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Funan

Funan (Chinese: 扶南; pinyin: Fúnán; Khmer: ហ៊្វូណន, Hvunân [fuːnɑːn]; Vietnamese: Phù Nam, Chữ Hán: 夫南) was the name given by Chinese cartographers, geographers and writers to an ancient Indianized state—or, rather a loose network of states (Mandala)[1][2]—located in mainland Southeast Asia centered on the Mekong Delta that existed from the first to sixth century CE. The name is found in Chinese historical texts describing the kingdom, and the most extensive descriptions are largely based on the report of two Chinese diplomats, Kang Tai and Zhu Ying, representing the Eastern Wu dynasty who sojourned in Funan in the mid-3rd century CE.[3]: 24 

Funan
ហ៊្វូណន (Khmer)
Hvunân
68 CE–550 CE
Map of indianized kingdoms of Indochina (1st to 9th centuries CE)
CapitalVyādhapūra (common), Sanskrit (religious)
Religion
Hinduism
Buddhism
GovernmentMonarchy
Historical eraClassical Antiquity
• Established
68 CE
• Disestablished
550 CE
CurrencyNative coins
Succeeded by
Today part of

Funan is known in the modern languages of the region as Vnum (Old Khmer: វ្នំ), Nokor Phnom (Khmer: នគរភ្នំ, Nôkôr Phnum [nɔkɔː pʰnum], lit.'Mountain Kingdom'), Fūnān (Thai: ฟูนาน), and Phù Nam (Vietnamese). However, the name Funan is not found in any texts of local origin from the period, and it is not known what name the people of Funan gave to their polity. Some scholars argued that ancient Chinese scholars transcribed the word Funan from a word related to vnaṃ (modern: phnoṃ, meaning "mountain"). Others, however, thought that Funan may not be a transcription at all, but rather it meant what it says in Chinese. The first inscription in the Khmer language is dated shortly after the fall of Funan.

Like the very name of the kingdom, the ethno-linguistic nature of the people is the subject of much discussion among specialists. The leading hypotheses are that the Funanese were mostly Mon–Khmer, or that they were mostly Austronesian, or that they constituted a multi-ethnic society. The available evidence is inconclusive on this issue. Michael Vickery has said that, even though identification of the language of Funan is not possible, the evidence strongly suggests that the population was Khmer.[4] However, several studies demonstrates that inhabitants of Funan probably spoke Malayo-Polynesian languages, as in neighboring Champa.[5][6] The results of archaeology at Oc Eo have demonstrated "no true discontinuity between Oc Eo and pre-Angkorian levels", indicating Khmer linguistic dominance in the area under Funan control.[7]

Based on the testimony of the Chinese historians, the polity Funan is believed to have been established in the 1st century CE in the Mekong Delta, but archaeological research has shown that extensive human settlement in the region may have gone back as far as the 4th century BCE. Though regarded by Chinese authors as a single unified polity, some modern scholars suspect that Funan may have been a collection of city-states that sometimes were at war with one another and at other times constituted a political unity.[8] From archaeological evidence, which includes Roman, Chinese, and Indian goods excavated at the ancient mercantile centre of Óc Eo in southern Vietnam, it is known that Funan must have been a powerful trading state.[9] Excavations at Angkor Borei in southern Cambodia have likewise delivered evidence of an important settlement. Since Óc Eo was linked to a port on the coast and to Angkor Borei by a system of canals, it is possible that all of these locations together constituted the heartland of Funan.

