history of Hindu intellectual thought this does not seem to be justified by the historical evidence 25 Prominence of Maṇḍana Misra until 10th century According to Clark Sankara was relatively unknown during his life time and probably for several centuries after as there is no mention of him in Buddhist or jain sources for centuries nor is he mentioned by other important philosophers of the ninth and tenth centuries 28 According to King and Roodurmun until the 10th century Shankara was overshadowed by his older contemporary Mandana Misra the latter considered to be the major representative of Advaita 25 27 Maṇḍana Misra an older contemporary of Shankara 24 was a Mimamsa scholar and a follower of Kumarila but also wrote a seminal text on Advaita that has survived into the modern era the Brahma siddhi 180 181 The theory of error set forth in the Brahma siddhi became the normative Advaita Vedanta theory of error 182 and for a couple of centuries he was the most influential Vedantin 141 27 note 21 His student Vachaspati Misra who is believed to have been an incarnation of Shankara to popularize the Advaita view 183 wrote the Bhamati a commentary on Shankara s Brahma Sutra Bhashya and the Brahmatattva samiksa a commentary on Mandana Mishra s Brahma siddhi His thought was mainly inspired by Mandana Misra and harmonises Shankara s thought with that of Mandana Misra 184 web 3 The Bhamati school takes an ontological approach It sees the Jiva as the source of avidya web 3 It sees yogic practice and contemplation as the main factor in the acquirement of liberation while the study of the Vedas and reflection are additional factors 185 186 The later Advaita Vedanta tradition incorporated Maṇḍana Misra into the Shankara fold by identifying him with Suresvara 9th century 187 believing that Maṇḍana Misra became a disciple of Shankara after a public debate which Shankara won 180 188 According to Satchidanandendra Sarasvati almost all the later Advaitins were influenced by Mandana Misra and Bhaskara 189 He argues that most of post Shankara Advaita Vedanta actually deviates from Shankara and that only his student Suresvara who s had little influence represents Shankara correctly 190 In this view Shankara s influential student Padmapada misunderstood Shankara while his views were manitained by the Suresvara school 190 note 27 Vaishnavite Vedanta 10th 14th century Hajime Nakamura states that prior to Shankara views similar to his already existed but did not occupy a dominant position within the Vedanta 191 Until the 11th century Vedanta itself was a peripheral school of thought 192 Vedanta became a major influence when it was utilized by various sects of Hinduism to ground their doctrines 193 The early Vedanta scholars were from the upper classes of society well educated in traditional culture They formed a social elite sharply distinguished from the general practitioners and theologians of Hinduism 194 Their teachings were transmitted among a small number of selected intellectuals 194 Works of the early Vedanta schools do not contain references to Vishnu or Shiva 195 It was only after Shankara that the theologians of the various sects of Hinduism utilized Vedanta philosophy to a greater or lesser degree to form the basis of their doctrines 196 whereby its theoretical influence upon the whole of Indian society became final and definitive 194 Examples are Ramanuja 11th c who aligned bhakti the major force in the religions of Hinduism with philosophical thought meanwhile rejecting Shankara s views web 4 and the Nath tradition 197 Vijayanagara Empire and Vidyaranya 14th century In medieval times Advaita Vedanta position as most influential Hindu darsana started to take shape as Advaitins in the Vijayanagara Empire competed for patronage from the royal court and tried to convert others to their sect 198 It is only during this period that the historical fame and cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedanta was established 29 199 200 Many of Shankara s biographies were created and published in and after the 14th century such as Vidyaranya s widely cited Sankara vijaya Vidyaranya also known as Madhava who was the 12th Jagadguru of the Sringeri Sarada Pitham from 1380 to 1386 201 and a minister in the Vijayanagara Empire 202 inspired the re creation of the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire of South India This may have been in response to the devastation caused by the Islamic Delhi Sultanate 29 199 200 202 but his efforts were also targeted at Sri Vaishnava groups especially Visishtadvaita which was dominant in territories conquered by the Vijayanagara Empire 203 Furthermore sects competed for patronage from the royal court and tried to convert others to their own sectarian system 198 Vidyaranya and his brothers note Paul Hacker and other scholars 29 199 wrote extensive Advaitic commentaries on the Vedas and Dharma to make the authoritative literature of the Aryan religion more accessible 204 Vidyaranya was an influential Advaitin and he created legends to turn Shankara whose elevated philosophy had no appeal to gain widespread popularity into a divine folk hero who spread his teaching through his digvijaya universal conquest all over India like a victorious conqueror 204 205 In his doxography Sarvadarsanasaṅgraha Summary of all views Vidyaranya presented Shankara s teachings as the summit of all darsanas presenting the other darsanas as partial truths which converged in Shankara s teachings which was regarded to be the most inclusive system 206 204 The Vaishanava traditions of Dvaita and Visishtadvaita were not classified as Vedanta and placed just above Buddhism and Jainism reflecting the threat they posed for Vidyaranya s Advaita allegiance 207 Bhedabheda wasn t mentioned at all literally written out of the history of Indian philosophy 208 Such was the influence of the Sarvadarsanasaṅgraha that early Indologists also regarded Advaita Vedanta as the most accurate interpretation of the Upanishads 207 And Vidyaranya founded a matha proclaiming that it was established by Shankara himself 204 205 Vidyaranya enjoyed royal support 202 and his sponsorship and methodical efforts helped establish Shankara as a rallying symbol of values spread historical and cultural influence of Shankara s Vedanta philosophies and establish monasteries mathas to expand the cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedanta 29 Neo Vedanta 19 20th century Shankara s position was further established in the 19th and 20th century when neo Vedantins and western Orientalists elevated Advaita Vedanta as the connecting theological thread that united Hinduism into a single religious tradition 209 Shankara became an iconic representation of Hindu religion and culture despite the fact that most Hindus do not adhere to Advaita Vedanta 210 Digvijaya The conquests of Shankara Sources Main article Digvijaya There are at least fourteen different known hagiographies of Adi Shankara s life 51 These as well as other hagiographical works on Shankara were written many centuries to a thousand years after Shankara s death 211 in Sanskrit and non Sanskrit languages and the hagiographies are filled with legends