fbpx
Wikipedia

Europeans in Medieval China

February 16, 2024

Given textual and archaeological evidence, it is thought that thousands of Europeans lived in Imperial China during the Yuan dynasty.[1] These were people from countries traditionally belonging to the lands of Christendom during the High to Late Middle Ages who visited, traded, performed Christian missionary work, or lived in China. This occurred primarily during the second half of the 13th century and the first half of the 14th century, coinciding with the rule of the Mongol Empire, which ruled over a large part of Eurasia and connected Europe with their Chinese dominion of the Yuan dynasty.[2] Whereas the Byzantine Empire centered in Greece and Anatolia maintained rare incidences of correspondence with the Tang, Song and Ming dynasties of China, the Holy See sent several missionaries and embassies to the early Mongol Empire as well as to Khanbaliq (modern Beijing), the capital of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty of China. These contacts with the West were preceded by rare interactions between the Han dynasty and Hellenistic Greeks and Romans.

1342 tomb of Katarina Vilioni, member of an Italian trading family, in Yangzhou.

Mainly located in places such as the Yuan capital of Karakorum, European missionaries and merchants traveled around various parts of the Yuan dynasty and other Mongol-ruled khanates during a period of time referred to by historians as the "Pax Mongolica". Perhaps the most important political consequence of this movement of peoples and intensified trade was the Franco-Mongol alliance, although the latter never fully materialized, at least not in a consistent manner.[3] The establishment of the Ming dynasty in 1368 and reestablishment of ethnic Han rule led to the cessation of European merchants and Roman Catholic missionaries living in China. Direct contact with Europeans was not renewed until Portuguese explorers and Jesuit missionaries arrived on Ming China's southern shores in the 1510s, during the Age of Discovery.

The Italian merchant Marco Polo, preceded by his father and uncle Niccolò and Maffeo Polo, traveled to China during the Yuan dynasty. Marco Polo wrote a famous account of his travels there, as did the Franciscan friar Odoric of Pordenone and the merchant Francesco Balducci Pegolotti. The author John Mandeville also wrote about his travels to China, but he may have based these on preexisting accounts. In Khanbaliq, the Roman archdiocese was established by John of Montecorvino, who was later succeeded by Giovanni de Marignolli. Other Europeans such as André de Longjumeau managed to reach the eastern borderlands of China in their diplomatic travels to the Yuan imperial court, while others such as Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, Benedykt Polak, and William of Rubruck traveled instead to Outer Mongolia. The Turkic Chinese Nestorian Christian Rabban Bar Sauma was the first diplomat from China to reach the royal courts of Christendom in the West.

Background edit

 
The Deva King of the South, a stone-carved relief on the interior of the Cloud Platform at Juyong Pass, built between 1342 and 1345 in what was then the Mongol Yuan-dynasty capital Khanbaliq (modern Beijing); the monument contains inscriptions in six different scripts: Lanydza script (used to write Sanskrit), Tibetan script (used to write the Tibetan language), 'Phags-pa script (created at the command of Kublai Khan, and used to write Chinese, Mongolian and Uyghur), Old Uyghur script (used to write the Old Uyghur language), Chinese characters (used to write Chinese), and the Tangut script (used to write the Tangut language)[4][5]
Further information: Chronology of European exploration of Asia
 
 
Lefthand image: The Sampul tapestry, a woolen wall hanging from Shanpula (or Sampul; now in Lop County, Xinjiang), showing a possibly Greek soldier from the Greco-Bactrian kingdom (250–125 BC), with blue eyes, wielding a spear, and wearing what appears to be a diadem headband; depicted above him is a centaur, from Greek mythology, a common motif in Hellenistic art[6]
Righthand image: Two Buddhist monks on a mural of the Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves near Turpan, Xinjiang, China, 9th century AD; although Albert von Le Coq (1913) assumed the blue-eyed, red-haired monk was a Tocharian,[7] modern scholarship has identified similar Caucasian figures of the same cave temple (No. 9) as ethnic Sogdians,[8] an Eastern Iranian people who inhabited Turpan as an ethnic minority community during the phases of Tang Chinese (7th–8th century) and Uyghur rule (9th–13th century).[9]

Hellenistic Greeks edit

Further information: China-Greece relations

Before the 13th century AD, instances of Europeans going to China or of Chinese going to Europe were very rare.[1] Euthydemus I, Hellenistic ruler of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom in Central Asia during the 3rd century BC, led an expedition into the Tarim Basin (modern Xinjiang, China) in search of precious metals.[10][11] Greek influence as far east as the Tarim Basin at this time also seems to be confirmed by the discovery of the Sampul tapestry, a woolen wall hanging with the painting of a blue-eyed soldier, possibly a Greek, and a prancing centaur, a common Hellenistic motif from Greek mythology.[6][12][13] However, it is known that other Indo-European peoples such as the Yuezhi, Saka,[14][15][16] and Tocharians[16][17] inhabited the Tarim Basin before and after it was brought under Han Chinese influence during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BC).[18][19][20][21] Emperor Wu's diplomat Zhang Qian (d. 113 BC) was sent to forge an alliance with the Yuezhi, a mission that was unsuccessful, but he brought back eyewitness reports of legacies of Hellenistic Greek civilization with his travels to "Dayuan" in the Fergana Valley, with Alexandria Eschate as its capital, and the "Daxia" of Bactria, in what is now Afghanistan and Tajikistan.[22] Later the Han captured Dayuan in the Han-Dayuan war.[23][24] It has also been suggested that the Terracotta Army (sculptures depicting the armies of Qin Shi Huang, first Emperor of China; dated to ~210 BCE), in the Xi'an region of Shaanxi Province, might be inspired by Hellenistic sculptural art,[25] a hypothesis that has caused some controversy.[26]

At the cemetery in Sampul (Shanpula; 山普拉), ~14 km from Khotan (now in Lop County, Hotan Prefecture, Xinjiang),[27] where the aforementioned Sampul tapestry was found,[6] the local inhabitants buried their dead there from roughly 217 BC to 283 AD.[28] Mitochondrial DNA analysis of the human remains has revealed genetic affinities to peoples from the Caucasus, specifically a maternal lineage linked to Ossetians and Iranians, as well as an Eastern-Mediterranean paternal lineage.[27][29] Seeming to confirm this link, from historical accounts it is known that Alexander the Great, who married a Sogdian woman from Bactria named Roxana,[30][31][32] encouraged his soldiers and generals to marry local women; consequentially the later kings of the Seleucid Empire and Greco-Bactrian Kingdom had a mixed Persian-Greek ethnic background.[33][34][35][36]

Ancient Romans edit

Main article: Sino-Roman relations

Beginning in the age of Augustus (r. 27 BC – 14 AD), the Romans, including authors such as Pliny the Elder, mentioned contacts with the Seres, whom they identified as the producers of silk from distant East Asia and could have been the Chinese or even any number of middlemen of various ethnic backgrounds along the Silk Road of Central Asia and Northwest China.[37] The Eastern-Han era Chinese general Ban Chao, Protector General of the Western Regions, explored Central Asia and in 97 AD dispatched his envoys Gan Ying to Daqin (i.e. the Roman Empire).[38][39] Gan was dissuaded by Parthian authorities from venturing further than the "west coast" (possibly the Eastern Mediterranean) although he wrote a detailed report about the Roman Empire, its cities, postal network and consular system of government, and presented this to the Han court.[40][41]

Subsequently, there was a series of Roman embassies in China lasting from the 2nd to 3rd centuries AD, as recorded in Chinese sources. In 166 AD the Book of Later Han records that Romans reached China from the maritime south and presented gifts to the court of Emperor Huan of Han (r. 146–168 AD), claiming they represented Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (Andun 安敦, r. 161–180 AD).[42][43] There is speculation that they were Roman merchants instead of official diplomats.[42]

At the very least, archaeological evidence supports the claim in the Weilüe[44] and Book of Liang[45] that Roman merchants were active in Southeast Asia, if not the claim of their embassies arriving in China through Jiaozhi, the Chinese-controlled province of northern Vietnam.[46] Roman golden medallions from the reigns of Antoninus Pius and his adopted son Marcus Aurelius have been found in Oc Eo (near Ho Chi Minh City), a territory that belonged to the Kingdom of Funan bordering Jiaozhi.[46] Suggestive of even earlier activity is a Republican-era Roman glass bowl unearthed from a Western Han tomb of Guangzhou (on the shores of the South China Sea) dated to the early 1st century BC,[47] in addition to ancient Mediterranean goods found in Thailand, Indonesia, and Malaysia.[46] The Greco-Roman geographer Ptolemy wrote in his Antonine-era Geography that beyond the Golden Chersonese (Malay Peninsula) was a port city called Kattigara discovered by a Greek sailor named Alexander, a site Ferdinand von Richthofen assumed was Chinese-controlled Hanoi,[48] but given the archaeological evidence could have been Oc Eo.[46][49] Roman coins have been found in China, but far fewer than in India.[50]

It is possible that a group of Greek acrobatic performers, who claimed to be from a place "west of the seas" (i.e. Roman Egypt, which the Book of Later Han related to the "Daqin" empire), were presented by a king of Burma to Emperor An of Han in 120 AD.[51] It is known that in both the Parthian Empire and Kushan Empire of Asia, ethnic Greeks continued to be employed as entertainers such as musicians and athletes who engaged in athletic competitions.[52][53]

Byzantine Empire edit

Further information: Byzantine diplomacy, Byzantine-Mongol alliance, and Tang dynasty
 
Emperor Taizong of Tang (r. 626–649) giving an audience to Gar Tongtsen Yulsung, ambassador of the Tibetan Empire, in a painting by Yan Liben (600–673)

Byzantine Greek historian Procopius stated that two Nestorian Christian monks eventually uncovered how silk was made. From this revelation, monks were sent by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian (ruled 527–565) as spies on the Silk Road from Constantinople to China and back to steal the silkworm eggs.[54] This resulted in silk production in the Mediterranean, particularly in Thrace, in northern Greece,[55] and gave the Byzantine Empire a monopoly on silk production in medieval Europe until the loss of its territories in Southern Italy. The Byzantine historian Theophylact Simocatta, writing during the reign of Heraclius (r. 610–641), relayed information about China's geography, its capital city Khubdan (Old Turkic: Khumdan, i.e. Chang'an), its current ruler Taisson whose name meant "Son of Heaven" (Chinese: 天子 Tianzi, although this could be derived from the name of Emperor Taizong of Tang), and correctly pointed to its reunification by the Sui dynasty (581–618) as occurring during the reign of Maurice, noting that China had previously been divided politically along the Yangzi River by two warring nations.[56]

The Chinese Old Book of Tang and New Book of Tang mention several embassies made by Fu lin (拂菻; i.e. Byzantium), which they equated with Daqin (i.e. the Roman Empire), beginning in 643 with an embassy sent by the king Boduoli (波多力, i.e. Constans II Pogonatos) to Emperor Taizong of Tang, bearing gifts such as red glass.[45] These histories also provided cursory descriptions of Constantinople, its walls, and how it was besieged by Da shi (大食; the Arabs of the Umayyad Caliphate) and their commander "Mo-yi" (摩拽; i.e. Muawiyah I, governor of Syria before becoming caliph), who forced them to pay tribute.[45] From Chinese records it is known that Michael VII Doukas (Mie li sha ling kai sa 滅力沙靈改撒) of Fu lin dispatched a diplomatic mission to China's Song dynasty that arrived in 1081, during the reign of Emperor Shenzong of Song.[45][57] Some Chinese during the Song period showed interest in countries to the west, such as the early 13th-century Quanzhou customs inspector Zhao Rugua, who described the ancient Lighthouse of Alexandria in his Zhu fan zhi.[58]

Merchants edit

 
 
Left image: Niccolò and Maffeo Polo leaving Constantinople for the East, in 1259, from a 15th-century illuminated manuscript version of The Travels of Marco Polo
Right image: A sancai-glazed Chinese ceramic incense burner, Yuan dynasty
Further information: Niccolò and Maffeo Polo, Marco Polo, and The Travels of Marco Polo
 
Chinese stone inscription of a Nestorian Christian Cross from the Cross Temple near Beijing (then called Dadu, or Khanbaliq), Yuan dynasty

According to the 9th-century Book of Roads and Kingdoms by ibn Khordadbeh,[59] China was a destination for Radhanite Jews buying boys, female slaves and eunuchs from Europe. During the subsequent Song period there was also a community of Kaifeng Jews in China.[60] The Spaniard, Benjamin of Tudela (from Navarre) was a 12th-century Jewish traveler whose Travels of Benjamin recorded vivid descriptions of Europe, Asia, and Africa, preceding those of Marco Polo by a hundred years.

Polo, a 13th-century merchant from the Republic of Venice, describes his travels to Yuan-dynasty China and the court of Mongol ruler Kublai Khan, along with the preceding journeys made by Niccolò and Maffeo Polo, his father and uncle, respectively, in his Travels of Marco Polo. Polo related this account to Rustichello da Pisa around 1298 while they shared a Genoese prison cell following their capture in battle.[61][62] In his return trip to Persia from China (setting out from the port at Quanzhou in 1291), Marco Polo said that he accompanied the Mongol princess Kököchin in her intended marriage to Arghun, ruler of the Mongol Ilkhanate, but she instead married his son Ghazan following the former's sudden death.[63] Although Marco Polo's presence is omitted entirely, his story is confirmed by the 14th-century Persian historian Rashid-al-Din Hamadani in his Jami' al-tawarikh.[64]

Marco Polo accurately described geographical features of China such as the Grand Canal.[65] His detailed and accurate descriptions of salt production confirm that he had actually been in China.[66] Marco described salt wells and hills where salt could be mined, probably in Yunnan, and reported that in the mountains "these rascals ... have none of the Great Khan's paper money, but use salt instead ... They have salt which they boil and set in a mold ..."[67] Polo also remarked how the Chinese burned paper effigies shaped as male and female servants, camels, horses, suits of clothing and armor while cremating the dead during funerary rites.[68]

When visiting Zhenjiang in Jiangsu, China, Marco Polo noted that Christian churches had been built there.[69] His claim is confirmed by a Chinese text of the 14th century explaining how a Sogdian named Mar-Sargis from Samarkand founded six Nestorian Christian churches there in addition to one in Hangzhou during the second half of the 13th century.[69] Nestorian Christianity had existed in China earlier during the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD) when a Persian monk named Alopen (Chinese: Āluósī; 阿羅本; 阿羅斯[citation needed]) came to the capital Chang'an in 653 to proselytize, as described in a dual Chinese and Syriac language inscription from Chang'an (modern Xi'an) dated to the year 781.[70]

Others were soon to follow. The Italian Franciscan friar John of Montecorvino took a journey starting in 1291, setting out from Tabriz to Ormus, sailing from there to China while accompanied by the Italian merchant Pietro de Lucalongo.[71] While Montecorvino became a bishop in Khanbaliq (Beijing), his friend Lucalongo continued to serve as a merchant there and donated a large amount of money to maintain the local Catholic Church.[72] Marco Polo mentioned the heavy presence of Genoese Italians at Tabriz (modern Iran), a city that Marco returned to from China via the Strait of Hormuz in 1293–1294.[73] John Mandeville, a mid-14th-century author and alleged Englishman from St Albans, claimed to have lived in China and even served at the Mongol khan's court.[74] However, certain parts of his accounts are considered dubious by modern scholars, with some conjecturing that he simply concocted his stories by using written accounts of China penned by other authors such as Odoric of Pordenone.[75]

 
Text of the letter of Pope Innocent IV "to the ruler and people of the Tartars", brought to Güyüg Khan by John de Carpini, 1245
 
Seal of Güyük Khan using the classical Mongolian script, as found in a letter sent to the Roman Pope Innocent IV in 1246.
 
Letter from Arghun, Khan of the Mongol Ilkhanate, to Pope Nicholas IV, 1290.
 
Seal of the Mongol ruler Ghazan in a 1302 letter to Pope Boniface VIII, with an inscription in Chinese seal script

In Zaytun, the first harbour of China, there was a small Genoese colony, mentioned in 1326 by André de Pérouse. The most famous Italian resident of the city was Andolo de Savignone, who was sent to the West by the Khan in 1336 to obtain "100 horses and other treasures."[76] Following Savignone's visit, an ambassador was dispatched to China with one superb horse, which was later the object of Chinese poems and paintings.[76]

Other Venetians lived in China, including one who brought a letter to the West from John of Montecorvino in 1305. In 1339 a Venetian named Giovanni Loredano is recorded to have returned to Venice from China. A tombstone was also discovered in Yangzhou, in the name of Catherine de Villioni, daughter of Dominici, who died there in 1342.[76]

In about 1340, Francesco Balducci Pegolotti, a merchant from Florence, compiled a guide about trade in China[77] based on records from travellers who visited China (Pegolotti himself never went to China).[78] The guide notes the size of Khanbaliq (modern Beijing) and how merchants could exchange silver for Chinese paper money that could be used to buy luxury items such as silk.[79]

The History of Yuan (chapter 134) records that a certain Ai-sie (transliteration of either Joshua or Joseph) from the country of Fu lin (i.e. the Byzantine Empire), initially in the service of Güyük Khan, was well-versed in Western languages and had expertise in the fields of medicine and astronomy that convinced Kublai Khan to offer him a position as the director of medical and astronomical boards. Kublai Khan eventually honored him with the title of Prince of Fu lin (Chinese: 拂菻王; Fú lǐn wáng). His biography in the History of Yuan lists his children by their Chinese names, which are similar to the Christian names Elias (Ye-li-ah), Luke (Lu-ko), and Antony (An-tun), with a daughter named A-na-si-sz.[80]

Europeans of the 13th and 14th century called Northern China by place-names similar to "Cathay", while Southern China was called "Mangi" or "Manzi".[81]

Missionaries and diplomats edit

Main articles: Religion in the Mongol Empire, Catholic Church in China, Jesuit missions in China, and Protestant missions in China
Further information: Christianity among the Mongols, Tibetan Buddhism, Chinese Buddhism, Buddhism in Mongolia, Tengriism, Islam during the Yuan dynasty, and Islam in Mongolia

The Italian explorer and archbishop Giovanni da Pian del Carpine and Polish friar and traveler Benedykt Polak were the first papal envoys to reach Karakorum after being sent there by Pope Innocent IV in 1245.[82][83] The "Historia Mongalorum" was later written by Pian del Carpini, documenting his travels and a cursory history of the Mongols.[84][85] Catholic missionaries soon established a considerable presence in China, due to the religious tolerance of the Mongols, due in no small part to the Khan's own great tolerance and open encouragement of the development of trade and intellectual avocation. The 18th-century English historian Edward Gibbon commented on the Mongols' religious tolerance and went as far as to compare the "religious laws" of Genghis Khan to equivalent ideas propounded by the Enlightenment English philosopher John Locke.[86]