Etymology edit

Some scholars have advanced speculative proposal regarding the origin and meaning of the word Funan. It is often said that the name Funan (Middle Chinese pronunciation of 扶南: /bju nậm/, Later Han pronunciation: /buɑ nəm/[10]) represents a transcription from some local language into Chinese. For example, French scholar Georges Coedès advanced the theory that in using the word Funan, ancient Chinese scholars were transcribing a word related to the Khmer word bnaṃ or vnaṃ (modern: phnoṃ, meaning "mountain").[11]

However, the epigraphist Claude Jacques pointed out that this explanation was based on a mistranslation of the Sanskrit word parvatabùpála in the ancient inscriptions as equivalent to the Khmer word bnaṃ and a mis-identification of the King Bhavavarman I mentioned in them as the conqueror of Funan.[12] It has also been observed that in Chinese the character (pinyin: nán, Vietnamese: nam) is frequently used in geographical terms to mean "South"; Chinese scholars used it in this sense in naming other locations or regions of Southeast Asia, such as Annam.[13]

Thus, Funan may be an originally Chinese word, and may not be a transcription at all. Jacques proposed that use of the name Funan should be abandoned in favour of the names, such as Bhavapura, Aninditapura, Shresthapura and Vyadhapura, which are known from inscriptions to have been used at the time for cities in the region, as opposed to Funan or Zhenla which are unknown in the Old Khmer language.[13]

Sources edit

 
The archeological site of Go Cay Thi, Oc Eo

The first modern scholar to reconstruct the history of the ancient polity of Funan was Paul Pelliot, who in his ground-breaking article "Le Fou-nan" of 1903 drew exclusively on Chinese historical records to set forth the sequence of documented events connecting the foundation of Funan in approximately the 1st century CE with its demise by conquest in the 6th to 7th century. Scholars critical of Pelliot's Chinese sources have expressed scepticism regarding his conclusions.[14]

Chinese records dating from the 3rd century CE, beginning with the Sānguó zhì (三國志, Records of the Three Kingdoms) completed in 289 CE by Chén Shòu (陳壽; 233–297), record the arrival of two Funanese embassies at the court of Lǚ Dài (呂待), governor in the southern Chinese kingdom of Wú (): the first embassy arrived between 225 and 230 CE, the second in the year 243.[15] Later sources such as the Liáng shū (梁書, Book of Liang) of Yáo Chá (姚察; 533–606) and Yáo Sīlián (姚思廉, d. 637), completed in 636, discuss the mission of the 3rd-century Chinese envoys Kang Tai (康泰) and Zhū Yīng (朱應) from the Kingdom of Wu to Funan. The writings of these envoys, though no longer extant in their original condition, were excerpted and as such preserved in the later dynastic histories, and form the basis for much of what we know about Funan.

Since the publication of Pelliot's article, archaeological excavation in Vietnam and Cambodia, especially excavation of sites related to the Óc Eo culture, have supported and supplemented his conclusion.

History edit

 
The archaeological site of Go Thap Muoi, Đồng Tháp

Origins of Funan edit

Chinese sources relate a local legend to document Funan's origin, that a foreigner named "Huntian (混填)" [pinyin: Hùntián] established the Kingdom of Funan around the 1st century CE in the Mekong Delta of southern Vietnam. Archeological evidence shows that extensive human settlement in the region may go back as far as the 4th century BCE. Though treated by Chinese historians as a single unified empire, according to some modern scholars Funan may have been a collection of city-states that sometimes warred with one another and at other times constituted a political unity.[8]

The ethnic and linguistic origins of the Funanese people have consequently been subject to scholarly debate, and no firm conclusions can be drawn based on the evidence available. The Funanese may have been Cham or from another Austronesian group, or they may have been Khmer or from another Austroasiatic group. It is possible that they are the ancestors of those indigenous people dwelling in the southern part of Vietnam today who refer themselves as "Khmer" or "Khmer Krom." The Khmer term "krom" means "below" or "lower part of" and is used to refer to territory that was later colonized by Vietnamese immigrants and taken up into the modern state of Vietnam.[16] While no conclusive study to determine whether Funan's ethnolinguistic components were Austronesian or Austroasiatic, there is dispute among scholars. According to the majority of Vietnamese academics, for example, Mac Duong, stipulates that "Funan's core population certainly were the Austronesians, not Khmer;" the fall of Funan and the rise of Zhenla from the north in the 6th century indicate "the arrival of the Khmer to the Mekong Delta." That thesis received support from D. G. E. Hall.[17] Recent archaeological research lends weight to the conclusion that Funan was a Mon-Khmer polity.[18] In his Funan review, Michael Vickery expresses himself a strong supporter of Funan's Khmer predominance theory.

