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Jurchen people

Jurchen (Manchu: ᠵᡠᡧᡝᠨ Jušen, IPA: [dʒuʃən]; Chinese: 女真, Nǚzhēn, [nỳ.ʈʂə́n]) is a term used to collectively describe a number of East Asian Tungusic-speaking people, descended from the Donghu people.[4] They lived in northeastern China, also known as Manchuria, before the 18th century. The Jurchens were renamed Manchus in 1635 by Hong Taiji.[5] Different Jurchen groups lived as hunter-gatherers, pastoralist semi-nomads, or sedentary agriculturists. Generally lacking a central authority, and having little communication with each other, many Jurchen groups fell under the influence of neighbouring dynasties, their chiefs paying tribute and holding nominal posts as effectively hereditary commanders of border guards.[6]

Jurchen people
Chinese name
Chinese女真
Traditional Chinese女眞
South Korean name
Hangul여진
Transcriptions
Revised RomanizationYeojin
North Korean name
Chosŏn'gŭl녀진
Transcriptions
McCune–ReischauerNyŏjin
Russian name
RussianЧжурчжэни
RomanizationChzhurchzheni
Khitan name
Khitandʒuuldʒi (女直)[2]
Mongolian name
MongolianЗүрчид, Зөрчид, Жүрчид[citation needed]
Zürchid, Zörchid, Jürchid[3]
Middle Chinese name
Middle Chinese/ɳɨʌX t͡ɕiɪn/

Han officials of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) classified them into three groups, reflecting relative proximity to the Ming:

  1. Jianzhou (Chinese: 建州) Jurchens, some of whom were mixed with Korean and Chinese populations[citation needed], lived in the proximity of the Mudan river, the Changbai mountains, and Liaodong. They were noted as able to sew clothes similar to the Chinese, and lived by hunting and fishing, sedentary agriculture, and trading in pearls and ginseng.
  2. Haixi (Chinese: 海西) Jurchens, named after the Haixi or Songhua river, included several populous and independent tribes, largely divided between semi-nomadic pastoralists in the west and sedentary agriculturalists in the east. They were the Jurchens most strongly influenced by the Mongols.
  3. Yeren (Chinese: 野人, lit. 'Wild People,' or, 'savage,' 'barbarian'), a term sometimes used by Chinese and Korean commentators to refer to all Jurchens. It more specifically referred to the inhabitants of the sparsely populated north of Manchuria beyond the Liao and Songhua river valleys, supporting themselves by hunting, fishing, pig farming, and some migratory agriculture.[6]

Many "Yeren Jurchens", like the Nivkh (speaking a language isolate), Negidai, Nanai, Oroqen and many Evenks, are today considered distinct ethnic groups.

The Jurchens are chiefly known for producing the Jin (1115–1234) and Qing (1616/1636-1912) conquest dynasties on the Chinese territory. The latter dynasty, originally calling itself the Later Jin, was founded by a Jianzhou commander, Nurhaci (r. 1616–26), who unified most Jurchen tribes, incorporated their entire population into hereditary military regiments known as the Eight Banners, and patronized the creation of an alphabet for their language based on the Mongolian script. The term Manchu, already in official use by the Later Jin at that time,[7] was in 1635 decreed to be the sole acceptable name for that people.

Name

 
A 1682 Italian map showing the "Kingdom of the Niuche" (i.e., Nǚzhēn) or the "Kin (Jin) Tartars", who "have occupied and are at present ruling China", north of Liaodong and Korea

The name Jurchen is derived from a long line of other variations of the same name.

The initial Khitan form of the name was said to be Lüzhen. The variant Nrjo-tsyin (now Chinese: 女真 Nüzhen, whence English Nurchen) appeared in the 10th century under the Liao dynasty.[8] The Jurchens were also interchangeably known as the Nrjo-drik (now Chinese: 女直 Nüzhi). This is traditionally explained as an effect of the Chinese naming taboo, with the character being removed after the 1031 enthronement of Zhigu, Emperor Xingzong of Liao, because it appeared in the sinified form of his personal name.[8] Aisin-Gioro Ulhicun, however, argues that this was a later folk etymology and the original reason was uncertainty among dialects regarding the name's final -n.[9]

The form Niuche was introduced to the West by Martino Martini in his 1654 work De bello tartarico historia, and it soon appeared, e.g., on the 1660 world map by Nicolas Sanson.

Jurchen is an anglicization of Jurčen,[3][10] an attempted reconstruction of this unattested original form of the native name,[11] which has been transcribed into Middle Chinese as Trjuwk-li-tsyin (竹里真)[a] and into Khitan small script as Julisen.[9] The ethnonyms Sushen (Old Chinese: */siwk-[d]i[n]-s/) and Jizhen (稷真, Old Chinese: */tsək-ti[n]/)[12] recorded in geographical works like the Classic of Mountains and Seas and the Book of Wei are possibly cognates.[13] It was the source of Fra Mauro's Zorça[10] and Marco Polo's Ciorcia,[14] reflecting the Persian form of their name.[10] Vajda considers that the Jurchens' name probably derives from the Tungusic words for "reindeer people" and is cognate with the names of the Orochs of Khabarovsk Province and the Oroks of Sakhalin.[15] ("Horse Tungus" and "Reindeer Tungus" are still the primary divisions among the Tungusic cultures.)[16]

Janhunen argues that these records already reflect the Classical Mongolian plural form of the name, recorded in the Secret History as J̌ürčät,[11] and further reconstructed as *Jörcid,[14] The modern Mongolian form is Зүрчид (Zürčid) whose medial -r- does not appear in the later Jurchen Jucen[14] or Jušen (Jurchen: )[17][b] or Manchu Jushen.[14] In Manchu, this word was more often used to describe the serfs[17]—though not slaves[18]—of the free Manchu people,[17] who were themselves mostly the former Jurchens. To describe the historical people who founded the Jin dynasty, they reborrowed the Mongolian name as Jurcit.[14][8]

Appearance

According to William of Rubruck, the Jurchens were "swarthy like Spaniards."[19]

Sin Chung-il, a Korean emissary who in 1595 had visited the Jurchen living north-west of the Yalu River, notes that during his visit to Fe Ala all those who served Nurhaci were uniform in their dress and hairstyle. They all shaved a portion of their scalp and kept the remaining hair in a long plaited braid. All men wore leather boots, breeches, and tunics.[20]

History

Prehistory and antiquity

 
Siberians capturing a reindeer

When the Jurchens first entered Chinese records in 748, they inhabited the forests and river valleys of the land which is now divided between China's Heilongjiang Province and Russia's Primorsky Krai province. In earlier records, this area was known as the home of the Sushen (c. 1100 BC), the Yilou (around AD 200), the Wuji (c. 500), and the Mohe (c. 700).[21] Scholarship since the Qing period traces the origin of the Jurchens to the "Wanyen tribe of the Mohos" around Mt Xiaobai, or to the Heishui or Blackwater Mohe,[22] and some sources stress the continuity between these earlier peoples with the Jurchen[23] but this remains conjectural.[24]

The tentative ancestors of the Jurchens, the Tungusic Mohe tribes, were people of the multi-ethnic kingdom of Balhae. The Mohe enjoyed eating pork, practiced pig farming extensively, and were mainly sedentary. They used both pig and dog skins for coats. They were predominantly farmers and grew soybean, wheat, millet, and rice in addition to hunting.[25] Like all Tungus people, the Mohe practiced slavery. Horses were rare in the region they inhabited until the 10th century under the domination of the Khitans. The Mohe rode reindeer.[26]

The Qing dynasty emperor of the Aisin Gioro clan, Hongtaiji claimed that their progenitor, Bukūri Yongšon[27] (布庫里雍順), was conceived from a virgin birth. According to the legend, three heavenly maidens, namely Enggulen (恩古倫), Jenggulen (正古倫) and Fekulen (佛庫倫), were bathing at a lake called Bulhūri Omo near the Changbai Mountains. A magpie dropped a piece of red fruit near Fekulen, who ate it. She then became pregnant with Bukūri Yongšon. However, another older version of the story by the Hurha (Hurka) tribe member Muksike recorded in 1635 contradicts Hongtaiji's version on location, claiming that it was in Heilongjiang province close to the Amur river at Bukuri mountain where Bulhuri lake was located where the "heavenly maidens" took their bath. This was recorded in the Jiu Manzhou Dang and is much shorter and simpler in addition to being older. This is believed to be the original version and Hongtaiji changed it to the Changbai mountains. It shows that the Aisin Gioro clan originated in the Amur area and the Heje (Hezhen) and other Amur valley Jurchen tribes had an oral version of the same tale. It also fits with Jurchen history since some ancestors of the Manchus originated north before the 14th-15th centuries in the Amur and only later moved south.[28]