Oghul Qaimish, the widow of Güyük Khan, ruled as regent over the Mongol realm from 1249 to 1251.[87] In 1250 the French diplomats André de Longjumeau, Guy de Longjumeau, and Jean de Carcassonne arrived at her court located along the Emil River (on the Kazakh-Chinese border), bearing gifts and representing their sovereign Louis IX of France, who desired a military alliance.[88] Empress Qaimish viewed the gifts as tributary offerings and, in addition to gifts given in return, entrusted to Louis' diplomats, she sent the French monarch a letter demanding his submission as a vassal.[89]

The Franciscan missionary John of Montecorvino (Giovanni da Montecorvino[90]) was ordered to China by Pope Nicholas III in 1279.[91][92] Montecorvino arrived in China at the end of 1293,[93] where he later translated the New Testament into the Mongol tongue, and converted 6,000 people (probably mostly Alans, Turks, and Mongols rather than Chinese). He was joined by three bishops (Andre de Perouse, Gerard Albuini and Peregrino de Castello) and ordained archbishop of Beijing by Pope Clement V in 1307.[82][93] A community of Armenians in China sprang up during this period. They were converted to Catholicism by John of Montecorvino.[94][95] Following the death of John of Montecorvino, Giovanni de Marignolli was dispatched to Beijing to become the new archbishop from 1342 to 1346 in an effort to maintain a Christian influence in the region.[93][96][97] Marignolli, although not mentioned by name in the History of Yuan, is noted in that historical text as the "Frank" (Fulang) who provided the Yuan imperial court with an impressive war horse as a tributary gift.[93]

On 15 March 1314 the killings of Francis de Petriolo, Monaldo of Ancona, and Anthony of Milan occurred in China.[98] This was followed by the Killing of James, Quanzhou's bishop, in 1362. His predecessors were Andrew, Peregrinus, and Gerard.[99]

The Franciscan friar Odoric of Pordenone visited China.[97] Friars in Hangzhou and Zhangzhou were visited by Odorico.[100] His total travels took place from 1304 to 1330,[101] although he first returned to Europe in 1330.[82] China's Franciscans were mentioned in his writings, the Itinerarium.[102][103]

In 1333, John de Montecorvino was officially replaced by Nicolaus de Bentra, who was chosen by Pope John XXII.[45][104] There were complaints of the absence of the archbishop in 1338.[105] Toghon Temür (the last Mongol ruler of the Yuan dynasty in China before their retreat to Mongolia to form the Northern Yuan dynasty) sent an embassy including Genoese Italians to Pope Benedict XII in 1336, requesting a new archbishop.[106] The pope answered by sending legates and ecclesiastical leaders to Khanbaliq in 1342, which included Giovanni de Marignolli.[82][106]

In 1370, following the ousting of the Mongols from China and the establishment of the Chinese Ming dynasty, the Pope sent a new mission to China, comprising the Parisian theologian Guillaume du Pré as the new archbishop and 50 Franciscans. However, this mission disappeared, apparently eliminated.[107] The Ming Hongwu Emperor sent a diplomatic letter to the Byzantine Empire,[108] through a European in China named Nieh-ku-lun.[109] John V Palaiologos was the Byzantine Emperor at the time the message was sent by Hongwu,[110] with the proclamatory letter informing him about the establishment of the new Ming dynasty.[45] The message was sent to the Byzantine ruler in September 1371 when Hongwu met with the merchant Nieh-ku-lun (捏古倫) from Fu lin (Byzantium).[111][112] The Khanbaliq bishop Nicolaus de Bentra is speculated to be the same person as Nieh-ku-lun, for instance, by Emil Bretschneider in 1888.[113][114] More recently, Edward N. Luttwak (2009) also mused that Nicolaus de Bentra and this alleged Byzantine merchant Nieh-ku-lin were one and the same.[115]

Friar William of Parto, Cosmas, and John de' Marignolli were among the Catholic clerics in China.[116] The Oriens Christianus by Michel Le Quien (1661–1733) recorded the names of Khanbaliq's previous bishops and archbishops.[117][118]

Captives edit

For his travels from 1253 to 1255, the Franciscan friar William of Rubruck reported numerous Europeans in Central Asia. He described German prisoners who had been enslaved and forced to mine gold and manufacture iron weapons in the Mongol town of Bolat, near Talas, Kyrgyzstan.[119][120] In Karakorum, the Mongol capital, he met a Parisian named Guillaume Boucher, and Pâquette, a woman from the French city of Metz, who had both been captured in Hungary during the Mongol invasions of Europe. He also mentions Hungarians and Russians.[1]

Spread of Chinese gunpowder edit

Main article: History of gunpowder
Further information: History of the firearm and History of artillery

William of Rubruck, a Flemish missionary who visited the Mongol court of Mongke Khan at Karakorum and returned to Europe in 1257, was a friend of the English philosopher and scientific thinker Roger Bacon. The latter recorded the earliest known European recipe for gunpowder in his Opus Majus of 1267.[121][122] This came more than two centuries after the first known Chinese description of the formula for gunpowder in 1044, during the Song dynasty.[123][124] The earliest use of Chinese prototype firearms occurred at an 1132 siege during the Jin-Song Wars,[125][126][127] whereas the oldest surviving bronze hand cannon dates to 1288 during the Yuan period.[128][129] Following the Mongol invasions of Japan (1274–1281), a Japanese scroll painting depicted explosive bombs used by Yuan-dynasty forces against their samurai.[130] By 1326 the earliest artistic depiction of a gun was made in Europe by Walter de Milemete.[131] Petrarch wrote in 1350 that cannons were then a common sight on the European battlefield.[132]

Diplomatic missions to Europe edit

 
Extract of the letter of Arghun to Philip IV, in the Uyghur-Mongolian script, dated 1289, in which Rabban Bar Sauma is mentioned. The seal is that of the Great Khan, with Chinese Script: "輔國安民之寶", which means "Seal of the upholder of the State and the purveyor of peace to the People". French National Archives.
Main articles: Franco-Mongol alliance, Byzantine–Mongol alliance, and Chinese exploration

Rabban Bar Sauma, a Nestorian Christian Turkic Chinese born in Zhongdu (later Khanbaliq, Beijing, capital of the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty), China,[133][134][135] was sent to Europe in 1287 as an ambassador for Arghun, ruler of the Ilkhanate and grandnephew of Kublai Khan.[136] He was preceded by Isa Kelemechi, an Assyrian Nestorian Christian who worked as a court astronomer for Kublai Khan in Khanbaliq,[137][138] and was sent by Arghun to Pope Honorius IV in 1285.[136][139] A decade earlier, Bar Sauma had originally set out on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, passing through Gansu and Khotan in Northwest China, yet spent time in Armenia and Baghdad instead to avoid getting caught up in nearby armed conflicts.[133] He had been accompanied by Rabban Markos, another Uyghur Nestorian Christian from China who was elected as the Patriarch of the Eastern Church and advised Arghun Khan to have Bar Sauma lead the diplomatic mission to Europe.[133][140]

Bar Sauma, who spoke Chinese, Persian, and Old Uyghur, traveled with a cohort of Italians who served as translators, with Europeans communicating to him in Persian.[141] Bar Sauma is the first known person from China to reach Europe, where he convened with the Byzantine Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos, Philip IV of France, Edward I of England, and Pope Nicholas IV (shortly after the death of Pope Honorius IV) to form an alliance against the Mamluk Sultanate.[133][142][143] Edward N. Luttwak depicts the arrival of these Nestorian envoys to the court of the Byzantine ruler Andronikos II as something akin to "receiving mail from his in-law in Beijing," since Kublai Khan was a grandson of Genghis Khan and Andronikos had two half-sisters who were married to great-grandsons of Genghis.[144] Moving further west, Bar Sauma witnessed a naval battle at the Bay of Naples, Italy in June, 1287 between the Angevins and the Kingdom of Aragon, while being hosted by Charles Martel of Anjou, whose father Charles II of Naples was imprisoned in Aragon (in modern Spain) at the time.[145] Aside from his desire to see Christian sites, churches, and relics, Bar Sauma also showed a keen interest in the university life and curricula of Paris, which Morris Rossabi contends was rooted in how exotic it must have seemed from his perspective and educational background in Muslim Persia and Chinese Confucian teaching.[146] Although he managed to secure an audience with these leaders of Christendom and exchanged letters from them to Arghun Khan, none of these Christian monarchs were fully committed to an alliance with the latter.[133]

Renewed contacts during the Ming dynasty edit

 
The Italian Jesuit Matteo Ricci (left) and the Chinese mathematician Xu Guangqi (right) published the Chinese edition of Euclid's Elements (幾何原本) in 1607.
Further information: Sino-Portuguese relations, Jesuit China missions, History of the Ming dynasty, and Chinese Rites controversy

In 1368 the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty collapsed amid widespread internal revolt during the Red Turban Rebellion, whose ethnic Han leader would become the founding emperor of the Ming dynasty.[147] A formal resumption of direct trade and contact with Europeans would not be seen until the 16th century, initiated by the Portuguese during the Age of Discovery.[148] The first Portuguese explorer to land in southern China was Jorge Álvares, who in May 1513 arrived at Lintin Island in the Pearl River Delta to engage in trade.[149] This was followed by Rafael Perestrello, a cousin of the wife of Christopher Columbus, who landed at Guangzhou in 1516 after a voyage from newly conquered Portuguese Malacca.[150] Although the 1517 mission by Fernão Pires de Andrade ended in disaster and his imprisonment by Ming authorities, relations would be smoothed over by Leonel de Sousa, the first governor of the Portuguese trade colony at Macau, China, in the Luso-Chinese treaty of 1554.[151] The writings of Gaspar da Cruz, Juan Gonzáles de Mendoza, and Antonio de Morga all impacted the Western view and understanding of China at the time, offering intricate details about its society and items of trade.[152][153]

The Italian Jesuit missionary Michele Ruggieri would be the first European invited into the Ming-era Forbidden City in Beijing (during the reign of the Wanli Emperor); Matteo Ricci, in 1602 he would publish his map of the world in Chinese that introduced the existence of the American continents to Chinese geographers.[154] He arrived in Macau in 1582, when he began to learn the Chinese language and information about China's ancient culture, yet was unaware of the events that had transpired there since the end of the Franciscan missions in the mid 14th century and establishment of the Ming dynasty.[155] Since that time the Islamic world presented an obstacle for the West in reaching East Asia and, barring the grand treasure voyages of the 15th-century admiral Zheng He, the Ming dynasty had largely pursued policies of isolationism that kept it from seeking far-flung diplomatic contacts.[148][156]