It is also possible that Funan was a multicultural society, including various ethnic and linguistic groups. In the late 4th and 5th centuries, Indianization advanced more rapidly, in part through renewed impulses from the south Indian Pallava dynasty and the north Indian Gupta Empire.[16] The only extant local writings from the period of Funan are paleographic Pallava Grantha inscriptions in Sanskrit of the Pallava dynasty, a scholarly language used by learned and ruling elites throughout South and Southeast Asia. These inscriptions give no information about the ethnicity or vernacular tongue of the Funanese.

Funan may have been the Suvarnabhumi referred to in ancient Indian texts.[19] Among the Khmer Krom of the lower Mekong region the belief is held that they are the descendants of ancient Funan, the core of Suvarnabhumi/Suvarnadvipa, which covered a vast extent of Southeast Asia including present day Cambodia, southern Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, Burma, Malaya, Sumatra and other parts of Indonesia.[20] In December 2017, Dr Vong Sotheara, of the Royal University of Phnom Penh, discovered a Pre-Angkorian stone inscription in the Province of Kampong Speu Baset District, which he tentatively dated to 633 CE. According to him, the inscription would “prove that Suvarnabhumi was the Khmer Empire.” The inscription, translated, read: “The great King Isanavarman is full of glory and bravery. He is the King of Kings, who rules over Suvarnabhumi until the sea, which is the border, while the kings in the neighbouring states honour his order to their heads”.[21]

Myth of Origin and Indianisation edit

 
A statue of Queen Soma

Multiple sources of the myth edit

Huntian/Kaundinya I

The Book of Liang records a local legend to document Funan's origin, that of the foundation of Funan by the foreigner Hùntián (混塡, Middle Chinese pronunciation /ɦwənx tɦian/): "He came from the southern country Jiào (, an unidentified location, perhaps on the Malaysian Peninsula or in the Indonesian archipelago) after dreaming that his personal genie had delivered a divine bow to him and had directed him to embark on a large merchant junk. In the morning, he proceeded to the temple, where he found a bow at the foot of the genie's tree. He then boarded a ship, which the genie caused to land in Fúnán. The queen of the country, Liǔyè (柳葉, "Willow Leaf"; Queen Soma, Middle Chinese: Iiu-iap) wanted to pillage the ship and seize it, so Hùntián shot an arrow from his divine bow which pierced through Liǔyè's ship.[22]: 37  Frightened, she gave herself up, and Hùntián took her for his wife. But unhappy to see her naked, he folded a piece of material to make a garment through which he made her pass her head. Then he governed the country and passed power on to his son,[22]: 37  who was the founder of seven cities." Nearly the same story appeared in the Jìn shū 晉書 (Book of Jin), compiled by Fáng Xuánlíng in 648 CE; however, in the Book of Jin the names given to the foreign conqueror and his native wife are "Hùnhuì" 混湏 and "Yèliǔ" 葉柳.

