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Wikipedia

Monism

May 05, 2023

Not to be confused with Mohism, Maoism or Mo (religion).
For the academic journal, see The Monist. For the legal concept, see Monism and dualism in international law.

Monism attributes oneness or singleness (Greek: μόνος) to a concept, e.g. existence. Various kinds of monism can be distinguished:

  • Priority monism states that all existing things go back to a source that is distinct from them; e.g., in Neoplatonism everything is derived from The One.[1] In this view only the One is ontologically basic or prior to everything else.
  • Existence monism posits that, strictly speaking, there exists only a single thing, the universe, which can only be artificially and arbitrarily divided into many things.[2]
  • Substance monism asserts that a variety of existing things can be explained in terms of a single reality or substance.[3] Substance monism posits that only one kind of substance exists, although many things may be made up of this substance, e.g., matter or mind.
  • Dual-aspect monism is the view that the mental and the physical are two aspects of, or perspectives on, the same substance.
  • Neutral monism believes the fundamental nature of reality to be neither mental nor physical; in other words it is "neutral".
The circled dot was used by the Pythagoreans and later Greeks to represent the first metaphysical being, the Monad or The Absolute

Definitions

There are two sorts of definitions for monism:

  1. The wide definition: a philosophy is monistic if it postulates unity of the origin of all things; all existing things return to a source that is distinct from them.[1]
  2. The restricted definition: this requires not only unity of origin but also unity of substance and essence.[1]

Although the term monism is derived from Western philosophy to typify positions in the mind–body problem, it has also been used to typify religious traditions. In modern Hinduism, the term "absolute monism" is used for Advaita Vedanta.[4][5]

History

Monism has been discussed thoroughly in Indian Philosophy and Vedanta throughout the history starting as early as the Rig Veda. The term monism was introduced in the 18th century by Christian von Wolff[6] in his work Logic (1728),[citation needed] to designate types of philosophical thought in which the attempt was made to eliminate the dichotomy of body and mind and explain all phenomena by one unifying principle, or as manifestations of a single substance.[6]

The mind–body problem in philosophy examines the relationship between mind and matter, and in particular the relationship between consciousness and the brain. The problem was addressed by René Descartes in the 17th century, resulting in Cartesian dualism, and by pre-Aristotelian philosophers,[7][8] in Avicennian philosophy,[9] and in earlier Asian and more specifically Indian traditions.

It was later also applied to the theory of absolute identity set forth by Hegel and Schelling.[clarification needed][10] Thereafter the term was more broadly used, for any theory postulating a unifying principle.[10] The opponent thesis of dualism also was broadened, to include pluralism.[10] According to Urmson, as a result of this extended use, the term is "systematically ambiguous".[10]

According to Jonathan Schaffer, monism lost popularity due to the emergence of analytic philosophy in the early twentieth century, which revolted against the neo-Hegelians. Rudolf Carnap and A. J. Ayer, who were strong proponents of positivism, "ridiculed the whole question as incoherent mysticism".[11]

The mind–body problem has reemerged in social psychology and related fields, with the interest in mind–body interaction[12] and the rejection of Cartesian mind–body dualism in the identity thesis, a modern form of monism.[13] Monism is also still relevant to the philosophy of mind,[10] where various positions are defended.[14][15]

Types

 
A diagram with neutral monism compared to Cartesian dualism, physicalism and idealism.

Different types of monism include:[10][16]

  1. Substance monism, "the view that the apparent plurality of substances is due to different states or appearances of a single substance"[10]
  2. Attributive monism, "the view that whatever the number of substances, they are of a single ultimate kind"[10]
  3. Partial monism, "within a given realm of being (however many there may be) there is only one substance"[10]
  4. Existence monism, "the view that there is only one concrete object token (The One, "Τὸ Ἕν" or the Monad)"[17]
  5. Priority monism, "the whole is prior to its parts" or "the world has parts, but the parts are dependent fragments of an integrated whole"[16]
  6. Property monism, "the view that all properties are of a single type (e.g., only physical properties exist)"
  7. Genus monism, "the doctrine that there is a highest category; e.g., being"[16]

Views contrasting with monism are:

  • Metaphysical dualism, which asserts that there are two ultimately irreconcilable substances or realities such as Good and Evil, for example, Manichaeism.[1]
  • Metaphysical pluralism, which asserts three or more fundamental substances or realities.[1]
  • Metaphysical nihilism, negates any of the above categories (substances, properties, concrete objects, etc.).

Monism in modern philosophy of mind can be divided into three broad categories:

  1. Idealist, mentalistic monism, which holds that only mind or spirit exists. [1]
  2. Neutral monism, which holds that one sort of thing fundamentally exists,[18] to which both the mental and the physical can be reduced
  3. Material monism (also called Physicalism and materialism), which holds that the material world is primary, and consciousness arises through the interaction with the material world[19][18]
    1. Eliminative Materialism, according to which everything is physical and mental things do not exist[18]
    2. Reductive physicalism, according to which mental things do exist and are a kind of physical thing[18][note 1]

Certain positions do not fit easily into the above categories, such as functionalism, anomalous monism, and reflexive monism. Moreover, they do not define the meaning of "real".

Monistic philosophers

Pre-Socratic

While the lack of information makes it difficult in some cases to be sure of the details, the following pre-Socratic philosophers thought in monistic terms:[20]

Post-Socrates

  • Neopythagorians such as Apollonius of Tyana centered their cosmologies on the Monad or One.
  • Stoics taught that there is only one substance, identified as God.[22]
  • Middle Platonism under such works as those by Numenius taught that the Universe emanates from the Monad or One.
  • Neoplatonism is monistic. Plotinus taught that there was an ineffable transcendent god, 'The One,' of which subsequent realities were emanations. From The One emanates the Divine Mind (Nous), the Cosmic Soul (Psyche), and the World (Cosmos).

Modern

Monistic neuroscientists

Religion

Pantheism

Main article: Pantheism

Pantheism is the belief that everything composes an all-encompassing, immanent God,[28] or that the universe (or nature) is identical with divinity.[29] Pantheists thus do not believe in a personal or anthropomorphic god, but believe that interpretations of the term differ.

Pantheism was popularized in the modern era as both a theology and philosophy based on the work of the 17th-century philosopher Baruch Spinoza,[30] whose Ethics was an answer to Descartes' famous dualist theory that the body and spirit are separate.[31] Spinoza held that the two are the same, and this monism is a fundamental quality of his philosophy. He was described as a "God-intoxicated man," and used the word God to describe the unity of all substance.[31] Although the term pantheism was not coined until after his death, Spinoza is regarded as its most celebrated advocate.[32]

H. P. Owen claimed that

Pantheists are "monists" ... they believe that there is only one Being, and that all other forms of reality are either modes (or appearances) of it or identical with it.[33]

Pantheism is closely related to monism, as pantheists too believe all of reality is one substance, called Universe, God or Nature. Panentheism, a slightly different concept (explained below), however is dualistic.[34] Some of the most famous pantheists are the Stoics, Giordano Bruno and Spinoza.

Panentheism

Main article: Panentheism

Panentheism (from Greek πᾶν (pân) "all"; ἐν (en) "in"; and θεός (theós) "God"; "all-in-God") is a belief system that posits that the divine (be it a monotheistic God, polytheistic gods, or an eternal cosmic animating force) interpenetrates every part of nature, but is not one with nature. Panentheism differentiates itself from pantheism, which holds that the divine is synonymous with the universe.[35]

In panentheism, there are two types of substance, "pan" the universe and God. The universe and the divine are not ontologically equivalent. God is viewed as the eternal animating force within the universe. In some forms of panentheism, the cosmos exists within God, who in turn "transcends", "pervades" or is "in" the cosmos.

While pantheism asserts that 'All is God', panentheism claims that God animates all of the universe, and also transcends the universe. In addition, some forms indicate that the universe is contained within God,[35] like in the Judaic concept of Tzimtzum. Much Hindu thought is highly characterized by panentheism and pantheism.[36][37]

Paul Tillich has argued for such a concept within Christian theology, as has liberal biblical scholar Marcus Borg and mystical theologian Matthew Fox, an Episcopal priest.[note 2]

Pandeism

Main article: Pandeism

Pandeism or pan-deism (from Ancient Greek: πᾶν, romanized: pan, lit. 'all' and Latin: deus meaning "god" in the sense of deism), is a term describing beliefs coherently incorporating or mixing logically reconcilable elements of pantheism (that "God", or a metaphysically equivalent creator deity, is identical to Nature) and classical deism (that the creator-god who designed the universe no longer exists in a status where it can be reached, and can instead be confirmed only by reason). It is therefore most particularly the belief that the creator of the universe actually became the universe, and so ceased to exist as a separate entity.[38][39]

Through this synergy pandeism claims to answer primary objections to deism (why would God create and then not interact with the universe?) and to pantheism (how did the universe originate and what is its purpose?).