See also edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ a b c Roux (1993), p. 465
  2. ^ The term "Medieval China" is mainly used by historians of Universal History. The dates between 585 (Sui dynasty) to 1368 (Yuan dynasty) comprise the medieval period in Chinese history. Historians of Chinese history call this period the "Chinese Imperial Era", which began after the unification of the seven kingdoms by the Qin dynasty. With the Ming dynasty, the early modern era began.
  3. ^ Atwood, Christopher P. (2004), Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, New York: Facts on File, Inc., p. 583, ISBN 978-0-8160-4671-3.
  4. ^ Li, Song (2006), "From the Northern Song to the Qing", in Howard, Angela Falco (ed.), Chinese Sculpture, Yale University Press, p. 360, ISBN 978-0-300-10065-5
  5. ^ Murata, Jirō (村田治郎) (1957), Chü-Yung-Kuan: The Buddhist Arch of the Fourteenth Century A.D. at the Pass of the Great Wall Northwest of Peking, Kyoto University Faculty of Engineering, p. 134.
  6. ^ a b c Christopoulos, Lucas (August 2012), "Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China (240 BC – 1398 AD)," in Victor H. Mair (ed), Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 230, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, pp 15–16, ISSN 2157-9687.
  7. ^ von Le Coq, Albert. (1913). Chotscho: Facsimile-Wiedergaben der Wichtigeren Funde der Ersten Königlich Preussischen Expedition nach Turfan in Ost-Turkistan. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer (Ernst Vohsen), im Auftrage der Gernalverwaltung der Königlichen Museen aus Mitteln des Baessler-Institutes, Tafel 19. (Accessed 3 September 2016).
  8. ^ Gasparini, Mariachiara. "A Mathematic Expression of Art: Sino-Iranian and Uighur Textile Interactions and the Turfan Textile Collection in Berlin," in Rudolf G. Wagner and Monica Juneja (eds), Transcultural Studies, Ruprecht-Karls Universität Heidelberg, No 1 (2014), pp 134–163. ISSN 2191-6411. See also endnote #32. (Accessed 3 September 2016.)
  9. ^ Hansen, Valerie (2012), The Silk Road: A New History, Oxford University Press, p. 98, ISBN 978-0-19-993921-3.
  10. ^ W.W. Tarn (1966), The Greeks in Bactria and India, reprint edition, London & New York: Cambridge University Press, pp 109–111.
  11. ^ For Strabo's depiction of this event, see Christopoulos, Lucas (August 2012), "Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China (240 BC – 1398 AD)," in Victor H. Mair (ed), Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 230, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, p. 8, ISSN 2157-9687.
  12. ^ Valerie Hansen (2012). The Silk Road: A New History. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press, p. 202, pl. 13 text, ISBN 978-0-19-515931-8.
  13. ^ Zhao Feng (2004). "Wall hanging with centaur and warrior," in James C.Y. Watt, John P. O'Neill et al. (eds) and trans. Ching-Jung Chen et al., China: Dawn of a Golden Age, 200–750 A.D., New Haven & London: Yale University Press, Metropolitan Museum of Art, pp 194–195. ISBN 978-1-58839-126-1.
  14. ^ Yu Taishan (June 2010), "The Earliest Tocharians in China" in Victor H. Mair (ed), Sino-Platonic Papers, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, p. 13–14, 21–22.
  15. ^ Bailey, H.W. (1996) "Khotanese Saka Literature", in Ehsan Yarshater (ed), The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods, Part 2 (reprint edition), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 1230–1231.
  16. ^ a b Xavier Tremblay (2007), "The Spread of Buddhism in Serindia: Buddhism Among Iranians, Tocharians and Turks before the 13th Century," in Ann Heirman and Stephan Peter Bumbacker (eds), The Spread of Buddhism, Leiden & Boston: Koninklijke Brill, p. 77, ISBN 978-90-04-15830-6.
  17. ^ Mallory, J.P.; Mair, Victor H. (2000), The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West, London: Thames & Hudson, pp 270–297 ISBN 978-0-500-05101-6.
  18. ^ Torday, Laszlo. (1997). Mounted Archers: The Beginnings of Central Asian History. Durham: The Durham Academic Press, pp 80–81, ISBN 978-1-900838-03-0.
  19. ^ Yü, Ying-shih. (1986). "Han Foreign Relations," in The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, 377–462. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 377–388, 391, ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8.
  20. ^ Chang, Chun-shu. (2007). The Rise of the Chinese Empire: Volume II; Frontier, Immigration, & Empire in Han China, 130 B.C. – A.D. 157. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, pp 5–8 ISBN 978-0-472-11534-1.
  21. ^ Di Cosmo, Nicola. (2002). Ancient China and Its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 174–189, 196–198, 241–242 ISBN 978-0-521-77064-4.
  22. ^ Yang, Juping. “Hellenistic Information in China.” CHS Research Bulletin 2, no. 2 (2014). http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:hlnc.essay:YangJ.Hellenistic_Information_in_China.2014
  23. ^ . The Telegraph. 2019-04-26. ISSN 0307-1235. Archived from the original on 2019-04-27. Retrieved 2019-06-09.
  24. ^ Benjamin, Craig (May 2018). "Zhang Qian and Han Expansion into Central Asia". Empires of Ancient Eurasia. pp. 68–90. doi:10.1017/9781316335567.004. ISBN 9781316335567. Retrieved 2019-06-09. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
  25. ^ "Western contact with China began long before Marco Polo, experts say". BBC News. 12 October 2016. Retrieved 2019-08-18.
  26. ^ "Controversy about the-theory-that-greek-art-inspired-chinas-terracotta-army". The Conversation. 18 November 2016. Retrieved 2019-08-18.
  27. ^ a b Chengzhi Xie et al., "Mitochondrial DNA analysis of ancient Sampula population in Xinjiang," in Progress in Natural Science, vol. 17, (August 2007), pp 927–33.
  28. ^ Christopoulos, Lucas (August 2012), "Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China (240 BC – 1398 AD)," in Victor H. Mair (ed), Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 230, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, p. 27, ISSN 2157-9687.
  29. ^ Christopoulos, Lucas (August 2012), "Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China (240 BC – 1398 AD)," in Victor H. Mair (ed), Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 230, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, p. 27 & footnote #46, ISSN 2157-9687.
  30. ^ Livius.org. "Roxane." Articles on Ancient History. Page last modified 17 August 2015. Retrieved on 8 September 2016.
  31. ^ Strachan, Edward and Roy Bolton (2008), Russia and Europe in the Nineteenth Century, London: Sphinx Fine Art, p. 87, ISBN 978-1-907200-02-1.
  32. ^ For another publication calling her "Sogdian", see Christopoulos, Lucas (August 2012), "Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China (240 BC – 1398 AD)," in Victor H. Mair (ed), Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 230, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, p. 4, ISSN 2157-9687.
  33. ^ Holt, Frank L. (1989), Alexander the Great and Bactria: the Formation of a Greek Frontier in Central Asia, Leiden, New York, Copenhagen, Cologne: E. J. Brill, pp 67–8, ISBN 90-04-08612-9.
  34. ^ Ahmed, S. Z. (2004), Chaghatai: the Fabulous Cities and People of the Silk Road, West Conshokoken: Infinity Publishing, p. 61.
  35. ^ Magill, Frank N. et al. (1998), The Ancient World: Dictionary of World Biography, Volume 1, Pasadena, Chicago, London,: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, Salem Press, p. 1010, ISBN 0-89356-313-7.
  36. ^ Lucas Christopoulos writes the following: "The kings (or soldiers) of the Sampul cemetery came from various origins, composing as they did a homogenous army made of Hellenized Persians, western Scythians, or Sacae Iranians from their mother's side, just as were most of the second generation of Greeks colonists living in the Seleucid Empire. Most of the soldiers of Alexander the Great who stayed in Persia, India and central Asia had married local women, thus their leading generals were mostly Greeks from their father's side or had Greco-Macedonian grandfathers. Antiochos had a Persian mother, and all the later Indo-Greeks or Greco-Bactrians were revered in the population as locals, as they used both Greek and Bactrian scripts on their coins and worshipped the local gods. The DNA testing of the Sampul cemetery shows that the occupants had paternal origins in the eastern part of the Mediterranean"; see Christopoulos, Lucas (August 2012), "Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China (240 BC – 1398 AD)," in Victor H. Mair (ed), Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 230, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, p. 27 & footnote #46, ISSN 2157-9687.
  37. ^ W.W. Tarn (1966), The Greeks in Bactria and India, reprint edition, London & New York: Cambridge University Press, pp 110–111.
  38. ^ Yü, Ying-shih. (1986). "Han Foreign Relations," in The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, 377–462. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 460–461, ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8.
  39. ^ de Crespigny, Rafe. (2007). A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD). Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, pp 239–240, ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0.
  40. ^ Wood, Frances. (2002). The Silk Road: Two Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, pp 46–47, ISBN 978-0-520-24340-8.
  41. ^ Morton, William Scott and Charlton M. Lewis. (2005). China: Its History and Culture: Fourth Edition. New York City: McGraw-Hill, p. 59, ISBN 978-0-07-141279-7.
  42. ^ a b de Crespigny, Rafe. (2007). A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD). Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, p. 600, ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0.
  43. ^ Yü, Ying-shih. (1986). "Han Foreign Relations," in Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe (eds), The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, 377–462, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 460–461, ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8.
  44. ^ Yu, Huan (September 2004). John E. Hill (ed.). . Depts.washington.edu. Translated by John E. Hill. Archived from the original on 2005-03-15. Retrieved 2016-09-17.
  45. ^ a b c d e f Hirth, Friedrich (2000) [1885]. Jerome S. Arkenberg (ed.). "East Asian History Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. - 1643 C.E." Fordham.edu. Fordham University. Retrieved 2016-09-14.
  46. ^ a b c d Gary K. Young (2001), Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC - AD 305, London & New York: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-24219-3, pp 29–30.
  47. ^ An, Jiayao. (2002), "When Glass Was Treasured in China," in Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner (eds), Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road, 79–94, Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, ISBN 2-503-52178-9, p. 83.
  48. ^ Ferdinand von Richthofen, China, Berlin, 1877, Vol.I, pp. 504–510; cited in Richard Hennig, Terrae incognitae : eine Zusammenstellung und kritische Bewertung der wichtigsten vorcolumbischen Entdeckungsreisen an Hand der daruber vorliegenden Originalberichte, Band I, Altertum bis Ptolemäus, Leiden, Brill, 1944, pp.387, 410–411; cited in Zürcher (2002), pp. 30–31.
  49. ^ For further information on the archaeological site at Oc Eo in Vietnam, see: Milton Osborne (2006), The Mekong: Turbulent Past, Uncertain Future, Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin, revised edition, first published in 2000, ISBN 1-74114-893-6, pp 24–25.
  50. ^ Warwick Ball (2016), Rome in the East: Transformation of an Empire, 2nd edition, London & New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-72078-6, p. 154.
  51. ^ Ban Gu (班固), Houhanshu (後漢書) (Later Han dynasty annals), chap. 86, "Traditions of the Southern Savages; The South-Western Tribes" (Nanman, Xinanyi zhuan 南蠻西南夷列傳). Liezhuan 76. (Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju 中華書局, 1962–1999), p. 1926. "永初元年," 徼外僬僥種夷陸類等三千餘口舉種内附，献象牙､水牛､封牛。 永寧元年，撣國王雍由調复遣使者詣闕朝賀，献樂及幻人，能變化吐火，自支解，易牛馬頭。又善跳丸， 數乃至千。自言我海西人。海西即大秦也，撣國西南通大秦。明年元會，安帝作變於庭，封雍由調爲漢大 都尉，赐印綬､金銀､彩繒各有差也."
    A translation of this passage into English, in addition to an explanation of how Greek athletic performers figured prominently in the neighboring Parthian and Kushan Empires of Asia, is offered by Christopoulos, Lucas (August 2012), "Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China (240 BC – 1398 AD)," in Victor H. Mair (ed), Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 230, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, pp 40–41, ISSN 2157-9687:
    "The first year of Yongning (120 AD), the southwestern barbarian king of the kingdom of Chan (Burma), Yongyou, proposed illusionists (jugglers) who could metamorphose themselves and spit out fire; they could dismember themselves and change an ox head into a horse head. They were very skilful in acrobatics and they could do a thousand other things. They said that they were from the "west of the seas" (Haixi–Egypt). The west of the seas is the Daqin (Rome). The Daqin is situated to the south-west of the Chan country. During the following year, Andi organized festivities in his country residence and the acrobats were transferred to the Han capital where they gave a performance to the court, and created a great sensation. They received the honours of the Emperor, with gold and silver, and every one of them received a different gift."
  52. ^ Christopoulos, Lucas (August 2012), "Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China (240 BC – 1398 AD)," in Victor H. Mair (ed), Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 230, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, pp 40–41, ISSN 2157-9687:
  53. ^ Franz Cumont (1933), The Excavations of Dura-Europos: Preliminary Reports of the Seventh and Eighth Seasons of Work, Crai, New Haven, pp. 264–68.
  54. ^ Will Durant (1949). The Age of Faith: The Story of Civilization. Simon and Schuster. p. 118. ISBN 978-1-4516-4761-7.
  55. ^ "Silk Road" 2013-09-06 at the Wayback Machine, LIVIUS Articles of Ancient History. 28 October 2010. Retrieved on 14 November 2010.
  56. ^ Yule (1915), pp 29–31; see also footnote #4 on p. 29; footnote #2 on p. 30; and footnote #3 on page 31.
  57. ^ Fuat Sezgin; Carl Ehrig-Eggert; Amawi Mazen; E. Neubauer (1996). نصوص ودراسات من مصادر صينية حول البلدان الاسلامية. Frankfurt am Main: Institut für Geschichte der Arabisch-Islamischen Wissenschaften (Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic Science at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University). p. 25. ISBN 9783829820479.
  58. ^ Needham, Joseph (1971). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3: Civil Engineering and Nautics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; rpr. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd, 1986, p. 662.
  59. ^ Elizabeth Caldwell Hirschman; Donald N. Yates (29 April 2014). The Early Jews and Muslims of England and Wales: A Genetic and Genealogical History. McFarland. pp. 51–. ISBN 978-0-7864-7684-8.
  60. ^ Gernet, Jacques (1962). H.M. Wright (trans), Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion, 1250–1276. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-0720-0, p. 82.
  61. ^ Polo, Marco; Latham, Ronald (translator) (1958), The Travels of Marco Polo, New York: Penguin Books, p. 16, ISBN 0-14-044057-7.
  62. ^ Hoffman, Donald L. (1991). "Rusticiano da Pisa". In Lacy, Norris J. (ed.), The New Arthurian Encyclopedia. New York: Garland, p. 392. ISBN 0-8240-4377-4.
  63. ^ Ye, Yiliang (2010), "Introductory Essay: Outline of the Political Relations between Iran and China," in Ralph Kauz (ed.), Aspects of the Maritime Silk Road: From the Persian Gulf to the East China Sea, Weisbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, pp 5–6, ISBN 978-3-447-06103-2.
  64. ^ Morgan, D.O., "Marco Polo in China-Or Not," in The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Volume 6, Issue #2, 221–225, July 1996, p. 224.
  65. ^ Stephen G. Haw (2006), Marco Polo's China: a Venetian in the Realm of Kublai Khan, London & New York: Routledge, pp 1–2, ISBN 0-415-34850-1.
  66. ^ Some scholars have suggested that Polo's knowledge was so detailed that he must have been the imperial official in charge of the Yangzhou salt works, but this suggestion has not been accepted. Leonardo Olschki, Marco Polo's Asia: an Introduction to His "Description of the World" Called "Il Milione.". (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960), p. 174.
  67. ^ Hans Ulrich Vogel. Marco Polo Was in China: New Evidence from Currencies, Salts and Revenues. (Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2013; ISBN 978-90-04-23193-1), pp. 290, 301–310.
  68. ^ Tsien 1985, p. 105
  69. ^ a b Emmerick, R. E. (2003) "Iranian Settlement East of the Pamirs", in Ehsan Yarshater, The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p 275.
  70. ^ Emmerick, R. E. (2003) "Iranian Settlement East of the Pamirs", in Ehsan Yarshater, The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 274–5.
  71. ^ Virgil Ciocîltan (2012), The Mongols and the Black Sea Trade in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries, Leiden: Brill, p. 120, ISBN 978-90-04-22666-1.
  72. ^ See footnote #268 in Virgil Ciocîltan (2012), The Mongols and the Black Sea Trade in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries, Leiden: Brill, p. 120, ISBN 978-90-04-22666-1.
  73. ^ Virgil Ciocîltan (2012), The Mongols and the Black Sea Trade in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries, Leiden: Brill, pp 119–121, ISBN 978-90-04-22666-1.
  74. ^ Mandeville, John. (1983). C.W.R.D. Moseley (trans), The Travels of Sir John Mandeville. London: Penguin Books Ltd., pp 9-11.
  75. ^ Mandeville, John. (1983). C.W.R.D. Moseley (trans), The Travels of Sir John Mandeville. London: Penguin Books Ltd., pp 11-13.
  76. ^ a b c Roux (1993), p. 467.
  77. ^ "Francesco Balducci Pegolotti." Encyclopædia Britannica (online source). Accessed 6 September 2016.
  78. ^ Yule, Henry (1866). Cathay and the way thither : being a collection of medieval notices of China. Works issued by the Hakluyt Society ;no. 36-37. Vol. 2. London: Printed for the Hakluyt Society. p283, and footnote 2 of p282 continued into p283. hdl:2027/njp.32101075729549 – via Hathitrust.
  79. ^ Spielvogel, Jackson J. (2011). Western Civilization: a Brief History, Boston: Wadsworth, Cencage Learning, p. 183, ISBN 0-495-57147-4.
  80. ^ Bretschneider, Emil (1888), Medieval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources: Fragments Towards the Knowledge of the Geography and History of Central and Western Asia from the 13th to the 17th Century, Vol. 1, Abingdon: Routledge, reprinted 2000, p. 144.
  81. ^ Wittfogel, Karl A.; Fêng, Chia-Shêng (1949). "History of Chinese Society: Liao (907–1125)". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 36: 2. ISBN 9781422377192 – via Google Books.
  82. ^ a b c d Fontana, Michela (2011), Matteo Ricci: a Jesuit in the Ming Court, Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, p. 116, ISBN 978-1-4422-0586-4.
  83. ^ Paul D. Buell (12 February 2010). The A to Z of the Mongol World Empire. Scarecrow Press. pp. 120–121. ISBN 978-1-4617-2036-2.
  84. ^ John Block Friedman; Kristen Mossler Figg (4 July 2013). Trade, Travel, and Exploration in the Middle Ages: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 307–. ISBN 978-1-135-59094-9.
  85. ^ Paul D. Buell (19 March 2003). Historical Dictionary of the Mongol World Empire. Scarecrow Press. pp. 120–121. ISBN 978-0-8108-6602-7.
  86. ^ Morgan, David (2007), The Mongols, Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub, p. 39, ISBN 978-1-4051-3539-9.
  87. ^ Xu, Shiduan (1998), "Oghul Qaimish, Empress of Mongol Emperor Dingzong," in Lily Xiao Hong Lee and Sue Wiles (eds), Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women: Tang through Ming: 618–1644, trans. Janine Burns, London & New York: Routledge, pp 299–300, ISBN 978-0-7656-4314-8.
  88. ^ Xu, Shiduan (1998), "Oghul Qaimish, Empress of Mongol Emperor Dingzong," in Lily Xiao Hong Lee and Sue Wiles (eds), Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women: Tang through Ming: 618–1644, trans. Janine Burns, London & New York: Routledge, pp 300–301, ISBN 978-0-7656-4314-8.
  89. ^ Xu, Shiduan (1998), "Oghul Qaimish, Empress of Mongol Emperor Dingzong", in Lily Xiao Hong Lee and Sue Wiles (eds), Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women: Tang through Ming: 618–1644, trans. Janine Burns, London & New York: Routledge, p. 301, ISBN 978-0-7656-4314-8.
  90. ^ "ASIA/CHINA - Franciscans in China: 1200–1977, 1,162 Friars Minor lived in China". Agenzia Fides. 19 January 2010.
  91. ^ Charles George Herbermann (1913). The Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline, and History of the Catholic Church. Universal Knowledge Foundation. pp. 293–.
  92. ^ Anthony E. Clark (7 April 2011). China's Saints: Catholic Martyrdom During the Qing (1644–1911). Lexington Books. pp. 114–. ISBN 978-1-61146-017-9.
  93. ^ a b c d Stephen G. Haw (2006), Marco Polo's China: a Venetian in the Realm of Kublai Khan, London & New York: Routledge, p. 172, ISBN 0-415-34850-1.
  94. ^ Daniel H. Bays (9 June 2011). A New History of Christianity in China. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 20–. ISBN 978-1-4443-4284-0.
  95. ^ Heup Young Kim (2011). Asian and Oceanic Christianities in Conversation: Exploring Theological Identities at Home and in Diaspora. Rodopi. pp. 60–. ISBN 90-420-3299-5.
  96. ^ Editors of the Encyclopædia Britannica. "Giovanni dei Marignolli: Italian Clergyman." Encyclopædia Britannica. Accessed 6 September 2016.
  97. ^ a b Haw, Stephen G. (2006), Marco Polo's China: a Venetian in the realm of Khubilai Khan, Volume 3 of Routledge studies in the early history of Asia, Psychology Press, pp. 52–57, ISBN 978-0-415-34850-8
  98. ^ Michael Robson (2006). The Franciscans in the Middle Ages. Boydell Press. p. 113. ISBN 978-1-84383-221-8.
  99. ^ Cordier, H. (1908). The Church in China. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved September 6, 2016 from New Advent: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03669a.htm
  100. ^ Michael Robson (2006). The Franciscans in the Middle Ages. Boydell Press. p. 115. ISBN 978-1-84383-221-8.
  101. ^ Charles George Herbermann (1913). The Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline, and History of the Catholic Church. Universal Knowledge Foundation. p. 553.
  102. ^ Paul D. Buell (1 January 2003). Historical Dictionary of the Mongol World Empire. Scarecrow Press. p. 204. ISBN 978-0-8108-4571-8.
  103. ^ Muscat, Noel. . Christus Rex. FIOR-Malta. Archived from the original on 2016-05-14.
  104. ^ Johann Lorenz Mosheim (1832). Institutes of Ecclesiastical History: Ancient and Modern ... A. H. Maltby. pp. 415–. nicolaus de bentra.
  105. ^ Johann Lorenz Mosheim (1862). Authentic Memoirs of the Christian Church in China ... McGlashan & Gill. pp. 52–.;
    Johann Lorenz von Mosheim; John Laurence Von Mosheim (1 January 1999). Authentic Memoirs of the Christian Church in China. Adegi Graphics LLC. pp. 52–. ISBN 978-1-4021-8109-2.
  106. ^ a b Jackson, Peter (2005), The Mongols and the West: 1221–1410. Harlow & New York: Longman, p. 314, ISBN 978-0-582-36896-5.
  107. ^ Roux (1993), p. 469.
  108. ^ R. G. Grant (2005). Battle: A Visual Journey Through 5,000 Years of Combat. DK Pub. pp. 99–. ISBN 978-0-7566-1360-0.
  109. ^ Friedrich Hirth (1885). China and the Roman Orient: Researches Into Their Ancient and Mediaeval Relations as Represented in Old Chinese Records. G. Hirth. p. 66. ISBN 9780524033050.
  110. ^ Edward Luttwak (1 November 2009). The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire. Harvard University Press. pp. 169–. ISBN 978-0-674-03519-5.
  111. ^ Sir Henry Yule (1915). Cathay and the Way Thither, Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China. Asian Educational Services. pp. 12–. ISBN 978-81-206-1966-1.
  112. ^ Henri Cordier (1967). Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China. Kraus Reprint. p. 12.
  113. ^ Sir Henry Yule (1915). Cathay and the Way Thither, Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China. Asian Educational Services. pp. 13–. ISBN 978-81-206-1966-1.
  114. ^ E. Bretschneider (1871). On the Knowledge Possessed by the Ancient Chinese of the Arabs and Arabian Colonies: And Other Western Countries, Mentioned in Chinese Books. Trübner & Company. pp. 25–. Nicholas, in the year 1338, had not yet arrived in Peking, for the christians there complained in a letter, written at the above date, that they were eight years without a curate.
  115. ^ Edward Luttwak (1 November 2009). The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire. Harvard University Press. pp. 169–170. ISBN 978-0-674-03519-5.
  116. ^ Hakluyt Society (1967). Works. Kraus Reprint. p. 13.
  117. ^ Henri Cordier (1967). Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China. Kraus Reprint. p. 13.
  118. ^ Sir Henry Yule (1998). Cathay and the Way Thither: Missionary friars. Rashíduddín - Pegolotti - Marignolli. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Limited. p. 13. ISBN 978-81-215-0841-4.
  119. ^ Jack Goody (2012), Metals, Culture, and Capitalism: an Essay on the Origins of the Modern World, Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press, p. 226, ISBN 978-1-107-02962-0.
  120. ^ Jonathan D. Spence (1999). The Chan's Great Continent: China in Western Minds. W. W. Norton. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-0-393-31989-7.
  121. ^ Needham, Joseph; et al. (1987), Science and Civilisation in China, Vol. V, Pt. 7, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 48–50, ISBN 978-0-521-30358-3.
  122. ^ Pacey, Arnold (1991), Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-year History, Boston: MIT Press, p. 45, ISBN 0-262-66072-5.
  123. ^ Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (2010) [1996]. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press, p. 138, ISBN 978-0-521-12433-1.
  124. ^ Needham, Joseph (1987). Science and Civilisation in China: Military technology: The Gunpowder Epic, Volume 5, Part 7. New York: Cambridge University Press, pp 118–124. ISBN 978-0-521-30358-3.
  125. ^ Needham, Joseph (1986), Science & Civilisation in China, V:7: The Gunpowder Epic, Cambridge University Press, p. 222, ISBN 0-521-30358-3.
  126. ^ Chase, Kenneth Warren (2003). Firearms: A Global History to 1700. Cambridge University Press, p. 31, ISBN 978-0-521-82274-9.
  127. ^ Peter Allan Lorge (2008), The Asian Military Revolution: from Gunpowder to the Bomb, Cambridge University Press, pp 33–34, ISBN 978-0-521-60954-8.
  128. ^ Chase, Kenneth Warren (2003). Firearms: A Global History to 1700. Cambridge University Press, p. 32, ISBN 978-0-521-82274-9.
  129. ^ Needham, Joseph (1986), Science & Civilisation in China, V:7: The Gunpowder Epic, Cambridge University Press, p. 293, ISBN 0-521-30358-3.
  130. ^ Stephen Turnbull (19 February 2013). [url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qo4amAg_ygIC&pg=PT41 The Mongol Invasions of Japan 1274 and 1281]. Osprey Publishing. pp 41–42. ISBN 978-1-4728-0045-9. Retrieved 6 September 2016.
  131. ^ Kelly, Jack (2004), Gunpowder: Alchemy, Bombards, & Pyrotechnics: The History of the Explosive that Changed the World, Basic Books, p. 29, ISBN 0-465-03718-6.
  132. ^ Norris, John (2003), Early Gunpowder Artillery: 1300–1600, Marlborough: The Crowood Press, p. 19.
  133. ^ a b c d e Kathleen Kuiper & editors of Encyclopædia Britannica (Aug 31, 2006). "Rabban bar Sauma: Mongol Envoy." Encyclopædia Britannica (online source). Accessed 6 September 2016.
  134. ^ Thomas Francis Carter (1955). The invention of printing in China and its spread westward (2 ed.). Ronald Press Co. p. 171. ISBN 9780608113135. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  135. ^ Moule, A. C., Christians in China before 1500, 94 & 103; also Pelliot, Paul in T'oung-pao 15(1914), pp. 630–36.
  136. ^ a b Peter Jackson (2005), The Mongols and the West, 1221–1410, Pearson Education, p. 169, ISBN 0-582-36896-0.
  137. ^ Foltz, Richard (2010), Religions of the Silk Road, Palgrave Macmillan, 2nd edition, pp. 125–126, ISBN 978-0-230-62125-1.
  138. ^ Thomas F. Glick; Steven John Livesey; Faith Wallis (2005), Medieval science, technology, and medicine: an encyclopedia London & New York: Routledge, p. 485, ISBN 0-415-96930-1.
  139. ^ William Bayne Fisher; John Andrew Boyle (1968). The Cambridge history of Iran, London & New York: Cambridge University Press, p.370, ISBN 0-521-06936-X.
  140. ^ Morris Rossabi (2014). From Yuan to Modern China and Mongolia: The Writings of Morris Rossabi. Leiden & Boston: Brill, pp 385–386, ISBN 978-90-04-28529-3.
  141. ^ Morris Rossabi (2014). From Yuan to Modern China and Mongolia: The Writings of Morris Rossabi. BRILL, pp. 385–387, ISBN 978-90-04-28529-3.
  142. ^ Morris Rossabi (2014). From Yuan to Modern China and Mongolia: The Writings of Morris Rossabi. Leiden & Boston: Brill, pp. 386–421, ISBN 978-90-04-28529-3.
  143. ^ William Bayne Fisher; John Andrew Boyle (1968). The Cambridge history of Iran, London & New York: Cambridge University Press, pp 370–371, ISBN 0-521-06936-X.
  144. ^ Luttwak, Edward N. (2009). The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire. Cambridge and London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03519-5, p. 169.
  145. ^ Morris Rossabi (2014). From Yuan to Modern China and Mongolia: The Writings of Morris Rossabi. Leiden & Boston: Brill, p. 399, ISBN 978-90-04-28529-3.
  146. ^ Morris Rossabi (2014). From Yuan to Modern China and Mongolia: The Writings of Morris Rossabi. Leiden & Boston: Brill, p. 416–417, ISBN 978-90-04-28529-3.
  147. ^ Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (1999), The Cambridge Illustrated History of China, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 190–191, ISBN 0-521-66991-X.
  148. ^ a b Fontana, Michela (2011), Matteo Ricci: a Jesuit in the Ming Court, Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, p. 117, ISBN 978-1-4422-0586-4.
  149. ^ John E. Wills, Jr., (1998), "Relations with Maritime Europeans, 1514–1662," in Mote, Frederick W. and Denis Twitchett (eds.), The Cambridge History of China: Volume 8, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 2, 333–375, New York: Cambridge University Press, p. 336, ISBN 0-521-24333-5 (Hardback edition).
  150. ^ Brook, Timothy (1998), The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China, Berkeley: University of California Press, p. 124, ISBN 0-520-22154-0 (Paperback).
  151. ^ John E. Wills, Jr., (1998), "Relations with Maritime Europeans, 1514–1662," in Mote, Frederick W. and Denis Twitchett (eds.), The Cambridge History of China: Volume 8, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 2, 333–375, New York: Cambridge University Press, p. 338–344, ISBN 0-521-24333-5 (Hardback edition).
  152. ^ Robinson, David M. "Banditry and the Subversion of State Authority in China: The Capital Region during the Middle Ming Period (1450–1525)," in Journal of Social History (Spring 2000): 527–563.
  153. ^ Brook, Timothy. (1998). The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22154-0, p. 206.
  154. ^ Abbe, Mary (2009-12-18). "Million-dollar map coming to Minnesota". Star Tribune. Minneapolis: Star Tribune Company. Retrieved 6 September 2016.
  155. ^ Fontana, Michela (2011), Matteo Ricci: a Jesuit in the Ming Court, Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, pp 18–35, 116–118, ISBN 978-1-4422-0586-4.
  156. ^ The Ming Empire was at least willing to engage in conflicts nearby, however, when it offered relief forces to its tributary state Joseon (Korea) against invading Japanese forces in the Imjin War (1592–1598). See Patricia Ebrey, Anne Walthall, James Palais, (2006), East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, p. 214, ISBN 0-618-13384-4.