Some scholars have identified the conqueror Hùntián of the Book of Liang with the Brahmin Kauṇḍinya who married a nāga (snake) princess named Somā, as set forth in a Sanskrit inscription found at Mỹ Sơn[22]: 37  and dated 658 CE (see below). Other scholars[23] have rejected this identification, pointing out that the word "Hùntián" has only two syllables, while the word "Kauṇḍinya" has three, and arguing that Chinese scholars would not have used a two-syllable Chinese word to transcribe a three-syllable word from another language.[24]

The story of Kaundinya is also set forth briefly in the Sanskrit inscription C. 96 of the Cham king Prakasadharma found at Mỹ Sơn. It is dated Sunday, 18 February 658 CE (and thus belongs to the post-Funanese period) and states in relevant part (stanzas XVI-XVIII):[25] "It was there [at the city of Bhavapura] that Kauṇḍinya, the foremost among brahmins, planted the spear which he had obtained from Droṇa's Son Aśvatthāman, the best of brahmins. There was a daughter of a king of serpents, called "Somā", who founded a family in this world. Having attained, through love, to a radically different element, she lived in the abode of man. She was taken as wife by the excellent Brahmin Kauṇḍinya for the sake of (accomplishing) a certain task ...".[26]

 
This stele found at Tháp Mười in Đồng Tháp Province, Vietnam and now located in the Museum of History in Ho Chi Minh City is one of the few extant writings that can be attributed confidently to the kingdom of Funan. The text is in Sanskrit, written in Grantha script of the Pallava dynasty, dated to the mid-5th century CE, and tells of a donation in honour of Vishnu by a Prince Gunavarman of the Kaundinya lineage.

The Sanskrit inscription (K.5) of Tháp Mười (known as "Prasat Pram Loven" in Khmer), which is now on display in the Museum of Vietnamese History in Ho Chi Minh City, refers to a Prince Guṇavarman, younger son (nṛpasunu—bālo pi) of a king Ja[yavarman] who was "the moon of the Kauṇḍinya line (... kauṇḍi[n]ya[vaṅ]śaśaśinā ...) and chief "of a realm wrested from the mud".[27]

The legend of Kaundinya is paralleled in modern Khmer folklore, where the foreign prince is known as "Preah Thaong" and the queen as "Neang Neak". In this version of the story, Preah Thaong arrives by sea to an island marked by a giant thlok tree, native to Cambodia. On the island, he finds the home of the nāgas and meets Neang Neak, daughter of the nāga king. He marries her with blessings from her father and returns to the human world. The nāga king drinks the sea around the island and confers the name "Kampuchea Thipdei", which is derived from the Sanskrit (Kambujādhipati) and may be translated into English as "the lord of Cambodia". In another version, it is stated that Preah Thaong fights Neang Neak.[28][29][30]

Kaundinya II

 
Ruins of Nam Linh Son, Oc Eo

Even if the Chinese "Hùntián" is not the proper transcription of the Sanskrit "Kaundinya", the name "Kaundinya" [Kauṇḍinya, Koṇḍañña, Koṇḍinya, etc.] is nevertheless an important one in the history of Funan. Chinese sources mention another person of the name "Qiáochénrú" (僑陳如).[31] A person of that name is mentioned in the Book of Liang in a story that appears somewhat after the story of Hùntián.

According to this source, Qiáochénrú was one of the successors of the king Tiānzhú Zhāntán (天竺旃檀, "Candana from India"), a ruler of Funan who in the year 357 CE sent tamed elephants as tribute to Emperor Mu of Jin (r. 344–361); personal name: Sīmǎ Dān (司馬聃): "He [Qiáochénrú] was originally a Brahmin from India. There a voice told him: 'you must go reign over Fúnán,' and he rejoiced in his heart. In the south, he arrived at Pánpán (盤盤). The people of Fúnán appeared to him; the whole kingdom rose up with joy, went before him, and chose him king. He changed all the laws to conform to the system of India."

