fbpx
Wikipedia

Indo-Roman trade relations

Indo-Roman trade relations (see also the spice trade and incense road) was trade between the Indian subcontinent and the Roman Empire in Europe and the Mediterranean Sea. Trade through the overland caravan routes via Asia Minor and the Middle East, though at a relative trickle compared to later times, preceded the southern trade route via the Red Sea which started around the beginning of the Common Era (CE) following the reign of Augustus and his conquest of Egypt in 30 BCE.[1]

Roman trade in the subcontinent according to the Periplus Maris Erythraei 1st century CE
Roman gold coins excavated in Pudukottai, Tamil Nadu, India. One coin of Caligula (37–41 CE), and two coins of Nero (54–68). British Museum.
Kushan ring with portraits of Septimus Severus and Julia Domna.

The southern route so helped enhance trade between the ancient Roman Empire and the Indian subcontinent, that Roman politicians and historians are on record decrying the loss of silver and gold to buy silk to pamper Roman wives, and the southern route grew to eclipse and then totally supplant the overland trade route.[2] Roman and Greek traders frequented the ancient Tamil country, present day Southern India and Sri Lanka, securing trade with the seafaring Tamil states of the Pandyan, Chola and Chera dynasties and establishing trading settlements which secured trade with the Indian subcontinent by the Greco-Roman world since the time of the Ptolemaic dynasty[3] a few decades before the start of the Common Era and remained long after the fall of the Western Roman Empire.[4]

Background edit

 
The Seleucid and the Ptolemaic dynasties controlled trade networks to India before the establishment of Roman Egypt.
  Kingdom of Ptolemy
  Kingdom of Seleucus

The Seleucid dynasty controlled a developed network of trade with the Indian Subcontinent which had previously existed under the influence of the Achaemenid Empire. The Greek-Ptolemaic dynasty, controlling the western and northern end of other trade routes to Southern Arabia and the Indian Subcontinent,[5] had begun to exploit trading opportunities in the region prior to the Roman involvement but, according to the historian Strabo, the volume of commerce between Indians and the Greeks was not comparable to that of later Indo-Roman trade.[2]

The Periplus Maris Erythraei mentions a time when sea trade between Egypt and the subcontinent did not involve direct sailings.[2] The cargo under these situations was shipped to Aden:[2]

Aden – Arabia Eudaimon was called the fortunate, being once a city, when, because ships neither came from India to Egypt nor did those from Egypt dare to go further but only came as far as this place, it received the cargoes from both, just as Alexandria receives goods brought from outside and from Egypt.

— Gary Keith Young, Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy

The Ptolemaic dynasty had developed trade with Indian kingdoms using the Red Sea ports.[1] With the establishment of Roman Egypt, the Romans took over and further developed the already existing trade using these ports.[1]

Classical geographers such as Strabo and Pliny the Elder were generally slow to incorporate new information into their works and, from their positions as esteemed scholars, were seemingly prejudiced against lowly merchants and their topographical accounts.[6] Ptolemy's Geography represents somewhat of a break from this since he demonstrated an openness to their accounts and would not have been able to chart the Bay of Bengal so accurately had it not been for the input of traders.[6] It is perhaps no surprise then that Marinus and Ptolemy relied on the testimony of a Greek sailor named Alexander for how to reach "Cattigara" (most likely Oc Eo, Vietnam, or Kathiawar, India, where Antonine-period Roman artefacts have been discovered) in the Magnus Sinus (i.e. Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea) located east of the Golden Chersonese (i.e. Malay Peninsula).[7][8] In the 1st-century CE Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, its anonymous Greek-speaking author, a merchant of Roman Egypt, provides such vivid accounts of trade cities in Arabia and India, including travel times from rivers and towns, where to drop anchor, the locations of royal courts, lifestyles of the locals and goods found in their markets, and favorable times of year to sail from Egypt to these places in order to catch the monsoon winds, that it is clear he visited many of these locations.[9]

Early Common Era edit

 
Silver denarius of Tiberius (14–37 CE) found in India. Indian copy of the same, 1st century CE. Coin of Kushan king Kujula Kadphises copying a coin of Augustus.
 
Indian ship on lead coin of Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi, 1st–2nd century CE

Prior to Roman expansion, the various peoples of the subcontinent had established strong maritime trade with other countries. The dramatic increase in the importance of Indian ports, however, did not occur until the opening of the Red Sea by the Greeks and the Romans' attainment concerning the region’s seasonal monsoons. The first two centuries of the Common Era indicate a marked increase in trade between western India and the Roman east by sea. The expansion of trade was made possible by the stability brought to the region by the Roman Empire from the time of Augustus (r. 27 BCE–14 CE) which allowed for new explorations and the creation of a sound silver and gold coinage.

The west coast of present-day India is mentioned frequently in literature, such as the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. The area was noted for its strong tidal currents, turbulent waves and rocky sea-beds were dangerous for shipping experience. The anchors of ships would be caught by the waves and quickly detach to capsize the vessel or cause a shipwreck. Stone anchors have been observed near Bet Dwarka, an island situated in the Gulf of Kachchh, from ship lost at sea. Onshore and offshore explorations have been carried out around Bet Dwarka Island since 1983. The finds discovered include lead and stone objects buried in sediment and considered to be anchors due to their axial holes. Though it is unlikely that the remains of the shipwreck’s hull survived, offshore explorations in 2000 and 2001 have yielded seven differently-sized amphoras, two lead anchors, forty-two stone anchors of different types, a supply of potsherds, and a circular lead ingot. The remains of the seven amphoras were of a thick, coarse fabric with a rough surface, which was used for exporting wine and olive oil from the Roman Empire. Archeologists have concluded that most of these were wine amphoras, since olive oil was in less demand in the subcontinent.

 
A coin of Trajan, found together with coins of the Kushan ruler Kanishka, at the Ahin Posh Buddhist Monastery, Afghanistan.

Since the discoveries at Bet Dwarka are significant for the maritime history of the region, archeologists have researched the resources in India.[citation needed] Despite the unfavorable conditions the island is situated in, the following items have made Bet Dwarka as well as the rest of western India an important place for trade. From Latin literature, Rome imported Indian tigers, rhinoceros, elephants, and serpents to use for circus shows – a method employed as entertainment to prevent riots in Rome. It has been noted in the Periplus that Roman women also wore Indian Ocean pearls and used a supply of herbs, spices, pepper, lycium, costus [Saussurea costus], sesame oil and sugar for food. Indigo was used as a color while cotton cloth was used as articles of clothing. Furthermore, the subcontinent exported ebony for fashioned furniture in Rome. The Roman Empire also imported Indian lime, peach, and various other fruits for medicine. Western India, as a result, was the recipient of large amounts of Roman gold during this time.

Since one must sail against the narrow gulfs of western India, special large boats were used and ship development was demanded. At the entrance of the gulf, large ships called trappaga and cotymba helped guide foreign vessels safely to the harbor. These ships were capable of relatively long coastal cruises, and several seals have depicted this type of ship. In each seal, parallel bands were suggested to represent the beams of the ship. In the center of the vessel is a single mast with a tripod base.

Apart from the recent explorations, close trade relations, as well as the development of ship building, were supported by the discovery of several Roman coins. On these coins were depictions of two strongly constructed masted ships. Thus, these depictions of Indian ships, originating from both coins and literature (Pliny and Periplus), indicate Indian development in seafaring due to the increase in Indo-Roman commerce. In addition, the silver Roman coins discovered in western India primarily come from the 1st, 2nd, and 5th centuries. These Roman coins also suggest that the Indian peninsula possessed a stable seaborne trade with Rome during 1st and 2nd century AD. Land routes, during the time of Augustus, were also used for Indian embassies to reach Rome.

The discoveries found on Bet Dwarka and on other areas on the western coast of India strongly indicate that there were strong Indo-Roman trade relations during the first two centuries of the Common Era. The 3rd century, however, was the demise of the Indo-Roman trade. The sea-route between Rome and India was shut down, and as a result, the trading reverted to the time prior to Roman expansion and exploration.