and fiction often mutually contradictory 51 note 28 Many of these are called the Sankara Vijaya The conquests digvijaya of Shankara while some are called Guruvijaya Sankarabhyudaya and Shankaracaryacarita Of these the Brhat Sankara Vijaya by Citsukha is the oldest hagiography but only available in excerpts while Sankaradigvijaya by Madhava 17th c and Sankaravijaya by Anandagiri are the most cited 51 37 Other significant hagiographies are the Cidvilasiya Saṅkara Vijayaṃ of Cidvilasa c between the 15th and 17th centuries and the Keraliya Saṅkara Vijayaṃ of the Kerala region extant from c the 17th century 212 213 Scholars note that one of the most cited Shankara hagiographies Anandagiri s includes stories and legends about historically different people but all bearing the same name of Sri Shankaracarya or also referred to as Shankara but likely meaning more ancient scholars with names such as Vidya sankara Sankara misra and Sankara nanda 37 Some hagiographies are probably written by those who sought to create a historical basis for their rituals or theories 37 211 Life Murti of Shankara at his Samadhi Mandir behind Kedarnath Temple in Kedarnath India Murti of Shankara at the SAT Temple in Santa Cruz California According to the oldest hagiographies Shankara was born in the southern Indian state of Kerala in a village named Kaladi 214 51 sometimes spelled as Kalati or Karati 215 note 29 He was born to Nambudiri Brahmin parents 216 217 His parents were an aged childless couple who led a devout life of service to the poor They named their child Shankara meaning giver of prosperity 218 His father died while Shankara was very young 51 Shankara s upanayanam the initiation into student life had to be delayed due to the death of his father and was then performed by his mother 219 Shankara s hagiography describe him as someone who was attracted to the life of Sannyasa hermit from early childhood His mother disapproved A story found in all hagiographies describe Shankara at age eight going to a river with his mother Sivataraka to bathe and where he is caught by a crocodile 220 Shankara called out to his mother to give him permission to become a Sannyasin or else the crocodile will kill him The mother agrees Shankara is freed and leaves his home for education He reaches a Saivite sanctuary along a river in a north central state of India and becomes the disciple of a teacher named Govinda Bhagavatpada 220 221 The stories in various hagiographies diverge in details about the first meeting between Shankara and his Guru where they met as well as what happened later 220 Several texts suggest Shankara schooling with Govindapada happened along the river Narmada in Omkareshwar a few place it along river Ganges in Kashi Varanasi as well as Badari Badrinath in the Himalayas 221 The hagiographies vary in their description of where he went who he met and debated and many other details of his life Most mention Shankara studying the Vedas Upanishads and Brahmasutra with Govindapada and Shankara authoring several key works in his youth while he was studying with his teacher 222 It is with his teacher Govinda that Shankara studied Gaudapadiya Karika as Govinda was himself taught by Gaudapada 51 Most also mention a meeting with scholars of the Mimamsa school of Hinduism namely Kumarila and Prabhakara as well as Mandana and various Buddhists in Shastrartha an Indian tradition of public philosophical debates attended by large number of people sometimes with royalty 221 Thereafter the hagiographies about Shankara vary significantly Different and widely inconsistent accounts of his life include diverse journeys pilgrimages public debates installation of yantras and lingas as well as the founding of monastic centers in north east west and south India 37 221 Digvijaya and disciples While the details and chronology vary most hagiographies present Shankara as traveling widely within India Gujarat to Bengal and participating in public philosophical debates with different orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy as well as heterodox traditions such as Buddhists Jains Arhatas Saugatas and Charvakas 223 224 page needed 225 page needed The hagiographies credit him with starting several Matha monasteries but this is uncertain 223 Ten monastic orders in different parts of India are generally attributed to Shankara s travel inspired Sannyasin schools each with Advaita notions of which four have continued in his tradition Bharati Sringeri Sarasvati Kanchi Tirtha and Asramin Dvaraka 226 Other monasteries that record Shankara s visit include Giri Puri Vana Aranya Parvata and Sagara all names traceable to Ashrama system in Hinduism and Vedic literature 226 Shankara had a number of disciple scholars during his travels including Padmapadacharya also called Sanandana associated with the text Atma bodha Suresvaracharya Totakacharya Hastamalakacharya Chitsukha Prthividhara Chidvilasayati Bodhendra Brahmendra Sadananda and others who authored their own literature on Shankara and Advaita Vedanta 223 227 Death Adi Sankara is believed to have died aged 32 at Kedarnath in the northern Indian state of Uttarakhand a Hindu pilgrimage site in the Himalayas 226 6 Texts say that he was last seen by his disciples behind the Kedarnath temple walking in the Himalayas until he was not traced Some texts locate his death in alternate locations such as Kanchipuram Tamil Nadu and somewhere in the state of Kerala 221 A statue of Adi Shankara has been built behind Kedarnath Temple to commemorate his life and work as part of the temples redevelopment after the 2013 deluge in the area 228 The 12 foot statue inaugurated by Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi on 5 November 2019 is made of chlorite schist and weighs 35 tonnes 229 Mathas and Smarta traditionSee also Dashanami Sampradaya Vidyashankara temple at Sringeri Sharada Peetham Shringeri Shankara is regarded as the founder of the Dasanami Sampradaya of Hindu monasticism and the Panchayatana puja and Ṣaṇmata of the Smarta tradition Dashanami Sampradaya and mathas Advaita Vedanta is at least in the west primarily known as a philosophical system But it is also a tradition of renunciation Philosophy and renunciation are closely related web 5 Most of the notable authors in the advaita tradition were members of the sannyasa tradition and both sides of the tradition share the same values attitudes and metaphysics web 5 Shankara was a Vaishnavite who came to be presented as an incarnation of Shiva in the 14th century 230 web 5 to facilitate the adoption of his teachings by previously Saiva oriented mathas in the Vijayanagara Empire From the 14th century onwards hagiographies were composed in which he is portrayed as establishing the Dasanami Sampradaya 231 organizing a section of the Ekadandi monks under an umbrella grouping of ten names web 5 Several other Hindu monastic and Ekadandi traditions remained outside the organisation of the Dasanamis 232 233 According to tradition Adi Sankara organised the Hindu monks of these ten sects or names under four Maṭhas Sanskrit मठ monasteries with the headquarters at Dvaraka in the West Jagannatha Puri in the East Sringeri in the South