Indian religions

Characteristics

The central problem in Asian (religious) philosophy is not the body-mind problem, but the search for an unchanging Real or Absolute beyond the world of appearances and changing phenomena,[40] and the search for liberation from dukkha and the liberation from the cycle of rebirth.[41] In Hinduism, substance-ontology prevails, seeing Brahman as the unchanging real beyond the world of appearances.[42] In Buddhism, process ontology is prevalent,[42] seeing reality as empty of an unchanging essence.[43][44]

Characteristic for various Asian religions is the discernment of levels of truth,[45] an emphasis on intuitive-experiential understanding of the Absolute[46][47][48][49] such as jnana, bodhi and kensho, and an emphasis on the integration of these levels of truth and its understanding.[50][51]

Hinduism

Main articles: Hinduism, Hindu philosophy, and Hindu denominations
Vedanta
Main article: Vedanta
 
Adi Shankara with Disciples, by Raja Ravi Varma (1904)

Vedanta is the inquiry into and systematisation of the Vedas and Upanishads, to harmonise the various and contrasting ideas that can be found in those texts. Within Vedanta, different schools exist:[52]

Advaita Vedanta
Main article: Advaita Vedanta

Monism is most clearly identified in Advaita Vedanta,[55] though Renard points out that this may be a western interpretation, bypassing the intuitive understanding of a nondual reality.[56]

In Advaita Vedanta, Brahman is the eternal, unchanging, infinite, immanent, and transcendent reality which is the Divine Ground of all matter, energy, time, space, being, and everything beyond in this Universe. The nature of Brahman is described as transpersonal, personal and impersonal by different philosophical schools.[57]

Advaita Vedanta gives an elaborate path to attain moksha. It entails more than self-inquiry or bare insight into one's real nature. Practice, especially Jnana Yoga, is needed to "destroy one's tendencies (vāasanā-s)" before real insight can be attained.[58]

Renard thinks Advaita took over from the Madhyamika the idea of levels of reality.[59] Usually two levels are being mentioned,[60] but Shankara uses sublation as the criterion to postulate an ontological hierarchy of three levels:[61][62]

  • Pāramārthika (paramartha, absolute), the absolute level, "which is absolutely real and into which both other reality levels can be resolved".[62] This experience can't be sublated by any other experience.[61]
  • Vyāvahārika (vyavahara), or samvriti-saya[60] (empirical or pragmatical), "our world of experience, the phenomenal world that we handle every day when we are awake".[62] It is the level in which both jiva (living creatures or individual souls) and Iswara are true; here, the material world is also true.
  • Prātibhāṣika (pratibhashika, apparent reality, unreality), "reality based on imagination alone".[62] It is the level in which appearances are actually false, like the illusion of a snake over a rope, or a dream.
Vaishnava
Main article: Vaishnavism

All Vaishnava schools are panentheistic and view the universe as part of Krishna or Narayana, but see a plurality of souls and substances within Brahman. Monistic theism, which includes the concept of a personal god as a universal, omnipotent Supreme Being who is both immanent and transcendent, is prevalent within many other schools of Hinduism as well.

Tantra
Main article: Tantra

Tantra sees the Divine as both immanent and transcendent. The Divine can be found in the concrete world. Practices are aimed at transforming the passions, instead of transcending them.

Modern Hinduism
Main article: Hindu reform movements

The colonisation of India by the British had a major impact on Hindu society.[63] In response, leading Hindu intellectuals started to study western culture and philosophy, integrating several western notions into Hinduism.[63] This modernised Hinduism, at its turn, has gained popularity in the west.[46]

A major role was played in the 19th century by Swami Vivekananda in the revival of Hinduism,[64] and the spread of Advaita Vedanta to the west via the Ramakrishna Mission. His interpretation of Advaita Vedanta has been called Neo-Vedanta.[65] In Advaita, Shankara suggests meditation and Nirvikalpa Samadhi are means to gain knowledge of the already existing unity of Brahman and Atman,[66] not the highest goal itself:

[Y]oga is a meditative exercise of withdrawal from the particular and identification with the universal, leading to contemplation of oneself as the most universal, namely, Consciousness. This approach is different from the classical Yoga of complete thought suppression.[66]

Vivekananda, according to Gavin Flood, was "a figure of great importance in the development of a modern Hindu self-understanding and in formulating the West's view of Hinduism."[67] Central to his philosophy is the idea that the divine exists in all beings, that all human beings can achieve union with this "innate divinity",[68] and that seeing this divine as the essence of others will further love and social harmony.[68] According to Vivekananda, there is an essential unity to Hinduism, which underlies the diversity of its many forms.[68] According to Flood, Vivekananda's view of Hinduism is the most common among Hindus today.[69] This monism, according to Flood, is at the foundation of earlier Upanishads, to theosophy in the later Vedanta tradition and in modern Neo-Hinduism.[70]

Buddhism

Main articles: Buddhism and Middle Way

According to the Pāli Canon, both pluralism (nānatta) and monism (ekatta) are speculative views. A Theravada commentary notes that the former is similar to or associated with nihilism (ucchēdavāda), and the latter is similar to or associated with eternalism (sassatavada).[71]

In the Madhyamaka school of Mahayana Buddhism, the ultimate nature of the world is described as Śūnyatā or "emptiness", which is inseparable from sensorial objects or anything else. That appears to be a monist position, but the Madhyamaka views – including variations like rangtong and shentong – will refrain from asserting any ultimately existent entity. They instead deconstruct any detailed or conceptual assertions about ultimate existence as resulting in absurd consequences. The Yogacara view, a minority school now only found among the Mahayana, also rejects monism.

Levels of truth

Within Buddhism, a rich variety of philosophical[72] and pedagogical models[73] can be found. Various schools of Buddhism discern levels of truth:

The Prajnaparamita-sutras and Madhyamaka emphasize the non-duality of form and emptiness: "form is emptiness, emptiness is form", as the heart sutra says.[75] In Chinese Buddhism this was understood to mean that ultimate reality is not a transcendental realm, but equal to the daily world of relative reality. This idea fitted into the Chinese culture, which emphasized the mundane world and society. But this does not tell how the absolute is present in the relative world:

To deny the duality of samsara and nirvana, as the Perfection of Wisdom does, or to demonstrate logically the error of dichotomizing conceptualization, as Nagarjuna does, is not to address the question of the relationship between samsara and nirvana -or, in more philosophical terms, between phenomenal and ultimate reality [...] What, then, is the relationship between these two realms?[75]

This question is answered in such schemata as the Five Ranks of Tozan,[76] the Oxherding Pictures, and Hakuin's Four ways of knowing.[77]

Sikhism

Main article: God in Sikhism

Sikhism complies with the concept of Absolute Monism. Sikh philosophy advocates that all that our senses comprehend is an illusion; God is the ultimate reality. Forms being subject to time shall pass away. God's Reality alone is eternal and abiding.[78] The thought is that Atma (soul) is born from, and a reflection of, ParamAtma (Supreme Soul), and "will again merge into it", in the words of the fifth guru of Sikhs, Guru Arjun Dev Ji, "just as water merges back into the water."[79]

ਜਿਉ ਜਲ ਮਹਿ ਜਲੁ ਆਇ ਖਟਾਨਾ ॥
Jio Jal Mehi Jal Aae Khattaanaa ||
As water comes to blend with water,

ਤਿਉ ਜੋਤੀ ਸੰਗਿ ਜੋਤਿ ਸਮਾਨਾ ॥
Thio Jothee Sang Joth Samaanaa ||
His light blends into the Light.