Establishment edit

 
Coin of the Roman Emperor Augustus found at the Pudukottai hoard. British Museum.
 
Indian copy of an aureus of Faustina Major, 2nd century CE. British Museum.

The replacement of Greek kingdoms by the Roman Empire as the administrator of the eastern Mediterranean basin led to the strengthening of direct maritime trade with the east and the elimination of the taxes extracted previously by the middlemen of various land based trading routes.[10] Strabo's mention of the vast increase in trade following the Roman annexation of Egypt indicates that monsoon was known from his time.[11]

The trade started by Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 130 BCE kept increasing according to Strabo (II.5.12.):[12]

At any rate, when Gallus was prefect of Egypt, I accompanied him and ascended the Nile as far as Syene and the frontiers of Kingdom of Aksum (Ethiopia), and I learned that as many as one hundred and twenty vessels were sailing from Myos Hormos to the subcontinent, whereas formerly, under the Ptolemies, only a very few ventured to undertake the voyage and to carry on traffic in Indian merchandise.

— Strabo

By the time of Augustus up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos to India.[12] So much gold was used for this trade, and apparently recycled by the Kushan Empire (Kushans) for their own coinage, that Pliny the Elder (NH VI.101) complained about the drain of specie to India:[13]

India, China and the Arabian peninsula take one hundred million sesterces from our empire per annum at a conservative estimate: that is what our luxuries and women cost us. For what fraction of these imports is intended for sacrifices to the gods or the spirits of the dead?

— Pliny, Historia Naturae 12.41.84.[14]

Trade of exotic animals edit

 
Sri Lankan imitations of 4th-century Roman coins, 4th–8th century CE.

There is evidence of animal trade between Indian Ocean harbours and the Mediterranean. This can be seen in the mosaics and frescoes of the remains of Roman villas in Italy. For example, the Villa del Casale has mosaics depicting the capture of animals in India, Indonesia and Africa. The intercontinental trade of animals was one of the sources of wealth for the owners of the villa. In the Ambulacro della Grande Caccia,[15] the hunting and capture of animals is represented in such detail that it is possible to identify the species. There is a scene that shows a technique to distract a tiger with a shimmering ball of glass or mirror in order to take her cubs. Tiger hunting with red ribbons serving as a distraction is also shown. In the mosaic there are also numerous other animals such as rhinoceros, an Indian elephant (recognized from the ears) with his Indian conductor, and the Indian peafowl, and other exotic birds. There are also numerous animals from Africa. Tigers, leopards and Asian and African lions were used in the arenas and circuses. The European lion was already extinct at that time. Probably the last lived in the Balkan Peninsula and were hunted to stock arenas. The birds and monkeys entertained the guests of many villas. Also in the Villa Romana del Tellaro there is a mosaic with a tiger in the jungle attacking a man with Roman clothes, probably a careless hunter. The animals were transported in cages by ship.[16]

Ports edit

Roman ports edit

The three main Roman ports involved with eastern trade were Arsinoe, Berenice and Myos Hormos. Arsinoe was one of the early trading centers but was soon overshadowed by the more easily accessible Myos Hormos and Berenice.

Arsinoe edit

 
Sites of Egyptian Red Sea ports, including Alexandria and Berenice.

The Ptolemaic dynasty exploited the strategic position of Alexandria to secure trade with the subcontinent.[3] The course of trade with the east then seems to have been first through the harbor of Arsinoe, the present day Suez.[3] The goods from the East African trade were landed at one of the three main Roman ports, Arsinoe, Berenice or Myos Hormos.[17] The Romans repaired and cleared out the silted up canal from the Nile to harbor center of Arsinoe on the Red Sea.[18] This was one of the many efforts the Roman administration had to undertake to divert as much of the trade to the maritime routes as possible.[18]

Arsinoe was eventually overshadowed by the rising prominence of Myos Hormos.[18] The navigation to the northern ports, such as Arsinoe-Clysma, became difficult in comparison to Myos Hormos due to the northern winds in the Gulf of Suez.[19] Venturing to these northern ports presented additional difficulties such as shoals, reefs and treacherous currents.[19]

Myos Hormos and Berenice edit

 
The Berenike Buddha, discovered in Berenice, Egypt, in 2022.

Myos Hormos and Berenice appear to have been important ancient trading ports, possibly used by the Pharaonic traders of ancient Egypt and the Ptolemaic dynasty before falling into Roman control.[1]

The site of Berenice, since its discovery by Belzoni (1818), has been equated with the ruins near Ras Banas in Southern Egypt.[1] However, the precise location of Myos Hormos is disputed with the latitude and longitude given in Ptolemy's Geography favoring Abu Sha'ar and the accounts given in classical literature and satellite images indicating a probable identification with Quseir el-Quadim at the end of a fortified road from Koptos on the Nile.[1] The Quseir el-Quadim site has further been associated with Myos Hormos following the excavations at el-Zerqa, halfway along the route, which have revealed ostraca leading to the conclusion that the port at the end of this road may have been Myos Hormos.[1]

In Berenike in March 2022 an American-Polish archaeological mission excavating the main early Roman period temple dedicated to the Goddess Isis uncovered in the forecourt of the temple a marble statue of a Buddha, the Berenike Buddha, suggesting the presence of Buddhist merchants from India in Egypt at that time.[20][21]

Major regional ports edit

 
Roman piece of pottery from Arezzo, Latium, found at Virampatnam, Arikamedu (1st century CE). Musee Guimet.
 
Characteristic Indian etched carnelian bead, found in Ptolemaic Period excavations at Saft el Henna, Ptolemaic Egypt. Petrie Museum.

The regional ports of Barbaricum (modern Karachi), Sounagoura (central Bangladesh), Barygaza (Bharuch in Gujarat), Muziris (present day Kodungallur), Korkai, Kaveripattinam and Arikamedu (Tamil Nadu) on the southern tip of present-day India were the main centers of this trade, along with Kodumanal, an inland city. The Periplus Maris Erythraei describes Greco-Roman merchants selling in Barbaricum "thin clothing, figured linens, topaz, coral, storax, frankincense, vessels of glass, silver and gold plate, and a little wine" in exchange for "costus, bdellium, lycium, nard, turquoise, lapis lazuli, Seric skins, cotton cloth, silk yarn, and indigo".[22] In Barygaza, they would buy wheat, rice, sesame oil, cotton and cloth.[22]

Barigaza edit

Trade with Barigaza, under the control of the Indo-Scythian Western Satrap Nahapana ("Nambanus"), was especially flourishing:[22]

There are imported into this market-town (Barigaza), wine, Italian preferred, also Laodicean and Arabian; copper, tin, and lead; coral and topaz; thin clothing and inferior sorts of all kinds; bright-colored girdles a cubit wide; storax, sweetclover, flint glass, realgar, antimony, gold and silver coin, on which there is a profit when exchanged for the money of the country; and ointment, but not very costly and not much. And for the King there are brought into those places very costly vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful maidens for the harem, fine wines, thin clothing of the finest weaves, and the choicest ointments. There are exported from these places spikenard, costus, bdellium, ivory, agate and carnelian, lycium, cotton cloth of all kinds, silk cloth, mallow cloth, yarn, long pepper and such other things as are brought here from the various market-towns. Those bound for this market-town from Egypt make the voyage favorably about the month of July, that is Epiphi.

— Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (paragraph 49).