and Badrikashrama in the North web 5 Each matha was headed by one of his four main disciples who each continues the Vedanta Sampradaya According to Paul Hacker the system may have been initiated by Vidyaranya 14th c who may have founded a matha proclaiming that it was established by Shankara himself as part of his campaign to propagate Shankara s Advaita Vedanta 204 205 Vidyaranya enjoyed royal support 202 and his sponsorship and methodical efforts helped establish Shankara as a rallying symbol of values spread historical and cultural influence of Shankara s Vedanta philosophies and establish monasteries mathas to expand the cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedanta 29 Smarta Tradition Main article Smarta Tradition Traditionally Shankara is regarded as the greatest teacher 234 235 and reformer of the Smartism sampradaya which is one of four major sampradaya of Hinduism 236 235 According to Alf Hiltebeitel Shankara established the nondualist interpretation of the Upanishads as the touchstone of a revived smarta tradition Practically Shankara fostered a rapprochement between Advaita and smarta orthodoxy which by his time had not only continued to defend the varnasramadharma theory as defining the path of karman but had developed the practice of pancayatanapuja five shrine worship as a solution to varied and conflicting devotional practices Thus one could worship any one of five deities Vishnu Siva Durga Surya Ganesa as one s istadevata deity of choice 237 Panchayatana puja IAST Pancayatana puja is a system of puja worship in the Smarta tradition 238 It consists of the worship of five deities set in a quincunx pattern 239 the five deities being Shiva Vishnu Devi Surya and an Ishta Devata such as Kartikeya or Ganesha or any personal god of devotee s preference 240 241 Sometimes the Ishta Devata is the sixth deity in the mandala 238 while in the Shanmata system 242 Skanda also known as Kartikeya and Murugan is added Panchayatana puja is a practice that became popular in medieval India 238 and has been attributed to Adi Shankara 243 However archaeological evidence suggests that this practice long predates the birth of Adi Shankara note 30 FilmsShankaracharya 1927 Indian silent film about Shankara by Kali Prasad Ghosh 245 Jagadguru Shrimad Shankaracharya 1928 Indian silent film by Parshwanath Yeshwant Altekar 245 Jagadguru Shankaracharya 1955 Indian Hindi film by Sheikh Fattelal 245 In 1977 Jagadguru Aadisankaran a Malayalam film directed by P Bhaskaran was released in which Murali Mohan plays the role of Adult Aadi Sankaran and Master Raghu plays childhood In 1983 a film directed by G V Iyer named Adi Shankaracharya was premiered the first film ever made entirely in Sanskrit language in which all of Adi Shankaracharya s works were compiled 246 The movie received the Indian National Film Awards for Best Film Best Screenplay Best Cinematography and Best Audiography 247 248 On 15 August 2013 Jagadguru Adi Shankara was released in an Indian Telugu language biographical film written and directed by J K Bharavi and was later dubbed in Kannada with the same title by Upendra giving narration for the Kannada dubbed versionSee also Hinduism portal India portal Religion portal Philosophy portalSwami Vivekananda Adi Shri Gauḍapadacharya Jnana Yoga Upanishads Shri Gaudapadacharya Math Shri Govinda Bhagavatpadacharya Vairagya Vivekachudamani Soundarya Lahari Shivananda Lahari Self consciousness Vedanta Govardhan Peetham East Puri Odisha Dwarka Kalika Pitha West Dwarka Gujarat Jyotirmath Peetham North Jyotirmath Badrikashram Uttarakhand Shri Sringeri Sharada Peetham South Sringeri Karnataka Shri Kanchi Kamakoti Peetham Kanchipuram Tamil Nadu Dakshinamurti StotraNotes Adi means first to distinguish him from other Shankaras He is also known as Shankara Bhagavatpada Saṅkara Bhagavatpada Shankara Bhagavatpadacharya Saṅkara Bhagavatpadacarya or Shankaracharya sometimes spelled Sankaracharya Modern scholarship places Shankara in the earlier part of the 8th century CE c 700 750 2 Earlier generations of scholars proposed 788 820 CE 2 Other proposals are 686 718 CE citation needed 44 BCE 3 or as early as 509 477 BCE a b c Shankara himself had renounced all religious ritual acts 146 For an example of Shankara s reasoning why rites and ritual actions should be given up see Karl Potter on p 220 Elsewhere Shankara s Bhasya on various Upanishads repeat give up rituals and rites see for example Shankara s Bhasya on Brihadaranyaka Upanishad pp 348 350 754 757 lt ref gt a b c Compare Mookerji 2011 on Svadhyaya Vedic learning Mookerji 2011 pp 29 31 notes that the Rigveda and Sayana s commentary contain passages criticizing as fruitless mere recitation of the Ŗik words without understanding their inner meaning or essence the knowledge of dharma and Parabrahman Mookerji 2011 pp 29 34 concludes that in the Rigvedic education of the mantras the contemplation and comprehension of their meaning was considered as more important and vital to education than their mere mechanical repetition and correct pronunciation Mookerji 2011 p 35 refers to Sayana as stating that the mastery of texts akshara prapti is followed by artha bodha perception of their meaning Artha may also mean goal purpose or essence depending on the context See Sanskrit English Dictionary University of Kloen Germany 2009 Karl Potter 1998 Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies Volume 4 ISBN 81 208 0310 8 Motilal Banarsidass pp 610 note 17 According to Mookerji 2011 p 36 the realization of Truth and the knowledge of paramatman as revealed to the rishis is the real aim of Vedic learning and not the mere recitation of texts a b King 1995 p 183 It is well known that Sankara was criticized by later rival Vedantins as a crypto Buddhist pracchana bauddha a b Atman versus anatman Isaeva 1993 pp 60 145 154 KN Jayatilleke 2010 Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge ISBN 978 81 208 0619 1 p 246 249 from note 385 onwards Steven Collins 1994 Religion and Practical Reason Editors Frank Reynolds David Tracy State Univ of New York Press ISBN 978 0 7914 2217 5 p 64 Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not self Pali anatta Sanskrit anatman the opposed doctrine of Atman is central to Brahmanical thought Put very briefly this is the Buddhist doctrine that human beings have no soul no self no unchanging essence Edward Roer Translator Shankara s Introduction at Google Books Katie Javanaud 2013 Is The Buddhist No Self Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana Philosophy Now John C Plott et al 2000 Global History of Philosophy The Axial Age Volume 1 Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 0158 5 p 63 The Buddhist schools reject any Atman concept As we have already observed this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism Arun Kumar Upadhyay The copper plate of King Sudhanwa said to have been issued to Sankara and now in the possession of Government on behalf of Dwarka Mutt bears the date as Yudhisthira Saka 2663 Asvin Sukla 15 This gives us 476 B C as the relevant year of his death The copper plate seems to have been issued to Sankara right towards the end of his career