— SGGS. Pg 278, https://www.searchgurbani.com/guru-granth-sahib/ang-by-ang

God and Soul are fundamentally the same; identical in the same way as Fire and its sparks. "Atam meh Ram, Ram meh Atam" which means "The Ultimate Eternal reality resides in the Soul and the Soul is contained in Him". As from one stream, millions of waves arise and yet the waves, made of water, again become water; in the same way all souls have sprung from the Universal Being and would blend again into it.[80]

Abrahamic faiths

Judaism

Main article: Judaism

Jewish thought considers God as separate from all physical, created things and as existing outside of time.[note 3][note 4]

According to Maimonides,[81] God is an incorporeal being that caused all other existence.[citation needed] According to Maimonides, to admit corporeality to God is tantamount to admitting complexity to God, which is a contradiction to God as the first cause[citation needed] and constitutes heresy. While Hasidic mystics considered the existence of the physical world a contradiction to God's simpleness, Maimonides saw no contradiction.[note 5]

According to Hasidic thought (particularly as propounded by the 18th century, early 19th-century founder of Chabad, Shneur Zalman of Liadi), God is held to be immanent within creation for two interrelated reasons:

  1. A very strong Jewish belief is that "[t]he Divine life-force which brings [the universe] into existence must constantly be present ... were this life-force to forsake [the universe] for even one brief moment, it would revert to a state of utter nothingness, as before the creation ..."[82]
  2. Simultaneously, Judaism holds as axiomatic that God is an absolute unity, and that he is perfectly simple, thus, if his sustaining power is within nature, then his essence is also within nature.[citation needed]

The Vilna Gaon was very much against this philosophy, for he felt that it would lead to pantheism and heresy. According to some this is the main reason for the Gaon's ban on Chasidism.[citation needed]

Christianity

See also: Christian anthropology
Creator–creature distinction

Christians maintain that God created the universe ex nihilo and not from his own substance, so that the creator is not to be confused with creation, but rather transcends it. There is a movement of "Christian Panentheism".[83] Even more immanent concepts and theologies are to be defined together with God's omnipotence, omnipresence and omniscience, due to God's desire for intimate contact with his own creation (cf. Acts 17:27). Another use of the term "monism" is in Christian anthropology to refer to the innate nature of humankind as being holistic, as usually opposed to bipartite and tripartite views.

Rejection of radical dualism

In On Free Choice of the Will, Augustine argued, in the context of the problem of evil, that evil is not the opposite of good, but rather merely the absence of good, something that does not have existence in itself. Likewise, C. S. Lewis described evil as a "parasite" in Mere Christianity, as he viewed evil as something that cannot exist without good to provide it with existence. Lewis went on to argue against dualism from the basis of moral absolutism, and rejected the dualistic notion that God and Satan are opposites, arguing instead that God has no equal, hence no opposite. Lewis rather viewed Satan as the opposite of Michael the archangel. Due to this, Lewis instead argued for a more limited type of dualism.[84] Other theologians, such as Greg Boyd, have argued in more depth that the Biblical authors held a "limited dualism", meaning that God and Satan do engage in real battle, but only due to free will given by God, for the duration that God allows.[85]

Isaiah 45:5–7 (KJV) says:

⁵I am the LORD, and there is none else,
   there is no God beside me:
  I girded thee, though thou hast not known me:
⁶That they may know from the rising of the sun, and from the west,
    that there is none beside me.
  I am the LORD, and there is none else.
⁷I form the light, and create darkness:
    I make peace, and create evil:
  I the LORD do all these things.

Theosis

In Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy, while human beings are not ontologically identical with the Creator, they are nonetheless capable with uniting with his Divine Nature via theosis, and especially, through the devout reception of the Holy Eucharist.[citation needed] This is a supernatural union, over and above that natural union, of which St. John of the Cross says, "it must be known that God dwells and is present substantially in every soul, even in that of the greatest sinner in the world, and this union is natural." Julian of Norwich, while maintaining the orthodox duality of Creator and creature, nonetheless speaks of God as "the true Father and true Mother" of all natures; thus, he indwells them substantially and thus preserves them from annihilation, as without this sustaining indwelling everything would cease to exist.[citation needed]

Christian Monism

Some Christian theologians are avowed monists, such as Paul Tillich. Since God is he "in whom we live and move and have our being" (Book of Acts 17.28), it follows that everything that has being partakes in God.[citation needed]

Mormonism
Main articles: Materialism § Christianity, and Materialism and Christianity

Latter Day Saint theology also expresses a form of dual-aspect monism via materialism and eternalism, claiming that creation was ex materia (as opposed to ex nihilo in conventional Christianity), as expressed by Parley Pratt and echoed in view by the movement's founder Joseph Smith, making no distinction between the spiritual and the material, these being not just similarly eternal, but ultimately two manifestations of the same reality or substance.[86]


Parley Pratt implies a vitalism paired with evolutionary adaptation noting, “these eternal, self-existing elements possess in themselves certain inherent properties or attributes, in a greater or less degree; or, in other words, they possess intelligence, adapted to their several spheres.” [87]

Parley Pratt’s view is also similar to Gottfried Leibniz’s monadology, which holds that “reality consists of mind atoms that are living centers of force.” [88]

Brigham Young anticipates a proto-mentality of elementary particles with his vitalist view, “there is life in all matter, throughout the vast extent of all the eternities; it is in the rock, the sand, the dust, in water, air, the gases, and in short, in every description and organization of matter; whether it be solid, liquid, or gaseous, particle operating with particle.” [89]

The LDS conception of matter is “essentially dynamic rather than static, if indeed it is not a kind of living energy, and that it is subject at least to the rule of intelligence.” [90]

John A. Widstoe held a similar, more vitalist view, that “Life is nothing more than matter in motion; that, therefore, all matter possess a kind of life… Matter… [is] intelligence… hence everything in the universe is alive.” However, Widstoe resisted outright affirming a belief in panpsychism. [91]

Islam

See also: Tawhid
Quran

Vincent Cornell argues that the Quran provides a monist image of God by describing reality as a unified whole, with God being a single concept that would describe or ascribe all existing things.[92]

But most argue that Abrahamic religious scriptures, especially the Quran, see creation and God as two separate existences. It explains that everything has been created by God and is under his control, but at the same time distinguishes creation as being dependent on the existence of God.[92]

Sufism
See also: Sufism

Some Sufi mystics advocate monism. One of the most notable being the 13th-century Persian poet Rumi (1207–73) in his didactic poem Masnavi espoused monism.[93][94] Rumi says in the Masnavi,

In the shop for Unity (wahdat); anything that you see there except the One is an idol.[93]

Other Sufi mystics however, such as Ahmad Sirhindi, upheld dualistic Monotheism (the separation of God and the Universe).[95]

The most influential of the Islamic monists was the Sufi philosopher Ibn Arabi (1165–1240). He developed the concept of 'unity of being' (Arabic: waḥdat al-wujūd), which some argue is a monistic philosophy.[citation needed] Born in al-Andalus, he made an enormous impact on the Muslim world, where he was crowned "the great Master". In the centuries following his death, his ideas became increasingly controversial. Ahmad Sirhindi criticised monistic understanding of 'unity of being', advocating the dualistic-compatible 'unity of witness' (Arabic: wahdat ash-shuhud), maintaining separation of creator and creation.[96][97][98][99] Later, Shah Waliullah Dehlawi reconciled the two ideas maintaining that their differences are semantic differences, arguing that the universal existence (which is different in creation to creator) and the divine essence are different and that the universal existence emanates (in a non-platonic sense) from the divine essence and that the relationship between them is similar to the relationship between the number four and a number being even.[100][101]

Shi'ism
See also: Shi'ism

The doctrine of waḥdat al-wujūd also enjoys considerable following in the rationalist philosophy of Twelver Shi'ism, with the most famous modern-day adherent being Ruhollah Khomeini.[102]

Baháʼí Faith

Main article: Baháʼí Faith and the unity of religion

Although the teachings of the Baháʼí Faith have a strong emphasis on social and ethical issues, there exist a number of foundational texts that have been described as mystical.[103] Some of these include statements of a monist nature (e.g., The Seven Valleys and the Hidden Words). The differences between dualist and monist views are reconciled by the teaching that these opposing viewpoints are caused by differences in the observers themselves, not in that which is observed. This is not a 'higher truth/lower truth' position. God is unknowable. For man it is impossible to acquire any direct knowledge of God or the Absolute, because any knowledge that one has, is relative.[104]

Non-dualism

Main article: Nondualism

According to nondualism, many forms of religion are based on an experiential or intuitive understanding of "the Real".[105] Nondualism, a modern reinterpretation of these religions, prefers the term "nondualism", instead of monism, because this understanding is "nonconceptual", "not graspable in an idea".[105][note 6][note 7]

To these nondual traditions belong Hinduism (including Vedanta,[107] some forms of Yoga, and certain schools of Shaivism), Taoism,[108][109] Pantheism,[110] Rastafari,[111] and similar systems of thought.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Such as Behaviourism, Type-identity theory and Functionalism
  2. ^ See Creation Spirituality
  3. ^ For a discussion of the resultant paradox, see Tzimtzum.
  4. ^ See also Negative theology.
  5. ^ See the "Guide for the Perplexed", especially chapter I:50.
  6. ^ In Dutch: "Niet in een denkbeeld te vatten".[105]
  7. ^ According to Renard, Alan Watts has explained the difference between "non-dualism" and "monism" in The Supreme Identity, Faber and Faber 1950, pp. 69 and 95; The Way of Zen, Pelican-edition 1976, pp. 59–60.[106] According to Renard, Alan Watts has been one of the main contributors to the popularisation of the notion of "nondualism".[105]