Liao vassals

By the 11th century, the Jurchens had become vassals of the Khitan rulers of the Liao dynasty. The Jurchens in the Yalu River region had been tributaries of Goryeo since the reign of Wang Geon, who called upon them during the wars of the Later Three Kingdoms period, but the Jurchens opportunistically switched allegiance between Liao and Goryeo multiple times. They offered tribute to both courts out of political necessity and the desire for material benefits.[29]

In 1019, Jurchen pirates raided Japan for slaves. The Jurchen pirates slaughtered Japanese men while seizing Japanese women as prisoners. Fujiwara Notada, the Japanese governor was killed.[30] In total, 1,280 Japanese were taken prisoner, 374 Japanese were killed and 380 Japanese owned livestock were killed for food.[31][32] Only 259 or 270 were returned by Koreans from the eight ships.[33][34][35][36] The woman Uchikura no Ishime's report was copied down.[37]

One of the causes of the Jurchen rebellion and the fall of the Liao was the custom of raping married Jurchen women and Jurchen girls by Khitan envoys, which caused resentment from the Jurchens.[38] The custom of having sex with unmarried girls by Khitan was itself not a problem, since the practice of guest prostitution - giving female companions, food and shelter to guests - was common among Jurchens. Unmarried daughters of Jurchen families of lower and middle classes in Jurchen villages were provided to Khitan messengers for sex, as recorded by Hong Hao.[39] Song envoys among the Jin were similarly entertained by singing girls in Guide, Henan.[40] There is no evidence that guest prostitution of unmarried Jurchen girls to Khitan men was resented by the Jurchens. It was only when the Khitans forced aristocratic Jurchen families to give up their beautiful wives as guest prostitutes to Khitan messengers that the Jurchens became resentful. This suggests that in Jurchen upper classes, only a husband had the right to his married wife while among lower class Jurchens, the virginity of unmarried girls and sex with Khitan men did not impede their ability to marry later.[41] The Jurchens and their Manchu descendants had Khitan linguistic and grammatical elements in their personal names like suffixes.[42] Many Khitan names had a "ju" suffix.[43]

Jin dynasty

 
China in circa 1141.

Wanyan Aguda, chief of the Wanyan tribe, unified the various Jurchen tribes in 1115 and declared himself emperor. In 1120 he seized Shangjing, also known as Linhuang Prefecture (臨潢府), the northern capital of the Liao dynasty.[44] During the Jin–Song Wars, the Jurchens invaded the Northern Song dynasty and overran most of northern China. The Jurchens initially created the puppet regimes of Da Qi and Da Chu but later adopted a dynastic name and became known as "Jin" 金, which means "gold", not to be confused with the earlier Jin 晋 dynasties named after the region around Shanxi and Henan provinces. The name of the Jurchen dynasty in Chinese — meaning "gold"—is derived from the "Gold River" (Jurchenantʃu-un; ManchuAisin) in their ancestral homeland. The Jurchens who settled into urban communities eventually intermarried with other ethnicities in China. The Jin rulers themselves came to follow Confucian norms. The Jin dynasty captured the Northern Song dynasty's capital, Bianjing, in 1127. Their armies pushed the Song all the way south to the Yangtze River and eventually settled on a border with the Southern Song dynasty along the Huai River.

Poor Jurchen families in the southern Routes (Daming and Shandong) Battalion and Company households tried to live the lifestyle of wealthy Jurchen families and avoid doing farming work by selling their own Jurchen daughters into slavery and renting their land to Han tenants. The Wealthy Jurchens feasted and drank and wore damask and silk. The History of Jin (Jinshi) says that Emperor Shizong of Jin took note and attempted to halt these things in 1181.[45]

After 1189, the Jin dynasty became increasingly involved in conflicts with the Mongols. By 1215, after losing much territory to the Mongols, the Jurchens moved their capital south from Zhongdu to Kaifeng. The Jin emperor Wanyan Yongji's daughter, Jurchen Princess Qiguo was married to Mongol leader Genghis Khan in exchange for relieving the Mongol siege upon Zhongdu.[46] After a siege lasting about a year, Kaifeng fell to the Mongols in 1233. Emperor Aizong fled to Caizhou for shelter, but Caizhou also fell to the Mongols in 1234, marking the end of the Jin dynasty.

Ming dynasty

 
A Jurchen man hunting from his horse, from a 15th-century ink and color painting on silk.
 
A late Ming era woodblock print of a Jurchen warrior.

Chinese chroniclers of the Ming dynasty distinguished three different groups of Jurchens: the Wild Jurchens (野人女真; yěrén Nǚzhēn) of Outer Manchuria, the Haixi Jurchens (海西女真) of modern Heilongjiang Province and the Jianzhou Jurchens of modern Jilin Province. They led a pastoral-agrarian lifestyle, hunting, fishing, and engaging in limited agriculture. In 1388, the Hongwu Emperor dispatched a mission to establish contact with the Odoli, Huligai and T'owen tribes.

The issue of controlling the Jurchens was a point of contention between Joseon Korea and the early Ming.[47]

The Yongle Emperor (r. 1402–1424) found allies among the various Jurchen tribes against the Mongols. He bestowed titles and surnames to various Jurchen chiefs and expected them to send periodic tribute. One of the Yongle Emperor's consorts was a Jurchen princess, which resulted in some of the eunuchs serving him being of Jurchen origin.[48]

Chinese commanderies were established over tribal military units under their own hereditary tribal leaders. In the Yongle period, 178 commanderies were set up in Manchuria. Later on, horse markets were established in the northern border towns of Liaodong. Increased contact with the Chinese gave Jurchens the more complex and sophisticated organizational structures.[citation needed]

The Koreans dealt with the Jurchen military through appeals to material benefits and launching punitive expeditions. To appease them the Joseon court handed out titles and degrees, trading with them, and sought to acculturate them by having Korean women marry Jurchens and integrating them into Korean culture. These measures were unsuccessful and fighting continued between the Jurchen and the Koreans.[49][50] This relationship between the Jurchens and Koreans was ended by the Ming which envisioned the Jurchens as a form of protective border to the north.[51] In 1403, Ahacu, chieftain of Huligai, paid tribute to the Yongle Emperor. Soon after, Mentemu, chieftain of Odoli clan of the Jianzhou Jurchens, defected from paying tribute to Korea, becoming a tributary to China instead. Yi Seong-gye, the first ruler of Joseon, asked the Ming dynasty to send Mentemu back but was refused.[52] The Yongle Emperor was determined to wrest the Jurchens out of Korean influence and have China dominate them instead.[53][54] The Koreans tried to persuade Mentemu to reject the Ming dynasty's overtures but were unsuccessful.[55][56][57][58] The Jurchen tribes presented tribute to the Ming dynasty in succession.[59] They were divided in 384 guards by the Ming dynasty[51] and the Jurchen became vassals to the Ming emperors.[60] The name given to the Jurchen land by the Ming dynasty was Nurgan. Later, a Korean army led by Yi-Il and Yi Sun-sin would expel them from Korea.[citation needed]

In 1409, the Ming government created the Nurgan Command Post (奴兒干都司) at Telin (present-day Tyr, Russia,[61] about 100 km upstream from Nikolayevsk-on-Amur in the Russian Far East) in the vicinity of Heilongjiang. The Jurchens came under the nominal administration of the Nurgan Command Post which lasted only 25 years and was abolished in 1434. Leaders of the Haixi and Jianzhou tribes did, however, accept the Ming titles.[citation needed]

From 1411 to 1433, the Ming eunuch Yishiha (who himself was a Haixi Jurchen[62]) led ten large missions to win over the allegiance of the Jurchen tribes along the Songhua River and Amur River. His fleet sailed down the Songhua into the Amur, and set up the Nurgan Command at Telin near the mouth of the Amur River. These missions are not well recorded in the Ming histories, but there exist two stone steles erected by Yishiha at the site of the Yongning Temple, a Guanyin temple commissioned by him at Telin.[63] The inscriptions on the steles are in four languages: Chinese, Jurchen, Mongol, and Tibetan. There is probably quite a lot of propaganda in the inscriptions, but they give a detailed record of the Ming court's efforts to assert suzerainty over the Jurchen. When Yishiha visited Nurgan for the 3rd time in 1413, he built a temple called Yongning Temple at Telin and erected the Yongning Temple Stele in front of it. Yishiha paid his 10th visit to Nurgan in 1432, during which he rebuilt the Yongning Temple and re-erected a stele in front of it. The stele bore the heading "Record of Re-building Yongning Temple". The setting up of the Nurgan Command Post and the repeated declarations to offer blessings to this region by Yishiha and others were all recorded in this and the first steles.[citation needed]