King Sudhanwa is referred to not only by Jinavijaya but also by biographers like Madhava and Sadananda 41 Citsukha s Brhat Sankara Vijaya also gives us the year of 2663 of Yudhi Saka i e 476 B C as the year of Sankara s passing away 42 The successive heads of the Kanchi and all other major Hindu Advaita tradition monasteries have been called Shankaracharya leading to some confusion discrepancies and scholarly disputes The chronology stated in Kanchi Matha texts recognizes five major Shankaras Adi Kripa Ujjvala Muka and Abhinava According to the Kanchi Matha tradition it is Abhinava Shankara that western scholarship recognizes as the Advaita scholar Shankara while the monastery continues to recognize its 509 BCE chronology 44 45 Also as per astronomical details given in books Shankara Satpatha Shankara Vijaya Brihat Shakara Vijaya and Prachina Shankara Vijaya it is believed that Shankaracharya was born in 509 BCE citation needed According to Kanhi Peetham having established his divine mission the incomparable Sankara attained his BrahmTbhava identity with Brahman at Kanchi in the precincts of Sri Kamakshi in his 32nd year in 2625 Kali in the cyclic year Raktakshi corresponding to 476 B C 46 Kena Upanishad has two commentaries that are attributed to Shankara Kenopnishad Vakyabhasya and Kenopnishad Padabhasya scholars contest whether both are authentic several suggesting that the Vakyabhasya is unlikely to be authentic 53 See also IndiaDivine org Authorship of Vivekachudamani and arshabodha org Sri Sankara s Vivekachudamani pp 3 4 The Question of Authorship of Vivekachudamani Swami Vivekananda translates Shivoham Shivoham as I am he I am he 65 Brahman is not to be confused with the personalised godhead Brahma The suffering created by the workings of the mind entangled with physical reality Mayeda refers to statements from Shankara regarding epistemology pramana janya in section 1 18 133 of Upadesasahasri and section 1 1 4 of Brahmasutra bhasya 80 81 NB some manuscripts list Upadesasahasri verse 1 18 133 as 2 18 133 while Mayeda lists it as 1 18 133 because of interchanged chapter numbering See Upadesa Sahasri A Thousand Teachings S Jagadananda Translator 1949 ISBN 978 81 7120 059 7 Verse 2 8 133 p 258 Karl H Potter 2014 The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies Volume 3 Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 61486 1 p 249 Shcherbatsky Shankara accuses them of disregarding all logic and refuses to enter in a controversy with them The position of Shankara is interesting because at heart he is in full agreement with the Madhyamikas at least in the main lines since both maintain the reality of the One without a second and the mirage of the manifold But Shankara as an ardent hater of Buddhism would never confess that He therefore treats the Madhyamika with great contempt on the charge that the Madhyamika denies the possibility of cognizing the Absolute by logical methods pramana Vachaspati Mishra in the Bhamati rightly interprets this point as referring to the opinion of the Madhyamikas that logic is incapable to solve the question about what existence or non existence really are This opinion Shankara himself as is well known shares He does not accept the authority of logic as a means of cognizing the Absolute but he deems it a privilege of the Vedantin to fare without logic since he has Revelation to fall back upon From all his opponents he requires strict logical methods 17 Highest self Shankara Upadesasahasri I 18 3 I am ever free the existent Sat I 18 6 The two contradictory notions I am the Existent Brahman and I act have Atman as their witness It is considered more reasonable to give up only that one of the two notions which arises from ignorance I 18 7 The notion I am the Existent arises from right means of knowledge while the other notion has its origin in fallacious means of knowledge 249 Sivananda 1993 p 219 Brahman the Absolute is alone real this world is unreal and the Jiva or individual soul is non different from Brahman Deutsch 1973 p 54 the essential status of the individual human person is that of unqualified reality of identity with the Absolute the self jiva is only misperceived the self is really Brahman Koller 2013 pp 100 101 Atman which is identical to Brahman is ultimately the only reality and the appearance of plurality is entirely the work of ignorance the self is ultimately of the nature of Atman Brahman Brahman alone is ultimately real Bowker 2000 There is only Brahman which is necessarily undifferentiated It follows that there cannot even be a difference or duality between the human subject or self and Brahman for Brahman must be that very self since Brahman is the reality underlying all appearance The goal of human life and wisdom must therefore be the realization that the self atman is Brahman Menon 2012 The experiencing self jiva and the transcendental self of the Universe atman are in reality identical both are Brahman though the individual self seems different as space within a container seems different from space as such These cardinal doctrines are represented in the anonymous verse brahma satyam jagan mithya jivo brahmaiva na aparah Brahman is alone True and this world of plurality is an error the individual self is not different from Brahman Hacker 1995 p 88 notes that Shankara uses two groups of words to denote atman One group principally jiva vijnanatman and sarira expresses the illusory aspect of the soul But in addition there are the two expressions atman and pratyagatman These also designate the individual soul but in its real aspect Mayeda 1992 pp 11 14 uses the word pratyagatman Sivananda 1993 p 219 Deutsch 1973 p 54 and Menon 2012 use the term jiva when referring to the identity of atman and Brahman Consciousness 117 web 2 intelligence 118 116 wisdom the Absolute 117 web 2 infinite web 2 the Highest truth web 2 While the Vedanta tradition equates sat the Existent with Brahman the Chandogya Upanishad itself does not refer to Brahman 111 109 Deutsch amp Dalvi 2004 p 8 Although the text does not use the term brahman the Vedanta tradition is that the Existent sat referred to is no other than Brahman a b King 2002 p 128 Although it is common to find Western scholars and Hindus arguing that Sankaracarya was the most influential and important figure in the history of Hindu intellectual thought this does not seem to be justified by the historical evidence Up I 18 219 The renunciation of all actions becomes the means for discriminating the meaning of the word Thou since there is an Upanisadic teaching Having become calm self controlled one sees Atman there in oneself Bhr Up IV 4 23 154 Michaels 2004 p 41 In the east the Pala Empire 770 1125 CE in the west and north the Gurjara Pratihara 7th 10th century in the southwest the Rashtrakuta Dynasty 752 973 in the Dekkhan the Chalukya dynasty 7th 8th century and in the south the Pallava dynasty 7th 9th century and the Chola dynasty 9th century McRae 2003 This resembles the development of Chinese Chan during the An Lu shan rebellion and the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period 907 960 979 during which power became decentralised end new Chan schools emerged