Muziris edit

 
Muziris, as shown in the Tabula Peutingeriana, with a "Templum Augusti"

Muziris is a lost port city on the south-western coast of India which was a major center of trade in the ancient Tamil land between the Chera kingdom and the Roman Empire.[23] Its location is generally identified with modern-day Cranganore (central Kerala).[24][25] Large hoards of coins and innumerable shards of amphorae found at the town of Pattanam (near Cranganore) have elicited recent archeological interest in finding a probable location of this port city.[23]

According to the Periplus, numerous Greek seamen managed an intense trade with Muziris:[22]

Then come Naura and Tyndis, the first markets of Damirica (Limyrike), and then Muziris and Nelcynda, which are now of leading importance. Tyndis is of the Kingdom of Cerobothra; it is a village in plain sight by the sea. Muziris, of the same Kingdom, abounds in ships sent there with cargoes from Arabia, and by the Greeks; it is located on a river, distant from Tyndis by river and sea five hundred stadia, and up the river from the shore twenty stadia"

— The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (53–54)

Arikamedu edit

The Periplus Maris Erythraei mentions a marketplace named Poduke (ch. 60), which G.W.B. Huntingford identified as possibly being Arikamedu in Tamil Nadu, a centre of early Chola trade (now part of Ariyankuppam), about 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) from the modern Pondicherry.[26] Huntingford further notes that Roman pottery was found at Arikamedu in 1937, and archeological excavations between 1944 and 1949 showed that it was "a trading station to which goods of Roman manufacture were imported during the first half of the 1st century AD".[26]

Cultural exchanges edit

 
A 1st century CE Indian imitation of a coin of Augustus, British Museum.
 
Bronze imitation of a Roman coin, Sri Lanka, 4th–8th century CE

The Rome-subcontinental trade also saw several cultural exchanges which had a lasting effect on both the civilizations and others involved in the trade. The Ethiopian kingdom of Aksum was involved in the Indian Ocean trade network and was influenced by Roman culture and Indian architecture.[4] Traces of Indian influences are visible in Roman works of silver and ivory, or in Egyptian cotton and silk fabrics used for sale in Europe.[27] The Indian presence in Alexandria may have influenced the culture but little is known about the manner of this influence.[27] Clement of Alexandria mentions the Buddha in his writings and other Indian religions find mentions in other texts of the period.[27]

Han China was perhaps also involved in the Roman trade, with Roman embassies recorded for the years 166, 226, and 284 that allegedly landed in Rinan (Jiaozhi) in northern Vietnam, according to Chinese histories.[7][28][29][30] Roman coins and goods such as glasswares and silverwares have been found in China,[31][32] as well as Roman coins, bracelets, glass beads, a bronze lamp, and Antonine-period medallions in Vietnam, especially at Oc Eo (belonging to the Funan Kingdom).[7][28][33] The 1st-century Periplus notes how a country called This, with a great city called Thinae (comparable to Sinae in Ptolemy's Geography), produced silk and exported it to Bactria before it traveled overland to Barygaza in India and down the Ganges River.[34] While Marinus of Tyre and Ptolemy provided vague accounts of the Gulf of Thailand and Southeast Asia,[35] the Alexandrian Greek monk and former merchant Cosmas Indicopleustes, in his Christian Topography (c. 550), spoke clearly about China, how to sail there, and how it was involved in the clove trade stretching to Ceylon.[36][37] Comparing the small amount of Roman coins found in China as opposed to India, Warwick Ball asserts that most of the Chinese silk purchased by the Romans was done so in India, with the land route through ancient Persia playing a secondary role.[38]

Christian and Jewish settlers from Rome continued to live in India long after the decline in bilateral trade.[4] Large hoards of Roman coins have been found throughout India, and especially in the busy maritime trading centers of the south.[4] The Tamilakkam kings reissued Roman coinage in their own name after defacing the coins in order to signify their sovereignty.[39] Mentions of the traders are recorded in the Tamil Sangam literature of India.[39] One such mention reads: "The beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with gold and returned with pepper, and Muziris resounded with the noise." (from poem no. 149 of 'Akananuru' of Sangam Literature)"[39]

Decline and aftermath edit

Roman decline edit

 
Coin of Byzantine emperor Theodosius II, found in the excavation of a monastery in Ajanta Caves, India.

Trade declined from the mid-3rd century during a crisis in the Roman Empire, but recovered in the 4th century until the early 7th century, when Khosrow II, Shah of the Sasanian Empire, occupied the Roman parts of the Fertile Crescent and Egypt until being defeated by the Eastern Roman Emperor Heraclius[40] at the end of 627, after which the lost territories were returned to the Eastern Romans. Cosmas Indicopleustes ('Cosmas who sailed to India') was a Greek-Egyptian trader, and later monk, who wrote about his trade trips to India and Sri Lanka in the 6th century.

Ravaging of the Gupta Empire by the Huns edit

 
Gupta Empire (c.319-560 CE)
class=notpageimage|
Find spots of epigraphic inscriptions (red dots) indicating local control by the Alchon Huns in India between 500-530 CE,[41] with neighbouring polities,[42] and territorial extent of the Alchon Huns (brown).[43]

The Gupta Empire had been benefiting greatly from Indo-Roman trade. They had been exporting numerous luxury products such as silk, leather goods, fur, iron products, ivory, pearl or pepper from the ports of Bharutkutccha, Kalyan, Sind and the city of Ujjaini.[44]

The Alchon Huns' invasions (496–534 CE) are said to have seriously damaged the Gupta's (c.319-560 CE) trade with Europe and Central Asia.[45] Soon after the invasions, the Gupta Empire, already weakened by these invasions and the rise of local rulers, ended as well.[46] Following the invasions, northern India was left in disarray, with numerous smaller Indian powers emerging after the crumbling of the Guptas.[47]

Arab expansion edit

 
Egypt under the rule of the Rashidun and Ummayad Caliphates, drawn on the modern state borders.

The Arabs, led by 'Amr ibn al-'As, crossed into Egypt in late 639 or early 640 CE.[48] This advance marked the beginning of the Islamic conquest of Egypt.[48] The capture of Alexandria and the rest of the country, [49] brought an end to 670 years of Roman trade with the subcontinent.[3]

Tamil speaking south India turned to Southeast Asia for international trade where Indian culture influenced the native culture to a greater degree than the sketchy impressions made on Rome seen in the adoption of Hinduism and then Buddhism.[50] However, knowledge of the Indian subcontinent and its trade was preserved in Byzantine books and it is likely that the court of the Emperor still maintained some form of diplomatic relation to the region up until at least the time of Constantine VII, seeking an ally against the rising influence of the Islamic states in the Middle East and Persia, appearing in a work on ceremonies called De Ceremoniis.[51]

The Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople in the 15th century (1453), marking the beginning of Turkish control over the most direct trade routes between Europe and Asia.[52] The Ottomans initially cut off eastern trade with Europe, leading in turn to the attempt by Europeans to find a sea route around Africa, spurring the European Age of Discovery, and the eventual rise of European Mercantilism and Colonialism.