References edit

  • Abbe, Mary (2009-12-18). "Million-dollar map coming to Minnesota". Star Tribune. Minneapolis: Star Tribune Company. Retrieved 6 September 2016.
  • An, Jiayao. (2002), "When Glass Was Treasured in China," in Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner (eds), Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road, 79–94, Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, ISBN 2-503-52178-9.
  • Ahmed, S. Z. (2004). Chaghatai: the Fabulous Cities and People of the Silk Road. West Conshokoken: Infinity Publishing.
  • Bailey, H.W. (1996) "Khotanese Saka Literature", in Ehsan Yarshater (ed), The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods, Part 2 (reprint edition). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Ball, Warwick (2016). Rome in the East: Transformation of an Empire, 2nd edition. London & New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-72078-6.
  • Bays, Daniel H. (9 June 2011). A New History of Christianity in China. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-4284-0.
  • Bretschneider, Emil (1871). On the Knowledge Possessed by the Ancient Chinese of the Arabs and Arabian Colonies: And Other Western Countries, Mentioned in Chinese Books. Trübner & Company. pp. 25–. Nicholas, in the year 1338, had not yet arrived in Peking, for the christians there complained in a letter, written at the above date, that they were eight years without a curate.
  • Bretschneider, Emil (1888). Medieval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources: Fragments Towards the Knowledge of the Geography and History of Central and Western Asia from the 13th to the 17th Century, Vol. 1. Abingdon: Routledge, reprinted 2000.
  • Brook, Timothy (1998). The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22154-0 (Paperback).
  • Buell, Paul D. (19 March 2003). Historical Dictionary of the Mongol World Empire. Scarecrow Press. pp. 120–121. ISBN 978-0-8108-6602-7.
  • Buell, Paul D. (12 February 2010). The A to Z of the Mongol World Empire. Scarecrow Press. pp. 120–121. ISBN 978-1-4617-2036-2.
  • Carter, Thomas Francis (1955). The invention of printing in China and its spread westward (2 ed.). Ronald Press Co. p. 171. ISBN 9780608113135. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  • Chang, Chun-shu. (2007). The Rise of the Chinese Empire: Volume II; Frontier, Immigration, & Empire in Han China, 130 B.C. – A.D. 157. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-11534-1.
  • Chase, Kenneth Warren (2003). Firearms: A Global History to 1700. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-82274-9.
  • Christopoulos, Lucas (August 2012). "Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China (240 BC – 1398 AD)," in Victor H. Mair (ed), Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 230. Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations. ISSN 2157-9687.
  • Ciocîltan, Virgil (2012). The Mongols and the Black Sea Trade in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries, Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-22666-1.
  • Clark, Anthony E. (7 April 2011). China's Saints: Catholic Martyrdom During the Qing (1644–1911). Lexington Books. pp. 114–. ISBN 978-1-61146-017-9.
  • Cordier, H. (1908). The Church in China. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved September 6, 2016 from New Advent: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03669a.htm
  • Cordier, Henri (1967). Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China. Kraus Reprint. p. 12.
  • Cumont, Franz (1933), The Excavations of Dura-Europos: Preliminary Reports of the Seventh and Eighth Seasons of Work. New Haven: Crai.
  • de Crespigny, Rafe (2007). A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD). Leiden: Koninklijke Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0.
  • Di Cosmo, Nicola. (2002). Ancient China and Its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77064-4.
  • Durant, Will (1949). The Age of Faith: The Story of Civilization. Simon and Schuster. p. 118. ISBN 978-1-4516-4761-7.
  • Ebrey, Patricia, Anne Walthall, and James Palais, (2006). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-618-13384-4.
  • Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (2010) [1996]. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-12433-1.
  • Editors of the Encyclopædia Britannica. "Giovanni dei Marignolli: Italian Clergyman." Encyclopædia Britannica. Accessed 6 September 2016.
  • Emmerick, R. E. (2003) "Iranian Settlement East of the Pamirs", in Ehsan Yarshater (ed.), The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Fisher, William Bayne; John Andrew Boyle (1968). The Cambridge history of Iran. London & New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-06936-X.
  • Foltz, Richard (2010). Religions of the Silk Road. Palgrave Macmillan, 2nd edition. ISBN 978-0-230-62125-1.
  • Fontana, Michela (2011). Matteo Ricci: a Jesuit in the Ming Court. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4422-0586-4.
  • Friedman, John Block; Kristen Mossler Figg (4 July 2013). Trade, Travel, and Exploration in the Middle Ages: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 307–. ISBN 978-1-135-59094-9.
  • Gernet, Jacques (1962). H.M. Wright (trans), Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion, 1250–1276. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-0720-0.
  • Glick, Thomas F; Steven John Livesey; Faith Wallis (2005). Medieval science, technology, and medicine: an encyclopedia. London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-96930-1.
  • Goody, Jack (2012). Metals, Culture, and Capitalism: an Essay on the Origins of the Modern World. Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-02962-0.
  • Grant, R.G. (2005). Battle: A Visual Journey Through 5,000 Years of Combat. DK Pub. pp. 99–. ISBN 978-0-7566-1360-0.
  • Hansen, Valerie (2012). The Silk Road: A New History. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515931-8.
  • Haw, Stephen G. (2006). Marco Polo's China: a Venetian in the Realm of Kublai Khan. London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-34850-1.
  • Hirth, Friedrich (1885). China and the Roman Orient: Researches Into Their Ancient and Mediaeval Relations as Represented in Old Chinese Records. G. Hirth. p. 66. ISBN 9780524033050.
  • Hirth, Friedrich (2000) [1885]. Jerome S. Arkenberg (ed.). "East Asian History Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. - 1643 C.E." Fordham.edu. Fordham University. Retrieved 2016-09-14.
  • Herbermann, Charles George (1913). The Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline, and History of the Catholic Church. Universal Knowledge Foundation. pp. 293–.
  • Hoffman, Donald L. (1991). "Rusticiano da Pisa". In Lacy, Norris J. (ed.), The New Arthurian Encyclopedia. New York: Garland. ISBN 0-8240-4377-4.
  • Holt, Frank L. (1989). Alexander the Great and Bactria: the Formation of a Greek Frontier in Central Asia. Leiden, New York, Copenhagen, Cologne: E. J. Brill. ISBN 90-04-08612-9.
  • Jackson, Peter (2005), The Mongols and the West, 1221–1410. Pearson Education. ISBN 0-582-36896-0.
  • Kelly, Jack (2004). Gunpowder: Alchemy, Bombards, & Pyrotechnics: The History of the Explosive that Changed the World. Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-03718-6.
  • Kim, Heup Young (2011). Asian and Oceanic Christianities in Conversation: Exploring Theological Identities at Home and in Diaspora. Rodopi. ISBN 90-420-3299-5.
  • Kuiper, Kathleen & editors of Encyclopædia Britannica (Aug 31, 2006). "Rabban bar Sauma: Mongol Envoy." Encyclopædia Britannica (online source). Accessed 6 September 2016.
  • LIVIUS. "Roxane." Articles on Ancient History. Page last modified 17 August 2015. Retrieved on 8 September 2016.
  • LIVIUS. "Silk Road." 2013-09-06 at the Wayback Machine Articles of Ancient History. 28 October 2010. Retrieved on 14 November 2010.
  • Lorge, Peter Allan (2008), The Asian Military Revolution: from Gunpowder to the Bomb. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-60954-8.
  • Luttwak, Edward N. (2009). The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire. Cambridge and London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03519-5.
  • Magill, Frank N. et al. (1998). The Ancient World: Dictionary of World Biography, Volume 1. Pasadena, Chicago, London,: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, Salem Press. ISBN 0-89356-313-7.
  • Mallory, J.P. and Victor H. Mair (2000). The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05101-6.
  • Mandeville, John. (1983). C.W.R.D. Moseley (trans), The Travels of Sir John Mandeville. London: Penguin Books Ltd.
  • Milton, Osborne (2006). The Mekong: Turbulent Past, Uncertain Future. Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin, revised edition, first published in 2000. ISBN 1-74114-893-6.
  • Morgan, D.O. "Marco Polo in China-Or Not," in The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Volume 6, Issue #2, 221–225, July 1996.
  • Morgan, David (2007). The Mongols. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub. ISBN 978-1-4051-3539-9.
  • Morton, William Scott and Charlton M. Lewis. (2005). China: Its History and Culture: Fourth Edition. New York City: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-141279-7.
  • Mosheim, Johann Lorenz (1832). Institutes of Ecclesiastical History: Ancient and Modern ... A. H. Maltby. pp. 415–. nicolaus de bentra.
  • Mosheim, Johann Lorenz von; John Laurence Von Mosheim (1 January 1999). Authentic Memoirs of the Christian Church in China. Adegi Graphics LLC. pp. 52–. ISBN 978-1-4021-8109-2.
  • Mosheim, Johann Lorenz (1862). Authentic Memoirs of the Christian Church in China ... McGlashan & Gill. pp. 52–.
  • Moule, A. C. Christians in China before 1500, 94 & 103; also Pelliot, Paul in T'oung-pao 15 (1914), pp. 630–36.
  • Needham, Joseph (1971). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3: Civil Engineering and Nautics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; rpr. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd, 1986.
  • Needham, Joseph; et al. (1987). Science and Civilisation in China: Military technology: The Gunpowder Epic, Volume 5, Part 7. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-30358-3.
  • Norris, John (2003), Early Gunpowder Artillery: 1300–1600, Marlborough: The Crowood Press.
  • Olschki, Leonardo (1960). Marco Polo's Asia: an Introduction to His "Description of the World" Called "Il Milione.". Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Pacey, Arnold (1991). Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-year History. Boston: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-66072-5.
  • Polo, Marco; Latham, Ronald (translator) (1958). The Travels of Marco Polo. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-044057-7.
  • Robinson, David M. "Banditry and the Subversion of State Authority in China: The Capital Region during the Middle Ming Period (1450–1525)," in Journal of Social History (Spring 2000): 527–563.
  • Robson, Michael (2006). The Franciscans in the Middle Ages. Boydell Press. p. 113. ISBN 978-1-84383-221-8.
  • Rossabi, Morris (2014). From Yuan to Modern China and Mongolia: The Writings of Morris Rossabi. Leiden & Boston: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-28529-3.
  • Roux, Jean-Paul, Histoire de l'Empire Mongol, Fayard, 1993, ISBN 2-213-03164-9.
  • Sezgin, Fuat; Carl Ehrig-Eggert; Amawi Mazen; E. Neubauer (1996). نصوص ودراسات من مصادر صينية حول البلدان الاسلامية. Frankfurt am Main: Institut für Geschichte der Arabisch-Islamischen Wissenschaften (Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic Science at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University). p. 25. ISBN 9783829820479.
  • Spence, Jonathan D. (1999). The Chan's Great Continent: China in Western Minds. W. W. Norton. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-0-393-31989-7.
  • Spielvogel, Jackson J. (2011). Western Civilization: a Brief History. Boston: Wadsworth, Cencage Learning. ISBN 0-495-57147-4.
  • Strachan, Edward and Roy Bolton (2008). Russia and Europe in the Nineteenth Century. London: Sphinx Fine Art. ISBN 978-1-907200-02-1.
  • Tarn, W.W. (1966). The Greeks in Bactria and India, reprint edition. London & New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985), Paper and Printing, Joseph Needham, Science and Civilisation in China, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, vol. 5 part 1, Cambridge University Press
  • Torday, Laszlo. (1997). Mounted Archers: The Beginnings of Central Asian History. Durham: The Durham Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-900838-03-0.
  • Tremblay, Xavier (2007). "The Spread of Buddhism in Serindia: Buddhism Among Iranians, Tocharians and Turks before the 13th Century," in Ann Heirman and Stephan Peter Bumbacker (eds), The Spread of Buddhism. Leiden & Boston: Koninklijke Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-15830-6.
  • Turnbull, Stephen (19 February 2013). [url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qo4amAg_ygIC&pg=PT41 The Mongol Invasions of Japan 1274 and 1281]. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4728-0045-9. Retrieved 6 September 2016.
  • Vogel, Hans Ulrich (2013). Marco Polo Was in China: New Evidence from Currencies, Salts and Revenues. Leiden; Boston: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-23193-1.
  • Wills, John E., Jr. (1998). "Relations with Maritime Europeans, 1514–1662," in Mote, Frederick W. and Denis Twitchett (eds.), The Cambridge History of China: Volume 8, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 2, 333–375. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24333-5 (Hardback edition).
  • Wood, Frances. (2002). The Silk Road: Two Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24340-8.
  • Xu, Shiduan (1998). "Oghul Qaimish, Empress of Mongol Emperor Dingzong," in Lily Xiao Hong Lee and Sue Wiles (eds), Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women: Tang through Ming: 618–1644, trans. Janine Burns, London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7656-4314-8.
  • Yang, Juping. “Hellenistic Information in China.” CHS Research Bulletin 2, no. 2 (2014). http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:hlnc.essay:YangJ.Hellenistic_Information_in_China.2014.
  • Ye, Yiliang (2010). "Introductory Essay: Outline of the Political Relations between Iran and China," in Ralph Kauz (ed.), Aspects of the Maritime Silk Road: From the Persian Gulf to the East China Sea. Weisbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-06103-2.
  • Young, Gary K. (2001). Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC - AD 305. London & New York: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-24219-3.
  • Yu, Huan (September 2004). John E. Hill (ed.). . Depts.washington.edu. Translated by John E. Hill. Archived from the original on 2005-03-15. Retrieved 2016-09-17.
  • Yu, Taishan (June 2010). "The Earliest Tocharians in China" in Victor H. Mair (ed), Sino-Platonic Papers. Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations.
  • Yü, Ying-shih. (1986). "Han Foreign Relations," in The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, 377–462. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 377–388, 391, ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8.
  • Henry Yule Henry, Sir. (1915). Cathay and the Way Thither, Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China. Asian Educational Services. pp. 12–. ISBN 978-81-206-1966-1.
  • Yule, Henry, Sir (1998). Cathay and the Way Thither: Missionary friars. Rashíduddín - Pegolotti - Marignolli. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Limited. p. 13. ISBN 978-81-215-0841-4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Zhao, Feng (2004). "Wall hanging with centaur and warrior," in James C.Y. Watt, John P. O'Neill et al. (eds) and trans. Ching-Jung Chen et al., China: Dawn of a Golden Age, 200–750 A.D.. New Haven & London: Yale University Press, Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-1-58839-126-1.