Inden 1998 p 67 Before the eighth century the Buddha was accorded the position of universal deity and ceremonies by which a king attained to imperial status were elaborate donative ceremonies entailing gifts to Buddhist monks and the installation of a symbolic Buddha in a stupa This pattern changed in the eighth century The Buddha was replaced as the supreme imperial deity by one of the Hindu gods except under the Palas of eastern India the Buddha s homeland Previously the Buddha had been accorded imperial style worship puja Now as one of the Hindu gods replaced the Buddha at the imperial centre and pinnacle of the cosmo political system the image or symbol of the Hindu god comes to be housed in a monumental temple and given increasingly elaborate imperial style puja worship This includes also the dualistic Vaishna bhakti traditions which have also commented on the Upanishads and the Brahma Sutras but take a different stance Potter 2006 pp 6 7 these modern interpreters are implying that most Advaitins after Samkara s time are confused and basically mistaken and that 99 of the extant classical interpretive literature on Samkara s philosophy is off the mark This is clearly a remarkably radical conclusion Yet there is good reason to think that it may well be true The hagiographies of Shankara mirror the pattern of synthesizing facts fiction and legends as with other ancient and medieval era Indian scholars Some hagiographic poems depict Shankara as a reincarnation of deity Shiva much like other Indian scholars are revered as reincarnation of other deities for example Mandana misra is depicted as an embodiment of deity Brahma Citsukha of deity Varuna Anandagiri of Agni among others See Isaeva 1993 pp 69 72 This may be the present day Kalady in central Kerala The house he was born is still maintained as Melpazhur Mana Many Panchayatana mandalas and temples have been uncovered that are from the Gupta Empire period and one Panchayatana set from the village of Nand about 24 kilometers from Ajmer has been dated to belong to the Kushan Empire era pre 300 CE 244 The Kushan period set includes Shiva Vishnu Surya Brahma and one deity whose identity is unclear 244 According to James Harle major Hindu temples from 1st millennium CE embed the pancayatana architecture very commonly from Odisha to Karnataka to Kashmir and the temples containing fusion deities such as Harihara half Shiva half Vishnu are set in Panchayatana worship style 239 References a b c Koller 2013 p 99 a b c d e f Comans 2000 p 163 a b c d e Y Keshava Menon The Mind of Adi Shankaracharya 1976 pp 108 Suthren Hirst 2005 p 1 Nakamura 2004 pp 678 679 a b c d e f g Mayeda 2006 pp 6 7 a b Isaeva 1993 pp 2 3 a b c d e Hacker 1995 pp 30 31 a b W Halbfass 1983 Studies in Kumarila and Sankara Studien zur Indologie und Iranistik Monographic 9 Reinbeck a b c Rambachan 1991 pp xii xiii a b c Wilhelm Halbfass 1990 Tradition and Reflection Explorations in Indian Thought State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0 7914 0362 4 pp 205 208 a b c d e f g h i John Koller 2007 in Chad Meister and Paul Copan Editors The Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion Routledge ISBN 978 1 134 18001 1 pp 98 106 a b Grimes 2004 a b c Shah Kazemi 2006 p 4 a b c d Nakamura 1999 p 176 a b Shyama Kumar Chattopadhyaya 2000 The Philosophy of Sankar s Advaita Vedanta Sarup amp Sons New Delhi ISBN 81 7625 222 0 978 81 7625 222 5 a b c d Fyodor Shcherbatsky 1927 The Conception of Buddhist Nirvana pp 44 45 ISBN 9788120805293 a b Dasgupta 1997 p 494 a b c Biderman 1978 pp 405 413 a b c N V Isaeva 1993 Shankara and Indian Philosophy SUNY Press pp 14 a b King 1995 p 183 a b c Isaeva 1993 pp 60 145 154 Sharma 1962 p vi a b Roodurmun 2002 p 29 a b c d King 2001 p 128 Tola 1989 a b c d e Roodurmun 2002 pp 33 34 a b Clark 2006 p 217 a b c d e f g Hacker 1995 p 29 30 Goodding 2013 p 89 R Blake Michael 1992 The Origins of Virasaiva Sects Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 0776 1 pp 60 62 with notes 6 7 and 8 Clark 2006 p 215 221 222 Nowicka 2016 p 147 Bader 2001 p vii Raju P T 1 January 1985 Structural Depths of Indian Thought SUNY Press p 383 ISBN 978 0 88706 139 4 Till then Buddhism and Jainism particularly the former were in the ascendant Saṅkara defeated their leaders emphasis added Allen Charles 2 November 2017 Coromandel A Personal History of South India Little Brown Book Group ISBN 978 1 4087 0540 7 a b c d e Isaeva 1993 pp 69 82 a b c Adi Shankara Encyclopedia Britannica 2015 a b K A Nilakantha Sastry A History of South India 4th ed Oxford University Press Madras 1976 Isaeva 1993 pp 83 87 Arun Kumar Upadhyay 30 April 2020 Sankara Vijayas p 89 Sankara Vijayas 30 April 2020 Retrieved 11 May 2022 Dating Adi Shankara IndiaDivine org Retrieved 20 August 2020 a b Roshen Dalal 2010 Hinduism An Alphabetical Guide Penguin p 376 ISBN 978 0 14 341421 6 T S Narayana Sastry 1916 republished 1971 The Age of Sankara Sastry Narayana S t 1916 The Age Of Sankara 1916 B G Paul and Co N V Isaeva 1993 Shankara and Indian Philosophy State University of New York Press pp 84 87 with footnotes ISBN 978 0 7914 1281 7 The dating of 788 820 is accepted in Keay p 194 Madhava Vidyaranya Sankara Digvijaya The traditional life of Sri Sankaracharya Sri Ramakrishna Math ISBN 81 7823 342 8 Accessed 14 Sep 2016 p 20 Tapasyananda Swami 2002 Shankara Dig Vijaya pp xv xxiv a b c d e f g h Mayeda 2006 pp 3 5 M Piantelly Sankara e la Renascita del Brahmanesimo Indian Philosophical Quarterly Vol 4 No 3 Apr 1977 pp 429 435 Pande 2011 p 107 a b c Isaeva 1993 pp 93 97 a b c d e f g h Pande 2011 pp 105 113 a b Pande 2011 pp 351 352 Pande 2011 pp 113 115 Mishra Godavarisha A Journey through Vedantic History Advaita in the Pre Sankara Sankara and Post Sankara Periods PDF Archived from the original PDF on 22 June 2006 Retrieved 24 July 2006 Vidyasankar S Sankaracarya Archived from the original on 16 June 2006 Retrieved 24 July 2006 a b Hacker 1995 pp 41 56 Sankaracarya and Sankarabhagavatpada Preliminary Remarks Concerning the Authorship Problem Adi Shankaracharya Vivekacuḍamaṇi S Madhavananda Translator Advaita Ashrama 1921 a b Grimes 2004 p 23 Grimes 2004 p 13 Johannes Buitenen 1978 The Mahabharata vol 3 Chicago University of Chicago Press ISBN 978 0 226 84665 1 Swami Vivekananda 2015 The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda Manonmani Publishers Reprint p 1786 Original Sanskrit Nirvanashtakam Sringeri Vidya Bharati Foundation 2012 English Translation 1 K Parappaḷḷi and CNN Nair 2002 Saankarasaagaram Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan ISBN 978 81 7276 268 1 pp 58 59 English Translation 2 Igor Kononenko 2010 Teachers of Wisdom ISBN 978 1 4349 9898 9 p 148 English Translation 3 Nirvana Shatakam Isha Foundation 2011 Includes translation transliteration and audio Nakamura 2004 p 680 a b Nakamura 2004 p 678 a b Mayeda 2006 p 13 Nakamura 2004 p 679 a b Mayeda 1992 p XV Mayeda 1992 p XVIII note 3 Lipner 2000 p 56 incl note 12 Isaeva 1993 pp 3 29 30 Sharma 2000 p 64 Scheepers 2000 p 123 a b Rambachan 2006 p 26 a b c Comans 2000 p 183 Mayeda 2006 p 46 Mayeda 2006 pp 46 47 Brahmasutra bhasya 1 1 4 S Vireswarananda Translator p 35 a b