References

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  2. ^ Strawson, G. (2014 in press): "Nietzsche's metaphysics?". In: Dries, M. & Kail, P. (eds): "Nietzsche on Mind and Nature". Oxford University Press. PDF of draft
  3. ^ Cross & Livingstone 1974.
  4. ^ Chande 2000, p. 277.
  5. ^ Dasgupta 1992, p. 70.
  6. ^ a b "monism", Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Retrieved 29 October 2014.
  7. ^ Robert M. Young (1996). "The mind-body problem". In Olby, RC; GN Cantor; JR Christie; MJS Hodges (eds.). Companion to the History of Modern Science (Paperback reprint of Routledge 1990 ed.). Taylor & Francis. pp. 702–11. ISBN 0-41514578-3.
  8. ^ Robinson, Howard (Nov 3, 2011). "Dualism". In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2011 Edition).
  9. ^ Henrik Lagerlund (2010). "Introduction". In Henrik Lagerlund (ed.). Forming the Mind: Essays on the Internal Senses and the Mind/Body Problem from Avicenna to the Medical Enlightenment (Paperback reprint of 2007 ed.). Springer Science+Business Media. p. 3. ISBN 978-9048175307.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i Urmson 1991, p. 297.
  11. ^ Schaffer 2010.
  12. ^ Fiske 2010, p. 195.
  13. ^ Fiske 2010, p. 195-196.
  14. ^ Mandik 2010.
  15. ^ McLaughlin 2009.
  16. ^ a b c Schaffer, Jonathan, Monism: The Priority of the Whole, http://www.jonathanschaffer.org/monism.pdf
  17. ^ Schaffer, Jonathan, "Monism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2015 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2015/entries/monism/
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May 05, 2023
monism, confused, with, mohism, maoism, religion, academic, journal, monist, legal, concept, dualism, international, attributes, oneness, singleness, greek, μόνος, concept, existence, various, kinds, monism, distinguished, priority, monism, states, that, exist. Not to be confused with Mohism Maoism or Mo religion For the academic journal see The Monist For the legal concept see Monism and dualism in international law Monism attributes oneness or singleness Greek monos to a concept e g existence Various kinds of monism can be distinguished Priority monism states that all existing things go back to a source that is distinct from them e g in Neoplatonism everything is derived from The One 1 In this view only the One is ontologically basic or prior to everything else Existence monism posits that strictly speaking there exists only a single thing the universe which can only be artificially and arbitrarily divided into many things 2 Substance monism asserts that a variety of existing things can be explained in terms of a single reality or substance 3 Substance monism posits that only one kind of substance exists although many things may be made up of this substance e g matter or mind Dual aspect monism is the view that the mental and the physical are two aspects of or perspectives on the same substance Neutral monism believes the fundamental nature of reality to be neither mental nor physical in other words it is neutral The circled dot was used by the Pythagoreans and later Greeks to represent the first metaphysical being the Monad or The Absolute Contents 1 Definitions 2 History 3 Types 4 Monistic philosophers 4 1 Pre Socratic 4 2 Post Socrates 4 3 Modern 5 Monistic neuroscientists 6 Religion 6 1 Pantheism 6 2 Panentheism 6 3 Pandeism 6 4 Indian religions 6 4 1 Characteristics 6 4 2 Hinduism 6 4 2 1 Vedanta 6 4 2 2 Advaita Vedanta 6 4 2 3 Vaishnava 6 4 2 4 Tantra 6 4 2 5 Modern Hinduism 6 4 3 Buddhism 6 4 3 1 Levels of truth 6 4 4 Sikhism 6 5 Abrahamic faiths 6 5 1 Judaism 6 5 2 Christianity 6 5 2 1 Creator creature distinction 6 5 2 2 Rejection of radical dualism 6 5 2 3 Theosis 6 5 2 4 Christian Monism 6 5 2 5 Mormonism 6 5 3 Islam 6 5 3 1 Quran 6 5 3 2 Sufism 6 5 3 3 Shi ism 6 5 4 Bahaʼi Faith 6 6 Non dualism 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Sources 11 External linksDefinitions EditThere are two sorts of definitions for monism The wide definition a philosophy is monistic if it postulates unity of the origin of all things all existing things return to a source that is distinct from them 1 The restricted definition this requires not only unity of origin but also unity of substance and essence 1 Although the term monism is derived from Western philosophy to typify positions in the mind body problem it has also been used to typify religious traditions In modern Hinduism the term absolute monism is used for Advaita Vedanta 4 5 History EditMonism has been discussed thoroughly in Indian Philosophy and Vedanta throughout the history starting as early as the Rig Veda The term monism was introduced in the 18th century by Christian von Wolff 6 in his work Logic 1728 citation needed to designate types of philosophical thought in which the attempt was made to eliminate the dichotomy of body and mind and explain all phenomena by one unifying principle or as manifestations of a single substance 6 The mind body problem in philosophy examines the relationship between mind and matter and in particular the relationship between consciousness and the brain The problem was addressed by Rene Descartes in the 17th century resulting in Cartesian dualism and by pre Aristotelian philosophers 7 8 in Avicennian philosophy 9 and in earlier Asian and more specifically Indian traditions It was later also applied to the theory of absolute identity set forth by Hegel and Schelling clarification needed 10 Thereafter the term was more broadly used for any theory postulating a unifying principle 10 The opponent thesis of dualism also was broadened to include pluralism 10 According to Urmson as a result of this extended use the term is systematically ambiguous 10 According to Jonathan Schaffer monism lost popularity due to the emergence of analytic philosophy in the early twentieth century which revolted against the neo Hegelians Rudolf Carnap and A J Ayer who were strong proponents of positivism ridiculed the whole question as incoherent mysticism 11 The mind body problem has reemerged in social psychology and related fields with the interest in mind body interaction 12 and the rejection of Cartesian mind body dualism in the identity thesis a modern form of monism 13 Monism is also still relevant to the philosophy of mind 10 where various positions are defended 14 15 Types Edit A diagram with neutral monism compared to Cartesian dualism physicalism and idealism Different types of monism include 10 16 Substance monism the view that the apparent plurality of substances is due to different states or appearances of a single substance 10 Attributive monism the view that whatever the number of substances they are of a single ultimate kind 10 Partial monism within a given realm of being however many there may be there is only one substance 10 Existence monism the view that there is only one concrete object token The One Tὸ Ἕn or the Monad 17 Priority monism the whole is prior to its parts or the world has parts but the parts are dependent fragments of an integrated whole 16 Property monism the view that all properties are of a single type e g only physical properties exist Genus monism the doctrine that there is a highest category e g being 16 Views contrasting with monism are Metaphysical dualism which asserts that there are two ultimately irreconcilable substances or realities such as Good and Evil for example Manichaeism 1 Metaphysical pluralism which asserts three or more fundamental substances or realities 1 Metaphysical nihilism negates any of the above categories substances properties concrete objects etc Monism in modern philosophy of mind can be divided into three broad categories Idealist mentalistic monism which holds that only mind or spirit exists 1 Neutral monism which holds that one sort of thing fundamentally exists 18 to which both the mental and the physical can be reducedMaterial monism also called Physicalism and materialism which holds that the material world is primary and consciousness arises through the interaction with the material world 19 18 Eliminative Materialism according to which everything is physical and mental things do not exist 18 Reductive physicalism according to which mental things do exist and are a kind of physical thing 18 note 1 Certain positions do not fit easily into the above categories such as functionalism anomalous monism and reflexive monism Moreover they do not define the meaning of real Monistic philosophers EditPre Socratic Edit While the lack of information makes it difficult in some cases to be sure of the details the following pre Socratic philosophers thought in monistic terms 20 Thales Water Anaximander Apeiron meaning the undefined infinite Reality is some one thing but we cannot know what Anaximenes of Miletus Air Heraclitus Change symbolized by fire in that everything is in constant flux Parmenides Being or Reality is an unmoving perfect sphere unchanging undivided 21 Post Socrates Edit Neopythagorians such as Apollonius of Tyana centered their cosmologies on the Monad or One Stoics taught that there is only one substance identified as God 22 Middle Platonism under such works as those by Numenius taught that the Universe emanates from the Monad or One Neoplatonism is monistic Plotinus taught that there was an ineffable transcendent god The One of which subsequent realities were emanations From The One emanates the Divine Mind Nous the Cosmic Soul Psyche and the World Cosmos Modern Edit Alexander Bogdanov F H Bradley Giordano Bruno 23 24 Gilles Deleuze Friedrich Engels Johann Gottlieb Fichte Ernst Haeckel 25 26 Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel Christopher Langan Giacomo Leopardi 27 Ernst Mach Karl Marx Wilhelm Ostwald Charles Sanders Peirce Georgi Plekhanov Michael Della Rocca Gilbert Ryle Jonathan Schaffer Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling Arthur Schopenhauer Rupert Sheldrake B F Skinner Herbert Spencer Baruch Spinoza Rudolf Steiner Alan Watts Alfred North Whitehead David Bentley HartMonistic neuroscientists EditGyorgy Buzsaki Francis Crick Karl Friston Eric Kandel Mark Solms Rodolfo Llinas Ivan Pavlov Roger SperryReligion EditPantheism Edit Main article Pantheism Pantheism is the belief that everything composes an all encompassing immanent God 28 or that the universe or nature is identical with divinity 29 Pantheists thus do not believe in a personal or anthropomorphic god but believe that interpretations of the term differ Pantheism was popularized in the modern era as both a theology and philosophy based on the work of the 17th century philosopher Baruch Spinoza 30 whose Ethics was an answer to Descartes famous dualist theory that the body and spirit are separate 31 Spinoza held that the two are the same and this monism is a fundamental quality of his philosophy He was described as a God intoxicated man and used the word God to describe the unity of all substance 31 Although the term pantheism was not coined until after his death Spinoza is regarded as its most celebrated advocate 32 H P Owen claimed that Pantheists are monists they believe that there is only one Being and that all other forms of reality are either modes or appearances of it or identical with it 33 Pantheism is closely related to monism as pantheists too believe all of reality is one substance called Universe God or Nature Panentheism a slightly different concept explained below however is dualistic 34 Some of the most famous pantheists are the Stoics Giordano Bruno and Spinoza Panentheism Edit Main article Panentheism Panentheism from Greek pᾶn pan all ἐn en in and 8eos theos God all in God is a belief system that posits that the divine be it a monotheistic God polytheistic gods or an eternal cosmic animating force interpenetrates every part of nature but is not one with nature Panentheism differentiates itself from pantheism which holds that the divine is synonymous with the universe 35 In panentheism there are two types of substance pan the universe and God The universe and the divine are not ontologically equivalent God is viewed as the eternal animating force within the universe In some forms of panentheism the cosmos exists within God who in turn transcends pervades or is in the cosmos While pantheism asserts that All is God panentheism claims that God animates all of the universe and also transcends the universe In addition some forms indicate that the universe is contained within God 35 like in the Judaic concept of Tzimtzum Much Hindu thought is highly characterized by panentheism and pantheism 36 37 Paul Tillich has argued for such a concept within Christian theology as has liberal biblical scholar Marcus Borg and mystical theologian Matthew Fox an Episcopal priest note 2 Pandeism Edit Main article Pandeism Pandeism or pan deism from Ancient Greek pᾶn romanized pan lit all and Latin deus meaning god in the sense of deism is a term describing beliefs coherently incorporating or mixing logically reconcilable elements of pantheism that God or a metaphysically equivalent creator deity is identical to Nature and classical deism that the creator god who designed the universe no longer exists in a status where it can be reached and can instead be confirmed only by reason It is therefore most particularly the belief that the creator of the universe actually became the universe and so ceased to exist as a separate entity 38 39 Through this synergy pandeism claims to answer primary objections to deism why would God create and then not interact with the universe and to pantheism how did the universe originate and what is its purpose Indian religions Edit Characteristics Edit The central problem in Asian religious philosophy is not the body mind problem but the search for an unchanging Real or Absolute beyond the world of appearances and changing phenomena 40 and the search for liberation from dukkha and the liberation from the cycle of rebirth 41 In Hinduism substance ontology prevails seeing Brahman as the unchanging real beyond the world of appearances 42 In Buddhism process ontology is prevalent 42 seeing reality as empty of an unchanging essence 43 44 Characteristic for various Asian religions is the discernment of levels of truth 45 an emphasis on intuitive experiential understanding of the Absolute 46 47 48 49 such as jnana bodhi and kensho and an emphasis on the integration of these levels of truth and its understanding 50 51 Hinduism Edit Main articles Hinduism Hindu philosophy and Hindu denominations Vedanta Edit Main article Vedanta Adi Shankara with Disciples by Raja Ravi Varma 1904 Vedanta is the inquiry into and systematisation of the Vedas and Upanishads to harmonise the various and contrasting ideas that can be found in those texts Within Vedanta different schools exist 52 Advaita Vedanta absolute monism of which Adi Shankara is the best known representative 53 Vishishtadvaita qualified monism is from the school of Ramanuja 54 Shuddhadvaita in essence monism is the school of Vallabha Dvaitadvaita differential monism is a school founded by Nimbarka Achintya Bheda Abheda a school of Vedanta founded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu representing the philosophy of inconceivable one ness and difference It can be understood as an integration of the strict dualist dvaita theology of Madhvacharya and the qualified monism vishishtadvaita of Ramanuja Advaita Vedanta Edit Main article Advaita Vedanta Monism is most clearly identified in Advaita Vedanta 55 though Renard points out that this may be a western interpretation bypassing the intuitive understanding of a nondual reality 56 In Advaita Vedanta Brahman is the eternal unchanging infinite immanent and transcendent reality which is the Divine Ground of all matter energy time space being and everything beyond in this Universe The nature of Brahman is described as transpersonal personal and impersonal by different philosophical schools 57 Advaita Vedanta gives an elaborate path to attain moksha It entails more than self inquiry or bare insight into one s real nature Practice especially Jnana Yoga is needed to destroy one s tendencies vaasana s before real insight can be attained 58 Renard thinks Advaita took over from the Madhyamika the idea of levels of reality 59 Usually two levels are being mentioned 60 but Shankara uses sublation as the criterion to postulate an ontological hierarchy of three levels 61 62 Paramarthika paramartha absolute the absolute level which is absolutely real and into which both other reality levels can be resolved 62 This experience can t be sublated by any other experience 61 Vyavaharika vyavahara or samvriti saya 60 empirical or pragmatical our world of experience the phenomenal world that we handle every day when we are awake 62 It is the level in which both jiva living creatures or individual souls and Iswara are true here the material world is also true Pratibhaṣika pratibhashika apparent reality unreality reality based on imagination alone 62 It is the level in which appearances are actually false like the illusion of a snake over a rope or a dream Vaishnava Edit Main article Vaishnavism All Vaishnava schools are panentheistic and view the universe as part of Krishna or Narayana but see a plurality of souls and substances within Brahman Monistic theism which includes the concept of a personal god as a universal omnipotent Supreme Being who is both immanent and transcendent is prevalent within many other schools of Hinduism as well Tantra Edit Main article Tantra Tantra sees the Divine as both immanent and transcendent The Divine can be found in the concrete world Practices are aimed at transforming the passions instead of transcending them Modern Hinduism Edit Main article Hindu reform movements The colonisation of India by the British had a major impact on Hindu society 63 In response leading Hindu intellectuals started to study western culture and philosophy integrating several western notions into Hinduism 63 This modernised Hinduism at its turn has gained popularity in the west 46 A major role was played in the 19th century by Swami Vivekananda in the revival of Hinduism 64 and the spread of Advaita Vedanta to the west via the Ramakrishna Mission His interpretation of Advaita Vedanta has been called Neo Vedanta 65 In Advaita Shankara suggests meditation and Nirvikalpa Samadhi are means to gain knowledge of the already existing unity of Brahman and Atman 66 not the highest goal itself Y oga is a meditative exercise of withdrawal from the particular and identification with the universal leading to contemplation of oneself as the most universal namely Consciousness This approach is different from the classical Yoga of complete thought suppression 66 Vivekananda according to Gavin Flood was a figure of great importance in the development of a modern Hindu self understanding and in formulating the West s view of Hinduism 67 Central to his philosophy is the idea that the divine exists in all beings that all human beings can achieve union with this innate divinity 68 and that seeing this divine as the essence of others will further love and social harmony 68 According to Vivekananda there is an essential unity to Hinduism which underlies the diversity of