In the ninth year of the Ming Xuande emperor the Jurchens in Manchuria under Ming rule suffered from famine forcing them to sell their daughters into slavery and moving to Liaodong to beg for help and relief from the Ming dynasty government.[64][65]

Establishment of the Manchu

 
Ethnic map prior to Jurchen unification

Over a period of 30 years from 1586, Nurhaci, a chieftain of the Jianzhou Jurchens, united the Jurchen tribes. In 1635, his son and successor, Hong Taiji, renamed his people the Manchus as a clear break from their past as Chinese vassals.[66][67][68] During the Ming dynasty, the Koreans of Joseon referred to the Jurchen-inhabited lands north of the Korean peninsula, above the rivers Yalu and Tumen as part of the "superior country" (sangguk) which they called Ming China.[69] The Qing deliberately excluded references and information that showed the Jurchens (Manchus) as subservient to the Ming dynasty, when composing the History of Ming to hide their former subservient relationship. The Veritable Records of Ming were not used to source content on Jurchens during Ming rule in the History of Ming because of this.[70] The Yongzheng Emperor attempted to rewrite the historical record and claim that the Aisin Gioro were never subjects of past dynasties and empires trying to cast Nurhaci's acceptance of Ming titles like Dragon Tiger General (longhu jiangjun 龍虎將軍) by claiming he accepted to "please Heaven".[71]

During the Qing dynasty, the two original editions of the books of the "Qing Taizu Wu Huangdi Shilu" and the "Manzhou Shilu Tu" (Taizu Shilu Tu) were kept in the palace, forbidden from public view because they showed that the Manchu Aisin Gioro family had been ruled by the Ming dynasty.[72][73]

Our gurun (tribe, state) originally had the names Manju, Hada, Ula, Yehe, and Hoifa. Formerly ignorant persons have frequently called [us] jušen. The term jušen refers to the Coo Mergen of Sibe barbarians and has nothing to do with our gurun. Our gurun establishes the name Manju. Its rule will be long and transmitted over many generations. Henceforth persons should call our gurun its original name, Manju, and not use the previous demeaning name.

Culture

 
Bixi from the grave of a 12th-century Jurchen leader in today's Ussuriysk

Jurchen culture shared many similarities with the hunter-gatherer lifestyle of Siberian-Manchurian tundra and coastal peoples. Like the Khitan people and Mongols, they took pride in feats of strength, horsemanship, archery, and hunting. Both Mongols and Jurchens used the title Khan for the leaders of a political entity, whether "emperor" or "chief". A particularly powerful chief was called beile ("prince, nobleman"), corresponding with the Mongolian beki and Turkic baig or bey. Also like the Mongols and the Turks, the Jurchens did not observe primogeniture. According to tradition, any capable son or nephew could be chosen to become leader.

Unlike the Mongols,[74][75] the Jurchens were a sedentary[15][76] and agrarian society. They farmed grain and millet as their primary cereal crops, grew flax and raised oxen, pigs, sheep, and horses.[77] "At the most", the Jurchen could only be described as "semi-nomadic" while the majority of them were sedentary.[29]

Jurchen similarities and differences with the Mongols were emphasized to various degrees by Nurhaci out of political expediency.[78] Nurhaci once said to the Mongols that "the languages of the Chinese and Koreans are different, but their clothing and way of life is the same. It is the same with us Manchus (Jušen) and Mongols. Our languages are different, but our clothing and way of life is the same." Later, Nurhaci indicated that the bond with the Mongols was not based on any real shared culture, but rather on pragmatic reasons of "mutual opportunism". He said to the Mongols, "You Mongols raise livestock, eat meat and wear pelts. My people till the fields and live on grain. We two are not one country and we have different languages".[79]

During the Ming dynasty, the Jurchens lived in sub-clans (mukun or hala mukun) of ancient clans (hala). Not all clan members were blood related, and division and integration of different clans was common. Jurchen households (boo) lived as families (booigon) consisting of five to seven blood-related family members and a number of slaves. Households formed squads (tatan) to engage in tasks related to hunting and food gathering and formed companies (niru) for larger activities, such as war.[citation needed]

Haixi, Jianzhou, Yeren

The Haixi Jurchens were "semi-agricultural, the Jianzhou Jurchens and Maolian (毛怜) Jurchens were sedentary, while hunting and fishing was the way of life of the "Wild Jurchens".[80] Hunting, horseback archery, horsemanship, livestock raising, and sedentary agriculture were all practiced by Jianzhou Jurchens.[81] The Jurchen way of life (economy) was described as agricultural. They farmed crops and raised animals.[82] Jurchens practiced slash-and-burn agriculture in the areas north of Shenyang.[83]

“建州毛憐則渤海大氏遺孽,樂住種,善緝紡,飲食服用,皆如華人,自長白山迤南,可拊而治也。
The (people of) Jianzhou and Mao Lian are the descendants of the Ta family of Balhae. They love to be sedentary and sow, and they are skilled in spinning and weaving. As for food, clothing and utensils, they are the same as (those used by) the Chinese. (Those living) south of Changbai Mountain are apt to be soothed and governed."

— 据魏焕《皇明九边考》卷二《辽东镇边夷考》[84] Translation from Sino-J̌ürčed relations during the Yung-Lo period, 1403–1424 by Henry Serruys.[85]

Queue

In 1126, the Jurchens initially ordered male Han Chinese within their conquered territories to adopt the Jurchen hairstyle by shaving the front of their heads and adopting Jurchen dress, but the order was later lifted.[86] Jurchens were impersonated by Han rebels who wore their hair in the Jurchen queue to strike fear within their population.[87] During the Qing dynasty, the Manchus, who descended from the Jurchens, similarly made Han Chinese men shave the front of their head and wear the rest of their hair in a queue, or soncoho (ᠰᠣᠨᠴᠣᡥᠣ) (辮子; biànzi), the traditional Manchu hairstyle.[citation needed]

Dogs

Although their Mohe ancestors did not respect dogs, the Jurchens began to respect dogs around the time of the Ming dynasty and passed this tradition on to the Manchus. It was prohibited in Jurchen culture to use dog skin, and forbidden for Jurchens to harm, kill, or eat dogs. The Jurchens believed that the "utmost evil" was the usage of dog skin by Koreans.[88]

Sex and marriage

Pre-marital sex was probably accepted in lower class Jurchen society since the practice of guest prostitution - providing visitors with sex - did not impede their ability to marry later. The Jurchens also allowed marriage with in-laws, a practice considered taboo in Chinese society.[39][40][89][90]

Burial

Until recently, it was uncertain what kind of burial rites existed among the Jurchens. In July 2012, Russian archaeologists discovered a Jurchen burial ground in Partizansky District of Primorye in Russia. Fifteen graves dating to the 12th or 13th century were found, consisting of the grave of a chieftain placed in the centre, with the graves of 14 servants nearby. All the graves contained pots with ashes, prompting the scientists to conclude that the Jurchens cremated the corpses of their dead. The grave of the chieftain also contained a quiver with arrows and a bent sword. The archaeologists propose that the sword was purposely bent, to signify that the owner would no longer need it in earthly life. The researchers planned to return to Primorye to establish whether this was a singular burial or a part of the larger burial ground.[91]

Agriculture

Only the Mongols and the northern "wild" Jurchen were semi-nomadic, unlike the mainstream Jianzhou Jurchens descended from the Jin dynasty, who were farmers that foraged, hunted, herded and harvested crops in the Liao and Yalu river basins. They gathered ginseng root, pine nuts, hunted for came pels in the uplands and forests, raised horses in their stables, and farmed millet and wheat in their fallow fields. They engaged in dances, wrestling and drinking strong liquor as noted during midwinter by the Korean Sin Chung-il when it was very cold. These Jurchens who lived in the northeast's harsh cold climate sometimes half sunk their houses in the ground which they constructed of brick or timber and surrounded their fortified villages with stone foundations on which they built wattle and mud walls to defend against attack. Village clusters were ruled by beile, hereditary leaders. They fought each other and dispensed weapons, wives, slaves and lands to their followers in them. This was how the Jurchens who founded the Qing lived and how their ancestors lived before the Jin. Alongside Mongols and Jurchen clans there were migrants from Liaodong provinces of Ming China and Korea living among these Jurchens in a cosmopolitan manner. Nurhaci, who was hosting Sin Chung-il, was uniting all of them into his own army, having them adopt the Jurchen hairstyle of a long queue and a shaved forecrown and wearing leather tunics. His armies had black, blue, red, white and yellow flags. These became the Eight Banners, initially capped to 4 then growing to 8 with three different types of ethnic banners as Han, Mongol and Jurchen were recruited into Nurhaci's forces. Jurchens like Nurhaci spoke both their native Tungusic language and Chinese, adopting the Mongolian script for their own language, unlike the Jin Jurchen's use of the Khitan large script. They adopted Confucian values and practiced shamanist traditions.[92] Most Jurchens raised pigs and stock animals and were farmers.[45]