c d Mayeda 2006 p 47 Comans 2000 p 168 Comans 2000 pp 167 169 Franklin Merrell Wolff 1995 Transformations in Consciousness The Metaphysics and Epistemology State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0 7914 2675 3 pp 242 260 Will Durant 1976 Our Oriental Heritage The Story of Civilization Simon amp Schuster ISBN 978 0 671 54800 1 Chapter XIX Section VI Stephen Phillips 2000 in Roy W Perrett Editor Epistemology Indian Philosophy Volume 1 Routledge ISBN 978 0 8153 3609 9 pp 224 228 with notes 8 13 and 63 Mahendranath Sircar 1933 Reality in Indian Thought The Philosophical Review Vol 42 No 3 pp 249 271 a b c Arvind Sharma 2008 The Philosophy of Religion and Advaita Vedanta Penn State Press ISBN 978 0 271 02832 3 pp 70 71 Aptavacana Sanskrit English Dictionary Cologne University Germany M Hiriyanna 2000 The Essentials of Indian Philosophy Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 1330 4 pp 42 44 Isaeva 1993 pp 219 223 with footnote 34 Isaeva 1993 pp 210 221 Rambachan 1991 Chapters 2 4 Anantanand Rambachan 1994 The limits of scripture Vivekananda s reinterpretation of the Vedas University of Hawaii Press pp 124 125 Isaeva 1993 pp 57 58 Shankara directly identifies this awakened atman with Brahman and the higher knowledge And Brahman reminds the Advaitist is known only from the Upanishadic sayings a b c Michael Comans 1993 The question of the importance of Samadhi in modern and classical Advaita Vedanta Philosophy East amp West Vol 43 Issue 1 pp 19 38 George Thibaut Translator Brahma Sutras With Commentary of Shankara Reprinted as ISBN 978 1 60506 634 9 pp 31 33 verse 1 1 4 Mayeda 2006 pp 46 53 Mayeda amp Tanizawa 1991 Studies on Indian Philosophy in Japan 1963 1987 Philosophy East and West Vol 41 No 4 pp 529 535 Michael Comans 1996 Sankara and the Prasankhyanavada Journal of Indian Philosophy Vol 24 No 1 pp 49 71 Mayeda 1992 p 14 Mayeda 1992 pp 12 172 Deutsch 1973 p 49 Long Jeffery D 15 April 2020 Historical Dictionary of Hinduism Rowman amp Littlefield ISBN 978 1 5381 2294 5 Braue 1984 p 81 a b c Brereton 1986 Olivelle 2008 p 349 note 8 7 16 3 a b c Black 2012 p 36 a b Lipner 2000 pp 55 note 9 57 a b c d Deutsch amp Dalvi 2004 p 8 Olivelle 2008 p 151 152 p 349 note 8 7 16 3 Olivelle 1998 p 152 Bhatawadekar 2013 p 203 note 14 Brereton 1986 p 107 a b Braue 1984 p 80 a b Grimes 1996 p 234 Sivaraman 1973 p 146 Mayeda 1992 pp 50 172 a b c Lipner 2000 p 57 a b Olivelle 2008 p 151 152 Mayeda 1992 p 172 Up 18 3 18 6 18 7 a b Shankara Chandogya Upanishad Bhasya Chapter 6 Tat Tvam Asi Mayeda 1992 p 172 Up 18 6 Lipner 2000 pp 60 62 Lipner 2000 p 60 Mayeda 1992 p 218 up II 1 24 Max Muller Chandogya Upanishad 6 1 6 16 The Upanishads Part I Oxford University Press pages 92 109 with footnotes Dominic Goodall 1996 Hindu Scriptures University of California Press ISBN 978 0520207783 pages 136 137 Mayeda 1992 pp 190 192 a b Mayeda 1992 pp 91 219 Up II 1 28 Nakamura 1999 p 675 Nakamura 1999 p 178 Nakamura 1999 p 679 Mayeda 1992 p 182 Up I 18 103 104 Mayeda 1992 pp 173 174 Up I 18 9 19 p 196 note 13 Mayeda 1992 pp 251 253 Up II 3 Mayeda 1992 p 253 Up II 3 Mayeda 1992 p 196 note 13 Rambachan 1991 p 155 a b King 2002 p 128 Rambachan 1991 p 155 156 Rambachan 1991 p 156 Roodurmun 2002 p 40 Cenkner 1995 p 95 Potter 2008 p 16 Sanskrit Upadesha sahasriEnglish Translation S Jagadananda Translator 1949 Upadeshasahasri Vedanta Press ISBN 978 81 7120 059 7 pp 16 17 OCLC 218363449 Potter 2008 pp 219 221 Mayeda 1992 pp 91 218 Mayeda 1992 pp 172 173 Up I 18 3 8 Mayeda 1992 p 183 Up I 18 99 100 Mayeda 1992 p 190 Up I 18 174 Mayeda 1992 p 192 Up I 18 196 197 p 195 Up I 18 2019 Mayeda 1992 p 195 Up I 18 2019 Mayeda 1992 pp 85 220 Up II 1 30 a b Mayeda 2006 pp 92 93 Potter 2008 pp 218 219 a b David Loy 1982 Enlightenment in Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta Are Nirvana and Moksha the Same International Philosophical Quarterly 23 1 pp 65 74 KN Jayatilleke 2010 Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge ISBN 978 81 208 0619 1 pp 246 249 from note 385 onwards Mudgal S G 1975 Advaita of Shankara A Reappraisal New Delhi Motilal Banarasidass p 4 Julius Lipner 1986 The Face of Truth A Study of Meaning and Metaphysics in the Vedantic Theology of Ramanuja State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0887060397 pp 120 123 a b c Whaling 1979 pp 1 42 Thomas McFaul 2006 The Future of Peace and Justice in the Global Village The Role of the World Religions in the Twenty first Century Praeger ISBN 978 0 275 99313 9 p 39 a b Michaels 2004 p 41 43 a b Koller 2012 p 99 108 a b Michaels 2004 p 41 White 2000 pp 25 28 a b c d e f g Michaels 2004 p 42 Doniger Wendy March 2014 On Hinduism Oxford ISBN 9780199360079 OCLC 858660095 TMP Mahadevan 1968 Shankaracharya National Book Trust pp 283 285 OCLC 254278306 Frank Whaling 1979 Sankara and Buddhism Journal of Indian Philosophy Vol 7 No 1 pp 1 42 Potter 2008 pp 1 21 103 119 Per Durst Andersen and Elsebeth F Lange 2010 Mentality and Thought North South East and West CBS Press ISBN 978 87 630 0231 8 p 68 Frank Whaling 1979 Sankara and Buddhism Journal of Indian Philosophy Vol 7 No 1 MARCH 1979 pp 1 42 Hindus of the Advaita persuasion and others too have seen in Sankara the one who restored the Hindu dharma against the attacks of the Buddhists and Jains and in the process helped to drive Buddhism out of India Ron Geaves March 2002 From Totapuri to Maharaji Reflections on a Lineage Parampara 27th Spalding Symposium on Indian Religions Oxford Klaus Klostermaier 2007 A Survey of Hinduism Third Edition State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0 7914 7082 4 p 40 Kruijf amp Sahoo 2014 p 105 Koller 2012 p 99 Benedict Ashley O P 2006 The Way toward Wisdom p 395 ISBN 978 0 268 02028 6 OCLC 609421317 a b Roodurmun 2002 p 31 Allen Wright Thrasher 1993 The Advaita Vedanta of Brahma siddhi Motilal Banarsidass pp vii x ISBN 978 81 208 0982 6 Roodurmun 2002 p 32 Roodurmun 2002 p 34 Roodurmun 2002 p 35 King 1999 p 56 Roodurmun 2002 p 37 Potter 2008 pp 346 347 420 423 There is little firm historical information about Suresvara tradition holds Suresvara is same as Mandana Misra Sharma 1997 p 290 291 Satchidanandendra Sarasvati 1997 p 6 a b Potter 2006 pp 6 7 Nakamura 2004 p 690 Nicholson 2010 p 157 229 note 57 Nakamura 2004 p 691 693 a b c Nakamura 2004 p 693 Nakamura 2004 p 692 Nakamura 2004 p 691 Feuerstein 1978 a b Stoker 2016 p 55 56 a b c Blake Michael 1992 p 60 62 with notes 6 7 and 8 a b Nicholson 2010 pp 178 183 Chisholm Hugh ed 1911 Madhava Acharya Encyclopaedia Britannica a b c d Cynthia Talbot 2001 Precolonial India in Practice Society Region and Identity in Medieval Andhra Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 513661 6 pp 185 187 199 201 Stoker 2016 p 55 a b c d e Hacker 1995 p 29 a b c Kulke amp Rothermund 1998 p 177 Nicholson 2010 pp 160 162 a b Nicholson 2010 pp 160 Nicholson 2010 pp 161 King 2001 p 129 King 2001 p 129 130 a b Pande 2011 p 35 Vidyasankar S The Sankaravijaya literature Retrieved 23 August 2006 Tapasyananda Swami 2002 Sankara Dig Vijaya viii Students Britannica India Popular Prakashan 2000 pp 379 ISBN 978 0 85229 760 5 Narasingha Prosad Sil 1997 Swami Vivekananda A Reassessment Susquehanna