its many forms 68 According to Flood Vivekananda s view of Hinduism is the most common among Hindus today 69 This monism according to Flood is at the foundation of earlier Upanishads to theosophy in the later Vedanta tradition and in modern Neo Hinduism 70 Buddhism Edit Main articles Buddhism and Middle Way According to the Pali Canon both pluralism nanatta and monism ekatta are speculative views A Theravada commentary notes that the former is similar to or associated with nihilism ucchedavada and the latter is similar to or associated with eternalism sassatavada 71 In the Madhyamaka school of Mahayana Buddhism the ultimate nature of the world is described as Sunyata or emptiness which is inseparable from sensorial objects or anything else That appears to be a monist position but the Madhyamaka views including variations like rangtong and shentong will refrain from asserting any ultimately existent entity They instead deconstruct any detailed or conceptual assertions about ultimate existence as resulting in absurd consequences The Yogacara view a minority school now only found among the Mahayana also rejects monism Levels of truth Edit Within Buddhism a rich variety of philosophical 72 and pedagogical models 73 can be found Various schools of Buddhism discern levels of truth The Two truths doctrine of the Madhyamaka The Three Natures of the Yogacara Essence Function or Absolute relative in Chinese and Korean Buddhism The Trikaya formule consisting of The Dharmakaya or Truth body which embodies the very principle of enlightenment and knows no limits or boundaries The Sambhogakaya or body of mutual enjoyment which is a body of bliss or clear light manifestation The Nirmaṇakaya or created body which manifests in time and space 74 The Prajnaparamita sutras and Madhyamaka emphasize the non duality of form and emptiness form is emptiness emptiness is form as the heart sutra says 75 In Chinese Buddhism this was understood to mean that ultimate reality is not a transcendental realm but equal to the daily world of relative reality This idea fitted into the Chinese culture which emphasized the mundane world and society But this does not tell how the absolute is present in the relative world To deny the duality of samsara and nirvana as the Perfection of Wisdom does or to demonstrate logically the error of dichotomizing conceptualization as Nagarjuna does is not to address the question of the relationship between samsara and nirvana or in more philosophical terms between phenomenal and ultimate reality What then is the relationship between these two realms 75 This question is answered in such schemata as the Five Ranks of Tozan 76 the Oxherding Pictures and Hakuin s Four ways of knowing 77 Sikhism Edit Main article God in Sikhism Sikhism complies with the concept of Absolute Monism Sikh philosophy advocates that all that our senses comprehend is an illusion God is the ultimate reality Forms being subject to time shall pass away God s Reality alone is eternal and abiding 78 The thought is that Atma soul is born from and a reflection of ParamAtma Supreme Soul and will again merge into it in the words of the fifth guru of Sikhs Guru Arjun Dev Ji just as water merges back into the water 79 ਜ ਉ ਜਲ ਮਹ ਜਲ ਆਇ ਖਟ ਨ Jio Jal Mehi Jal Aae Khattaanaa As water comes to blend with water ਤ ਉ ਜ ਤ ਸ ਗ ਜ ਤ ਸਮ ਨ Thio Jothee Sang Joth Samaanaa His light blends into the Light SGGS Pg 278 https www searchgurbani com guru granth sahib ang by ang God and Soul are fundamentally the same identical in the same way as Fire and its sparks Atam meh Ram Ram meh Atam which means The Ultimate Eternal reality resides in the Soul and the Soul is contained in Him As from one stream millions of waves arise and yet the waves made of water again become water in the same way all souls have sprung from the Universal Being and would blend again into it 80 Abrahamic faiths Edit Judaism Edit Main article Judaism Jewish thought considers God as separate from all physical created things and as existing outside of time note 3 note 4 According to Maimonides 81 God is an incorporeal being that caused all other existence citation needed According to Maimonides to admit corporeality to God is tantamount to admitting complexity to God which is a contradiction to God as the first cause citation needed and constitutes heresy While Hasidic mystics considered the existence of the physical world a contradiction to God s simpleness Maimonides saw no contradiction note 5 According to Hasidic thought particularly as propounded by the 18th century early 19th century founder of Chabad Shneur Zalman of Liadi God is held to be immanent within creation for two interrelated reasons A very strong Jewish belief is that t he Divine life force which brings the universe into existence must constantly be present were this life force to forsake the universe for even one brief moment it would revert to a state of utter nothingness as before the creation 82 Simultaneously Judaism holds as axiomatic that God is an absolute unity and that he is perfectly simple thus if his sustaining power is within nature then his essence is also within nature citation needed The Vilna Gaon was very much against this philosophy for he felt that it would lead to pantheism and heresy According to some this is the main reason for the Gaon s ban on Chasidism citation needed Christianity Edit See also Christian anthropology Creator creature distinction Edit This section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed April 2016 Learn how and when to remove this template message This article uncritically uses texts from within a religion or faith system without referring to secondary sources that critically analyze them Please help improve this article by adding references to reliable secondary sources with multiple points of view December 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message Christians maintain that God created the universe ex nihilo and not from his own substance so that the creator is not to be confused with creation but rather transcends it There is a movement of Christian Panentheism 83 Even more immanent concepts and theologies are to be defined together with God s omnipotence omnipresence and omniscience due to God s desire for intimate contact with his own creation cf Acts 17 27 Another use of the term monism is in Christian anthropology to refer to the innate nature of humankind as being holistic as usually opposed to bipartite and tripartite views Rejection of radical dualism Edit This article uncritically uses texts from within a religion or faith system without referring to secondary sources that critically analyze them Please help improve this article by adding references to reliable secondary sources with multiple points of view December 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message In On Free Choice of the Will Augustine argued in the context of the problem of evil that evil is not the opposite of good but rather merely the absence of good something that does not have existence in itself Likewise C S Lewis described evil as a parasite in Mere Christianity as he viewed evil as something that cannot exist without good to provide it with existence Lewis went on to argue against dualism from the basis of moral absolutism and rejected the dualistic notion that God and Satan are opposites arguing instead that God has no equal hence no opposite Lewis rather viewed Satan as the opposite of Michael the archangel Due to this Lewis instead argued for a more limited type of dualism 84 Other theologians such as Greg Boyd have argued in more depth that the Biblical authors held a limited dualism meaning that God and Satan do engage in real battle but only due to free will given by God for the duration that God allows 85 Isaiah 45 5 7 KJV says I am the LORD and there is none else there is no God beside me I girded thee though thou hast not known me That they may know from the rising of the sun and from the west that there is none beside me I am the LORD and there is none else I form the light and create darkness I make peace and create evil I the LORD do all these things Theosis Edit This article uncritically uses texts from within a religion or faith system without referring to secondary sources that critically analyze them Please help improve this article by adding references to reliable secondary sources with multiple points of view December 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message In Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy while human beings are not ontologically identical with the Creator they are nonetheless capable with uniting with his Divine Nature via theosis and especially through the devout reception of the Holy Eucharist citation needed This is a supernatural union over and above that natural union of which St John of the Cross says it must be known that God dwells and is present substantially in every soul even in that of the greatest sinner in the world and this union is natural Julian of Norwich while maintaining the orthodox duality of Creator and creature nonetheless speaks of God as the true Father and true Mother of all natures thus he indwells them substantially and thus preserves them from annihilation as without this sustaining indwelling everything would cease to exist citation needed Christian Monism Edit This article uncritically uses texts from within a religion or faith system without referring to secondary sources that critically analyze them Please help improve this article by adding references to reliable secondary sources with multiple points of view