The Qing stationed the "New Manchu" Warka foragers in Ningguta and attempted to turn them into normal agricultural farmers but then the Warka just reverted to hunter gathering and requested money to buy cattle for beef broth. The Qing wanted the Warka to become soldier-farmers and imposed this on them, but the Warka simply left their garrison at Ningguta and went back to the Sungari to their homes to herd, fish and hunt. The Qing accused them of desertion.[93]

Religion

Jurchens practiced shamanic rituals and believed in a supreme sky goddess (abka hehe, literally sky woman). The Jurchens of the Jin dynasty practiced Buddhism, which became the prevalent religion of the Jurchens, and Daoism.[94] The Jurchen word for "sorceress" was shanman.[95] Under Confucian influence during the Qing dynasty the gender of the female sky deity was switched to a male sky father, Abka Enduri (abka-i enduri, abka-i han).[96]

Language

The early Jurchen script was invented in 1120 by Wanyan Xiyin, acting on the orders of Wanyan Aguda. It was based on the Khitan script that was inspired in turn by Chinese characters. The written Jurchen language died out soon after the fall of the Jin dynasty. The Translators' Bureau of the Ming tributary bureaucracy received a communication from the Jurchens in 1444 stating that nobody among them understood the Jurchen script, so all letters sent to them should be written in Mongolian.[97]

Until the end of the 16th century, when Manchu became the new literary language, the Jurchens used a combination of Mongolian and Chinese. The pioneering work on studies of the Jurchen script was done by Wilhelm Grube at the end of the 19th century.

Genetics

Haplogroup C3b2b1*-M401(xF5483)[98][99][100] has been identified as a possible marker of the Aisin Gioro and is found in ten different ethnic minorities in northern China, but completely absent from Han Chinese.[100][101][102]

Genetic testing also showed that the haplogroup C3b1a3a2-F8951 of the Aisin Gioro family came to southeastern Manchuria after migrating from their place of origin in the Amur river's middle reaches, originating from ancestors related to Daurs in the Transbaikal area. The Tungusic speaking peoples mostly have C3c-M48 as their subclade of C3 which drastically differs from the C3b1a3a2-F8951 haplogroup of the Aisin Gioro which originates from Mongolic speaking populations like the Daur. Jurchen (Manchus) are a Tungusic people. The Mongol Genghis Khan's haplogroup C3b1a3a1-F3796 (C3*-Star Cluster) is a fraternal "brother" branch of C3b1a3a2-F8951 haplogroup of the Aisin Gioro.[98] A genetic test was conducted on 7 men who claimed Aisin Gioro descent with 3 of them showing documented genealogical information of all their ancestors up to Nurhaci. 3 of them turned out to share the C3b2b1*-M401(xF5483) haplogroup, out of them, 2 of them were the ones who provided their documented family trees. The other 4 tested were unrelated.[99] The Daur Ao clan carries the unique haplogroup subclade C2b1a3a2-F8951, the same haplogroup as Aisin Gioro and both Ao and Aisin Gioro only diverged merely a couple of centuries ago from a shared common ancestor. Other members of the Ao clan carry haplogroups like N1c-M178, C2a1b-F845, C2b1a3a1-F3796 and C2b1a2-M48. People from northeast China, the Daur Ao clan and Aisin Gioro clan are the main carriers of haplogroup C2b1a3a2-F8951. The Mongolic C2*-Star Cluster (C2b1a3a1-F3796) haplogroup is a fraternal branch to Aisin Gioro's C2b1a3a2-F8951 haplogroup.[103]

In fiction

In the Alternative History timeline of Harry Turtledove's novel Agent of Byzantium, the Jurchens migrate westwards, reach Europe and become a serious threat to the Byzantine Empire.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The Japanese government and Franke give the modern Mandarin pronunciation Zhulizhen.[8]
  2. ^ First attested in a late 15th-century glossary for the Ming Bureau of Translators.[17]

References

Citations

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External links

  • Jurchen script
  • (in Chinese) (Chinese Traditional Big5 code page) via Internet Archive
  • The Russian news about the discovery of the Jurchen burial ground, July 2012