Interpretation of the Myths edit

Keneth Hall remarks that the basic details of the Chinese legend are reiterated elsewhere in Indian and Southeast Asian folklore.[32]

The historian Gabriel Ferrand believed that some Indian merchants might have immigrated to the region and established relations with the natives and that's how the myth emerged.[33] Some Indian historians have taken this myth to extreme length and speculate that a large population of South Asians colonized Funan.[34] Dutch historian J.C. van Leur stressed that it was the local rulers who recognized the benefits of associating with their relatively advanced social technologies and drew from the Indian traditions by encouraging migration of Brahmin clerks to help with the administration.[35]

As per O.W. Wolters, there was a mutual sharing process in the evolution of Indianized statecraft and no mass influx of Brahmans. He said that it was rather the Indianized local Southeast Asian traders who provided the initial contact with Indian cultural traditions and the local rulers followed up. He also stated that Hindu traditions was selectively mobilized by the local rulers to strengthen the political alliances among fragile polity of the states in that period.[36]

A DNA sample taken from a protohistoric individual from the Wat Komnou cemetery at the Angkor Borei site in Cambodia contains substantial level of South Asian admixture (ca. 40–50%).

Radiocarbon dating result on the human bone (95% confidence interval is 78–234 calCE) indicate that this individual lived during the early period of Funan.[37]

Apex and decline of Funan edit

Successive rulers following Hun-t'ien included Hun-p'an-huang, P'an-p'an, and then Fan Shih-man, "Great King of Funan", who "had large ships built, and sailing all over the immense sea he attacked more than ten kingdoms ... he extended his territory five or six thousand li." Fan Shih-man died on a military expedition to Chin-lin, "Frontier of Gold". He was followed by Chin-cheng, Fan Chan, Ch'ang and then Fan Hsun, in successive assassinations. Before his death, Fan Chan sent embassies to India and China in 243.[22]: 38, 40, 42, 46, 56, 59–60 [38]: 283–284–285 

Around 245, Funan was described as having "walled villages, palaces, and dwellings. They devote themselves to agriculture ... they like to engrave ornaments and chisel. Many of their eating utensils are silver. Taxes are paid in gold, silver, pearls, perfumes. There are books and depositories of archives and other things." The Indianised ruler Chan-T'an was ruling in 357, followed by another Indianised ruler Chiao Chen-ju (Kaundinya) in the fifth century, who "changed all the laws to conform to the system of India." In 480, She-yeh-pa-mo, Jayavarman or "Protege of Victory" reigned until his death in 514. One of his sons, Rudravarman, killed the other, Gunavarman, for the throne, and became the last king of Funan.[22]: 38, 40, 42, 46, 56, 59–60 [38]: 283–284–285 

Funan reached the apex of its power under the 3rd-century king Fan Shiman (pinyin: Fàn Shīmàn). Fan Shiman expanded his empire's navy and improved the Funanese bureaucracy, creating a quasi-feudal pattern that left local customs and identities largely intact, particularly in the empire's further reaches. Fan Shiman and his successors also sent ambassadors to China and India to regulate sea trade. The kingdom likely accelerated the process of Indianization of Southeast Asia. Later kingdoms of Southeast Asia such as Chenla may have emulated the Funanese court. The Funanese established a strong system of mercantilism and commercial monopolies that would become a pattern for empires in the region.[39]

Funan's dependence on maritime trade is seen as a cause for the beginning of Funan's downfall. Their coastal ports allowed trade with foreign regions that funnelled goods to the north and coastal populations. However, the shift in maritime trade to Sumatra, the rise in the Srivijaya trade empire, and the taking of trade routes all throughout Southeast Asia by China, leads to economic instability in the south, and forces politics and economy northward.[39]

Funan was superseded and absorbed in the 6th century by the Khmer polity of the Chenla Kingdom (Zhenla).[40] "The king had his capital in the city of T'e-mu. Suddenly his city was subjugated by Chenla, and he had to migrate south to the city of Nafuna" (Middle Chinese: *nâ-piiidt-nâ).[22]: 65 

The Book of Sui (complied in 636) states: "The Kingdom of Zhenla is to the southwest of Linyi and was originally subject to Funan… The surname of its [former] king was that of the Cha-li clan; his given name was Zhiduo-si-na 質多斯那. His ancestors had gradually become more powerful and flourishing until the time of Zhi-duo-sina himself, who annexed Funan and possessed it." The New Book of Tang (c. 1060) tells that "Yīshēnàxiāndài (伊奢那先代), son of Citrasena-Mahendravarman, subdued Funan and annexed Funan territory in the beginning of the Zhenguan era (627–649) [when Emperor Taizong of Tang ruled]."