University Press p 192 ISBN 978 0 945636 97 7 Joel Andre Michel Dubois 2014 The Hidden Lives of Brahman Sankara s Vedanta Through His Upanisad Commentaries in Light of Contemporary Practice SUNY Press Roshen Dalal 2010 The Religions of India A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths Penguin Books India Adago John 2018 East Meets West UK Program Publishing 2 edition ISBN 978 0692124215 Menon Y Keshava 1976 The Mind of Adi Shankara Jaico p 109 ISBN 978 8172242145 a b c Isaeva 1993 pp 74 75 a b c d e Pande 2011 pp 31 32 also 6 7 67 68 Isaeva 1993 pp 76 77 a b c Pande 2011 pp 5 36 Hovey Sally Wriggins Xuanzang A Buddhist Pilgrim on the Silk Road Westview Press 1998 Pandey Vraj Kumar 2007 Encyclopaedia of Indian Philosophy Anmol Publications ISBN 978 81 261 3112 9 a b c Isaeva 1993 pp 82 91 Isaeva 1993 pp 71 82 93 94 Singh Kautilya 6 November 2021 PM Modi unveils Adi Guru Shankaracharya statue at Kedarnath The Times of India Retrieved 23 March 2022 arun Karnataka Sculptor from Mysuru chiselled 14 ft Shankaracharya s statue The Times of India 4 November 2021 Retrieved 24 March 2022 Clark 2006 p 218 220 224 Clark 2006 p 224 225 Karigoudar Ishwaran Ascetic Culture Wendy Sinclair Brull Female Ascetics Doniger 1999 p 1017 a b Popular Prakashan 2000 p 52 Rosen 2006 p 166 Hiltebeitel 2002 p 29 a b c Buhnemann Gudrun 2003 Mandalas and Yantras in the Hindu Traditions BRILL Academic p 60 ISBN 978 9004129023 via Google Books a b Harle James C 1994 The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent Yale University Press pp 140 142 191 201 203 ISBN 978 0 300 06217 5 via archive org Flood Gavin D 1996 An Introduction to Hinduism Cambridge University Press p 17 ISBN 978 0 521 43878 0 via archive org Eck Diana L 1998 Darsan Seeing the divine image in India Columbia University Press p 49 ISBN 978 0 231 11265 9 via Google Books Various Papers Saṅkaracarya Conference on Sankara and Shanmata 1969 Madras OCLC 644426018 Reprinted by HathiTrust Digital Library The Four Denominations of Hinduism Himalayan Academy Basics of Hinduism Kauai Hindu Monastery a b Asher Frederick 1981 Joanna Gottfried Williams ed Kaladarsana American studies in the art of India Brill Academic pp 1 4 ISBN 90 04 06498 2 via Google Books a b c Ashish Rajadhyaksha Paul Willemen 10 July 2014 Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema Taylor amp Francis ISBN 978 1 135 94325 7 Adi Shankaracharya at IMDb 31st National Film Awards India International Film Festival iffi nic in Archived from the original on 12 November 2013 31st National Film Awards PDF PDF Directorate of Film Festivals dff nic in Mayeda 1992 p 172 SourcesPrinted sourcesBader Jonathan 2001 Conquest of the Four Quarters TYraditional Accounts of the Life of Shankara Australian National University Bhatawadekar Sai 2013 The Tvat Tam Asi Formula and Schopenhauer s Deductive Leap in Fuechtner Veronika Rhiel Mary eds Imagining Germany Imagining Asia Essays in Asian German Studies Boydell amp Brewer Biderman Shlomo 1978 Sankara and the Buddhists Journal of Indian Philosophy 6 4 doi 10 1007 BF00218430 S2CID 170754201 Black Brian 2012 The Character of the Self in Ancient India Priests Kings and Women in the Early Upanisads SUNY ISBN 9780791480526 Blake Michael R 1992 The Origins of Virasaiva Sects Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 0776 1 Bowker John 2000 Advaita Vedanta The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions Oxford University Press Braue Donald A 1984 Maya in Radhakrishnanʾs Thought Six Meanings Other Than Illusion Motilall Banarsidass Brereton Joel P 1986 Tat Tvam Ast in Context Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft 136 1 98 109 Cenkner William 1995 A Tradition of Teachers Saṅkara and the Jagadgurus Today Motilall Banarsidas Clark Matthew 2006 The Dasanami saṃnyasis The Integration Of Ascetic Lineages Into An Order BRILL Comans Michael 2000 The Method of Early Advaita Vedanta A Study of Gauḍapada Saṅkara Suresvara and Padmapada Delhi Motilal Banarsidass Crystal David 2004 The Penguin Encyclopedia Penguin Books Dasgupta S N 1997 History of Indian Philosophy Volume 1 Deutsch Eliot 1973 Advaita Vedanta A Philosophical Reconstruction University of Hawaii Press ISBN 978 0 8248 0271 4 Deutsch Eliot Dalvi Rohit 2004 The Essential Vedanta A New Source Book of Advaita Vedanta World Wisdom Inc ISBN 9780941532525 Doniger Wendy 1999 Merriam Webster s Encyclopedia of World Religions Merriam Webster p 1017 ISBN 978 0 87779 044 0 smarta sect EB 2000 Shankara Student s Encyclopedia Britannia India vol 4 Encyclopaedia Britannica Publishing ISBN 978 0 85229 760 5 Feuerstein Georg 1978 Handboek voor Yoga Dutch translation English title Textbook of Yoga Ankh Hermes Goodding Robert A 2013 A Theologian in a South Indian Kingdom The Historical Context of the Jivanmuktiviveka of Vidyaranya in Lindquist Steven E ed Religion and Identity in South Asia and Beyond Essays in Honor of Patrick Olivelle Anthem Press Grimes John A 1996 A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy Sanskrit Terms Defined in English SUNY Press ISBN 978 0 7914 3067 5 Grimes John Fall 1998 Book reviews Early Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism The Mahayana Context of the Gaudapadiya karika by Richard King SUNY Press 1995 Journal of the American Academy of Religion 66 3 684 686 doi 10 1093 jaarel 66 3 684 Grimes John 2004 Introduction The Vivekacudamani of Sankaracarya Bhagavatpada An Introduction and Translation ISBN 978 0 7546 3395 2 Hacker Paul 1995 Halbfass Wilhelm ed Philology and Confrontation Paul Hacker on Traditional and Modern Vedanta SUNY Press ISBN 978 0 7914 2582 4 Hiltebeitel Alf 2002 Hinduism In Joseph Kitagawa The Religious Traditions of Asia Religion History and Culture Routledge ISBN 978 1 136 87597 7 Inden Ronald 1998 Ritual Authority And Cycle Time in Hindu Kingship in J F Richards ed Kingship and Authority in South Asia New Delhi Oxford University Press Isaeva Natalia 1993 Shankara and Indian Philosophy Albany State University of New York Press SUNY ISBN 978 0 7914 1281 7 Some editions spell the author Isayeva King Richard 1995 Early Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism The Mahayana Context of the Gaudapadiya Karika SUNY Press King Richard 1999 Orientalism and Religion Post Colonial Theory India and The Mystic East London New York Routledge OCLC 1120551977 ISBN 9780415202589 9780415202572 King Richard 2001 Orientalism and Religion Post Colonial Theory India and The Mystic East Taylor amp Francis e Library full citation needed King Richard 2002 Orientalism and Religion Post Colonial Theory India and The Mystic East London Routledge OCLC 248920425 ISBN 9780415202572 9780415202589 Koller John 2012 Shankara in Meister Chad Copan Paul eds Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 78294 4 Koller John M 2013 Shankara in Meister Chad Copan Paul eds Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion Routledge Kruijf Johannes de Sahoo Ajaya 2014 Indian Transnationalism Online New Perspectives on Diaspora ISBN 978 1 4724 1913 2 Kulke Hermann Rothermund Dietmar 1998 A History of India Routledge Lipner Julius 2000 The Self of Being and the Being of Self Samkara