jurchen, people, jurchen, manchu, ᠵᡠᡧᡝᠨ, jušen, dʒuʃən, chinese, 女真, nǚzhēn, ʈʂə, term, used, collectively, describe, number, east, asian, tungusic, speaking, people, descended, from, donghu, people, they, lived, northeastern, china, also, known, manchuria, be. Jurchen Manchu ᠵᡠᡧᡝᠨ Jusen IPA dʒuʃen Chinese 女真 Nǚzhen ny ʈʂe n is a term used to collectively describe a number of East Asian Tungusic speaking people descended from the Donghu people 4 They lived in northeastern China also known as Manchuria before the 18th century The Jurchens were renamed Manchus in 1635 by Hong Taiji 5 Different Jurchen groups lived as hunter gatherers pastoralist semi nomads or sedentary agriculturists Generally lacking a central authority and having little communication with each other many Jurchen groups fell under the influence of neighbouring dynasties their chiefs paying tribute and holding nominal posts as effectively hereditary commanders of border guards 6 Jurchen peopleChinese nameChinese女真Traditional Chinese女眞TranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinNǚzhenWade GilesJu chen 1 South Korean nameHangul여진TranscriptionsRevised RomanizationYeojinNorth Korean nameChosŏn gŭl녀진TranscriptionsMcCune ReischauerNyŏjinRussian nameRussianChzhurchzheniRomanizationChzhurchzheniKhitan nameKhitandʒuuldʒi 女直 2 Mongolian nameMongolianZүrchid Zorchid Zhүrchid citation needed Zurchid Zorchid Jurchid 3 Middle Chinese nameMiddle Chinese ɳɨʌX t ɕiɪn Han officials of the Ming dynasty 1368 1644 classified them into three groups reflecting relative proximity to the Ming Jianzhou Chinese 建州 Jurchens some of whom were mixed with Korean and Chinese populations citation needed lived in the proximity of the Mudan river the Changbai mountains and Liaodong They were noted as able to sew clothes similar to the Chinese and lived by hunting and fishing sedentary agriculture and trading in pearls and ginseng Haixi Chinese 海西 Jurchens named after the Haixi or Songhua river included several populous and independent tribes largely divided between semi nomadic pastoralists in the west and sedentary agriculturalists in the east They were the Jurchens most strongly influenced by the Mongols Yeren Chinese 野人 lit Wild People or savage barbarian a term sometimes used by Chinese and Korean commentators to refer to all Jurchens It more specifically referred to the inhabitants of the sparsely populated north of Manchuria beyond the Liao and Songhua river valleys supporting themselves by hunting fishing pig farming and some migratory agriculture 6 Many Yeren Jurchens like the Nivkh speaking a language isolate Negidai Nanai Oroqen and many Evenks are today considered distinct ethnic groups The Jurchens are chiefly known for producing the Jin 1115 1234 and Qing 1616 1636 1912 conquest dynasties on the Chinese territory The latter dynasty originally calling itself the Later Jin was founded by a Jianzhou commander Nurhaci r 1616 26 who unified most Jurchen tribes incorporated their entire population into hereditary military regiments known as the Eight Banners and patronized the creation of an alphabet for their language based on the Mongolian script The term Manchu already in official use by the Later Jin at that time 7 was in 1635 decreed to be the sole acceptable name for that people Contents 1 Name 2 Appearance 3 History 3 1 Prehistory and antiquity 3 2 Liao vassals 3 3 Jin dynasty 3 4 Ming dynasty 3 5 Establishment of the Manchu 4 Culture 4 1 Haixi Jianzhou Yeren 4 2 Queue 4 3 Dogs 4 4 Sex and marriage 4 5 Burial 4 6 Agriculture 5 Religion 6 Language 7 Genetics 8 In fiction 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 11 1 Citations 11 2 Sources 12 External linksName Edit A 1682 Italian map showing the Kingdom of the Niuche i e Nǚzhen or the Kin Jin Tartars who have occupied and are at present ruling China north of Liaodong and Korea The name Jurchen is derived from a long line of other variations of the same name The initial Khitan form of the name was said to be Luzhen The variant Nrjo tsyin now Chinese 女真 Nuzhen whence English Nurchen appeared in the 10th century under the Liao dynasty 8 The Jurchens were also interchangeably known as the Nrjo drik now Chinese 女直 Nuzhi This is traditionally explained as an effect of the Chinese naming taboo with the character 真 being removed after the 1031 enthronement of Zhigu Emperor Xingzong of Liao because it appeared in the sinified form of his personal name 8 Aisin Gioro Ulhicun however argues that this was a later folk etymology and the original reason was uncertainty among dialects regarding the name s final n 9 The form Niuche was introduced to the West by Martino Martini in his 1654 work De bello tartarico historia and it soon appeared e g on the 1660 world map by Nicolas Sanson Jurchen is an anglicization of Jurcen 3 10 an attempted reconstruction of this unattested original form of the native name 11 which has been transcribed into Middle Chinese as Trjuwk li tsyin 竹里真 a and into Khitan small script as Julisen 9 The ethnonyms Sushen Old Chinese siwk d i n s and Jizhen 稷真 Old Chinese tsek ti n 12 recorded in geographical works like the Classic of Mountains and Seas and the Book of Wei are possibly cognates 13 It was the source of Fra Mauro s Zorca 10 and Marco Polo s Ciorcia 14 reflecting the Persian form of their name 10 Vajda considers that the Jurchens name probably derives from the Tungusic words for reindeer people and is cognate with the names of the Orochs of Khabarovsk Province and the Oroks of Sakhalin 15 Horse Tungus and Reindeer Tungus are still the primary divisions among the Tungusic cultures 16 Janhunen argues that these records already reflect the Classical Mongolian plural form of the name recorded in the Secret History as J urcat 11 and further reconstructed as Jorcid 14 The modern Mongolian form is Zүrchid Zurcid whose medial r does not appear in the later Jurchen Jucen 14 or Jusen Jurchen 17 b or Manchu Jushen 14 In Manchu this word was more often used to describe the serfs 17 though not slaves 18 of the free Manchu people 17 who were themselves mostly the former Jurchens To describe the historical people who founded the Jin dynasty they reborrowed the Mongolian name as Jurcit 14 8 Appearance EditSee also Fashion in the Jurchen Jin dynasty and Manchu clothing According to William of Rubruck the Jurchens were swarthy like Spaniards 19 Sin Chung il a Korean emissary who in 1595 had visited the Jurchen living north west of the Yalu River notes that during his visit to Fe Ala all those who served Nurhaci were uniform in their dress and hairstyle They all shaved a portion of their scalp and kept the remaining hair in a long plaited braid All men wore leather boots breeches and tunics 20 History EditSee also Timeline of the Jurchens Prehistory and antiquity Edit Siberians capturing a reindeer When the Jurchens first entered Chinese records in 748 they inhabited the forests and river valleys of the land which is now divided between China s Heilongjiang Province and Russia s Primorsky Krai province In earlier records this area was known as the home of the Sushen c 1100 BC the Yilou around AD 200 the Wuji c 500 and the Mohe c 700 21 Scholarship since the Qing period traces the origin of the Jurchens to the Wanyen tribe of the Mohos around Mt Xiaobai or to the Heishui or Blackwater Mohe 22 and some sources stress the continuity between these earlier peoples with the Jurchen 23 but this remains conjectural 24 The tentative ancestors of the Jurchens the Tungusic Mohe tribes were people of the multi ethnic kingdom of Balhae The Mohe enjoyed eating pork practiced pig farming extensively and were mainly sedentary They used both pig and dog skins for coats They were predominantly farmers and grew soybean wheat millet and rice in addition to hunting 25 Like all Tungus people the Mohe practiced slavery Horses were rare in the region they inhabited until the 10th century under the domination of the Khitans The Mohe rode reindeer 26 The Qing dynasty emperor of the Aisin Gioro clan Hongtaiji claimed that their progenitor Bukuri Yongson 27 布庫里雍順 was conceived from a virgin birth According to the legend three heavenly maidens namely Enggulen 恩古倫 Jenggulen 正古倫 and Fekulen 佛庫倫 were bathing at a lake called Bulhuri Omo near the Changbai Mountains A magpie dropped a piece of red fruit near Fekulen who ate it She then became pregnant with Bukuri Yongson However another older version of the story by the Hurha Hurka tribe member Muksike recorded in 1635 contradicts Hongtaiji s version on location claiming that it was in Heilongjiang province close to the Amur river at Bukuri mountain where Bulhuri lake was located where the heavenly maidens took their bath This was recorded in the Jiu Manzhou Dang and is much shorter and simpler in addition to being older This is believed to be the original version and Hongtaiji changed it to the Changbai mountains It shows that the Aisin Gioro clan originated in the Amur area and the Heje Hezhen and other Amur valley Jurchen tribes had an oral version of the same tale It also fits with Jurchen history since some ancestors of the Manchus originated north before the 14th 15th centuries in the Amur and only later moved south 28 Liao vassals Edit By the 11th century the Jurchens had become vassals of the Khitan rulers of the Liao dynasty The Jurchens in the Yalu River region had been tributaries of Goryeo since the reign of Wang Geon who called upon them during the wars of the Later Three Kingdoms period but the Jurchens opportunistically switched allegiance between Liao and Goryeo multiple times They offered tribute to both courts out of political necessity and the desire for material benefits 29 In 1019 Jurchen pirates raided Japan for slaves The Jurchen pirates slaughtered Japanese men while seizing Japanese women as prisoners Fujiwara Notada the Japanese governor was killed 30 In total 1 280 Japanese were taken prisoner 374 Japanese were killed and 380 Japanese owned