See also edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ a b c d e f g Shaw 2003: 426
  2. ^ a b c d Young 2001: 19
  3. ^ a b c d Lindsay 2006: 101
  4. ^ a b c d Curtin 1984: 100
  5. ^ Potter 2004: 20
  6. ^ a b Parker 2008: 118.
  7. ^ a b c Young 2001: 29.
  8. ^ Mawer 2013: 38.
  9. ^ William H. Schoff (2004) [1912]. Lance Jenott (ed.). ""The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century" in The Voyage around the Erythraean Sea". Depts.washington.edu. University of Washington. Retrieved 19 September 2016.
  10. ^ Lach 1994: 13
  11. ^ Young 2001: 20
  12. ^ a b "The Geography of Strabo published in Vol. I of the Loeb Classical Library edition, 1917".
  13. ^ "minimaque computatione miliens centena milia sestertium annis omnibus India et Seres et paeninsula illa imperio nostro adimunt: tanti nobis deliciae et feminae constant. quota enim portio ex illis ad deos, quaeso, iam vel ad inferos pertinet?" Pliny, Historia Naturae 12.41.84.
  14. ^ Original Latin: "minimaque computatione miliens centena milia sestertium annis omnibus India et Seres et paeninsula illa imperio nostro adimunt: tanti nobis deliciae et feminae constant. quota enim portio ex illis ad deos, quaeso, iam vel ad inferos pertinet?"
  15. ^ 13 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine
  16. ^ "Il Blog sulla Villa Romana del Casale Piazza Armerina". villadelcasale.it. Retrieved 12 February 2017.
  17. ^ O'Leary 2001: 72
  18. ^ a b c Fayle 2006: 52
  19. ^ a b Freeman 2003: 72
  20. ^ "Garum Masala;Dramatic archaeological discoveries have led scholars to radically reassess the size and importance of the trade between ancient Rome and India". New York Review. 20 April 2023.
  21. ^ Magazine, Smithsonian; Parker, Christopher. "Archaeologists Unearth Buddha Statue in Ancient Egyptian Port City". Smithsonian Magazine.
  22. ^ a b c d Halsall, Paul. "Ancient History Sourcebook: The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century". Fordham University.
  23. ^ a b "Search for India's ancient city". BBC. 11 June 2006. Retrieved 4 January 2010.
  24. ^ George Menachery (1987) Kodungallur City of St. Thomas; (2000) Azhikode alias Kodungallur Cradle of Christianity in India
  25. ^ . telegraphindia.com. Calcutta (Kolkata): The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 4 August 2009. Retrieved 12 February 2017.
  26. ^ a b Huntingford 1980: 119.
  27. ^ a b c Lach 1994: 18
  28. ^ a b Ball 2016: 152–53
  29. ^ Hill 2009: 27
  30. ^ Yule 1915: 53–54
  31. ^ An 2002: 83
  32. ^ Harper 2002: 99–100, 106–07
  33. ^ O'Reilly 2007: 97
  34. ^ Schoff 2004 [1912]: paragraph #64. Retrieved 24 September 2016.
  35. ^ Suárez (1999): 90–92
  36. ^ Yule 1915: 25–28
  37. ^ Lieu 2009: 227
  38. ^ Ball 2016: 153–54.
  39. ^ a b c Kulke 2004: 108
  40. ^ Farrokh 2007: 252
  41. ^ Bakker, Hans (2017). Monuments of Hope, Gloom, and Glory in the Age of the Hunnic Wars. 50 years that changed India. Amsterdam: J. Gonda Fund Foundation of the KNAW. pp. 484–534. ISBN 978-9069847153.
  42. ^ Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1978). A Historical atlas of South Asia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 25. ISBN 0226742210.
  43. ^ Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1978). A Historical atlas of South Asia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 145, map XIV.1 (k). ISBN 0226742210.
  44. ^ Longman History & Civics ICSE 9 by Singh p. 81
  45. ^ The First Spring: The Golden Age of India by Abraham Eraly pp. 48 sq
  46. ^ Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath Sen p. 221
  47. ^ A Comprehensive History Of Ancient India p. 174
  48. ^ a b Meri 2006: 224
  49. ^ Holl 2003: 9
  50. ^ Kulke 2004: 106
  51. ^ Luttwak 2009: 167–68
  52. ^ The Encyclopedia Americana 1989: 176

References edit

  • An, Jiayao (2002). "When Glass Was Treasured in China". In Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner (ed.). Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road. Brepols Publishers. pp. 79–94. ISBN 2-503-52178-9.
  • Ball, Warwick (2016). Rome in the East: Transformation of an Empire (2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-72078-6.
  • Curtin, Philip DeArmond; el al. (1984). Cross-Cultural Trade in World History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-26931-8.
  • The Encyclopedia Americana (1989). Grolier. 1989. ISBN 0-7172-0120-1.
  • Farrokh, Kaveh (2007). Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84603-108-3.
  • Fayle, Charles Ernest (2006). A Short History of the World's Shipping Industry. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-28619-0.
  • Freeman, Donald B. (2003). The Straits of Malacca: Gateway Or Gauntlet?. McGill-Queen's Press. ISBN 0-7735-2515-7.
  • Harper, P.O. (2002). "Iranian Luxury Vessels in China From the Late First Millennium B.C.E. to the Second Half of the First Millennium C.E.". In Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner (ed.). Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road. Brepols Publishers. pp. 95–113. ISBN 2-503-52178-9.
  • Hill, John E. (2009). Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, First to Second Centuries CE. BookSurge. ISBN 978-1-4392-2134-1.
  • Holl, Augustin F. C. (2003). Ethnoarchaeology of Shuwa-Arab Settlements. Lexington Books. ISBN 0-7391-0407-1.
  • Huntingford, G.W.B. (1980). The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. Hakluyt Society.
  • Kulke, Hermann; Dietmar Rothermund (2004). A History of India. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-32919-1.
  • Lach, Donald Frederick (1994). Asia in the Making of Europe: The Century of Discovery. Book 1. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-46731-7.
  • Lieu, Samuel N.C. (2009). "Epigraphica Nestoriana Serica". Exegisti monumenta Festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams. Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 227–46. ISBN 978-3-447-05937-4.
  • Lindsay, W S (2006). History of Merchant Shipping and Ancient Commerce. Adamant Media Corporation. ISBN 0-543-94253-8.
  • Luttwak, Edward (2009). The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03519-5.
  • Mawer, Granville Allen (2013). "The Riddle of Cattigara". In Nichols, Robert and Martin Woods (ed.). Mapping Our World: Terra Incognita to Australia. National Library of Australia. pp. 38–39. ISBN 9780642278098.
  • Meri, Josef W.; Jere L. Bacharach (2006). Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-96690-6.
  • O'Leary, De Lacy (2001). Arabia Before Muhammad. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-23188-4.
  • O'Reilly, Dougald J.W. (2007). Early Civilizations of Southeast Asia. AltaMira Press, Division of Rowman and Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7591-0279-8.
  • Parker, Grant (2008). The Making of Roman India. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85834-2.
  • Potter, David Stone (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay: Ad 180–395. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10058-5.
  • Schoff, Williamm H. (2004) [1912]. Lance Jenott (ed.). ""The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century" in The Voyage around the Erythraean Sea". Depts.washington.edu. University of Washington. Retrieved 19 September 2016.
  • Shaw, Ian (2003). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280458-8.
  • Suresh, S. (2004). SYMBOLS OF TRADE Roman and Pseudo-Roman Objects found in India (PDF). Manohar.
  • Young, Gary Keith (2001). Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC–AD 305. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-24219-3.
  • Yule, Henry (1915). Henri Cordier (ed.). Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China, Vol I: Preliminary Essay on the Intercourse Between China and the Western Nations Previous to the Discovery of the Cape Route. Vol. 1. Hakluyt Society.

Further reading edit

  • Lionel Casson, The Periplus Maris Erythraei: Text With Introduction, Translation, and Commentary. Princeton University Press, 1989. ISBN 0-691-04060-5.
  • Chakrabarti D.K. (1990). The External Trade of the Indus Civilization. Delhi: Manoharlal Publishers Private Limited
  • Chami, F. A. 1999. “The Early Iron Age on Mafia island and its relationship with the mainland.” Azania Vol. XXXIV.
  • McLaughlin, Raoul. (2010). Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the Ancient Lands of Arabia, India and China. Continuum, London and New York. ISBN 978-1-84725-235-7.
  • Miller, J. Innes. 1969. The Spice Trade of The Roman Empire: 29 B.C. to A.D. 641. Oxford University Press. Special edition for Sandpiper Books. 1998. ISBN 0-19-814264-1.
  • Sidebotham, Steven E. (2011). Berenike and the Ancient Maritime Spice Route. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24430-6.
  • Van der Veen, Marijke (2011). Consumption, Trade and Innovation. Exploring the Botanical Remains from the Roman and Islamic Ports at Quseir al-Qadim, Egypt. Frankfurt: Africa Magna Verlag. ISBN 978-3-937248-23-3
  • Raith, M. – Hoffbauer, R. – Euler, H. – Yule, P. – Damgaard, K. (2013). “The view from Ẓafār –An archaeometric study of the Aqaba late Roman period pottery complex and distribution in the 1st millennium CE”. Zeitschrift für Orient-Archäologie 6, 320–50. ISBN 978-3-11-019704-4.