on That You Are Tat Tvam Asi in Malkovsky Bradley J ed New Perspectives on Advaita Vedanta BRILL Mayeda Sengaku 1992 An Introduction to the Life and Thought of Sankara in Mayeda Sengaku ed A Thousand Teachings The Upadesasahasri of Saṅkara State University of New York City Press ISBN 0 7914 0944 9 Mayeda Sengaku 2006 A thousand teachings the Upadesasahasri of Saṅkara Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 2771 4 McRae John 2003 Seeing Through Zen Encounter Transformation and Genealogy in Chinese Chan Buddhism The University Press Group Ltd ISBN 978 0 520 23798 8 Menon Sangeetha 2012 Advaita Vedanta Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Michaels Axel 2004 Hinduism Past and present Princeton New Jersey Princeton University Press Mookerji R 2011 1947 Ancient Indian Education Brahmanical and Buddhist Motilal Banarsidass Publishers ISBN 978 81 208 0423 4 Nakamura Hajime 1990 1950 A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy Part One Delhi Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Reprint Nakamura Hajime 1999 Indian Buddhism A Survey with Bibliographical Notes Delhi Motilal Banarsidass Nakamura Hajime 2004 1950 A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy Part Two Delhi Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Reprint of Shoki No Vedanta Tetsugaku Iwanami Shoten Tokyo Nicholson Andrew J 2010 Unifying Hinduism Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History Columbia University Press Nowicka Olga 2016 Conquering the World Subduing the Minds Saṅkara s digvijaya in the Local Context Cracow Indological Studies XVIII 18 145 166 doi 10 12797 CIS 18 2016 18 07 Olivelle Patrick 1992 The Samnyasa Upanisads Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0195070453 Olivelle Patrick 1998 Upaniṣads Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 283576 5 Olivelle Patrick 2008 Upaniṣads Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 954025 9 Pande G C 2011 Life and Thought of Saṅkaracarya Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 1104 1 Pandey S L 2000 Pre Sankara Advaita In Chattopadhyana ed History of Science Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization Volume II Part 2 Advaita Vedanta Delhi Centre for Studies in Civilizations Popular Prakashan 2000 Students Britannica India Volumes 1 5 Popular Prakashan ISBN 978 0 85229 760 5 Potter Karl 2006 Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies Vol II Advaita Vedanta From 800 To 1200 Motilal Banarsidass Publishers ISBN 81 208 3061 X Potter Karl 2008 Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies Vol III Advaita Vedanta up to Saṃkara and his pupils Motilal Banarsidass Publishers ISBN 978 81 208 0310 7 Rambachan Anantanand 1991 Accomplishing the Accomplished The Vedas as a Source of Valid Knowledge in Sankara University of Hawaii Press ISBN 978 0 8248 1358 1 Rambachan Anantanand 2006 The Advaita Worldview God World and Humanity State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0791468524 Roodurmun Pulasth Soobah 2002 Bhamati and Vivaraṇa Schools of Advaita Vedanta A Critical Approach Delhi Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Rosen Steven 2006 Essential Hinduism Greenwood Publishing Group ISBN 978 0 275 99006 0 Satchidanandendra Sarasvati 1997 The Method of the Vedanta A Critical Account of the Advaita Tradition Motilall Banarsidass Scheepers Alfred 2000 De Wortels van het Indiase Denken Olive Press Shah Kazemi Reza 2006 Paths to Transcendence According to Shankara Ibn Arabi amp Meister Eckhart World Wisdom Sharma Chandradhar 1962 Indian Philosophy A Critical Survey New York Barnes amp Noble Sharma C 1997 A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 0365 7 Sharma B N Krishnamurti 2000 History of the Dvaita School of Vedanta and Its Literature From the Earliest Beginnings to Our Own Times Motilal Banarsidass Publishers ISBN 978 81 208 1575 9 Sivananda Swami 1993 All About Hinduism The Divine Life Society Sivaraman K 1973 Saivism in Philosophical Perspective A Study of the Formative Concepts Problems and Methods of Saiva Siddhanta Motilall Banarsidass Stoker Valerie 2016 Polemics and Patronage in the City of Victory Vyasatirtha Hindu Sectarianism and the Sixteenth Century Vijayanagara Court University of California Press Suthren Hirst J G 2005 Saṃkara s Advaita Vedanta A Way of Teaching Routledge ISBN 978 1 134 25441 5 Tola Fernando 1989 On the Date of Maṇḍana Misra and Saṅkara and Their Doctrinal Relation Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute 70 1 4 37 46 ISSN 0378 1143 JSTOR 41693459 Whaling Frank 1979 Shankara and Buddhism Journal of Indian Philosophy 7 1 1 42 doi 10 1007 BF02561251 JSTOR 23440361 S2CID 170613052 White David Gordon ed 2000 Introduction In Tantra in practice Princeton and Oxford Princeton University Press Web citations Neil Dalal 2021 Shankara Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy a b c d Jiddu Krishnamurti Saanen 2nd Conversation with Swami Venkatesananda 26 July 1969 a b The Bhamati and Vivarana Schools Encyclopaedia Britannica Ramanajua a b c d e Sankara Acarya Biography Monastic Tradition Archived from the original on 8 May 2012 Further readingFort Andrew O 1998 Jivanmukti in Transformation Embodied Liberation in Advaita and Neo Vedanta SUNY Press Fuller C J 2004 The Camphor Flame Popular Hinduism and Society in India Princeton NJ Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 12048 5 Ingalls Daniel H H 1954 Saṁkara s Arguments against the Buddhists Philosophy East and West 3 4 291 306 doi 10 2307 1397287 JSTOR 1397287 Archived from the original on 28 June 2011 Succession of Shankaracharyas a chronology Archived 1 November 2019 at the Wayback Machine from Gaudapada onwards Reigle David 2001 The Original Sankaracarya PDF Fohat 5 3 57 60 70 71 Frank Whaling 1979 Sankara and Buddhism Journal of Indian Philosophy Vol 7 No 1 pp 1 42 Sri Shankaracharya in Cambodia by S Srikanta Sastri Navone J J 1956 Sankara and the Vedic Tradition Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 17 2 248 255 doi 10 2307 2104222 JSTOR 2104222 Rukmani T S 2003 Dr Richard de Smet and Sankara s Advaita Journal of Hindu Christian Studies 16 doi 10 7825 2164 6279 1295 A Questioning Approach Learning from Sankara s Pedagogic Techniques Archived 30 September 2016 at the Wayback Machine Jacqueline Hirst Contemporary Education Dialogue Vol 2 No 2 pp 137 169External linksAdi Shankara at Wikipedia s sister projects Media from Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata Works by Adi Shankara at Project Gutenberg Adi Shankara at Curlie Works by or about Adi Shankara at Internet Archive Majors works of Adi Sankara Volumes 1 20 Sanskrit and English translations A Note on the date of Sankara Adi Sankaracharya Archived 26 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine by S Srikanta Sastri Sri Shankaracharya in Cambodia by S Srikanta SastriReligious titlesPreceded byBhagawan Govinda Bhagavat Pada Jagadguru of Sringeri Sharada Peetham 820 videha mukti Succeeded bySureshwaracharya Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Adi Shankara amp oldid 1133861050, wikipedia, wiki, 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