December 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message Some Christian theologians are avowed monists such as Paul Tillich Since God is he in whom we live and move and have our being Book of Acts 17 28 it follows that everything that has being partakes in God citation needed Mormonism Edit This article uncritically uses texts from within a religion or faith system without referring to secondary sources that critically analyze them Please help improve this article by adding references to reliable secondary sources with multiple points of view December 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message Main articles Materialism Christianity and Materialism and Christianity Latter Day Saint theology also expresses a form of dual aspect monism via materialism and eternalism claiming that creation was ex materia as opposed to ex nihilo in conventional Christianity as expressed by Parley Pratt and echoed in view by the movement s founder Joseph Smith making no distinction between the spiritual and the material these being not just similarly eternal but ultimately two manifestations of the same reality or substance 86 Parley Pratt implies a vitalism paired with evolutionary adaptation noting these eternal self existing elements possess in themselves certain inherent properties or attributes in a greater or less degree or in other words they possess intelligence adapted to their several spheres 87 Parley Pratt s view is also similar to Gottfried Leibniz s monadology which holds that reality consists of mind atoms that are living centers of force 88 Brigham Young anticipates a proto mentality of elementary particles with his vitalist view there is life in all matter throughout the vast extent of all the eternities it is in the rock the sand the dust in water air the gases and in short in every description and organization of matter whether it be solid liquid or gaseous particle operating with particle 89 The LDS conception of matter is essentially dynamic rather than static if indeed it is not a kind of living energy and that it is subject at least to the rule of intelligence 90 John A Widstoe held a similar more vitalist view that Life is nothing more than matter in motion that therefore all matter possess a kind of life Matter is intelligence hence everything in the universe is alive However Widstoe resisted outright affirming a belief in panpsychism 91 Islam Edit See also Tawhid Quran Edit Vincent Cornell argues that the Quran provides a monist image of God by describing reality as a unified whole with God being a single concept that would describe or ascribe all existing things 92 But most argue that Abrahamic religious scriptures especially the Quran see creation and God as two separate existences It explains that everything has been created by God and is under his control but at the same time distinguishes creation as being dependent on the existence of God 92 Sufism Edit See also Sufism Some Sufi mystics advocate monism One of the most notable being the 13th century Persian poet Rumi 1207 73 in his didactic poem Masnavi espoused monism 93 94 Rumi says in the Masnavi In the shop for Unity wahdat anything that you see there except the One is an idol 93 Other Sufi mystics however such as Ahmad Sirhindi upheld dualistic Monotheism the separation of God and the Universe 95 The most influential of the Islamic monists was the Sufi philosopher Ibn Arabi 1165 1240 He developed the concept of unity of being Arabic waḥdat al wujud which some argue is a monistic philosophy citation needed Born in al Andalus he made an enormous impact on the Muslim world where he was crowned the great Master In the centuries following his death his ideas became increasingly controversial Ahmad Sirhindi criticised monistic understanding of unity of being advocating the dualistic compatible unity of witness Arabic wahdat ash shuhud maintaining separation of creator and creation 96 97 98 99 Later Shah Waliullah Dehlawi reconciled the two ideas maintaining that their differences are semantic differences arguing that the universal existence which is different in creation to creator and the divine essence are different and that the universal existence emanates in a non platonic sense from the divine essence and that the relationship between them is similar to the relationship between the number four and a number being even 100 101 Shi ism Edit See also Shi ism The doctrine of waḥdat al wujud also enjoys considerable following in the rationalist philosophy of Twelver Shi ism with the most famous modern day adherent being Ruhollah Khomeini 102 Bahaʼi Faith Edit Main article Bahaʼi Faith and the unity of religion Although the teachings of the Bahaʼi Faith have a strong emphasis on social and ethical issues there exist a number of foundational texts that have been described as mystical 103 Some of these include statements of a monist nature e g The Seven Valleys and the Hidden Words The differences between dualist and monist views are reconciled by the teaching that these opposing viewpoints are caused by differences in the observers themselves not in that which is observed This is not a higher truth lower truth position God is unknowable For man it is impossible to acquire any direct knowledge of God or the Absolute because any knowledge that one has is relative 104 Non dualism Edit Main article Nondualism According to nondualism many forms of religion are based on an experiential or intuitive understanding of the Real 105 Nondualism a modern reinterpretation of these religions prefers the term nondualism instead of monism because this understanding is nonconceptual not graspable in an idea 105 note 6 note 7 To these nondual traditions belong Hinduism including Vedanta 107 some forms of Yoga and certain schools of Shaivism Taoism 108 109 Pantheism 110 Rastafari 111 and similar systems of thought See also EditCosmic pluralism Dialectical monism Henosis Holism Indefinite monism Material monism Monadology Monistic idealism Ontological pluralism Realistic monism Univocity of beingNotes Edit Such as Behaviourism Type identity theory and Functionalism See Creation Spirituality For a discussion of the resultant paradox see Tzimtzum See also Negative theology See the Guide for the Perplexed especially chapter I 50 In Dutch Niet in een denkbeeld te vatten 105 According to Renard Alan Watts has explained the difference between non dualism and monism in The Supreme Identity Faber and Faber 1950 pp 69 and 95 The Way of Zen Pelican edition 1976 pp 59 60 106 According to Renard Alan Watts has been one of the main contributors to the popularisation of the notion of nondualism 105 References Edit a b c d e f Brugger 1972 Strawson G 2014 in press Nietzsche s metaphysics In Dries M amp Kail P eds Nietzsche on Mind and Nature Oxford University Press PDF of draft Cross amp Livingstone 1974 Chande 2000 p 277 Dasgupta 1992 p 70 a b monism Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia 6th ed Retrieved 29 October 2014 Robert M Young 1996 The mind body problem In Olby RC GN Cantor JR Christie MJS Hodges eds Companion to the History of Modern Science Paperback reprint of Routledge 1990 ed Taylor amp Francis pp 702 11 ISBN 0 41514578 3 Robinson Howard Nov 3 2011 Dualism In Edward N Zalta ed The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Winter 2011 Edition Henrik Lagerlund 2010 Introduction In Henrik Lagerlund ed Forming the Mind Essays on the Internal Senses and the Mind Body Problem from Avicenna to the Medical Enlightenment Paperback reprint of 2007 ed Springer Science Business Media p 3 ISBN 978 9048175307 a b c d e f g h i Urmson 1991 p 297 Schaffer 2010 Fiske 2010 p 195 sfn error no target CITEREFFiske2010 help Fiske 2010 p 195 196 sfn error no target CITEREFFiske2010 help Mandik 2010 McLaughlin 2009 sfn error no target CITEREFMcLaughlin2009 help a b c Schaffer Jonathan Monism The Priority of the Whole http www jonathanschaffer org monism pdf Schaffer Jonathan Monism The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Summer 2015 Edition Edward N Zalta ed URL http plato stanford edu archives sum2015 entries monism a b c d Mandik 2010 p 76 Lenin Vladimir 1909 Materialism and Empirio criticism World Socialist Web Site Foreign Languages Publishing House Abernethy amp Langford pp 1 7 sfn error no target CITEREFAbernethyLangford help Abernethy amp Langford pp 8 9 sfn error no target CITEREFAbernethyLangford help Blackburn John 1854 The popular Biblical educator by J Blackburn De la causa principio e Uno London 1584 De monade De monade numero et figura liber consequens quinque de minimo magno et mensura Frankfurt 1591 Wonders of Life by Ernst Haeckel The Evolution of Man A Popular Scientific Study Volume 2 by Ernst Heinrich Philipp August Haeckel Review Giacomo Leopardi s Zibaldone Financial Times 2013 08 16 Archived from the original on 2022 12 10 Retrieved 2018 05 05 Encyclopedia of Philosophy ed Paul Edwards New York Macmillan and Free Press 1967 p 34 The New Oxford Dictionary Of English Oxford Clarendon Press 1998 p 1341 ISBN 0 19 861263 X Picton James Allanson 1905 Pantheism its story and significance Chicago Archibald Constable amp CO LTD ISBN 978 1419140082 a b Plumptre Constance 1879 General sketch of the history of pantheism Volume 2 London Samuel Deacon and Co pp 3 5 8 29 ISBN 9780766155022 Shoham Schlomo Giora 2010 To Test the Limits of Our Endurance Cambridge Scholars p 111 ISBN 978 1443820684 H P Owen 1971 p 65 Crosby Donald A 2008 Living with Ambiguity Religious Naturalism and the Menace of Evil New York State University of New York Press pp 124 ISBN 0 7914 7519 