External links edit

  • English translation of the Periplus Maris Erythraei (Voyage around the Erythraean Sea)
  • BBC News: Search for India's ancient city
  • Trade between the Romans and the Empires of Asia

indo, roman, trade, relations, also, spice, trade, incense, road, trade, between, indian, subcontinent, roman, empire, europe, mediterranean, trade, through, overland, caravan, routes, asia, minor, middle, east, though, relative, trickle, compared, later, time. Indo Roman trade relations see also the spice trade and incense road was trade between the Indian subcontinent and the Roman Empire in Europe and the Mediterranean Sea Trade through the overland caravan routes via Asia Minor and the Middle East though at a relative trickle compared to later times preceded the southern trade route via the Red Sea which started around the beginning of the Common Era CE following the reign of Augustus and his conquest of Egypt in 30 BCE 1 Roman trade in the subcontinent according to the Periplus Maris Erythraei 1st century CERoman gold coins excavated in Pudukottai Tamil Nadu India One coin of Caligula 37 41 CE and two coins of Nero 54 68 British Museum Kushan ring with portraits of Septimus Severus and Julia Domna The southern route so helped enhance trade between the ancient Roman Empire and the Indian subcontinent that Roman politicians and historians are on record decrying the loss of silver and gold to buy silk to pamper Roman wives and the southern route grew to eclipse and then totally supplant the overland trade route 2 Roman and Greek traders frequented the ancient Tamil country present day Southern India and Sri Lanka securing trade with the seafaring Tamil states of the Pandyan Chola and Chera dynasties and establishing trading settlements which secured trade with the Indian subcontinent by the Greco Roman world since the time of the Ptolemaic dynasty 3 a few decades before the start of the Common Era and remained long after the fall of the Western Roman Empire 4 Contents 1 Background 2 Early Common Era 3 Establishment 4 Trade of exotic animals 5 Ports 5 1 Roman ports 5 1 1 Arsinoe 5 1 2 Myos Hormos and Berenice 5 2 Major regional ports 5 2 1 Barigaza 5 2 2 Muziris 5 2 3 Arikamedu 6 Cultural exchanges 7 Decline and aftermath 7 1 Roman decline 7 2 Ravaging of the Gupta Empire by the Huns 7 3 Arab expansion 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External linksBackground editMain article Indo Roman relations nbsp The Seleucid and the Ptolemaic dynasties controlled trade networks to India before the establishment of Roman Egypt Kingdom of Ptolemy Kingdom of SeleucusThe Seleucid dynasty controlled a developed network of trade with the Indian Subcontinent which had previously existed under the influence of the Achaemenid Empire The Greek Ptolemaic dynasty controlling the western and northern end of other trade routes to Southern Arabia and the Indian Subcontinent 5 had begun to exploit trading opportunities in the region prior to the Roman involvement but according to the historian Strabo the volume of commerce between Indians and the Greeks was not comparable to that of later Indo Roman trade 2 The Periplus Maris Erythraei mentions a time when sea trade between Egypt and the subcontinent did not involve direct sailings 2 The cargo under these situations was shipped to Aden 2 Aden Arabia Eudaimon was called the fortunate being once a city when because ships neither came from India to Egypt nor did those from Egypt dare to go further but only came as far as this place it received the cargoes from both just as Alexandria receives goods brought from outside and from Egypt Gary Keith Young Rome s Eastern Trade International Commerce and Imperial Policy The Ptolemaic dynasty had developed trade with Indian kingdoms using the Red Sea ports 1 With the establishment of Roman Egypt the Romans took over and further developed the already existing trade using these ports 1 Classical geographers such as Strabo and Pliny the Elder were generally slow to incorporate new information into their works and from their positions as esteemed scholars were seemingly prejudiced against lowly merchants and their topographical accounts 6 Ptolemy s Geography represents somewhat of a break from this since he demonstrated an openness to their accounts and would not have been able to chart the Bay of Bengal so accurately had it not been for the input of traders 6 It is perhaps no surprise then that Marinus and Ptolemy relied on the testimony of a Greek sailor named Alexander for how to reach Cattigara most likely Oc Eo Vietnam or Kathiawar India where Antonine period Roman artefacts have been discovered in the Magnus Sinus i e Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea located east of the Golden Chersonese i e Malay Peninsula 7 8 In the 1st century CE Periplus of the Erythraean Sea its anonymous Greek speaking author a merchant of Roman Egypt provides such vivid accounts of trade cities in Arabia and India including travel times from rivers and towns where to drop anchor the locations of royal courts lifestyles of the locals and goods found in their markets and favorable times of year to sail from Egypt to these places in order to catch the monsoon winds that it is clear he visited many of these locations 9 Early Common Era edit nbsp Silver denarius of Tiberius 14 37 CE found in India Indian copy of the same 1st century CE Coin of Kushan king Kujula Kadphises copying a coin of Augustus nbsp Indian ship on lead coin of Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi 1st 2nd century CEPrior to Roman expansion the various peoples of the subcontinent had established strong maritime trade with other countries The dramatic increase in the importance of Indian ports however did not occur until the opening of the Red Sea by the Greeks and the Romans attainment concerning the region s seasonal monsoons The first two centuries of the Common Era indicate a marked increase in trade between western India and the Roman east by sea The expansion of trade was made possible by the stability brought to the region by the Roman Empire from the time of Augustus r 27 BCE 14 CE which allowed for new explorations and the creation of a sound silver and gold coinage The west coast of present day India is mentioned frequently in literature such as the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea The area was noted for its strong tidal currents turbulent waves and rocky sea beds were dangerous for shipping experience The anchors of ships would be caught by the waves and quickly detach to capsize the vessel or cause a shipwreck Stone anchors have been observed near Bet Dwarka an island situated in the Gulf of Kachchh from ship lost at sea Onshore and offshore explorations have been carried out around Bet Dwarka Island since 1983 The finds discovered include lead and stone objects buried in sediment and considered to be anchors due to their axial holes Though it is unlikely that the remains of the shipwreck s hull survived offshore explorations in 2000 and 2001 have yielded seven differently sized amphoras two lead anchors forty two stone anchors of different types a supply of potsherds and a circular lead ingot The remains of the seven amphoras were of a thick coarse fabric with a rough surface which was used for exporting wine and olive oil from the Roman Empire Archeologists have concluded that most of these were wine amphoras since olive oil was in less demand in the subcontinent nbsp A coin of Trajan found together with coins of the Kushan ruler Kanishka at the Ahin Posh Buddhist Monastery Afghanistan Since the discoveries at Bet Dwarka are significant for the maritime history of the region archeologists have researched the resources in India citation needed Despite the unfavorable conditions the island is situated in the following items have made Bet Dwarka as well as the rest of western India an important place for trade From Latin literature Rome imported Indian tigers rhinoceros elephants and serpents to use for circus shows a method employed as entertainment to prevent riots in Rome It has been noted in the Periplus that Roman women also wore Indian Ocean pearls and used a supply of herbs spices pepper lycium costus Saussurea costus sesame oil and sugar for food Indigo was used as a color while cotton cloth was used as articles of clothing Furthermore the subcontinent exported ebony for fashioned furniture in Rome The Roman Empire also imported Indian lime peach and various other fruits for medicine Western India as a result was the recipient of large amounts of Roman gold during this time Since one must sail against the narrow gulfs of western India special large boats were used and ship