The first inscription in the Khmer language is dated shortly after the fall of Funan. A concentration of later Khmer inscriptions in southern Cambodia may suggest the even earlier presence of a Khmer population.[41] Despite absence of compelling evidence as to the ethnicity of the Funanese, modern scholar Michael Vickery has stated that "on present evidence it is impossible to assert that Funan as an area and its dominant groups were anything but Khmer".[42]

Legacy edit

The "King of the mountain" was the monarch of Funan.[43][44][45][46] There was a mountain regarded as holy.[47][44] Mountain in Khmer sounds similar to Funan.[48][49][50]

The Java-based Sailendras claimed that the Funan monarchs were their ancestors. Cambodia was taken control of after a sojourn in Java by Jayavarman II.[51][52][53]

The "Mountain Kings" of Funan were claimed as the forebears of the Malacca Sultanate and Brunei Sultanate.[54][55]

Society edit

 
Bodhisattva Lokeshvara of Phnom Da style (7th century), Mỹ Tho. Guimet Museum

Keeping in mind that Funanese records did not survive into the modern period, much of what is known came from archaeological excavation. Excavations yielded discoveries of brick wall structures, precious metals and pot from southern Cambodia and Vietnam. Also found was a large canal system that linked the settlements of Angkor Borei and coastal outlets; this suggests a highly organised government.[56] Funan was a complex and sophisticated society with a high population density, advanced technology, and a complex social system.

Capital edit

 
A temple at the archaeological site of Angkor Borei

On the assumption that Funan was a single unified polity, scholars have advanced various linguistic arguments about the location of its "capital".

  • One theory, based on the presumed connection between the word "Funan" and the Khmer word "phnom", locates the capital in the vicinity of Ba Phnoṃ near the modern Cambodian town of Banam in Prey Veng Province.
  • Another theory, propounded by George Coedès, is that the capital was a town identified in Angkorian inscriptions as "Vyādhapura" (City of the Hunter).[57] Coedès based his theory on a passage in the Chinese histories which identified the capital as "Temu" (特牧, pinyin: Tèmù); Coedès claimed this name represented a transcription from the Khmer word "dalmāk", which he translated as "hunter." This theory has been rejected by other scholars on the grounds that "dalmāk" means "trapper", not "hunter".[58]

Unfortunately, only limited archaeological research has been conducted on Funan in southern Cambodia and Cochinchina in the last few decades, and it is precisely this region that reputedly housed the capital or capitals of Funan.[59] However, archaeological surveys and excavations were carried out by joint Cambodian (Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts; Royal University of Fine Arts) and international teams at Angkor Borei since 1994 continuing into the 2000s. The research included excavation and dating of human burials at Wat Kamnou. Numerous brick features, architectural remains, and landscape features such as mounds, canals and reservoirs have also been identified.

Some have been dated with a wide spectrum of results ranging from the late centuries BCE to the Angkorian period. A significant canal system linking the site of Oc Eo has also been researched and dated. Phon Kaseka led a Royal Academy of Cambodia and Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts team (also with Royal University of Fine Arts personnel) conducted Iron Age to Funan period burial excavations at neighboring Phnom Borei. Large landscape features, notable settlement mounds, and other sites exhibiting Funan material culture and settlement patterns extend from at least Phnom Chisor through Oc Eo and numerous sites in Vietnam. Vietnamese archaeologists have also conducted a fair amount of research on Funan sites in the lower Mekong region.