0 a b Erwin Fahlbusch Geoffrey William Bromiley David B Barrett 1999 The Encyclopedia of Christianity pg 21 Wm B Eerdmans Publishing ISBN 0 8028 2416 1 1 Britannica Pantheism and Panentheism in non Western cultures Whiting Robert Religions for Today Stanley Thomes Publishers Ltd P VIII ISBN 0 7487 0586 4 Sean F Johnston 2009 The History of Science A Beginner s Guide p 90 ISBN 978 1 85168 681 0 Alex Ashman BBC News Metaphysical Isms Nakamura 1991 Puligandla 1997 a b Puligandla 1997 p 50 Kalupahana 1992 Kalupahana 1994 Loy 1988 p 9 11 sfn error no target CITEREFLoy1988 help a b Rambachan 1994 Hawley 2006 Sharf 1995 renard 2010 p 59 sfn error no target CITEREFrenard2010 help Renard 2010 p 31 sfn error no target CITEREFRenard2010 help Maezumi 2007 sfn error no target CITEREFMaezumi2007 help Wilhelm Halbfass 1995 Philology and Confrontation Paul Hacker on Traditional and Modern Vedanta State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0791425824 pages 137 143 Flood 1996 p 239 Jeaneane Fowler 2012 The Bhagavad Gita A Text and Commentary for Students Sussex Academic Press ISBN 978 1845193461 page xxviii Momen 2009 p 191 Renard 2010 sfn error no target CITEREFRenard2010 help Brodd Jeffrey 2003 World Religions Winona MN Saint Mary s Press ISBN 978 0 88489 725 5 James Swartz What is Neo Advaita Renard 2010 p 130 sfn error no target CITEREFRenard2010 help a b Renard 2010 p 131 sfn error no target CITEREFRenard2010 help a b Puligandla 1997 p 232 a b c d advaita vision org Discrimination a b Michaels 2004 Dense 1999 p 191 Mukerji 1983 sfn error no target CITEREFMukerji1983 help a b Comans 1993 sfn error no target CITEREFComans1993 help Flood 1996 p 257 a b c Flood 1996 p 258 Flood 1996 p 259 Flood 1996 p 85 David Kalupahana Causality The Central Philosophy of Buddhism The University Press of Hawaii 1975 page 88 The passage is SN 2 77 Williams 1994 Buswell 1994 sfn error no target CITEREFBuswell1994 help Welwood John 2000 The Play of the Mind Form Emptiness and Beyond accessed January 13 2007 a b Liang Chieh 1986 p 9 Kasulis 2003 p 29 Low 2006 The Idea Of The Supreme Being God In Sikhism Sikhism Articles Gateway to Sikhism Gateway to Sikhism Retrieved 2017 12 14 Gujral Maninder S 19 December 2000 ATMA The Sikh Encyclopedia ਸ ਖ ਧਰਮ ਵ ਸ ਵਕ ਸ Retrieved 2017 12 14 Singh Jagraj 2009 A Complete Guide to Sikhism Unistar Books p 266 ISBN 9788171427543 See Foundations of the Law Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chabad org Retrieved 24 January 2019 Clayton Philip Peacocke A R 2004 In whom we live and move and have our being panentheistic reflections on God s presence in a scientific world William B Eerdmans Pub ISBN 0802809782 OCLC 53880197 Lewis C S 1970 God and Evil in God in the Dock Essays in Theology and Ethics ed W Hooper Grand Rapids MI Eerdsman pp 21 24 Boyd Gregory A 1971 God at War Downers Grove IL InterVarsity Press p 185 Terryl Givens 2015 Wrestling the angel the foundations of Mormon thought cosmos God humanity Oxford ISBN 9780199794928 OCLC 869757526 Pratt Parley 1855 Key to the Science of Theology Liverpool McMurrin Sterling 1965 The Theological Foundations of the Mormon Religion Salt Lake City Van Wagoner Richard S 2009 The Complete Discourses of Brigham Young Salt Lake City Griffin David Ray 2007 Process Theology What It Is and Is Not In Mormonism in Dialogue with Contemporary Christian Theologies Macon GA Widstoe John A 1908 Joseph Smith as Scientist Salt Lake City a b Yusuf Hamza 2009 The Creed of Imam al Tahawi ISBN 978 0970284396 a b Reynold Nicholson Rumi Archived 2006 10 17 at the Wayback Machine Cyprian Rice 1964 The Persian Sufism George Allen London Archived from the original on 2008 05 16 Retrieved 2008 07 04 Saleem Abdul Qadeer A CRITICAL STUDY OF MUJADDID ALF E THANI S PHILOSOPHY Diss University of Karachi 1998 pp 59 60 Siddiqui B H Islam Synthesis of Tradition and Change Ansari Abdul Haq SHAYKH AḤMAD SIRHINDi S DOCTRINE OF WAḤDAT AL SHUHuD Islamic Studies 37 3 1998 281 313 Knysh Alexander D Ibn Arabi in the later Islamic tradition The making of a polemical image in medieval Islam Suny Press 1999 Nizami F A 23 Islam in the Indian Sub Continent The World s Religions 2004 368 Khan Hafiz 1998 Shah Wali Allah Qutb al Din Ahmad al Rahim 1703 62 Encyclopedia of Philosophy Routledge Ansari Abdul Haq Shah waliy Allah Attempts to Revise wahdat al wujud Arabica 35 2 1988 197 213 Knysh Alexander Irfan Revisited Khomeini and the Legacy of Islamic Mystical Philosophy 633 Daphne Daume Louise Watson eds 1992 The Bahaʼi Faith Britannica Book of the Year Chicago Encyclopaedia Britannica ISBN 0 85229 486 7 Momen Moojan 1988 Studies in the Babi and Bahaʼi Religions vol 5 chapter A Basis For Bahaʼi Metaphysics Kalimat Press pp 185 217 ISBN 0 933770 72 3 a b c d Renard 2010 p 59 sfn error no target CITEREFRenard2010 help Renard 2010 p 59 p 285 note 17 sfn error no target CITEREFRenard2010 help Pantheism and Panentheism Encyclopedia com Retrieved 2019 01 19 Perennial Wisdom Theosociety org Retrieved 2019 01 19 Loving the World as Our Own Body The Nondualist Ethics of Taoism Buddhism and Deep Ecology enlight lib ntu edu tw Retrieved 2019 01 19 Noesta Waldo 2017 09 19 Pantheism Applied Non Duality Pantheism com Retrieved 2019 01 19 Christensen Jeanne 2014 02 14 Rastafari Reasoning and the RastaWoman Gender Constructions in the Shaping of Rastafari Livity Lexington Books ISBN 9780739175743 Sources EditAbernethy George L Langford Thomas A 1970 Introduction to Western Philosophy Pre Socratics to Mill Belmont CA Dickenson Brugger Walter ed 1972 Diccionario de Filosofia Barcelona Herder art dualismo monismo pluralismo Buswell Robert E Jr Gimello Robert M eds 1994 Paths to Liberation The Marga and its Transformations in Buddhist Thought Delhi Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Chande M B 2000 Indian Philosophy In Modern Times Atlantic Publishers amp Dist Cross F L Livingstone E A 1974 monism The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church OUP Dasgupta Surendranath 1992 A history of Indian philosophy part 1 Motilall Banarsidass Dense Christian D Von 1999 Philosophers and Religious Leaders Greenwood Publishing Group Fiske Susan T Gilbert Daniel T Lindzey Gardner 2010 Handbook of Social Psychology vol 1 John Wiley amp Sons Flood Gavin 1996 An Introduction to Hinduism Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 43878 0 Fowler Jeaneane D 2002 Perspectives of Reality An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism Sussex Academic Press Hawley michael 2006 Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan 1888 1975 Hori Victor Sogen 1999 Translating the Zen Phrase Book In Nanzan Bulletin 23 1999 PDF Kalupahana David J 1992 The Principles of Buddhist Psychology Delhi ri Satguru Publications 1994 A history of Buddhist philosophy Delhi Motilal Banarsidass Publ Kasulis Thomas P 2003 Takeuchi Yoshinori ed Ch an Spirituality Buddhist Spirituality Later China Korea Japan and the Modern World Delhi Motilal Banarsidass Liang Chieh 1986 The Record of Tung shan William F Powell transl Kuroda Institute Low Albert 2006 Hakuin on Kensho The Four Ways of Knowing Boston amp London Shambhala Maezumi Taizan Glassman Bernie 2007 The Hazy Moon of Enlightenment Wisdom Publ Mandik Pete 2010 Key Terms in Philosophy of Mind Continuum International Publish McLaughlin Brian Beckermann Ansgar Walter Sven 2009 The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Mind Oxford University Press Michaels Axel 2004 Hinduism Past and present Princeton New Jersey Princeton University Press Momen Moojan 2009 Originally published as The Phenomenon of Religion in 1999 Understanding Religion A Thematic Approach Oxford UK Oneworld Publications ISBN 978 1 85168 599 8 OL 25434252M Nakamura Hajime 1991 Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples India China Tibet Japan Delhi Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited hdl 10125 23054 Puligandla Ramakrishna 1997 Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy New Delhi D K Printworld P Ltd Radhakrishnan Sarvepalli Moore Charles A 1957 A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy 12th Princeton Paperback ed Princeton University Press ISBN 0 691 01958 4 Rambachan Anatanand 1994 The Limits of Scripture Vivekananda s Reinterpretation of the Vedas University of Hawaii Press Renard Philip 1999 Ramana Upanishad Utrecht Servire Schaffer Jonathan 2010 Monism The Priority of the Whole PDF Philosophical Review 119 1 31 76 doi 10 1215 00318108 2009 025 Sehgal Sunil 1999 Encyclopaedia of Hinduism T Z Volume 5 Sarup amp Sons Sharf Robert H 1995 Buddhist Modernism and the Rhetoric of Meditative Experience PDF NUMEN 42 3 228 283 doi 10 1163 1568527952598549 hdl 2027 42 43810 archived from the original PDF on 2019 04 12 retrieved 2013 02 10 Urmson James Opie 1991 The Concise Encyclopedia of Western Philosophy and Philosophers Routledge White David Gordon ed 2000 Introduction In Tantra in practice Princeton and Oxford Princeton University Press Williams Paul 1994 Mahayana Buddhism Routledge ISBN 0 415 02537 0External links Edit Wikiquote has quotations related to Monism Wikimedia Commons has media related to Monism Jonathan Schaeffer Monism In Zalta Edward N ed Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Monism at PhilPapers Monism at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project Catholic Encyclopedia Monism Hinduism s Online Lexicon search for Monism The Monist Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Monism amp oldid 1147838649, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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