development was demanded At the entrance of the gulf large ships called trappaga and cotymba helped guide foreign vessels safely to the harbor These ships were capable of relatively long coastal cruises and several seals have depicted this type of ship In each seal parallel bands were suggested to represent the beams of the ship In the center of the vessel is a single mast with a tripod base Apart from the recent explorations close trade relations as well as the development of ship building were supported by the discovery of several Roman coins On these coins were depictions of two strongly constructed masted ships Thus these depictions of Indian ships originating from both coins and literature Pliny and Periplus indicate Indian development in seafaring due to the increase in Indo Roman commerce In addition the silver Roman coins discovered in western India primarily come from the 1st 2nd and 5th centuries These Roman coins also suggest that the Indian peninsula possessed a stable seaborne trade with Rome during 1st and 2nd century AD Land routes during the time of Augustus were also used for Indian embassies to reach Rome The discoveries found on Bet Dwarka and on other areas on the western coast of India strongly indicate that there were strong Indo Roman trade relations during the first two centuries of the Common Era The 3rd century however was the demise of the Indo Roman trade The sea route between Rome and India was shut down and as a result the trading reverted to the time prior to Roman expansion and exploration Establishment edit nbsp Coin of the Roman Emperor Augustus found at the Pudukottai hoard British Museum nbsp Indian copy of an aureus of Faustina Major 2nd century CE British Museum The replacement of Greek kingdoms by the Roman Empire as the administrator of the eastern Mediterranean basin led to the strengthening of direct maritime trade with the east and the elimination of the taxes extracted previously by the middlemen of various land based trading routes 10 Strabo s mention of the vast increase in trade following the Roman annexation of Egypt indicates that monsoon was known from his time 11 The trade started by Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 130 BCE kept increasing according to Strabo II 5 12 12 At any rate when Gallus was prefect of Egypt I accompanied him and ascended the Nile as far as Syene and the frontiers of Kingdom of Aksum Ethiopia and I learned that as many as one hundred and twenty vessels were sailing from Myos Hormos to the subcontinent whereas formerly under the Ptolemies only a very few ventured to undertake the voyage and to carry on traffic in Indian merchandise Strabo By the time of Augustus up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos to India 12 So much gold was used for this trade and apparently recycled by the Kushan Empire Kushans for their own coinage that Pliny the Elder NH VI 101 complained about the drain of specie to India 13 India China and the Arabian peninsula take one hundred million sesterces from our empire per annum at a conservative estimate that is what our luxuries and women cost us For what fraction of these imports is intended for sacrifices to the gods or the spirits of the dead Pliny Historia Naturae 12 41 84 14 nbsp Gold coin of Claudius 50 51 CE excavated in South India nbsp Gold coin of Justinian I 527 565 CE excavated in India probably in the south Trade of exotic animals edit nbsp Sri Lankan imitations of 4th century Roman coins 4th 8th century CE There is evidence of animal trade between Indian Ocean harbours and the Mediterranean This can be seen in the mosaics and frescoes of the remains of Roman villas in Italy For example the Villa del Casale has mosaics depicting the capture of animals in India Indonesia and Africa The intercontinental trade of animals was one of the sources of wealth for the owners of the villa In the Ambulacro della Grande Caccia 15 the hunting and capture of animals is represented in such detail that it is possible to identify the species There is a scene that shows a technique to distract a tiger with a shimmering ball of glass or mirror in order to take her cubs Tiger hunting with red ribbons serving as a distraction is also shown In the mosaic there are also numerous other animals such as rhinoceros an Indian elephant recognized from the ears with his Indian conductor and the Indian peafowl and other exotic birds There are also numerous animals from Africa Tigers leopards and Asian and African lions were used in the arenas and circuses The European lion was already extinct at that time Probably the last lived in the Balkan Peninsula and were hunted to stock arenas The birds and monkeys entertained the guests of many villas Also in the Villa Romana del Tellaro there is a mosaic with a tiger in the jungle attacking a man with Roman clothes probably a careless hunter The animals were transported in cages by ship 16 Ports editRoman ports edit The three main Roman ports involved with eastern trade were Arsinoe Berenice and Myos Hormos Arsinoe was one of the early trading centers but was soon overshadowed by the more easily accessible Myos Hormos and Berenice Arsinoe edit nbsp Sites of Egyptian Red Sea ports including Alexandria and Berenice The Ptolemaic dynasty exploited the strategic position of Alexandria to secure trade with the subcontinent 3 The course of trade with the east then seems to have been first through the harbor of Arsinoe the present day Suez 3 The goods from the East African trade were landed at one of the three main Roman ports Arsinoe Berenice or Myos Hormos 17 The Romans repaired and cleared out the silted up canal from the Nile to harbor center of Arsinoe on the Red Sea 18 This was one of the many efforts the Roman administration had to undertake to divert as much of the trade to the maritime routes as possible 18 Arsinoe was eventually overshadowed by the rising prominence of Myos Hormos 18 The navigation to the northern ports such as Arsinoe Clysma became difficult in comparison to Myos Hormos due to the northern winds in the Gulf of Suez 19 Venturing to these northern ports presented additional difficulties such as shoals reefs and treacherous currents 19 Myos Hormos and Berenice edit nbsp The Berenike Buddha discovered in Berenice Egypt in 2022 Myos Hormos and Berenice appear to have been important ancient trading ports possibly used by the Pharaonic traders of ancient Egypt and the Ptolemaic dynasty before falling into Roman control 1 The site of Berenice since its discovery by Belzoni 1818 has been equated with the ruins near Ras Banas in Southern Egypt 1 However the precise location of Myos Hormos is disputed with the latitude and longitude given in Ptolemy s Geography favoring Abu Sha ar and the accounts given in classical literature and satellite images indicating a probable identification with Quseir el Quadim at the end of a fortified road from Koptos on the Nile 1 The Quseir el Quadim site has further been associated with Myos Hormos following the excavations at el Zerqa halfway along the route which have revealed ostraca leading to the conclusion that the port at the end of this road may have been Myos Hormos 1 In Berenike in March 2022 an American Polish archaeological mission excavating the main early Roman period temple dedicated to the Goddess Isis uncovered in the forecourt of the temple a marble statue of a Buddha the Berenike Buddha suggesting the presence of Buddhist merchants from India in Egypt at that time 20 21 Major regional ports edit nbsp Roman piece of pottery from Arezzo Latium found at Virampatnam Arikamedu 1st century CE Musee Guimet nbsp Characteristic Indian etched carnelian bead found in Ptolemaic Period excavations at Saft el Henna Ptolemaic Egypt Petrie Museum The regional ports of Barbaricum modern Karachi Sounagoura central Bangladesh Barygaza Bharuch in Gujarat Muziris present day Kodungallur Korkai Kaveripattinam and Arikamedu Tamil Nadu on the southern tip of present day India were the main centers of this trade along with Kodumanal an inland city The Periplus Maris Erythraei describes Greco Roman merchants selling in Barbaricum thin clothing figured linens topaz coral storax frankincense vessels of glass silver and gold plate and a little wine in exchange for costus bdellium lycium nard turquoise lapis lazuli Seric skins cotton cloth silk yarn and indigo 22 In Barygaza they would buy wheat rice sesame oil cotton and cloth 22 Barigaza edit Trade with Barigaza under the control of the Indo Scythian Western Satrap Nahapana Nambanus was especially flourishing 22 There are imported into this market town Barigaza wine Italian preferred also Laodicean and Arabian copper tin and lead coral and topaz thin