External links edit

  • Franciscans in China
  • Princely Gifts & Papal Treasures: The Franciscan Mission to China & Its Influence on the Art of the West, 1250–1350

February 16, 2024
europeans, medieval, china, given, textual, archaeological, evidence, thought, that, thousands, europeans, lived, imperial, china, during, yuan, dynasty, these, were, people, from, countries, traditionally, belonging, lands, christendom, during, high, late, mi. Given textual and archaeological evidence it is thought that thousands of Europeans lived in Imperial China during the Yuan dynasty 1 These were people from countries traditionally belonging to the lands of Christendom during the High to Late Middle Ages who visited traded performed Christian missionary work or lived in China This occurred primarily during the second half of the 13th century and the first half of the 14th century coinciding with the rule of the Mongol Empire which ruled over a large part of Eurasia and connected Europe with their Chinese dominion of the Yuan dynasty 2 Whereas the Byzantine Empire centered in Greece and Anatolia maintained rare incidences of correspondence with the Tang Song and Ming dynasties of China the Holy See sent several missionaries and embassies to the early Mongol Empire as well as to Khanbaliq modern Beijing the capital of the Mongol led Yuan dynasty of China These contacts with the West were preceded by rare interactions between the Han dynasty and Hellenistic Greeks and Romans 1342 tomb of Katarina Vilioni member of an Italian trading family in Yangzhou Mainly located in places such as the Yuan capital of Karakorum European missionaries and merchants traveled around various parts of the Yuan dynasty and other Mongol ruled khanates during a period of time referred to by historians as the Pax Mongolica Perhaps the most important political consequence of this movement of peoples and intensified trade was the Franco Mongol alliance although the latter never fully materialized at least not in a consistent manner 3 The establishment of the Ming dynasty in 1368 and reestablishment of ethnic Han rule led to the cessation of European merchants and Roman Catholic missionaries living in China Direct contact with Europeans was not renewed until Portuguese explorers and Jesuit missionaries arrived on Ming China s southern shores in the 1510s during the Age of Discovery The Italian merchant Marco Polo preceded by his father and uncle Niccolo and Maffeo Polo traveled to China during the Yuan dynasty Marco Polo wrote a famous account of his travels there as did the Franciscan friar Odoric of Pordenone and the merchant Francesco Balducci Pegolotti The author John Mandeville also wrote about his travels to China but he may have based these on preexisting accounts In Khanbaliq the Roman archdiocese was established by John of Montecorvino who was later succeeded by Giovanni de Marignolli Other Europeans such as Andre de Longjumeau managed to reach the eastern borderlands of China in their diplomatic travels to the Yuan imperial court while others such as Giovanni da Pian del Carpine Benedykt Polak and William of Rubruck traveled instead to Outer Mongolia The Turkic Chinese Nestorian Christian Rabban Bar Sauma was the first diplomat from China to reach the royal courts of Christendom in the West Contents 1 Background 1 1 Hellenistic Greeks 1 2 Ancient Romans 1 3 Byzantine Empire 2 Merchants 3 Missionaries and diplomats 4 Captives 5 Spread of Chinese gunpowder 6 Diplomatic missions to Europe 7 Renewed contacts during the Ming dynasty 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 External linksBackground edit nbsp The Deva King of the South a stone carved relief on the interior of the Cloud Platform at Juyong Pass built between 1342 and 1345 in what was then the Mongol Yuan dynasty capital Khanbaliq modern Beijing the monument contains inscriptions in six different scripts Lanydza script used to write Sanskrit Tibetan script used to write the Tibetan language Phags pa script created at the command of Kublai Khan and used to write Chinese Mongolian and Uyghur Old Uyghur script used to write the Old Uyghur language Chinese characters used to write Chinese and the Tangut script used to write the Tangut language 4 5 Further information Chronology of European exploration of Asia nbsp nbsp Lefthand image The Sampul tapestry a woolen wall hanging from Shanpula or Sampul now in Lop County Xinjiang showing a possibly Greek soldier from the Greco Bactrian kingdom 250 125 BC with blue eyes wielding a spear and wearing what appears to be a diadem headband depicted above him is a centaur from Greek mythology a common motif in Hellenistic art 6 Righthand image Two Buddhist monks on a mural of the Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves near Turpan Xinjiang China 9th century AD although Albert von Le Coq 1913 assumed the blue eyed red haired monk was a Tocharian 7 modern scholarship has identified similar Caucasian figures of the same cave temple No 9 as ethnic Sogdians 8 an Eastern Iranian people who inhabited Turpan as an ethnic minority community during the phases of Tang Chinese 7th 8th century and Uyghur rule 9th 13th century 9 Hellenistic Greeks edit Further information China Greece relations Before the 13th century AD instances of Europeans going to China or of Chinese going to Europe were very rare 1 Euthydemus I Hellenistic ruler of the Greco Bactrian Kingdom in Central Asia during the 3rd century BC led an expedition into the Tarim Basin modern Xinjiang China in search of precious metals 10 11 Greek influence as far east as the Tarim Basin at this time also seems to be confirmed by the discovery of the Sampul tapestry a woolen wall hanging with the painting of a blue eyed soldier possibly a Greek and a prancing centaur a common Hellenistic motif from Greek mythology 6 12 13 However it is known that other Indo European peoples such as the Yuezhi Saka 14 15 16 and Tocharians 16 17 inhabited the Tarim Basin before and after it was brought under Han Chinese influence during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han r 141 87 BC 18 19 20 21 Emperor Wu s diplomat Zhang Qian d 113 BC was sent to forge an alliance with the Yuezhi a mission that was unsuccessful but he brought back eyewitness reports of legacies of Hellenistic Greek civilization with his travels to Dayuan in the Fergana Valley with Alexandria Eschate as its capital and the Daxia of Bactria in what is now Afghanistan and Tajikistan 22 Later the Han captured Dayuan in the Han Dayuan war 23 24 It has also been suggested that the Terracotta Army sculptures depicting the armies of Qin Shi Huang first Emperor of China dated to 210 BCE in the Xi an region of Shaanxi Province might be inspired by Hellenistic sculptural art 25 a hypothesis that has caused some controversy 26 At the cemetery in Sampul Shanpula 山普拉 14 km from Khotan now in Lop County Hotan Prefecture Xinjiang 27 where the aforementioned Sampul tapestry was found 6 the local inhabitants buried their dead there from roughly 217 BC to 283 AD 28 Mitochondrial DNA analysis of the human remains has revealed genetic affinities to peoples from the Caucasus specifically a maternal lineage linked to Ossetians and Iranians as well as an Eastern Mediterranean paternal lineage 27 29 Seeming to confirm this link from historical accounts it is known that Alexander the Great who married a Sogdian woman from Bactria named Roxana 30 31 32 encouraged his soldiers and generals to marry local women consequentially the later kings of the Seleucid Empire and Greco Bactrian Kingdom had a mixed Persian Greek ethnic background 33 34 35 36 Ancient Romans edit Main article Sino Roman relations Beginning in the age of Augustus r 27 BC 14 AD the Romans including authors such as Pliny the Elder mentioned contacts with the Seres whom they identified as the producers of silk from distant East Asia and could have been the Chinese or even any number of middlemen of various ethnic backgrounds along the Silk Road of Central Asia and Northwest China 37 The Eastern Han era Chinese general Ban Chao Protector General of the Western Regions explored Central Asia and in 97 AD dispatched his envoys Gan Ying to Daqin i e the Roman Empire 38 39 Gan was dissuaded by Parthian authorities from venturing further than the west coast possibly the Eastern Mediterranean although he wrote a detailed report about the Roman Empire its cities postal network and consular system of government and presented this to the Han court 40 41 Subsequently there was a series of Roman embassies in China lasting from the 2nd to 3rd centuries AD as recorded in Chinese sources In 166 AD the Book of Later Han records that Romans reached China from the maritime south and presented gifts to the court of Emperor Huan of Han r 146 168 AD claiming they represented Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Andun 安敦 r 161 180 AD 42 43 There is speculation that they were Roman merchants instead of official diplomats 42 At the very least archaeological evidence supports the claim in the Weilue 44 and Book of Liang 45 that Roman merchants were active in Southeast Asia if not the claim of their embassies arriving in China through Jiaozhi the Chinese controlled province of northern Vietnam 46 Roman golden medallions from the reigns of Antoninus Pius and his adopted son Marcus Aurelius have been found in Oc Eo near Ho Chi Minh City a territory that belonged to the Kingdom of Funan bordering Jiaozhi 46 Suggestive of even earlier activity is a Republican era Roman glass bowl unearthed from a Western Han tomb of Guangzhou on the shores of the South China Sea dated to the early 1st century BC 47 in addition to ancient Mediterranean goods found in Thailand Indonesia and Malaysia 46 The Greco Roman geographer Ptolemy wrote in his Antonine era Geography that beyond the Golden Chersonese Malay Peninsula was a port city called Kattigara discovered by a Greek sailor named Alexander a site Ferdinand von Richthofen assumed was Chinese controlled Hanoi 48 but given the archaeological evidence could have been Oc Eo 46 49 Roman coins have been found in China but far fewer than in India 50 It is possible that a group of Greek acrobatic performers who claimed to be from a place west of the seas i e Roman Egypt which the Book of Later Han related to the Daqin empire were presented by a king of Burma to Emperor An of Han in 120 AD 51 It is known that in both the Parthian Empire and Kushan Empire of Asia ethnic Greeks continued to be employed as entertainers such as musicians and athletes who engaged in athletic competitions 52 53 Byzantine Empire edit Further information Byzantine diplomacy Byzantine Mongol alliance and Tang dynasty nbsp Emperor Taizong of Tang r 626 649 giving an audience to Gar Tongtsen Yulsung ambassador of the Tibetan Empire in a painting by Yan Liben 600 673 Byzantine Greek historian Procopius stated that two Nestorian Christian monks eventually uncovered how silk was made From this revelation monks were sent by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian ruled 527 565 as spies on the Silk Road from Constantinople to China and back to steal the silkworm eggs 54 This resulted in silk production in the Mediterranean particularly in Thrace in northern Greece 55 and gave the Byzantine Empire a monopoly on silk production in medieval Europe until the loss of its territories in Southern Italy The Byzantine historian Theophylact Simocatta writing during the reign of Heraclius r 610 641 relayed information about China s geography its capital city Khubdan Old Turkic Khumdan i e Chang an its current ruler Taisson whose name meant Son of Heaven Chinese 天子 Tianzi although this could be derived from the name of Emperor Taizong of Tang and correctly pointed to its reunification by the Sui dynasty 581 618 as occurring during the reign of Maurice noting that China had previously been divided politically along the Yangzi River by two warring nations 56 The Chinese Old Book of Tang and New Book of Tang mention several embassies made by Fu lin 拂菻 i e Byzantium which they equated with Daqin i e the Roman Empire beginning in 643 with an embassy sent by the king Boduoli 波多力 i e Constans II Pogonatos to Emperor Taizong of Tang bearing gifts such as red glass 45 These histories also provided cursory descriptions of Constantinople its walls and how it was besieged by Da shi 大食 the Arabs of the Umayyad Caliphate and their commander Mo yi 摩拽 i e Muawiyah I governor of Syria before becoming caliph who forced them to pay tribute 45 From Chinese records it is known that Michael VII Doukas Mie li sha ling kai sa 滅力沙靈改撒 of Fu lin dispatched a diplomatic mission to China s Song dynasty that arrived in 1081 during the reign of Emperor Shenzong of Song 45 57 Some Chinese during the Song period showed interest in countries to the west such as the early 13th century Quanzhou customs inspector Zhao Rugua who described the ancient Lighthouse of Alexandria in his Zhu fan zhi 58 Merchants edit nbsp nbsp Left image Niccolo and Maffeo Polo leaving Constantinople for the East in 1259 from a 15th century illuminated manuscript version of The Travels of Marco Polo Right image A sancai glazed Chinese ceramic incense burner Yuan dynasty Further information Niccolo and Maffeo Polo Marco Polo and The Travels of Marco Polo nbsp Chinese stone inscription of a Nestorian Christian Cross from the Cross Temple near Beijing then called Dadu or Khanbaliq Yuan dynastyAccording to the 9th century Book of Roads and Kingdoms by ibn Khordadbeh 59 China was a destination for Radhanite Jews buying boys female slaves and eunuchs from Europe During the subsequent Song period there was also a community of Kaifeng Jews in China 60 The Spaniard Benjamin of Tudela from Navarre was a 12th century Jewish traveler whose Travels of Benjamin recorded vivid descriptions of Europe Asia and Africa preceding those of Marco Polo by a hundred years Polo a 13th century merchant from the Republic of Venice describes his travels to Yuan dynasty China and the court of Mongol ruler Kublai Khan along with the preceding journeys made by Niccolo and Maffeo Polo his father and uncle respectively in his Travels of Marco Polo Polo related this account to Rustichello da Pisa around 1298 while they shared a Genoese prison cell following their capture in battle 61 62 In his return trip to Persia from China setting out from the port at Quanzhou in 1291 Marco Polo said that he accompanied the Mongol princess Kokochin in her intended marriage to Arghun ruler of the Mongol Ilkhanate but she instead married his son Ghazan following the former s sudden death 63 Although Marco Polo s presence is omitted entirely his story is confirmed by the 14th century Persian historian Rashid al Din Hamadani in his Jami al tawarikh 64 Marco Polo accurately described geographical features of China such as the Grand Canal 65 His detailed and accurate descriptions of salt production confirm that he had actually been in China 66 Marco described salt wells and hills where salt could be mined probably in Yunnan and reported that in the mountains these rascals have none of the Great Khan s paper money but use salt instead They have salt which they boil and set in a mold 67 Polo also remarked how the Chinese burned paper effigies shaped as male and female servants camels horses suits of clothing and armor while cremating the dead during funerary rites 68 When visiting Zhenjiang in Jiangsu China Marco Polo noted that Christian churches had been built there 69 His claim is confirmed by a Chinese text of the 14th century explaining how a Sogdian named Mar Sargis from Samarkand founded six Nestorian Christian churches there in addition to one in Hangzhou during the second half of the 13th century 69 Nestorian Christianity had existed in China earlier during the Tang dynasty 618 907 AD when a Persian monk named Alopen Chinese Aluosi 阿羅本 阿羅斯 citation needed came to the capital Chang an in 653 to proselytize as described in a dual Chinese and Syriac language inscription from Chang an modern Xi an dated to the year 781 70 Others were soon to follow The Italian Franciscan friar John of Montecorvino took a journey starting in 1291 setting out from Tabriz to Ormus sailing from there to China while accompanied by the Italian merchant Pietro de Lucalongo 71 While Montecorvino became a bishop in Khanbaliq Beijing his friend Lucalongo continued to serve as a merchant there and donated a large amount of money to maintain the local Catholic Church 72 Marco Polo mentioned the heavy presence of Genoese Italians at Tabriz modern Iran a city that Marco returned to from China via the Strait of Hormuz in 1293 1294 73 John Mandeville a mid 14th century author and alleged Englishman from St Albans claimed to have lived in China and even served at the Mongol khan s court 74 However certain parts of his accounts are considered dubious by modern scholars with some conjecturing that he simply concocted his stories by using written accounts of China penned by other authors such as Odoric of Pordenone 75 nbsp Text of the letter of Pope Innocent IV to the ruler and people of the Tartars brought to Guyug Khan by John de Carpini 1245 nbsp Seal of Guyuk Khan using the classical Mongolian script as found in a letter sent to the Roman Pope Innocent IV in 1246 nbsp Letter from Arghun Khan of the Mongol Ilkhanate to Pope Nicholas IV 1290 nbsp Seal of the Mongol ruler Ghazan in a 1302 letter to Pope Boniface VIII with an inscription in Chinese seal scriptIn Zaytun the first harbour of China there was a small Genoese colony mentioned in 1326 by Andre de Perouse The most famous Italian resident of the city was Andolo de Savignone who was sent to the West by the Khan in 1336 to obtain 100 horses and other treasures 76 Following Savignone s visit an ambassador was dispatched to China with one superb horse which was later the object of Chinese poems and paintings 76 Other Venetians lived in China including one who brought a letter to the West from John of Montecorvino in 1305 In 1339 a Venetian named Giovanni Loredano is recorded to have returned to Venice from China A tombstone was also discovered in Yangzhou in the name of Catherine de Villioni daughter of Dominici who died there in 1342 76 In about 1340 Francesco Balducci Pegolotti a merchant from Florence compiled a guide about trade in China 77 based on records from travellers who visited China Pegolotti himself never went to China 78 The guide notes the size of Khanbaliq modern Beijing and how merchants could exchange silver for Chinese paper money that could be used to buy luxury items such as silk 79 The History of Yuan chapter 134 records that a certain Ai sie transliteration of either Joshua or Joseph from the country of Fu lin i e the Byzantine Empire initially in the service of Guyuk Khan was well versed in Western languages and had expertise in the fields of medicine and astronomy that convinced Kublai Khan to offer him a position as the director of medical and astronomical boards Kublai Khan eventually honored him with the title of Prince of Fu lin Chinese 拂菻王 Fu lǐn wang His biography in the History of Yuan lists his children by their Chinese names which are