livestock were killed for food 31 32 Only 259 or 270 were returned by Koreans from the eight ships 33 34 35 36 The woman Uchikura no Ishime s report was copied down 37 One of the causes of the Jurchen rebellion and the fall of the Liao was the custom of raping married Jurchen women and Jurchen girls by Khitan envoys which caused resentment from the Jurchens 38 The custom of having sex with unmarried girls by Khitan was itself not a problem since the practice of guest prostitution giving female companions food and shelter to guests was common among Jurchens Unmarried daughters of Jurchen families of lower and middle classes in Jurchen villages were provided to Khitan messengers for sex as recorded by Hong Hao 39 Song envoys among the Jin were similarly entertained by singing girls in Guide Henan 40 There is no evidence that guest prostitution of unmarried Jurchen girls to Khitan men was resented by the Jurchens It was only when the Khitans forced aristocratic Jurchen families to give up their beautiful wives as guest prostitutes to Khitan messengers that the Jurchens became resentful This suggests that in Jurchen upper classes only a husband had the right to his married wife while among lower class Jurchens the virginity of unmarried girls and sex with Khitan men did not impede their ability to marry later 41 The Jurchens and their Manchu descendants had Khitan linguistic and grammatical elements in their personal names like suffixes 42 Many Khitan names had a ju suffix 43 Jin dynasty Edit Main articles Jin dynasty 1115 1234 and Jin Song Wars China in circa 1141 Wanyan Aguda chief of the Wanyan tribe unified the various Jurchen tribes in 1115 and declared himself emperor In 1120 he seized Shangjing also known as Linhuang Prefecture 臨潢府 the northern capital of the Liao dynasty 44 During the Jin Song Wars the Jurchens invaded the Northern Song dynasty and overran most of northern China The Jurchens initially created the puppet regimes of Da Qi and Da Chu but later adopted a dynastic name and became known as Jin 金 which means gold not to be confused with the earlier Jin 晋 dynasties named after the region around Shanxi and Henan provinces The name of the Jurchen dynasty in Chinese meaning gold is derived from the Gold River Jurchen antʃu un Manchu Aisin in their ancestral homeland The Jurchens who settled into urban communities eventually intermarried with other ethnicities in China The Jin rulers themselves came to follow Confucian norms The Jin dynasty captured the Northern Song dynasty s capital Bianjing in 1127 Their armies pushed the Song all the way south to the Yangtze River and eventually settled on a border with the Southern Song dynasty along the Huai River Poor Jurchen families in the southern Routes Daming and Shandong Battalion and Company households tried to live the lifestyle of wealthy Jurchen families and avoid doing farming work by selling their own Jurchen daughters into slavery and renting their land to Han tenants The Wealthy Jurchens feasted and drank and wore damask and silk The History of Jin Jinshi says that Emperor Shizong of Jin took note and attempted to halt these things in 1181 45 After 1189 the Jin dynasty became increasingly involved in conflicts with the Mongols By 1215 after losing much territory to the Mongols the Jurchens moved their capital south from Zhongdu to Kaifeng The Jin emperor Wanyan Yongji s daughter Jurchen Princess Qiguo was married to Mongol leader Genghis Khan in exchange for relieving the Mongol siege upon Zhongdu 46 After a siege lasting about a year Kaifeng fell to the Mongols in 1233 Emperor Aizong fled to Caizhou for shelter but Caizhou also fell to the Mongols in 1234 marking the end of the Jin dynasty Ming dynasty Edit A Jurchen man hunting from his horse from a 15th century ink and color painting on silk A late Ming era woodblock print of a Jurchen warrior Main article Manchuria under Ming rule Chinese chroniclers of the Ming dynasty distinguished three different groups of Jurchens the Wild Jurchens 野人女真 yeren Nǚzhen of Outer Manchuria the Haixi Jurchens 海西女真 of modern Heilongjiang Province and the Jianzhou Jurchens of modern Jilin Province They led a pastoral agrarian lifestyle hunting fishing and engaging in limited agriculture In 1388 the Hongwu Emperor dispatched a mission to establish contact with the Odoli Huligai and T owen tribes The issue of controlling the Jurchens was a point of contention between Joseon Korea and the early Ming 47 The Yongle Emperor r 1402 1424 found allies among the various Jurchen tribes against the Mongols He bestowed titles and surnames to various Jurchen chiefs and expected them to send periodic tribute One of the Yongle Emperor s consorts was a Jurchen princess which resulted in some of the eunuchs serving him being of Jurchen origin 48 Chinese commanderies were established over tribal military units under their own hereditary tribal leaders In the Yongle period 178 commanderies were set up in Manchuria Later on horse markets were established in the northern border towns of Liaodong Increased contact with the Chinese gave Jurchens the more complex and sophisticated organizational structures citation needed The Koreans dealt with the Jurchen military through appeals to material benefits and launching punitive expeditions To appease them the Joseon court handed out titles and degrees trading with them and sought to acculturate them by having Korean women marry Jurchens and integrating them into Korean culture These measures were unsuccessful and fighting continued between the Jurchen and the Koreans 49 50 This relationship between the Jurchens and Koreans was ended by the Ming which envisioned the Jurchens as a form of protective border to the north 51 In 1403 Ahacu chieftain of Huligai paid tribute to the Yongle Emperor Soon after Mentemu chieftain of Odoli clan of the Jianzhou Jurchens defected from paying tribute to Korea becoming a tributary to China instead Yi Seong gye the first ruler of Joseon asked the Ming dynasty to send Mentemu back but was refused 52 The Yongle Emperor was determined to wrest the Jurchens out of Korean influence and have China dominate them instead 53 54 The Koreans tried to persuade Mentemu to reject the Ming dynasty s overtures but were unsuccessful 55 56 57 58 The Jurchen tribes presented tribute to the Ming dynasty in succession 59 They were divided in 384 guards by the Ming dynasty 51 and the Jurchen became vassals to the Ming emperors 60 The name given to the Jurchen land by the Ming dynasty was Nurgan Later a Korean army led by Yi Il and Yi Sun sin would expel them from Korea citation needed In 1409 the Ming government created the Nurgan Command Post 奴兒干都司 at Telin present day Tyr Russia 61 about 100 km upstream from Nikolayevsk on Amur in the Russian Far East in the vicinity of Heilongjiang The Jurchens came under the nominal administration of the Nurgan Command Post which lasted only 25 years and was abolished in 1434 Leaders of the Haixi and Jianzhou tribes did however accept the Ming titles citation needed From 1411 to 1433 the Ming eunuch Yishiha who himself was a Haixi Jurchen 62 led ten large missions to win over the allegiance of the Jurchen tribes along the Songhua River and Amur River His fleet sailed down the Songhua into the Amur and set up the Nurgan Command at Telin near the mouth of the Amur River These missions are not well recorded in the Ming histories but there exist two stone steles erected by Yishiha at the site of the Yongning Temple a Guanyin temple commissioned by him at Telin 63 The inscriptions on the steles are in four languages Chinese Jurchen Mongol and Tibetan There is probably quite a lot of propaganda in the inscriptions but they give a detailed record of the Ming court s efforts to assert suzerainty over the Jurchen When Yishiha visited Nurgan for the 3rd time in 1413 he built a temple called Yongning Temple at Telin and erected the Yongning Temple Stele in front of it Yishiha paid his 10th visit to Nurgan in 1432 during which he rebuilt the Yongning Temple and re erected a stele in front of it The stele bore the heading Record of Re building Yongning Temple The setting up of the Nurgan Command Post and the repeated declarations to offer blessings to this region by Yishiha and others were all recorded in this and the first steles citation needed In the ninth year of the Ming Xuande emperor the Jurchens in Manchuria under Ming rule suffered from famine forcing them to sell their daughters into slavery and moving to Liaodong to beg for help and relief from the Ming dynasty government 64 65 Establishment of the Manchu Edit Ethnic map prior to Jurchen unification Main article Ethnic identity in the Eight Banners Over a period of 30 years from 1586 Nurhaci a chieftain of the Jianzhou Jurchens united the Jurchen tribes In 1635 his son and successor Hong Taiji renamed his people the Manchus as a clear break from their past as Chinese vassals 66 67 68 During the Ming dynasty the Koreans of Joseon referred to the Jurchen inhabited lands north of the Korean peninsula above the rivers Yalu and Tumen as part of the superior country sangguk which they called Ming China 69 The Qing deliberately excluded references and information that showed the Jurchens Manchus as subservient to the Ming dynasty when composing the History of Ming to hide their former subservient relationship The Veritable Records of Ming were not used to source content on Jurchens during Ming rule in the History of Ming because of this 70 The Yongzheng Emperor attempted to rewrite the historical record and claim that the Aisin Gioro were never subjects of past dynasties and empires trying to cast Nurhaci s acceptance of Ming titles like Dragon Tiger General longhu jiangjun 龍虎將軍 by claiming he accepted to please Heaven 71 During the Qing dynasty the two original editions of the books of the Qing Taizu Wu Huangdi Shilu and the Manzhou Shilu Tu Taizu Shilu Tu were kept in the palace forbidden from