clothing and inferior sorts of all kinds bright colored girdles a cubit wide storax sweetclover flint glass realgar antimony gold and silver coin on which there is a profit when exchanged for the money of the country and ointment but not very costly and not much And for the King there are brought into those places very costly vessels of silver singing boys beautiful maidens for the harem fine wines thin clothing of the finest weaves and the choicest ointments There are exported from these places spikenard costus bdellium ivory agate and carnelian lycium cotton cloth of all kinds silk cloth mallow cloth yarn long pepper and such other things as are brought here from the various market towns Those bound for this market town from Egypt make the voyage favorably about the month of July that is Epiphi Periplus of the Erythraean Sea paragraph 49 Muziris edit nbsp Muziris as shown in the Tabula Peutingeriana with a Templum Augusti Muziris is a lost port city on the south western coast of India which was a major center of trade in the ancient Tamil land between the Chera kingdom and the Roman Empire 23 Its location is generally identified with modern day Cranganore central Kerala 24 25 Large hoards of coins and innumerable shards of amphorae found at the town of Pattanam near Cranganore have elicited recent archeological interest in finding a probable location of this port city 23 According to the Periplus numerous Greek seamen managed an intense trade with Muziris 22 Then come Naura and Tyndis the first markets of Damirica Limyrike and then Muziris and Nelcynda which are now of leading importance Tyndis is of the Kingdom of Cerobothra it is a village in plain sight by the sea Muziris of the same Kingdom abounds in ships sent there with cargoes from Arabia and by the Greeks it is located on a river distant from Tyndis by river and sea five hundred stadia and up the river from the shore twenty stadia The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea 53 54 Arikamedu edit The Periplus Maris Erythraei mentions a marketplace named Poduke ch 60 which G W B Huntingford identified as possibly being Arikamedu in Tamil Nadu a centre of early Chola trade now part of Ariyankuppam about 3 kilometres 1 9 mi from the modern Pondicherry 26 Huntingford further notes that Roman pottery was found at Arikamedu in 1937 and archeological excavations between 1944 and 1949 showed that it was a trading station to which goods of Roman manufacture were imported during the first half of the 1st century AD 26 Cultural exchanges editFurther information Buddhism and the Roman world nbsp A 1st century CE Indian imitation of a coin of Augustus British Museum nbsp Bronze imitation of a Roman coin Sri Lanka 4th 8th century CEThe Rome subcontinental trade also saw several cultural exchanges which had a lasting effect on both the civilizations and others involved in the trade The Ethiopian kingdom of Aksum was involved in the Indian Ocean trade network and was influenced by Roman culture and Indian architecture 4 Traces of Indian influences are visible in Roman works of silver and ivory or in Egyptian cotton and silk fabrics used for sale in Europe 27 The Indian presence in Alexandria may have influenced the culture but little is known about the manner of this influence 27 Clement of Alexandria mentions the Buddha in his writings and other Indian religions find mentions in other texts of the period 27 Han China was perhaps also involved in the Roman trade with Roman embassies recorded for the years 166 226 and 284 that allegedly landed in Rinan Jiaozhi in northern Vietnam according to Chinese histories 7 28 29 30 Roman coins and goods such as glasswares and silverwares have been found in China 31 32 as well as Roman coins bracelets glass beads a bronze lamp and Antonine period medallions in Vietnam especially at Oc Eo belonging to the Funan Kingdom 7 28 33 The 1st century Periplus notes how a country called This with a great city called Thinae comparable to Sinae in Ptolemy s Geography produced silk and exported it to Bactria before it traveled overland to Barygaza in India and down the Ganges River 34 While Marinus of Tyre and Ptolemy provided vague accounts of the Gulf of Thailand and Southeast Asia 35 the Alexandrian Greek monk and former merchant Cosmas Indicopleustes in his Christian Topography c 550 spoke clearly about China how to sail there and how it was involved in the clove trade stretching to Ceylon 36 37 Comparing the small amount of Roman coins found in China as opposed to India Warwick Ball asserts that most of the Chinese silk purchased by the Romans was done so in India with the land route through ancient Persia playing a secondary role 38 Christian and Jewish settlers from Rome continued to live in India long after the decline in bilateral trade 4 Large hoards of Roman coins have been found throughout India and especially in the busy maritime trading centers of the south 4 The Tamilakkam kings reissued Roman coinage in their own name after defacing the coins in order to signify their sovereignty 39 Mentions of the traders are recorded in the Tamil Sangam literature of India 39 One such mention reads The beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with the noise from poem no 149 of Akananuru of Sangam Literature 39 Decline and aftermath editRoman decline edit nbsp Coin of Byzantine emperor Theodosius II found in the excavation of a monastery in Ajanta Caves India Trade declined from the mid 3rd century during a crisis in the Roman Empire but recovered in the 4th century until the early 7th century when Khosrow II Shah of the Sasanian Empire occupied the Roman parts of the Fertile Crescent and Egypt until being defeated by the Eastern Roman Emperor Heraclius 40 at the end of 627 after which the lost territories were returned to the Eastern Romans Cosmas Indicopleustes Cosmas who sailed to India was a Greek Egyptian trader and later monk who wrote about his trade trips to India and Sri Lanka in the 6th century Ravaging of the Gupta Empire by the Huns edit nbsp Gupta Empire c 319 560 CE nbsp nbsp nbsp Sanjeli nbsp Eran nbsp Gwalior nbsp Sondani nbsp Choti Sadri nbsp Kura nbsp Kausambi Toramana seals RisthalALCHONHUNSHEPHTHALITESNEZAKHUNSSASA NIANSRAISGUPTASVAKATAKASZHANGZHUNGKINGDOMNorthern WeiTOCHARIANSclass notpageimage Find spots of epigraphic inscriptions red dots indicating local control by the Alchon Huns in India between 500 530 CE 41 with neighbouring polities 42 and territorial extent of the Alchon Huns brown 43 The Gupta Empire had been benefiting greatly from Indo Roman trade They had been exporting numerous luxury products such as silk leather goods fur iron products ivory pearl or pepper from the ports of Bharutkutccha Kalyan Sind and the city of Ujjaini 44 The Alchon Huns invasions 496 534 CE are said to have seriously damaged the Gupta s c 319 560 CE trade with Europe and Central Asia 45 Soon after the invasions the Gupta Empire already weakened by these invasions and the rise of local rulers ended as well 46 Following the invasions northern India was left in disarray with numerous smaller Indian powers emerging after the crumbling of the Guptas 47 Arab expansion edit nbsp Egypt under the rule of the Rashidun and Ummayad Caliphates drawn on the modern state borders The Arabs led by Amr ibn al As crossed into Egypt in late 639 or early 640 CE 48 This advance marked the beginning of the Islamic conquest of Egypt 48 The capture of Alexandria and the rest of the country 49 brought an end to 670 years of Roman trade with the subcontinent 3 Tamil speaking south India turned to Southeast Asia for international trade where Indian culture influenced the native culture to a greater degree than the sketchy impressions made on Rome seen in the adoption of Hinduism and then Buddhism 50 However knowledge of the Indian subcontinent and its trade was preserved in Byzantine books and it is likely that the court of the Emperor still maintained some form of diplomatic relation to the region up until at least the time of Constantine VII seeking an ally against the rising influence of the Islamic states in the Middle East and Persia appearing in a work on ceremonies called De Ceremoniis 51 The Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople in the 15th century 1453 marking the beginning of Turkish control over the most direct trade routes between Europe and Asia 52 The Ottomans initially cut off eastern trade with Europe leading in turn to the attempt by Europeans to find a sea route around Africa spurring the European Age of Discovery and the eventual rise of European Mercantilism and Colonialism See also editAncient Greece Ancient India relations Buddhism and the Roman world Chronology of