similar to the Christian names Elias Ye li ah Luke Lu ko and Antony An tun with a daughter named A na si sz 80 Europeans of the 13th and 14th century called Northern China by place names similar to Cathay while Southern China was called Mangi or Manzi 81 Missionaries and diplomats editMain articles Religion in the Mongol Empire Catholic Church in China Jesuit missions in China and Protestant missions in China Further information Christianity among the Mongols Tibetan Buddhism Chinese Buddhism Buddhism in Mongolia Tengriism Islam during the Yuan dynasty and Islam in Mongolia The Italian explorer and archbishop Giovanni da Pian del Carpine and Polish friar and traveler Benedykt Polak were the first papal envoys to reach Karakorum after being sent there by Pope Innocent IV in 1245 82 83 The Historia Mongalorum was later written by Pian del Carpini documenting his travels and a cursory history of the Mongols 84 85 Catholic missionaries soon established a considerable presence in China due to the religious tolerance of the Mongols due in no small part to the Khan s own great tolerance and open encouragement of the development of trade and intellectual avocation The 18th century English historian Edward Gibbon commented on the Mongols religious tolerance and went as far as to compare the religious laws of Genghis Khan to equivalent ideas propounded by the Enlightenment English philosopher John Locke 86 Oghul Qaimish the widow of Guyuk Khan ruled as regent over the Mongol realm from 1249 to 1251 87 In 1250 the French diplomats Andre de Longjumeau Guy de Longjumeau and Jean de Carcassonne arrived at her court located along the Emil River on the Kazakh Chinese border bearing gifts and representing their sovereign Louis IX of France who desired a military alliance 88 Empress Qaimish viewed the gifts as tributary offerings and in addition to gifts given in return entrusted to Louis diplomats she sent the French monarch a letter demanding his submission as a vassal 89 The Franciscan missionary John of Montecorvino Giovanni da Montecorvino 90 was ordered to China by Pope Nicholas III in 1279 91 92 Montecorvino arrived in China at the end of 1293 93 where he later translated the New Testament into the Mongol tongue and converted 6 000 people probably mostly Alans Turks and Mongols rather than Chinese He was joined by three bishops Andre de Perouse Gerard Albuini and Peregrino de Castello and ordained archbishop of Beijing by Pope Clement V in 1307 82 93 A community of Armenians in China sprang up during this period They were converted to Catholicism by John of Montecorvino 94 95 Following the death of John of Montecorvino Giovanni de Marignolli was dispatched to Beijing to become the new archbishop from 1342 to 1346 in an effort to maintain a Christian influence in the region 93 96 97 Marignolli although not mentioned by name in the History of Yuan is noted in that historical text as the Frank Fulang who provided the Yuan imperial court with an impressive war horse as a tributary gift 93 On 15 March 1314 the killings of Francis de Petriolo Monaldo of Ancona and Anthony of Milan occurred in China 98 This was followed by the Killing of James Quanzhou s bishop in 1362 His predecessors were Andrew Peregrinus and Gerard 99 The Franciscan friar Odoric of Pordenone visited China 97 Friars in Hangzhou and Zhangzhou were visited by Odorico 100 His total travels took place from 1304 to 1330 101 although he first returned to Europe in 1330 82 China s Franciscans were mentioned in his writings the Itinerarium 102 103 In 1333 John de Montecorvino was officially replaced by Nicolaus de Bentra who was chosen by Pope John XXII 45 104 There were complaints of the absence of the archbishop in 1338 105 Toghon Temur the last Mongol ruler of the Yuan dynasty in China before their retreat to Mongolia to form the Northern Yuan dynasty sent an embassy including Genoese Italians to Pope Benedict XII in 1336 requesting a new archbishop 106 The pope answered by sending legates and ecclesiastical leaders to Khanbaliq in 1342 which included Giovanni de Marignolli 82 106 In 1370 following the ousting of the Mongols from China and the establishment of the Chinese Ming dynasty the Pope sent a new mission to China comprising the Parisian theologian Guillaume du Pre as the new archbishop and 50 Franciscans However this mission disappeared apparently eliminated 107 The Ming Hongwu Emperor sent a diplomatic letter to the Byzantine Empire 108 through a European in China named Nieh ku lun 109 John V Palaiologos was the Byzantine Emperor at the time the message was sent by Hongwu 110 with the proclamatory letter informing him about the establishment of the new Ming dynasty 45 The message was sent to the Byzantine ruler in September 1371 when Hongwu met with the merchant Nieh ku lun 捏古倫 from Fu lin Byzantium 111 112 The Khanbaliq bishop Nicolaus de Bentra is speculated to be the same person as Nieh ku lun for instance by Emil Bretschneider in 1888 113 114 More recently Edward N Luttwak 2009 also mused that Nicolaus de Bentra and this alleged Byzantine merchant Nieh ku lin were one and the same 115 Friar William of Parto Cosmas and John de Marignolli were among the Catholic clerics in China 116 The Oriens Christianus by Michel Le Quien 1661 1733 recorded the names of Khanbaliq s previous bishops and archbishops 117 118 Captives editFor his travels from 1253 to 1255 the Franciscan friar William of Rubruck reported numerous Europeans in Central Asia He described German prisoners who had been enslaved and forced to mine gold and manufacture iron weapons in the Mongol town of Bolat near Talas Kyrgyzstan 119 120 In Karakorum the Mongol capital he met a Parisian named Guillaume Boucher and Paquette a woman from the French city of Metz who had both been captured in Hungary during the Mongol invasions of Europe He also mentions Hungarians and Russians 1 Spread of Chinese gunpowder editMain article History of gunpowder Further information History of the firearm and History of artillery William of Rubruck a Flemish missionary who visited the Mongol court of Mongke Khan at Karakorum and returned to Europe in 1257 was a friend of the English philosopher and scientific thinker Roger Bacon The latter recorded the earliest known European recipe for gunpowder in his Opus Majus of 1267 121 122 This came more than two centuries after the first known Chinese description of the formula for gunpowder in 1044 during the Song dynasty 123 124 The earliest use of Chinese prototype firearms occurred at an 1132 siege during the Jin Song Wars 125 126 127 whereas the oldest surviving bronze hand cannon dates to 1288 during the Yuan period 128 129 Following the Mongol invasions of Japan 1274 1281 a Japanese scroll painting depicted explosive bombs used by Yuan dynasty forces against their samurai 130 By 1326 the earliest artistic depiction of a gun was made in Europe by Walter de Milemete 131 Petrarch wrote in 1350 that cannons were then a common sight on the European battlefield 132 Diplomatic missions to Europe edit nbsp Extract of the letter of Arghun to Philip IV in the Uyghur Mongolian script dated 1289 in which Rabban Bar Sauma is mentioned The seal is that of the Great Khan with Chinese Script 輔國安民之寶 which means Seal of the upholder of the State and the purveyor of peace to the People French National Archives Main articles Franco Mongol alliance Byzantine Mongol alliance and Chinese exploration Rabban Bar Sauma a Nestorian Christian Turkic Chinese born in Zhongdu later Khanbaliq Beijing capital of the Jurchen led Jin dynasty China 133 134 135 was sent to Europe in 1287 as an ambassador for Arghun ruler of the Ilkhanate and grandnephew of Kublai Khan 136 He was preceded by Isa Kelemechi an Assyrian Nestorian Christian who worked as a court astronomer for Kublai Khan in Khanbaliq 137 138 and was sent by Arghun to Pope Honorius IV in 1285 136 139 A decade earlier Bar Sauma had originally set out on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem passing through Gansu and Khotan in Northwest China yet spent time in Armenia and Baghdad instead to avoid getting caught up in nearby armed conflicts 133 He had been accompanied by Rabban Markos another Uyghur Nestorian Christian from China who was elected as the Patriarch of the Eastern Church and advised Arghun Khan to have Bar Sauma lead the diplomatic mission to Europe 133 140 Bar Sauma who spoke Chinese Persian and Old Uyghur traveled with a cohort of Italians who served as translators with Europeans communicating to him in Persian 141 Bar Sauma is the first known person from China to reach Europe where he convened with the Byzantine Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos Philip IV of France Edward I of England and Pope Nicholas IV shortly after the death of Pope Honorius IV to form an alliance against the Mamluk Sultanate 133 142 143 Edward N Luttwak depicts the arrival of these Nestorian envoys to the court of the Byzantine ruler Andronikos II as something akin to receiving mail from his in law in Beijing since Kublai Khan was a grandson of Genghis Khan and Andronikos had two half sisters who were married to great grandsons of Genghis 144 Moving further west Bar Sauma witnessed a naval battle at the Bay of Naples Italy in June 1287 between the Angevins and the Kingdom of Aragon while being hosted by Charles Martel of Anjou whose father Charles II of Naples was imprisoned in Aragon in modern Spain at the time 145 Aside from his desire to see Christian sites churches and relics Bar Sauma also showed a keen interest in the university life and curricula of Paris which Morris Rossabi contends was rooted in how exotic it must have seemed from his perspective and educational background in Muslim Persia and Chinese Confucian teaching 146 Although he managed to secure an audience with these leaders of Christendom and exchanged letters from them to Arghun Khan none of these Christian monarchs were fully committed to an alliance with the latter 133 Renewed contacts during the Ming dynasty edit nbsp The Italian Jesuit Matteo Ricci left and the Chinese mathematician Xu Guangqi right published the Chinese edition of Euclid s Elements 幾何原本 in 1607 Further information Sino Portuguese relations Jesuit China missions History of the Ming dynasty and Chinese Rites controversy In 1368 the Mongol led Yuan dynasty collapsed amid widespread internal revolt during the Red Turban Rebellion whose ethnic Han leader would become the founding emperor of the Ming dynasty 147 A formal resumption of direct trade and contact with Europeans would not be seen until the 16th century initiated by the Portuguese during the Age of Discovery 148 The first Portuguese explorer to land in southern China was Jorge Alvares who in May 1513 arrived at Lintin Island in the Pearl River Delta to engage in trade 149 This was followed by Rafael Perestrello a cousin of the wife of Christopher Columbus who landed at Guangzhou in 1516 after a voyage from newly conquered Portuguese Malacca 150 Although the 1517 mission by Fernao Pires de Andrade ended in disaster and his imprisonment by Ming authorities relations would be smoothed over by Leonel de Sousa the first governor of the Portuguese trade colony at Macau China in the Luso Chinese treaty of 1554 151 The writings of Gaspar da Cruz Juan Gonzales de Mendoza and Antonio de Morga all impacted the Western view and understanding of China at the time offering intricate details about its society and items of trade 152 153 The Italian Jesuit missionary Michele Ruggieri would be the first European invited into the Ming era Forbidden City in Beijing during the reign of the Wanli Emperor Matteo Ricci in 1602 he would publish his map of the world in Chinese that introduced the existence of the American continents to Chinese geographers 154 He arrived in Macau in 1582 when he began to learn the Chinese language and information about China s ancient culture yet was unaware of the events that had transpired there since the end of the Franciscan missions in the mid 14th century and establishment of the Ming dynasty 155 Since that time the Islamic world presented an obstacle for the West in reaching East Asia and barring the grand treasure voyages of the 15th century admiral Zheng He the Ming dynasty had largely pursued policies of isolationism that kept it from seeking far flung diplomatic contacts 148 156 See also editArcadio Huang 17th century Chinese visitor to Europe Cathay Medieval European name for China Fan Shouyi 18th century Chinese visitor to Europe Fonthill Vase first Chinese porcelain ware to reach Europe Foreign relations of imperial China Giuseppe Castiglione Jesuit painter 18th century Jesuit priest and court painter in China Hasekura Tsunenaga 17th century Japanese visitor to Europe Johann Adam Schall von Bell 17th century Jesuit priest in China Liqian village Michael Shen Fu Tsung 17th century Chinese visitor to Europe Niccolo de Conti European explorer and merchant who travelled to India Southeast Asia and possibly China in the 15th century Nicolas Trigault 17th century Jesuit priest in China Orientalism in early modern France Wang Dayuan Chinese visitor to North Africa in the 14th centuryNotes edit a b c Roux 1993 p 465 The term Medieval China is mainly used by historians of Universal History The dates between 585 Sui dynasty to 1368 Yuan dynasty comprise the medieval period in Chinese history Historians of Chinese history call this period the Chinese Imperial Era which began after the unification of the seven kingdoms by the Qin dynasty With the Ming dynasty the early modern era began Atwood Christopher P 2004 Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire New York Facts on File Inc p 583 ISBN 978 0 8160 4671 3 Li Song 2006 From the Northern Song to the Qing in Howard Angela Falco ed Chinese Sculpture Yale University Press p 360 ISBN 978 0 300 10065 5 Murata Jirō 村田治郎 1957 Chu Yung Kuan The Buddhist Arch of the Fourteenth Century A D at the Pass of the Great Wall Northwest of Peking Kyoto University Faculty of Engineering p 134 a b c Christopoulos Lucas August 2012 Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China 240 BC 1398 AD in Victor H Mair ed Sino Platonic Papers No 230 Chinese Academy of Social Sciences University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations pp 15 16 ISSN 2157 9687 von Le Coq Albert 1913 Chotscho Facsimile Wiedergaben der Wichtigeren Funde der Ersten Koniglich Preussischen Expedition nach Turfan in Ost Turkistan Berlin Dietrich Reimer Ernst Vohsen im Auftrage der Gernalverwaltung der Koniglichen Museen aus Mitteln des Baessler Institutes Tafel 19 Accessed 3 September 2016 Gasparini Mariachiara A Mathematic Expression of Art Sino Iranian and Uighur Textile Interactions and the Turfan Textile Collection in Berlin in Rudolf G Wagner and Monica Juneja eds Transcultural Studies Ruprecht Karls Universitat Heidelberg No 1 2014 pp 134 163 ISSN 2191 6411 See also endnote 32 Accessed 3 September 2016 Hansen Valerie 2012 The Silk Road A New History Oxford University Press p 98 ISBN 978 0 19 993921 3 W W Tarn 1966 The Greeks in Bactria and India reprint edition London amp New York Cambridge University Press pp 109 111 For Strabo s depiction of this event see Christopoulos Lucas August 2012 Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China 240 BC 1398 AD in Victor H Mair ed Sino Platonic Papers No 230 Chinese Academy of Social Sciences University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations p 8 ISSN 2157 9687 Valerie Hansen 2012 The Silk Road A New History Oxford amp New York Oxford University Press p 202 pl 13 text ISBN 978 0 19 515931 8 Zhao Feng 2004 Wall hanging with centaur and warrior in James C Y Watt John P O Neill et al eds and trans Ching Jung Chen et al China Dawn of a Golden Age 200 750 A D New Haven amp London Yale University Press Metropolitan Museum of Art pp 194 195 ISBN 978 1 58839 126 1 Yu Taishan June 2010 The Earliest Tocharians in China in Victor H Mair ed Sino Platonic Papers Chinese Academy of Social Sciences University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations p 13 14 21 22 Bailey H W 1996 Khotanese Saka Literature in Ehsan Yarshater ed The Cambridge History of Iran Vol III The Seleucid Parthian and Sasanian Periods Part 2 reprint edition Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 1230 1231 a b Xavier Tremblay 2007 The Spread of Buddhism in Serindia Buddhism Among Iranians Tocharians and Turks before the 13th Century in Ann Heirman and Stephan Peter Bumbacker eds The Spread of Buddhism Leiden amp Boston Koninklijke Brill p 77 ISBN 978 90 04 15830 6 Mallory J P Mair Victor H 2000 The Tarim Mummies Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West London Thames amp Hudson pp 270 297 ISBN 978 0 500 05101 6 Torday Laszlo 1997 Mounted Archers The Beginnings of Central Asian History Durham The Durham Academic Press pp 80 81 ISBN 978 1 900838 03 0 Yu Ying shih 1986 Han Foreign Relations in The Cambridge History of China Volume I the Ch in and Han Empires 221 B C A D 220 377 462 Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 377 388 391 ISBN 978 0 521 24327 8 Chang Chun shu 2007 The Rise of the Chinese Empire Volume II Frontier Immigration amp Empire in Han China 130 B C A D 157 Ann Arbor University of Michigan Press pp 5 8 ISBN 978 0 472 11534 1 Di Cosmo Nicola 2002 Ancient China and Its Enemies The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 174 189 196 198 241 242 ISBN 978 0 521 77064 4 Yang Juping Hellenistic Information in China CHS Research Bulletin 2 no 2 2014 http nrs harvard edu urn 3 hlnc essay YangJ Hellenistic Information in China 2014 Why were China s horses of the ancient Silk Road so heavenly The Telegraph 2019 04 26 ISSN 0307 1235 Archived from the original on 2019 04 27 Retrieved 2019 06 09 Benjamin Craig May 2018 Zhang Qian and Han Expansion into Central Asia Empires of Ancient Eurasia pp 68 90 doi 10 1017 9781316335567 004 ISBN 9781316335567 Retrieved 2019 06 09 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a website ignored help Western contact with China began long before Marco Polo experts say BBC News 12 October 2016 Retrieved 2019 08 18 Controversy about the theory that greek art inspired chinas terracotta army The Conversation 18 November 2016 Retrieved 2019 08 18 a b Chengzhi Xie et al Mitochondrial DNA analysis of ancient Sampula population in Xinjiang in Progress in Natural Science vol 17 August 2007 pp 927 33 Christopoulos Lucas August 2012 Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China 240 BC 1398 AD in Victor H Mair ed Sino Platonic Papers No 230 Chinese Academy of Social Sciences University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations p 27 ISSN 2157 9687 Christopoulos Lucas August 2012 Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China 240 BC 1398 AD in Victor H Mair ed Sino Platonic Papers No 230 Chinese Academy of Social Sciences University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations p 27 amp footnote 46 ISSN 2157 9687 Livius org Roxane Articles on Ancient History Page last modified 17 August 2015 Retrieved on 8 September 2016 Strachan Edward and Roy Bolton 2008 Russia and Europe in