public view because they showed that the Manchu Aisin Gioro family had been ruled by the Ming dynasty 72 73 Our gurun tribe state originally had the names Manju Hada Ula Yehe and Hoifa Formerly ignorant persons have frequently called us jusen The term jusen refers to the Coo Mergen of Sibe barbarians and has nothing to do with our gurun Our gurun establishes the name Manju Its rule will be long and transmitted over many generations Henceforth persons should call our gurun its original name Manju and not use the previous demeaning name Hong TaijiCulture Edit Bixi from the grave of a 12th century Jurchen leader in today s Ussuriysk Jurchen culture shared many similarities with the hunter gatherer lifestyle of Siberian Manchurian tundra and coastal peoples Like the Khitan people and Mongols they took pride in feats of strength horsemanship archery and hunting Both Mongols and Jurchens used the title Khan for the leaders of a political entity whether emperor or chief A particularly powerful chief was called beile prince nobleman corresponding with the Mongolian beki and Turkic baig or bey Also like the Mongols and the Turks the Jurchens did not observe primogeniture According to tradition any capable son or nephew could be chosen to become leader Unlike the Mongols 74 75 the Jurchens were a sedentary 15 76 and agrarian society They farmed grain and millet as their primary cereal crops grew flax and raised oxen pigs sheep and horses 77 At the most the Jurchen could only be described as semi nomadic while the majority of them were sedentary 29 Jurchen similarities and differences with the Mongols were emphasized to various degrees by Nurhaci out of political expediency 78 Nurhaci once said to the Mongols that the languages of the Chinese and Koreans are different but their clothing and way of life is the same It is the same with us Manchus Jusen and Mongols Our languages are different but our clothing and way of life is the same Later Nurhaci indicated that the bond with the Mongols was not based on any real shared culture but rather on pragmatic reasons of mutual opportunism He said to the Mongols You Mongols raise livestock eat meat and wear pelts My people till the fields and live on grain We two are not one country and we have different languages 79 During the Ming dynasty the Jurchens lived in sub clans mukun or hala mukun of ancient clans hala Not all clan members were blood related and division and integration of different clans was common Jurchen households boo lived as families booigon consisting of five to seven blood related family members and a number of slaves Households formed squads tatan to engage in tasks related to hunting and food gathering and formed companies niru for larger activities such as war citation needed Haixi Jianzhou Yeren Edit The Haixi Jurchens were semi agricultural the Jianzhou Jurchens and Maolian 毛怜 Jurchens were sedentary while hunting and fishing was the way of life of the Wild Jurchens 80 Hunting horseback archery horsemanship livestock raising and sedentary agriculture were all practiced by Jianzhou Jurchens 81 The Jurchen way of life economy was described as agricultural They farmed crops and raised animals 82 Jurchens practiced slash and burn agriculture in the areas north of Shenyang 83 建州毛憐則渤海大氏遺孽 樂住種 善緝紡 飲食服用 皆如華人 自長白山迤南 可拊而治也 The people of Jianzhou and Mao Lian are the descendants of the Ta family of Balhae They love to be sedentary and sow and they are skilled in spinning and weaving As for food clothing and utensils they are the same as those used by the Chinese Those living south of Changbai Mountain are apt to be soothed and governed 据魏焕 皇明九边考 卷二 辽东镇边夷考 84 Translation from Sino J urced relations during the Yung Lo period 1403 1424 by Henry Serruys 85 Queue Edit In 1126 the Jurchens initially ordered male Han Chinese within their conquered territories to adopt the Jurchen hairstyle by shaving the front of their heads and adopting Jurchen dress but the order was later lifted 86 Jurchens were impersonated by Han rebels who wore their hair in the Jurchen queue to strike fear within their population 87 During the Qing dynasty the Manchus who descended from the Jurchens similarly made Han Chinese men shave the front of their head and wear the rest of their hair in a queue or soncoho ᠰᠣᠨᠴᠣᡥᠣ 辮子 bianzi the traditional Manchu hairstyle citation needed Dogs Edit Although their Mohe ancestors did not respect dogs the Jurchens began to respect dogs around the time of the Ming dynasty and passed this tradition on to the Manchus It was prohibited in Jurchen culture to use dog skin and forbidden for Jurchens to harm kill or eat dogs The Jurchens believed that the utmost evil was the usage of dog skin by Koreans 88 Sex and marriage Edit Pre marital sex was probably accepted in lower class Jurchen society since the practice of guest prostitution providing visitors with sex did not impede their ability to marry later The Jurchens also allowed marriage with in laws a practice considered taboo in Chinese society 39 40 89 90 Burial Edit Until recently it was uncertain what kind of burial rites existed among the Jurchens In July 2012 Russian archaeologists discovered a Jurchen burial ground in Partizansky District of Primorye in Russia Fifteen graves dating to the 12th or 13th century were found consisting of the grave of a chieftain placed in the centre with the graves of 14 servants nearby All the graves contained pots with ashes prompting the scientists to conclude that the Jurchens cremated the corpses of their dead The grave of the chieftain also contained a quiver with arrows and a bent sword The archaeologists propose that the sword was purposely bent to signify that the owner would no longer need it in earthly life The researchers planned to return to Primorye to establish whether this was a singular burial or a part of the larger burial ground 91 Agriculture Edit Only the Mongols and the northern wild Jurchen were semi nomadic unlike the mainstream Jianzhou Jurchens descended from the Jin dynasty who were farmers that foraged hunted herded and harvested crops in the Liao and Yalu river basins They gathered ginseng root pine nuts hunted for came pels in the uplands and forests raised horses in their stables and farmed millet and wheat in their fallow fields They engaged in dances wrestling and drinking strong liquor as noted during midwinter by the Korean Sin Chung il when it was very cold These Jurchens who lived in the northeast s harsh cold climate sometimes half sunk their houses in the ground which they constructed of brick or timber and surrounded their fortified villages with stone foundations on which they built wattle and mud walls to defend against attack Village clusters were ruled by beile hereditary leaders They fought each other and dispensed weapons wives slaves and lands to their followers in them This was how the Jurchens who founded the Qing lived and how their ancestors lived before the Jin Alongside Mongols and Jurchen clans there were migrants from Liaodong provinces of Ming China and Korea living among these Jurchens in a cosmopolitan manner Nurhaci who was hosting Sin Chung il was uniting all of them into his own army having them adopt the Jurchen hairstyle of a long queue and a shaved forecrown and wearing leather tunics His armies had black blue red white and yellow flags These became the Eight Banners initially capped to 4 then growing to 8 with three different types of ethnic banners as Han Mongol and Jurchen were recruited into Nurhaci s forces Jurchens like Nurhaci spoke both their native Tungusic language and Chinese adopting the Mongolian script for their own language unlike the Jin Jurchen s use of the Khitan large script They adopted Confucian values and practiced shamanist traditions 92 Most Jurchens raised pigs and stock animals and were farmers 45 The Qing stationed the New Manchu Warka foragers in Ningguta and attempted to turn them into normal agricultural farmers but then the Warka just reverted to hunter gathering and requested money to buy cattle for beef broth The Qing wanted the Warka to become soldier farmers and imposed this on them but the Warka simply left their garrison at Ningguta and went back to the Sungari to their homes to herd fish and hunt The Qing accused them of desertion 93 Religion EditJurchens practiced shamanic rituals and believed in a supreme sky goddess abka hehe literally sky woman The Jurchens of the Jin dynasty practiced Buddhism which became the prevalent religion of the Jurchens and Daoism 94 The Jurchen word for sorceress was shanman 95 Under Confucian influence during the Qing dynasty the gender of the female sky deity was switched to a male sky father Abka Enduri abka i enduri abka i han 96 Language EditThe early Jurchen script was invented in 1120 by Wanyan Xiyin acting on the orders of Wanyan Aguda It was based on the Khitan script that was inspired in turn by Chinese characters The written Jurchen language died out soon after the fall of the Jin dynasty The Translators Bureau of the Ming tributary bureaucracy received a communication from the Jurchens in 1444 stating that nobody among them understood the Jurchen script so all letters sent to them should be written in Mongolian 97 Until the end of the 16th century when Manchu became the new literary language the Jurchens used a combination of Mongolian and Chinese The pioneering work on studies of the Jurchen script was done by Wilhelm Grube at the end of the 19th century Genetics EditHaplogroup C3b2b1 M401 xF5483 98 99 100 has been identified as a possible marker of the Aisin Gioro and is found in ten different ethnic minorities in northern China but completely absent from Han Chinese 100 101 102 Genetic testing also showed that the haplogroup C3b1a3a2 F8951 of the Aisin Gioro family came to southeastern Manchuria after migrating from their place of origin in the Amur river s middle reaches originating from ancestors related to Daurs in the Transbaikal