European exploration of Asia Economic history of India Historic GDP of India 1 1947 CE Indus Mesopotamia relations Indian maritime history Indo Roman relations Meluhha trade with Sumer Sino Roman relationsNotes edit a b c d e f g Shaw 2003 426 a b c d Young 2001 19 a b c d Lindsay 2006 101 a b c d Curtin 1984 100 Potter 2004 20 a b Parker 2008 118 a b c Young 2001 29 Mawer 2013 38 William H Schoff 2004 1912 Lance Jenott ed The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century in The Voyage around the Erythraean Sea Depts washington edu University of Washington Retrieved 19 September 2016 Lach 1994 13 Young 2001 20 a b The Geography of Strabo published in Vol I of the Loeb Classical Library edition 1917 minimaque computatione miliens centena milia sestertium annis omnibus India et Seres et paeninsula illa imperio nostro adimunt tanti nobis deliciae et feminae constant quota enim portio ex illis ad deos quaeso iam vel ad inferos pertinet Pliny Historia Naturae 12 41 84 Original Latin minimaque computatione miliens centena milia sestertium annis omnibus India et Seres et paeninsula illa imperio nostro adimunt tanti nobis deliciae et feminae constant quota enim portio ex illis ad deos quaeso iam vel ad inferos pertinet Archived 13 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine Il Blog sulla Villa Romana del Casale Piazza Armerina villadelcasale it Retrieved 12 February 2017 O Leary 2001 72 a b c Fayle 2006 52 a b Freeman 2003 72 Garum Masala Dramatic archaeological discoveries have led scholars to radically reassess the size and importance of the trade between ancient Rome and India New York Review 20 April 2023 Magazine Smithsonian Parker Christopher Archaeologists Unearth Buddha Statue in Ancient Egyptian Port City Smithsonian Magazine a b c d Halsall Paul Ancient History Sourcebook The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century Fordham University a b Search for India s ancient city BBC 11 June 2006 Retrieved 4 January 2010 George Menachery 1987 Kodungallur City of St Thomas 2000 Azhikode alias Kodungallur Cradle of Christianity in India Signs of ancient port in Kerala telegraphindia com Calcutta Kolkata The Telegraph Archived from the original on 4 August 2009 Retrieved 12 February 2017 a b Huntingford 1980 119 a b c Lach 1994 18 a b Ball 2016 152 53 Hill 2009 27 Yule 1915 53 54 An 2002 83 Harper 2002 99 100 106 07 O Reilly 2007 97 Schoff 2004 1912 paragraph 64 Retrieved 24 September 2016 Suarez 1999 90 92 Yule 1915 25 28 Lieu 2009 227 Ball 2016 153 54 a b c Kulke 2004 108 Farrokh 2007 252 Bakker Hans 2017 Monuments of Hope Gloom and Glory in the Age of the Hunnic Wars 50 years that changed India Amsterdam J Gonda Fund Foundation of the KNAW pp 484 534 ISBN 978 9069847153 Schwartzberg Joseph E 1978 A Historical atlas of South Asia Chicago University of Chicago Press p 25 ISBN 0226742210 Schwartzberg Joseph E 1978 A Historical atlas of South Asia Chicago University of Chicago Press p 145 map XIV 1 k ISBN 0226742210 Longman History amp Civics ICSE 9 by Singh p 81 The First Spring The Golden Age of India by Abraham Eraly pp 48 sq Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath Sen p 221 A Comprehensive History Of Ancient India p 174 a b Meri 2006 224 Holl 2003 9 Kulke 2004 106 Luttwak 2009 167 68 The Encyclopedia Americana 1989 176References editAn Jiayao 2002 When Glass Was Treasured in China In Annette L Juliano and Judith A Lerner ed Silk Road Studies VII Nomads Traders and Holy Men Along China s Silk Road Brepols Publishers pp 79 94 ISBN 2 503 52178 9 Ball Warwick 2016 Rome in the East Transformation of an Empire 2nd ed Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 72078 6 Curtin Philip DeArmond el al 1984 Cross Cultural Trade in World History Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 26931 8 The Encyclopedia Americana 1989 Grolier 1989 ISBN 0 7172 0120 1 Farrokh Kaveh 2007 Shadows in the Desert Ancient Persia at War Osprey Publishing ISBN 978 1 84603 108 3 Fayle Charles Ernest 2006 A Short History of the World s Shipping Industry Routledge ISBN 0 415 28619 0 Freeman Donald B 2003 The Straits of Malacca Gateway Or Gauntlet McGill Queen s Press ISBN 0 7735 2515 7 Harper P O 2002 Iranian Luxury Vessels in China From the Late First Millennium B C E to the Second Half of the First Millennium C E In Annette L Juliano and Judith A Lerner ed Silk Road Studies VII Nomads Traders and Holy Men Along China s Silk Road Brepols Publishers pp 95 113 ISBN 2 503 52178 9 Hill John E 2009 Through the Jade Gate to Rome A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty First to Second Centuries CE BookSurge ISBN 978 1 4392 2134 1 Holl Augustin F C 2003 Ethnoarchaeology of Shuwa Arab Settlements Lexington Books ISBN 0 7391 0407 1 Huntingford G W B 1980 The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea Hakluyt Society Kulke Hermann Dietmar Rothermund 2004 A History of India Routledge ISBN 0 415 32919 1 Lach Donald Frederick 1994 Asia in the Making of Europe The Century of Discovery Book 1 University of Chicago Press ISBN 0 226 46731 7 Lieu Samuel N C 2009 Epigraphica Nestoriana Serica Exegisti monumenta Festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Sims Williams Harrassowitz Verlag pp 227 46 ISBN 978 3 447 05937 4 Lindsay W S 2006 History of Merchant Shipping and Ancient Commerce Adamant Media Corporation ISBN 0 543 94253 8 Luttwak Edward 2009 The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 03519 5 Mawer Granville Allen 2013 The Riddle of Cattigara In Nichols Robert and Martin Woods ed Mapping Our World Terra Incognita to Australia National Library of Australia pp 38 39 ISBN 9780642278098 Meri Josef W Jere L Bacharach 2006 Medieval Islamic Civilization An Encyclopedia Routledge ISBN 0 415 96690 6 O Leary De Lacy 2001 Arabia Before Muhammad Routledge ISBN 0 415 23188 4 O Reilly Dougald J W 2007 Early Civilizations of Southeast Asia AltaMira Press Division of Rowman and Littlefield Publishers ISBN 978 0 7591 0279 8 Parker Grant 2008 The Making of Roman India Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 85834 2 Potter David Stone 2004 The Roman Empire at Bay Ad 180 395 Routledge ISBN 0 415 10058 5 Schoff Williamm H 2004 1912 Lance Jenott ed The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century in The Voyage around the Erythraean Sea Depts washington edu University of Washington Retrieved 19 September 2016 Shaw Ian 2003 The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt Oxford University Press ISBN 0 19 280458 8 Suresh S 2004 SYMBOLS OF TRADE Roman and Pseudo Roman Objects found in India PDF Manohar Young Gary Keith 2001 Rome s Eastern Trade International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC AD 305 Routledge ISBN 0 415 24219 3 Yule Henry 1915 Henri Cordier ed Cathay and the Way Thither Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China Vol I Preliminary Essay on the Intercourse Between China and the Western Nations Previous to the Discovery of the Cape Route Vol 1 Hakluyt Society Further reading editLionel Casson The Periplus Maris Erythraei Text With Introduction Translation and Commentary Princeton University Press 1989 ISBN 0 691 04060 5 Chakrabarti D K 1990 The External Trade of the Indus Civilization Delhi Manoharlal Publishers Private Limited Chami F A 1999 The Early Iron Age on Mafia island and its relationship with the mainland Azania Vol XXXIV McLaughlin Raoul 2010 Rome and the Distant East Trade Routes to the Ancient Lands of Arabia India and China Continuum London and New York ISBN 978 1 84725 235 7 Miller J Innes 1969 The Spice Trade of The Roman Empire 29 B C to A D 641 Oxford University Press Special edition for Sandpiper Books 1998 ISBN 0 19 814264 1 Sidebotham Steven E 2011 Berenike and the Ancient Maritime Spice Route University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 24430 6 Van der Veen Marijke 2011 Consumption Trade and Innovation Exploring the Botanical Remains from the Roman and Islamic Ports at Quseir al Qadim Egypt Frankfurt Africa Magna Verlag ISBN 978 3 937248 23 3 Raith M Hoffbauer R Euler H Yule P Damgaard K 2013 The view from Ẓafar An archaeometric study of the Aqaba late Roman period pottery complex and distribution in the 1st millennium CE Zeitschrift fur Orient Archaologie 6 320 50 ISBN 978 3 11 019704 4 External links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Indo Roman trade and relations English translation of the Periplus Maris Erythraei Voyage around the Erythraean Sea BBC News Search for India s ancient city Trade between the Romans and the Empires of Asia Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Indo Roman trade relations amp oldid 1194449670, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.