the Nineteenth Century London Sphinx Fine Art p 87 ISBN 978 1 907200 02 1 For another publication calling her Sogdian see Christopoulos Lucas August 2012 Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China 240 BC 1398 AD in Victor H Mair ed Sino Platonic Papers No 230 Chinese Academy of Social Sciences University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations p 4 ISSN 2157 9687 Holt Frank L 1989 Alexander the Great and Bactria the Formation of a Greek Frontier in Central Asia Leiden New York Copenhagen Cologne E J Brill pp 67 8 ISBN 90 04 08612 9 Ahmed S Z 2004 Chaghatai the Fabulous Cities and People of the Silk Road West Conshokoken Infinity Publishing p 61 Magill Frank N et al 1998 The Ancient World Dictionary of World Biography Volume 1 Pasadena Chicago London Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers Salem Press p 1010 ISBN 0 89356 313 7 Lucas Christopoulos writes the following The kings or soldiers of the Sampul cemetery came from various origins composing as they did a homogenous army made of Hellenized Persians western Scythians or Sacae Iranians from their mother s side just as were most of the second generation of Greeks colonists living in the Seleucid Empire Most of the soldiers of Alexander the Great who stayed in Persia India and central Asia had married local women thus their leading generals were mostly Greeks from their father s side or had Greco Macedonian grandfathers Antiochos had a Persian mother and all the later Indo Greeks or Greco Bactrians were revered in the population as locals as they used both Greek and Bactrian scripts on their coins and worshipped the local gods The DNA testing of the Sampul cemetery shows that the occupants had paternal origins in the eastern part of the Mediterranean see Christopoulos Lucas August 2012 Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China 240 BC 1398 AD in Victor H Mair ed Sino Platonic Papers No 230 Chinese Academy of Social Sciences University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations p 27 amp footnote 46 ISSN 2157 9687 W W Tarn 1966 The Greeks in Bactria and India reprint edition London amp New York Cambridge University Press pp 110 111 Yu Ying shih 1986 Han Foreign Relations in The Cambridge History of China Volume I the Ch in and Han Empires 221 B C A D 220 377 462 Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 460 461 ISBN 978 0 521 24327 8 de Crespigny Rafe 2007 A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms 23 220 AD Leiden Koninklijke Brill pp 239 240 ISBN 978 90 04 15605 0 Wood Frances 2002 The Silk Road Two Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia Berkeley and Los Angeles University of California Press pp 46 47 ISBN 978 0 520 24340 8 Morton William Scott and Charlton M Lewis 2005 China Its History and Culture Fourth Edition New York City McGraw Hill p 59 ISBN 978 0 07 141279 7 a b de Crespigny Rafe 2007 A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms 23 220 AD Leiden Koninklijke Brill p 600 ISBN 978 90 04 15605 0 Yu Ying shih 1986 Han Foreign Relations in Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe eds The Cambridge History of China Volume I the Ch in and Han Empires 221 B C A D 220 377 462 Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 460 461 ISBN 978 0 521 24327 8 Yu Huan September 2004 John E Hill ed The Peoples of the West from the Weilue魏略by Yu Huan魚豢 A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 Quoted in zhuan 30 of the Sanguozhi Published in 429 CE Depts washington edu Translated by John E Hill Archived from the original on 2005 03 15 Retrieved 2016 09 17 a b c d e f Hirth Friedrich 2000 1885 Jerome S Arkenberg ed East Asian History Sourcebook Chinese Accounts of Rome Byzantium and the Middle East c 91 B C E 1643 C E Fordham edu Fordham University Retrieved 2016 09 14 a b c d Gary K Young 2001 Rome s Eastern Trade International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC AD 305 London amp New York Routledge ISBN 0 415 24219 3 pp 29 30 An Jiayao 2002 When Glass Was Treasured in China in Annette L Juliano and Judith A Lerner eds Silk Road Studies VII Nomads Traders and Holy Men Along China s Silk Road 79 94 Turnhout Brepols Publishers ISBN 2 503 52178 9 p 83 Ferdinand von Richthofen China Berlin 1877 Vol I pp 504 510 cited in Richard Hennig Terrae incognitae eine Zusammenstellung und kritische Bewertung der wichtigsten vorcolumbischen Entdeckungsreisen an Hand der daruber vorliegenden Originalberichte Band I Altertum bis Ptolemaus Leiden Brill 1944 pp 387 410 411 cited in Zurcher 2002 pp 30 31 For further information on the archaeological site at Oc Eo in Vietnam see Milton Osborne 2006 The Mekong Turbulent Past Uncertain Future Crows Nest Allen amp Unwin revised edition first published in 2000 ISBN 1 74114 893 6 pp 24 25 Warwick Ball 2016 Rome in the East Transformation of an Empire 2nd edition London amp New York Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 72078 6 p 154 Ban Gu 班固 Houhanshu 後漢書 Later Han dynasty annals chap 86 Traditions of the Southern Savages The South Western Tribes Nanman Xinanyi zhuan 南蠻西南夷列傳 Liezhuan 76 Beijing Zhonghua Shuju 中華書局 1962 1999 p 1926 永初元年 徼外僬僥種夷陸類等三千餘口舉種内附 献象牙 水牛 封牛 永寧元年 撣國王雍由調复遣使者詣闕朝賀 献樂及幻人 能變化吐火 自支解 易牛馬頭 又善跳丸 數乃至千 自言我海西人 海西即大秦也 撣國西南通大秦 明年元會 安帝作變於庭 封雍由調爲漢大 都尉 赐印綬 金銀 彩繒各有差也 A translation of this passage into English in addition to an explanation of how Greek athletic performers figured prominently in the neighboring Parthian and Kushan Empires of Asia is offered by Christopoulos Lucas August 2012 Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China 240 BC 1398 AD in Victor H Mair ed Sino Platonic Papers No 230 Chinese Academy of Social Sciences University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations pp 40 41 ISSN 2157 9687 The first year of Yongning 120 AD the southwestern barbarian king of the kingdom of Chan Burma Yongyou proposed illusionists jugglers who could metamorphose themselves and spit out fire they could dismember themselves and change an ox head into a horse head They were very skilful in acrobatics and they could do a thousand other things They said that they were from the west of the seas Haixi Egypt The west of the seas is the Daqin Rome The Daqin is situated to the south west of the Chan country During the following year Andi organized festivities in his country residence and the acrobats were transferred to the Han capital where they gave a performance to the court and created a great sensation They received the honours of the Emperor with gold and silver and every one of them received a different gift Christopoulos Lucas August 2012 Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China 240 BC 1398 AD in Victor H Mair ed Sino Platonic Papers No 230 Chinese Academy of Social Sciences University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations pp 40 41 ISSN 2157 9687 Franz Cumont 1933 The Excavations of Dura Europos Preliminary Reports of the Seventh and Eighth Seasons of Work Crai New Haven pp 264 68 Will Durant 1949 The Age of Faith The Story of Civilization Simon and Schuster p 118 ISBN 978 1 4516 4761 7 Silk Road Archived 2013 09 06 at the Wayback Machine LIVIUS Articles of Ancient History 28 October 2010 Retrieved on 14 November 2010 Yule 1915 pp 29 31 see also footnote 4 on p 29 footnote 2 on p 30 and footnote 3 on page 31 Fuat Sezgin Carl Ehrig Eggert Amawi Mazen E Neubauer 1996 نصوص ودراسات من مصادر صينية حول البلدان الاسلامية Frankfurt am Main Institut fur Geschichte der Arabisch Islamischen Wissenschaften Institute for the History of Arabic Islamic Science at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University p 25 ISBN 9783829820479 Needham Joseph 1971 Science and Civilization in China Volume 4 Physics and Physical Technology Part 3 Civil Engineering and Nautics Cambridge Cambridge University Press rpr Taipei Caves Books Ltd 1986 p 662 Elizabeth Caldwell Hirschman Donald N Yates 29 April 2014 The Early Jews and Muslims of England and Wales A Genetic and Genealogical History McFarland pp 51 ISBN 978 0 7864 7684 8 Gernet Jacques 1962 H M Wright trans Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion 1250 1276 Stanford Stanford University Press ISBN 0 8047 0720 0 p 82 Polo Marco Latham Ronald translator 1958 The Travels of Marco Polo New York Penguin Books p 16 ISBN 0 14 044057 7 Hoffman Donald L 1991 Rusticiano da Pisa In Lacy Norris J ed The New Arthurian Encyclopedia New York Garland p 392 ISBN 0 8240 4377 4 Ye Yiliang 2010 Introductory Essay Outline of the Political Relations between Iran and China in Ralph Kauz ed Aspects of the Maritime Silk Road From the Persian Gulf to the East China Sea Weisbaden Harrassowitz Verlag pp 5 6 ISBN 978 3 447 06103 2 Morgan D O Marco Polo in China Or Not in The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society Volume 6 Issue 2 221 225 July 1996 p 224 Stephen G Haw 2006 Marco Polo s China a Venetian in the Realm of Kublai Khan London amp New York Routledge pp 1 2 ISBN 0 415 34850 1 Some scholars have suggested that Polo s knowledge was so detailed that he must have been the imperial official in charge of the Yangzhou salt works but this suggestion has not been accepted Leonardo Olschki Marco Polo s Asia an Introduction to His Description of the World Called Il Milione Berkeley University of California Press 1960 p 174 Hans Ulrich Vogel Marco Polo Was in China New Evidence from Currencies Salts and Revenues Leiden Boston Brill 2013 ISBN 978 90 04 23193 1 pp 290 301 310 Tsien 1985 p 105 a b Emmerick R E 2003 Iranian Settlement East of the Pamirs in Ehsan Yarshater The Cambridge History of Iran Vol III The Seleucid Parthian and Sasanian Periods Cambridge Cambridge University Press p 275 Emmerick R E 2003 Iranian Settlement East of the Pamirs in Ehsan Yarshater The Cambridge History of Iran Vol III The Seleucid Parthian and Sasanian Periods Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 274 5 Virgil Ciociltan 2012 The Mongols and the Black Sea Trade in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries Leiden Brill p 120 ISBN 978 90 04 22666 1 See footnote 268 in Virgil Ciociltan 2012 The Mongols and the Black Sea Trade in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries Leiden Brill p 120 ISBN 978 90 04 22666 1 Virgil Ciociltan 2012 The Mongols and the Black Sea Trade in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries Leiden Brill pp 119 121 ISBN 978 90 04 22666 1 Mandeville John 1983 C W R D Moseley trans The Travels of Sir John Mandeville London Penguin Books Ltd pp 9 11 Mandeville John 1983 C W R D Moseley trans The Travels of Sir John Mandeville London Penguin Books Ltd pp 11 13 a b c Roux 1993 p 467 Francesco Balducci Pegolotti Encyclopaedia Britannica online source Accessed 6 September 2016 Yule Henry 1866 Cathay and the way thither being a collection of medieval notices of China Works issued by the Hakluyt Society no 36 37 Vol 2 London Printed for the Hakluyt Society p283 and footnote 2 of p282 continued into p283 hdl 2027 njp 32101075729549 via Hathitrust Spielvogel Jackson J 2011 Western Civilization a Brief History Boston Wadsworth Cencage Learning p 183 ISBN 0 495 57147 4 Bretschneider Emil 1888 Medieval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources Fragments Towards the Knowledge of the Geography and History of Central and Western Asia from the 13th to the 17th Century Vol 1 Abingdon Routledge reprinted 2000 p 144 Wittfogel Karl A Feng Chia Sheng 1949 History of Chinese Society Liao 907 1125 Transactions of the American Philosophical Society Philadelphia Pennsylvania 36 2 ISBN 9781422377192 via Google Books a b c d Fontana Michela 2011 Matteo Ricci a Jesuit in the Ming Court Lanham Rowman amp Littlefield Publishers p 116 ISBN 978 1 4422 0586 4 Paul D Buell 12 February 2010 The A to Z of the Mongol World Empire Scarecrow Press pp 120 121 ISBN 978 1 4617 2036 2 John Block Friedman Kristen Mossler Figg 4 July 2013 Trade Travel and Exploration in the Middle Ages An Encyclopedia Routledge pp 307 ISBN 978 1 135 59094 9 Paul D Buell 19 March 2003 Historical Dictionary of the Mongol World Empire Scarecrow Press pp 120 121 ISBN 978 0 8108 6602 7 Morgan David 2007 The Mongols Malden MA Blackwell Pub p 39 ISBN 978 1 4051 3539 9 Xu Shiduan 1998 Oghul Qaimish Empress of Mongol Emperor Dingzong in Lily Xiao Hong Lee and Sue Wiles eds Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women Tang through Ming 618 1644 trans Janine Burns London amp New York Routledge pp 299 300 ISBN 978 0 7656 4314 8 Xu Shiduan 1998 Oghul Qaimish Empress of Mongol Emperor Dingzong in Lily Xiao Hong Lee and Sue Wiles eds Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women Tang through Ming 618 1644 trans Janine Burns London amp New York Routledge pp 300 301 ISBN 978 0 7656 4314 8 Xu Shiduan 1998 Oghul Qaimish Empress of Mongol Emperor Dingzong in Lily Xiao Hong Lee and Sue Wiles eds Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women Tang through Ming 618 1644 trans Janine Burns London amp New York Routledge p 301 ISBN 978 0 7656 4314 8 ASIA CHINA Franciscans in China 1200 1977 1 162 Friars Minor lived in China Agenzia Fides 19 January 2010 Charles George Herbermann 1913 The Catholic Encyclopedia An International Work of Reference on the Constitution Doctrine Discipline and History of the Catholic Church Universal Knowledge Foundation pp 293 Anthony E Clark 7 April 2011 China s Saints Catholic Martyrdom During the Qing 1644 1911 Lexington Books pp 114 ISBN 978 1 61146 017 9 a b c d Stephen G Haw 2006 Marco Polo s China a Venetian in the Realm of Kublai Khan London amp New York Routledge p 172 ISBN 0 415 34850 1 Daniel H Bays 9 June 2011 A New History of Christianity in China John Wiley amp Sons pp 20 ISBN 978 1 4443 4284 0 Heup Young Kim 2011 Asian and Oceanic Christianities in Conversation Exploring Theological Identities at Home and in Diaspora Rodopi pp 60 ISBN 90 420 3299 5 Editors of the Encyclopaedia Britannica Giovanni dei Marignolli Italian Clergyman Encyclopaedia Britannica Accessed 6 September 2016 a b Haw Stephen G 2006 Marco Polo s China a Venetian in the realm of Khubilai Khan Volume 3 of Routledge studies in the early history of Asia Psychology Press pp 52 57 ISBN 978 0 415 34850 8 Michael Robson 2006 The Franciscans in the Middle Ages Boydell Press p 113 ISBN 978 1 84383 221 8 Cordier H 1908 The Church in China In The Catholic Encyclopedia New York Robert Appleton Company Retrieved September 6 2016 from New Advent http www newadvent org cathen 03669a htm Michael Robson 2006 The Franciscans in the Middle Ages Boydell Press p 115 ISBN 978 1 84383 221 8 Charles George Herbermann 1913 The Catholic Encyclopedia An International Work of Reference on the Constitution Doctrine Discipline and History of the Catholic Church Universal Knowledge Foundation p 553 Paul D Buell 1 January 2003 Historical Dictionary of the Mongol World Empire Scarecrow Press p 204 ISBN 978 0 8108 4571 8 Muscat Noel 6 History of the Franciscan Movement 4 Christus Rex FIOR Malta Archived from the original on 2016 05 14 Johann Lorenz Mosheim 1832 Institutes of Ecclesiastical History Ancient and Modern A H Maltby pp 415 nicolaus de bentra Johann Lorenz Mosheim 1862 Authentic Memoirs of the Christian Church in China McGlashan amp Gill pp 52 Johann Lorenz von Mosheim John Laurence Von Mosheim 1 January 1999 Authentic Memoirs of the Christian Church in China Adegi Graphics LLC pp 52 ISBN 978 1 4021 8109 2 a b Jackson Peter 2005 The Mongols and the West 1221 1410 Harlow amp New York Longman p 314 ISBN 978 0 582 36896 5 Roux 1993 p 469 R G Grant 2005 Battle A Visual Journey Through 5 000 Years of Combat DK Pub pp 99 ISBN 978 0 7566 1360 0 Friedrich Hirth 1885 China and the Roman Orient Researches Into Their Ancient and Mediaeval Relations as Represented in Old Chinese Records G Hirth p 66 ISBN 9780524033050 Edward Luttwak 1 November 2009 The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire Harvard University Press pp 169 ISBN 978 0 674 03519 5 Sir Henry Yule 1915 Cathay and the Way Thither Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China Asian Educational Services pp 12 ISBN 978 81 206 1966 1 Henri Cordier 1967 Cathay and the Way Thither Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China Kraus Reprint p 12 Sir Henry Yule 1915 Cathay and the Way Thither Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China Asian Educational Services pp 13 ISBN 978 81 206 1966 1 E Bretschneider 1871 On the Knowledge Possessed by the Ancient Chinese of the Arabs and Arabian Colonies And Other Western Countries Mentioned in Chinese Books Trubner amp Company pp 25 Nicholas in the year 1338 had not yet arrived in Peking for the christians there complained in a letter written at the above date that they were eight years without a curate Edward Luttwak 1 November 2009 The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire Harvard University Press pp 169 170 ISBN 978 0 674 03519 5 Hakluyt Society 1967 Works Kraus Reprint p 13 Henri Cordier 1967 Cathay and the Way Thither Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China Kraus Reprint p 13 Sir Henry Yule 1998 Cathay and the Way Thither Missionary friars Rashiduddin Pegolotti Marignolli Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt Limited p 13 ISBN 978 81 215 0841 4 Jack Goody 2012 Metals Culture and Capitalism an Essay on the Origins of the Modern World Cambridge amp New York Cambridge University Press p 226 ISBN 978 1 107 02962 0 Jonathan D Spence 1999 The Chan s Great Continent China in Western Minds W W Norton pp 1 2 ISBN 978 0 393 31989 7 Needham Joseph et al 1987 Science and Civilisation in China Vol V Pt 7 Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 48 50 ISBN 978 0 521 30358 3 Pacey Arnold 1991 Technology in World Civilization A Thousand year History Boston MIT Press p 45 ISBN 0 262 66072 5 Ebrey Patricia Buckley 2010 1996 The Cambridge Illustrated History of China 2nd ed New York Cambridge University Press p 138 ISBN 978 0 521 12433 1 Needham Joseph 1987 Science and Civilisation in China Military technology The Gunpowder Epic Volume 5 Part 7 New York Cambridge University Press pp 118 124 ISBN 978 0 521 30358 3 Needham Joseph 1986 Science amp Civilisation in China V 7 The Gunpowder Epic Cambridge University Press p 222 ISBN 0 521 30358 3 Chase Kenneth Warren 2003 Firearms A Global History to 1700 Cambridge University Press p 31 ISBN 978 0 521 82274 9 Peter Allan Lorge 2008 The Asian Military Revolution from Gunpowder to the Bomb Cambridge University Press pp 33 34 ISBN 978 0 521 60954 8 Chase Kenneth Warren 2003 Firearms A Global History to 1700 Cambridge University Press p 32 ISBN 978 0 521 82274 9 Needham Joseph 1986 Science amp Civilisation in China V 7 The Gunpowder Epic Cambridge University Press p 293 ISBN 0 521 30358 3 Stephen Turnbull 19 February 2013 url https books google com books id Qo4amAg ygIC amp pg PT41 The Mongol Invasions of Japan 1274 and 1281 Osprey Publishing pp 41 42 ISBN 978 1 4728 0045 9 Retrieved 6 September 2016 Kelly Jack 2004 Gunpowder Alchemy Bombards amp Pyrotechnics The History of the Explosive that Changed the World Basic Books p 29 ISBN 0 465 03718 6 Norris John 2003 Early Gunpowder Artillery 1300 