area The Tungusic speaking peoples mostly have C3c M48 as their subclade of C3 which drastically differs from the C3b1a3a2 F8951 haplogroup of the Aisin Gioro which originates from Mongolic speaking populations like the Daur Jurchen Manchus are a Tungusic people The Mongol Genghis Khan s haplogroup C3b1a3a1 F3796 C3 Star Cluster is a fraternal brother branch of C3b1a3a2 F8951 haplogroup of the Aisin Gioro 98 A genetic test was conducted on 7 men who claimed Aisin Gioro descent with 3 of them showing documented genealogical information of all their ancestors up to Nurhaci 3 of them turned out to share the C3b2b1 M401 xF5483 haplogroup out of them 2 of them were the ones who provided their documented family trees The other 4 tested were unrelated 99 The Daur Ao clan carries the unique haplogroup subclade C2b1a3a2 F8951 the same haplogroup as Aisin Gioro and both Ao and Aisin Gioro only diverged merely a couple of centuries ago from a shared common ancestor Other members of the Ao clan carry haplogroups like N1c M178 C2a1b F845 C2b1a3a1 F3796 and C2b1a2 M48 People from northeast China the Daur Ao clan and Aisin Gioro clan are the main carriers of haplogroup C2b1a3a2 F8951 The Mongolic C2 Star Cluster C2b1a3a1 F3796 haplogroup is a fraternal branch to Aisin Gioro s C2b1a3a2 F8951 haplogroup 103 In fiction EditIn the Alternative History timeline of Harry Turtledove s novel Agent of Byzantium the Jurchens migrate westwards reach Europe and become a serious threat to the Byzantine Empire See also EditEthnic groups in Chinese history Korean Jurchen border conflicts List of Jurchen chieftains Nanai people Toi invasionNotes Edit The Japanese government and Franke give the modern Mandarin pronunciation Zhulizhen 8 First attested in a late 15th century glossary for the Ming Bureau of Translators 17 References EditCitations Edit Grand Dictionnaire Ricci de la Langue Chinoise Vol IV Paris Institut Ricci 2001 p 697 in French amp in Chinese 遼朝國號非 哈喇契丹 遼契丹 考 The State Name of the Liao Dynasty was not Qara Khitai Liao Khitai PDF 愛新覚羅烏拉熙春女真契丹学研究 in Chinese Archived from the original PDF on 27 September 2011 a b Hoong Teik Toh 2005 p 28 Zarrow Peter 23 September 2015 Educating China Knowledge Society and Textbooks in a Modernizing World 1902 1937 Cambridge University Press p 191 ISBN 978 1 107 11547 7 Fan and Han noted that the Jurchens were of the Eastern Hu race Donghuzu Lee Lily Xiao Hong Wiles Sue 13 March 2014 Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women Tang Through Ming 618 1644 M E Sharpe p 222 ISBN 978 0 7656 4316 2 The Jin dynasty was established by the Jurchen people ancestors of the Manchus who later founded the Qing dynasty a b Roth Li 2002 pp 11 13 Roth Li 2002 p 27 a b c d Franke 1994 p 216 a b Aisin Gioro amp Jin 2007 p 12 a b c Pelliot 1959 p 366 a b Pelliot 1959 p 367 Baxter Sagart 汲冢周书 a b c d e Janhunen 2004 pp 67 ff a b Vajda 2000 Stolberg 2015 a b c d Kane 1997 p 232 Elliott 2001 p 51 Rockhill 1967 p 153 Crossley 1997 p 46 Elliott 2001 p 47 48 Huang 1990 pp 239 282 Elliott 2001 p 47 Elliott 2001 p 48 Gorelova 2002 pp 13 14 Crossley 1997 p 17 Pamela Kyle Crossley 15 February 2000 A Translucent Mirror History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology University of California Press pp 198 ISBN 978 0 520 92884 8 Huang 1990 p 245 a b Breuker 2010 pp 220 221 Takekoshi Yosaburō 2004 The Economic Aspects of the History of the Civilization of Japan Volume 1 reprint ed Taylor amp Francis p 134 ISBN 0415323797 Batten Bruce L 31 January 2006 Gateway to Japan Hakata in War and Peace 500 1300 University of Hawaii Press pp 102 101 100 ISBN 9780824842925 Kang Jae eun 2006 5 Goryeo the Land of Buddhism The Land of Scholars Two Thousand Years of Korean Confucianism Translated by Lee Suzanne Homa amp Sekey Books p 75 ISBN 9781931907309 Shively Donald H McCullough William H eds 1988 The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 2 Heian Japan illustrated reprint ed Cambridge University Press p 95 ISBN 0521223539 Adolphson Mikael S Kamens Edward Matsumoto Stacie eds 2007 Heian Japan Centers and Peripheries University of Hawai i Press p 376 ISBN 9780824830137 Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan Volume 2 Kodansha 1983 p 79 ISBN 0870116223 Embree Ainslie Thomas ed 1988 Encyclopedia of Asian History Volume 1 2nd illustrated ed Scribner p 371 ISBN 0684188988 朝鮮學報 Issues 198 201 朝鮮學會 2006 Tillman Hoyt Cleveland 1995 Tillman Hoyt Cleveland West Stephen H eds China Under Jurchen Rule Essays on Chin Intellectual and Cultural History illustrated ed SUNY Press p 27 ISBN 0791422739 a b Lanciotti 1980 p 32 a b Franke Herbert 1983 FIVE Sung Embassies Some General Observations In Rossabi Moris ed China Among Equals The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors 10th 14th Centuries illustrated ed University of California Press ISBN 0520043839 Lanciotti 1980 p 33 Hoong Teik Toh 2005 pp 34 35 36 Hoong Teik Toh 2005 p 31 Mote 1999 p 195 a b Schneider Julia 2011 The Jin Revisited New Assessment of Jurchen Emperors Journal of Song Yuan Studies 41 41 389 doi 10 1353 sys 2011 0030 hdl 1854 LU 2045182 JSTOR 23496214 S2CID 162237648 Broadbridge Anne F 2018 Women and the Making of the Mongol Empire illustrated ed Cambridge University Press p 94 ISBN 978 1108636629 Wang 2010 p 301 Mitamura 1970 p 54 Seth 2006 p 138 Seth 2010 p 144 a b Peterson 2006 p 15harvnb error no target CITEREFPeterson2006 help Meng 2006 p 120 Zhang 2008 p 29 Dardess 2012 p 18 Goodrich 1976 p 1066 Peterson 2002 p 13 Clark 1998 pp 286 7 Zhang 2008 p 30 Meng 2006 p 21 Cosmo 2007 p 3 Obekty turizma Arheologicheskie Tyrskie hramy Tourism objects Archaeological Tyr temples in Russian Archived from the original on 3 September 2009 Regional government site explaining the location of the Tyr Telin temples just south of the Tyr village Shih Shan Henry Tsai 2002 Perpetual Happiness The Ming Emperor Yongle University of Washington Press p 158 ISBN 0295981245 Google Books Telin Stele from Politika Minskoj imperii v otnoshenii chzhurchzhenej 1402 1413 gg The Jurchen policy of the Ming Empire in Kitaj i ego sosedi v drevnosti i srednevekove China and its neighbors in antiquity and the Middle Ages Moscow 1970 in Russian 亦失哈 It s also lost in Chinese 宣德九年 女真地区灾荒 女真人被迫卖儿鬻女 四处流亡 逃向辽东的女真难民 希望得到官府的赈济 In the ninth year of Xuande the Jurchen region was famine and the Jurchens were forced to sell their sons and wives and went into exile They fled to the Jurchen refugees in Liaodong hoping to get relief from the government 亦失哈八下东洋 Ifeng com 8 July 2014 Archived from the original on 28 April 2015 Hummel Arthur W Sr ed 1943 Abahai Eminent Chinese of the Ch ing Period United States Government Printing Office p 2 Grossnick Roy A 1972 Early Manchu Recruitment of Chinese Scholar officials University of Wisconsin Madison p 10 Till Barry 2004 The Manchu era 1644 1912 arts of China s last imperial dynasty Art Gallery of Greater Victoria p 5 ISBN 9780888852168 Kim Sun Joo 2011 The Northern Region of Korea History Identity and Culture University of Washington Press p 19 ISBN 978 0295802176 Smith Richard J 2015 The Qing Dynasty and Traditional Chinese Culture Rowman amp Littlefield p 216 ISBN 978 1442221949 Crossley Pamela Kyle 2002 A Translucent Mirror History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology 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PMID 27853133 S2CID 7685248 a b Yan Shi Tachibana Harumasa Wei Lan Hai Yu Ge Wen Shao Qing Wang Chuan Chao June 2015 Y chromosome of Aisin Gioro the imperial house of the Qing dynasty Journal of Human Genetics 60 6 295 8 arXiv 1412 6274 doi 10 1038 jhg 2015 28 PMID 25833470 S2CID 7505563 a b Did you know DNA was used to uncover the origin of the House of Aisin Gioro Did You Know DNA 14 November 2016 Retrieved 5 November 2020 Xue Yali Zerjal Tatiana Bao Weidong Zhu Suling Lim Si Keun Shu Qunfang Xu Jiujin Du Ruofu Fu Songbin Li Pu Yang Huanming Tyler Smith Chris 2005 Recent Spread of a Y Chromosomal Lineage in Northern China and Mongolia The American Journal of Human Genetics 77 6 1112 1116 doi 10 1086 498583 PMC 1285168 PMID 16380921 Asian Ancestry based on Studies of Y DNA Variation Part 3 Recent demographics and ancestry of the male East Asians Empires and Dynasties Genebase Tutorials Archived from the original on 25 November 2013 Wang Chi Zao Wei Lan Hai Wang Ling Xiang Wen Shao Qing Yu Xue Er Shi Mei Sen Li Hui August 2019 Relating Clans Ao and Aisin Gioro from northeast China by whole Y chromosome sequencing Journal of Human Genetics Japan Society of Human Genetics 64 8 775 780 doi 10 1038 s10038 019 0622 4 PMID 31148597 S2CID 171094135 Sources Edit Aisin Gioro Ulhicun Jin Shi 2007 Manchuria from the Fall of the Yuan to the Rise of the Manchu State 1368 1636 PDF Ritsumeikan Bungaku pp 12 34 Arnold Lauren 1999 Mark Stephen Mir ed Princely Gifts and Papal Treasures The Franciscan Mission to China and Its Influence on the Art of the West 1250 1350 Desiderata Press p p 179 ISBN 9780967062808 Bretschneider E 2013 Pei Shi Ki Mediaeval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources Fragments towards the Knowledge of the Geography and History of Central and Western Asia from the 13th to the 17th Century Vol I London Routledge Trench Trubner amp Co p 25 ISBN 9781136380211 Breuker Remco E 2010 Establishing a Pluralist Society in Medieval Korea 918 1170 History Ideology and 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Department The London School of Economics and Political Science pp 29 30 archived from the original on 20 April 2014 retrieved 18 April 2014External links EditJurchen script in Chinese The Jurchen language and Script Website Chinese Traditional Big5 code page via Internet Archive The Russian news about the discovery of the Jurchen burial ground July 2012 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Jurchen people amp oldid 1137994999, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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