1600 Marlborough The Crowood Press p 19 a b c d e Kathleen Kuiper amp editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica Aug 31 2006 Rabban bar Sauma Mongol Envoy Encyclopaedia Britannica online source Accessed 6 September 2016 Thomas Francis Carter 1955 The invention of printing in China and its spread westward 2 ed Ronald Press Co p 171 ISBN 9780608113135 Retrieved 2010 06 28 Moule A C Christians in China before 1500 94 amp 103 also Pelliot Paul in T oung pao 15 1914 pp 630 36 a b Peter Jackson 2005 The Mongols and the West 1221 1410 Pearson Education p 169 ISBN 0 582 36896 0 Foltz Richard 2010 Religions of the Silk Road Palgrave Macmillan 2nd edition pp 125 126 ISBN 978 0 230 62125 1 Thomas F Glick Steven John Livesey Faith Wallis 2005 Medieval science technology and medicine an encyclopedia London amp New York Routledge p 485 ISBN 0 415 96930 1 William Bayne Fisher John Andrew Boyle 1968 The Cambridge history of Iran London amp New York Cambridge University Press p 370 ISBN 0 521 06936 X Morris Rossabi 2014 From Yuan to Modern China and Mongolia The Writings of Morris Rossabi Leiden amp Boston Brill pp 385 386 ISBN 978 90 04 28529 3 Morris Rossabi 2014 From Yuan to Modern China and Mongolia The Writings of Morris Rossabi BRILL pp 385 387 ISBN 978 90 04 28529 3 Morris Rossabi 2014 From Yuan to Modern China and Mongolia The Writings of Morris Rossabi Leiden amp Boston Brill pp 386 421 ISBN 978 90 04 28529 3 William Bayne Fisher John Andrew Boyle 1968 The Cambridge history of Iran London amp New York Cambridge University Press pp 370 371 ISBN 0 521 06936 X Luttwak Edward N 2009 The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire Cambridge and London The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 03519 5 p 169 Morris Rossabi 2014 From Yuan to Modern China and Mongolia The Writings of Morris Rossabi Leiden amp Boston Brill p 399 ISBN 978 90 04 28529 3 Morris Rossabi 2014 From Yuan to Modern China and Mongolia The Writings of Morris Rossabi Leiden amp Boston Brill p 416 417 ISBN 978 90 04 28529 3 Ebrey Patricia Buckley 1999 The Cambridge Illustrated History of China Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 190 191 ISBN 0 521 66991 X a b Fontana Michela 2011 Matteo Ricci a Jesuit in the Ming Court Lanham Rowman amp Littlefield Publishers p 117 ISBN 978 1 4422 0586 4 John E Wills Jr 1998 Relations with Maritime Europeans 1514 1662 in Mote Frederick W and Denis Twitchett eds The Cambridge History of China Volume 8 The Ming Dynasty 1368 1644 Part 2 333 375 New York Cambridge University Press p 336 ISBN 0 521 24333 5 Hardback edition Brook Timothy 1998 The Confusions of Pleasure Commerce and Culture in Ming China Berkeley University of California Press p 124 ISBN 0 520 22154 0 Paperback John E Wills Jr 1998 Relations with Maritime Europeans 1514 1662 in Mote Frederick W and Denis Twitchett eds The Cambridge History of China Volume 8 The Ming Dynasty 1368 1644 Part 2 333 375 New York Cambridge University Press p 338 344 ISBN 0 521 24333 5 Hardback edition Robinson David M Banditry and the Subversion of State Authority in China The Capital Region during the Middle Ming Period 1450 1525 in Journal of Social History Spring 2000 527 563 Brook Timothy 1998 The Confusions of Pleasure Commerce and Culture in Ming China Berkeley University of California Press ISBN 0 520 22154 0 p 206 Abbe Mary 2009 12 18 Million dollar map coming to Minnesota Star Tribune Minneapolis Star Tribune Company Retrieved 6 September 2016 Fontana Michela 2011 Matteo Ricci a Jesuit in the Ming Court Lanham Rowman amp Littlefield Publishers pp 18 35 116 118 ISBN 978 1 4422 0586 4 The Ming Empire was at least willing to engage in conflicts nearby however when it offered relief forces to its tributary state Joseon Korea against invading Japanese forces in the Imjin War 1592 1598 See Patricia Ebrey Anne Walthall James Palais 2006 East Asia A Cultural Social and Political History Boston Houghton Mifflin Company p 214 ISBN 0 618 13384 4 References editAbbe Mary 2009 12 18 Million dollar map coming to Minnesota Star Tribune Minneapolis Star Tribune Company Retrieved 6 September 2016 An Jiayao 2002 When Glass Was Treasured in China in Annette L Juliano and Judith A Lerner eds Silk Road Studies VII Nomads Traders and Holy Men Along China s Silk Road 79 94 Turnhout Brepols Publishers ISBN 2 503 52178 9 Ahmed S Z 2004 Chaghatai the Fabulous Cities and People of the Silk Road West Conshokoken Infinity Publishing Bailey H W 1996 Khotanese Saka Literature in Ehsan Yarshater ed The Cambridge History of Iran Vol III The Seleucid Parthian and Sasanian Periods Part 2 reprint edition Cambridge Cambridge University Press Ball Warwick 2016 Rome in the East Transformation of an Empire 2nd edition London amp New York Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 72078 6 Bays Daniel H 9 June 2011 A New History of Christianity in China John Wiley amp Sons ISBN 978 1 4443 4284 0 Bretschneider Emil 1871 On the Knowledge Possessed by the Ancient Chinese of the Arabs and Arabian Colonies And Other Western Countries Mentioned in Chinese Books Trubner amp Company pp 25 Nicholas in the year 1338 had not yet arrived in Peking for the christians there complained in a letter written at the above date that they were eight years without a curate Bretschneider Emil 1888 Medieval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources Fragments Towards the Knowledge of the Geography and History of Central and Western Asia from the 13th to the 17th Century Vol 1 Abingdon Routledge reprinted 2000 Brook Timothy 1998 The Confusions of Pleasure Commerce and Culture in Ming China Berkeley University of California Press ISBN 0 520 22154 0 Paperback Buell Paul D 19 March 2003 Historical Dictionary of the Mongol World Empire Scarecrow Press pp 120 121 ISBN 978 0 8108 6602 7 Buell Paul D 12 February 2010 The A to Z of the Mongol World Empire Scarecrow Press pp 120 121 ISBN 978 1 4617 2036 2 Carter Thomas Francis 1955 The invention of printing in China and its spread westward 2 ed Ronald Press Co p 171 ISBN 9780608113135 Retrieved 2010 06 28 Chang Chun shu 2007 The Rise of the Chinese Empire Volume II Frontier Immigration amp Empire in Han China 130 B C A D 157 Ann Arbor University of Michigan Press ISBN 978 0 472 11534 1 Chase Kenneth Warren 2003 Firearms A Global History to 1700 Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 82274 9 Christopoulos Lucas August 2012 Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China 240 BC 1398 AD in Victor H Mair ed Sino Platonic Papers No 230 Chinese Academy of Social Sciences University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations ISSN 2157 9687 Ciociltan Virgil 2012 The Mongols and the Black Sea Trade in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries Leiden Brill ISBN 978 90 04 22666 1 Clark Anthony E 7 April 2011 China s Saints Catholic Martyrdom During the Qing 1644 1911 Lexington Books pp 114 ISBN 978 1 61146 017 9 Cordier H 1908 The Church in China In The Catholic Encyclopedia New York Robert Appleton Company Retrieved September 6 2016 from New Advent http www newadvent org cathen 03669a htm Cordier Henri 1967 Cathay and the Way Thither Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China Kraus Reprint p 12 Cumont Franz 1933 The Excavations of Dura Europos Preliminary Reports of the Seventh and Eighth Seasons of Work New Haven Crai de Crespigny Rafe 2007 A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms 23 220 AD Leiden Koninklijke Brill ISBN 978 90 04 15605 0 Di Cosmo Nicola 2002 Ancient China and Its Enemies The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 77064 4 Durant Will 1949 The Age of Faith The Story of Civilization Simon and Schuster p 118 ISBN 978 1 4516 4761 7 Ebrey Patricia Anne Walthall and James Palais 2006 East Asia A Cultural Social and Political History Boston Houghton Mifflin Company ISBN 0 618 13384 4 Ebrey Patricia Buckley 2010 1996 The Cambridge Illustrated History of China 2nd ed New York Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 12433 1 Editors of the Encyclopaedia Britannica Giovanni dei Marignolli Italian Clergyman Encyclopaedia Britannica Accessed 6 September 2016 Emmerick R E 2003 Iranian Settlement East of the Pamirs in Ehsan Yarshater ed The Cambridge History of Iran Vol III The Seleucid Parthian and Sasanian Periods Cambridge Cambridge University Press Fisher William Bayne John Andrew Boyle 1968 The Cambridge history of Iran London amp New York Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 06936 X Foltz Richard 2010 Religions of the Silk Road Palgrave Macmillan 2nd edition ISBN 978 0 230 62125 1 Fontana Michela 2011 Matteo Ricci a Jesuit in the Ming Court Lanham Rowman amp Littlefield Publishers ISBN 978 1 4422 0586 4 Friedman John Block Kristen Mossler Figg 4 July 2013 Trade Travel and Exploration in the Middle Ages An Encyclopedia Routledge pp 307 ISBN 978 1 135 59094 9 Gernet Jacques 1962 H M Wright trans Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion 1250 1276 Stanford Stanford University Press ISBN 0 8047 0720 0 Glick Thomas F Steven John Livesey Faith Wallis 2005 Medieval science technology and medicine an encyclopedia London amp New York Routledge ISBN 0 415 96930 1 Goody Jack 2012 Metals Culture and Capitalism an Essay on the Origins of the Modern World Cambridge amp New York Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 107 02962 0 Grant R G 2005 Battle A Visual Journey Through 5 000 Years of Combat DK Pub pp 99 ISBN 978 0 7566 1360 0 Hansen Valerie 2012 The Silk Road A New History Oxford amp New York Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 515931 8 Haw Stephen G 2006 Marco Polo s China a Venetian in the Realm of Kublai Khan London amp New York Routledge ISBN 0 415 34850 1 Hirth Friedrich 1885 China and the Roman Orient Researches Into Their Ancient and Mediaeval Relations as Represented in Old Chinese Records G Hirth p 66 ISBN 9780524033050 Hirth Friedrich 2000 1885 Jerome S Arkenberg ed East Asian History Sourcebook Chinese Accounts of Rome Byzantium and the Middle East c 91 B C E 1643 C E Fordham edu Fordham University Retrieved 2016 09 14 Herbermann Charles George 1913 The Catholic Encyclopedia An International Work of Reference on the Constitution Doctrine Discipline and History of the Catholic Church Universal Knowledge Foundation pp 293 Hoffman Donald L 1991 Rusticiano da Pisa In Lacy Norris J ed The New Arthurian Encyclopedia New York Garland ISBN 0 8240 4377 4 Holt Frank L 1989 Alexander the Great and Bactria the Formation of a Greek Frontier in Central Asia Leiden New York Copenhagen Cologne E J Brill ISBN 90 04 08612 9 Jackson Peter 2005 The Mongols and the West 1221 1410 Pearson Education ISBN 0 582 36896 0 Kelly Jack 2004 Gunpowder Alchemy Bombards amp Pyrotechnics The History of the Explosive that Changed the World Basic Books ISBN 0 465 03718 6 Kim Heup Young 2011 Asian and Oceanic Christianities in Conversation Exploring Theological Identities at Home and in Diaspora Rodopi ISBN 90 420 3299 5 Kuiper Kathleen amp editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica Aug 31 2006 Rabban bar Sauma Mongol Envoy Encyclopaedia Britannica online source Accessed 6 September 2016 LIVIUS Roxane Articles on Ancient History Page last modified 17 August 2015 Retrieved on 8 September 2016 LIVIUS Silk Road Archived 2013 09 06 at the Wayback Machine Articles of Ancient History 28 October 2010 Retrieved on 14 November 2010 Lorge Peter Allan 2008 The Asian Military Revolution from Gunpowder to the Bomb Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 60954 8 Luttwak Edward N 2009 The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire Cambridge and London The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 03519 5 Magill Frank N et al 1998 The Ancient World Dictionary of World Biography Volume 1 Pasadena Chicago London Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers Salem Press ISBN 0 89356 313 7 Mallory J P and Victor H Mair 2000 The Tarim Mummies Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West London Thames amp Hudson ISBN 978 0 500 05101 6 Mandeville John 1983 C W R D Moseley trans The Travels of Sir John Mandeville London Penguin Books Ltd Milton Osborne 2006 The Mekong Turbulent Past Uncertain Future Crows Nest Allen amp Unwin revised edition first published in 2000 ISBN 1 74114 893 6 Morgan D O Marco Polo in China Or Not in The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society Volume 6 Issue 2 221 225 July 1996 Morgan David 2007 The Mongols Malden MA Blackwell Pub ISBN 978 1 4051 3539 9 Morton William Scott and Charlton M Lewis 2005 China Its History and Culture Fourth Edition New York City McGraw Hill ISBN 978 0 07 141279 7 Mosheim Johann Lorenz 1832 Institutes of Ecclesiastical History Ancient and Modern A H Maltby pp 415 nicolaus de bentra Mosheim Johann Lorenz von John Laurence Von Mosheim 1 January 1999 Authentic Memoirs of the Christian Church in China Adegi Graphics LLC pp 52 ISBN 978 1 4021 8109 2 Mosheim Johann Lorenz 1862 Authentic Memoirs of the Christian Church in China McGlashan amp Gill pp 52 Moule A C Christians in China before 1500 94 amp 103 also Pelliot Paul in T oung pao 15 1914 pp 630 36 Needham Joseph 1971 Science and Civilization in China Volume 4 Physics and Physical Technology Part 3 Civil Engineering and Nautics Cambridge Cambridge University Press rpr Taipei Caves Books Ltd 1986 Needham Joseph et al 1987 Science and Civilisation in China Military technology The Gunpowder Epic Volume 5 Part 7 Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 30358 3 Norris John 2003 Early Gunpowder Artillery 1300 1600 Marlborough The Crowood Press Olschki Leonardo 1960 Marco Polo s Asia an Introduction to His Description of the World Called Il Milione Berkeley University of California Press Pacey Arnold 1991 Technology in World Civilization A Thousand year History Boston MIT Press ISBN 0 262 66072 5 Polo Marco Latham Ronald translator 1958 The Travels of Marco Polo New York Penguin Books ISBN 0 14 044057 7 Robinson David M Banditry and the Subversion of State Authority in China The Capital Region during the Middle Ming Period 1450 1525 in Journal of Social History Spring 2000 527 563 Robson Michael 2006 The Franciscans in the Middle Ages Boydell Press p 113 ISBN 978 1 84383 221 8 Rossabi Morris 2014 From Yuan to Modern China and Mongolia The Writings of Morris Rossabi Leiden amp Boston Brill ISBN 978 90 04 28529 3 Roux Jean Paul Histoire de l Empire Mongol Fayard 1993 ISBN 2 213 03164 9 Sezgin Fuat Carl Ehrig Eggert Amawi Mazen E Neubauer 1996 نصوص ودراسات من مصادر صينية حول البلدان الاسلامية Frankfurt am Main Institut fur Geschichte der Arabisch Islamischen Wissenschaften Institute for the History of Arabic Islamic Science at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University p 25 ISBN 9783829820479 Spence Jonathan D 1999 The Chan s Great Continent China in Western Minds W W Norton pp 1 2 ISBN 978 0 393 31989 7 Spielvogel Jackson J 2011 Western Civilization a Brief History Boston Wadsworth Cencage Learning ISBN 0 495 57147 4 Strachan Edward and Roy Bolton 2008 Russia and Europe in the Nineteenth Century London Sphinx Fine Art ISBN 978 1 907200 02 1 Tarn W W 1966 The Greeks in Bactria and India reprint edition London amp New York Cambridge University Press Tsien Tsuen Hsuin 1985 Paper and Printing Joseph Needham Science and Civilisation in China Chemistry and Chemical Technology vol 5 part 1 Cambridge University Press Torday Laszlo 1997 Mounted Archers The Beginnings of Central Asian History Durham The Durham Academic Press ISBN 978 1 900838 03 0 Tremblay Xavier 2007 The Spread of Buddhism in Serindia Buddhism Among Iranians Tocharians and Turks before the 13th Century in Ann Heirman and Stephan Peter Bumbacker eds The Spread of Buddhism Leiden amp Boston Koninklijke Brill ISBN 978 90 04 15830 6 Turnbull Stephen 19 February 2013 url https books google com books id Qo4amAg ygIC amp pg PT41 The Mongol Invasions of Japan 1274 and 1281 Osprey Publishing ISBN 978 1 4728 0045 9 Retrieved 6 September 2016 Vogel Hans Ulrich 2013 Marco Polo Was in China New Evidence from Currencies Salts and Revenues Leiden Boston Brill ISBN 978 90 04 23193 1 Wills John E Jr 1998 Relations with Maritime Europeans 1514 1662 in Mote Frederick W and Denis Twitchett eds The Cambridge History of China Volume 8 The Ming Dynasty 1368 1644 Part 2 333 375 New York Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 24333 5 Hardback edition Wood Frances 2002 The Silk Road Two Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia Berkeley and Los Angeles University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 24340 8 Xu Shiduan 1998 Oghul Qaimish Empress of Mongol Emperor Dingzong in Lily Xiao Hong Lee and Sue Wiles eds Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women Tang through Ming 618 1644 trans Janine Burns London amp New York Routledge ISBN 978 0 7656 4314 8 Yang Juping Hellenistic Information in China CHS Research Bulletin 2 no 2 2014 http nrs harvard edu urn 3 hlnc essay YangJ Hellenistic Information in China 2014 Ye Yiliang 2010 Introductory Essay Outline of the Political Relations between Iran and China in Ralph Kauz ed Aspects of the Maritime Silk Road From the Persian Gulf to the East China Sea Weisbaden Harrassowitz Verlag ISBN 978 3 447 06103 2 Young Gary K 2001 Rome s Eastern Trade International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC AD 305 London amp New York Routledge ISBN 0 415 24219 3 Yu Huan September 2004 John E Hill ed The Peoples of the West from the Weilue魏略by Yu Huan魚豢 A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 Quoted in zhuan 30 of the Sanguozhi Published in 429 CE Depts washington edu Translated by John E Hill Archived from the original on 2005 03 15 Retrieved 2016 09 17 Yu Taishan June 2010 The Earliest Tocharians in China in Victor H Mair ed Sino Platonic Papers Chinese Academy of Social Sciences University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations Yu Ying shih 1986 Han Foreign Relations in The Cambridge History of China Volume I the Ch in and Han Empires 221 B C A D 220 377 462 Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 377 388 391 ISBN 978 0 521 24327 8 Henry Yule Henry Sir 1915 Cathay and the Way Thither Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China Asian Educational Services pp 12 ISBN 978 81 206 1966 1 Yule Henry Sir 1998 Cathay and the Way Thither Missionary friars Rashiduddin Pegolotti Marignolli Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt Limited p 13 ISBN 978 81 215 0841 4 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Zhao Feng 2004 Wall hanging with centaur and warrior in James C Y Watt John P O Neill et al eds and trans Ching Jung Chen et al China Dawn of a Golden Age 200 750 A D New Haven amp London Yale University Press Metropolitan Museum of Art ISBN 978 1 58839 126 1 External links editFranciscans in China Princely Gifts amp Papal Treasures The Franciscan Mission to China amp Its Influence on the Art of the West 1250 1350 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Europeans in Medieval China amp oldid 1206622411, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.