Many of the mounds show evidence of material culture and landscape modification (inclusive of species-genera biological regimes) ranging from the metal age through the post-Angkorian period and later as evidenced by 13th through 16th century CE Chinese, Thai, Vietnamese, and Cham ceramics. The evidence suggests a 2000-year or longer period of urbanization, continuous activity, and relatively strong albeit indirect and multi-nodal connections to long-distance value chains. Nevertheless, it is quite evident that periods of intense production, consumption, activity, commercial and political centrality fluctuated.

The Funan period seems to have been the heyday and Angkor Borei may have been Funan's premiere capital for much of that period. However, many of the settlements did not necessarily spring up out of nowhere or vanish quickly. They were certainly well integrated into pre-Funan, Funan, Zhenla [Chenla], Angkorian and post-Angkorian socio-economic and political networks. The urbanization and networking processes demonstrate significant continuity, evolution and longevity before and after the typical first to sixth century CE historic classification scheme.

Culture edit

 
Gold foil at Oc Eo
 
Wooden Buddha statue
 
Funanese Sanskrit inscription
 
Funan Lingam
 
Funanese Buddha statue

Funanese culture was a mixture of native beliefs and Indian ideas. The kingdom is said to have been heavily influenced by Indian culture, and to have employed Indians for state administration purposes. Sanskrit was the language at the court, and the Funanese advocated Hinduism and, after the fifth century, Buddhist religious doctrines.[citation needed] Records show that taxes were paid in silver, gold, pearls, and perfumed wood. Kang Tai (康泰) and Zhu Ying (朱應) reported that the Funanese practised slavery and that justice was rendered through trial by ordeal, including such methods as carrying a red-hot iron chain and retrieving gold rings and eggs from boiling water.[citation needed]

Archaeological evidence largely corresponds to Chinese records. The Chinese described the Funanese as people who lived on stilt houses, cultivated rice and sent tributes of gold, silver, ivory and exotic animals.[60]

Kang Tai's report was unflattering to Funanese civilisation, though Chinese court records show that a group of Funanese musicians visited China in 263 CE. The Chinese emperor was so impressed that he ordered the establishment of an institute for Funanese music near Nanking.[61] The Funanese were reported to have extensive book collections and archives throughout their country, demonstrating a high level of scholarly achievements.

Two Buddhist monks from Funan, named Mandrasena and Sanghapala,[22]: 58, 92  took up residency in China in the 5th to 6th centuries, and translated several Buddhist sūtras from Sanskrit (or a prakrit) into Chinese.[62] Among these texts is the Mahayana Saptaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, also called the Mahāprajñāpāramitā Mañjuśrīparivarta Sūtra.[63] This text was separately translated by both monks.[62] The bodhisattva Mañjuśrī is a prominent figure in this text.

Economy edit

 
Funanese gold
 
Funanese jewelry
Funanese gold objects. Left: A local imitation of aureus issued by Commodus. Legend: L(ucius) AEL(ius) AVREL(ius) COMMO(odus) AUG(ustus) P(ius) FEL(ix)
 
A view of Mount Ba The, Oc Eo, An Giang Province, Vietnam

Funan was Southeast Asia's first great economy. It became prosperous through maritime trade and agriculture. The kingdom apparently minted its own silver coinage, bearing the image of the crested argus or hamsa bird.[64]

Funan came into prominence at a time when the trade route from India to China consisted of a maritime leg from India to the Isthmus of Kra, the narrow portion of the Malay peninsula, a portage across the isthmus, and then a coast-hugging journey by ship along the Gulf of Siam, past the Mekong Delta, and along the Vietnamese coast to China. Funanese kings of the 2nd century conquered polities on the isthmus itself, and thus may have controlled the entire trade route from Malaysia to central Vietnam.

The Funanese settlement of Óc Eo, located near the Straits of Malacca, provided a port-of-call and entrepot for this international trade route. Archaeological evidence discovered at what may have been the commercial centre of Funan at Óc Eo includes Roman as well as Persian, Indian, and Greek artefacts. The German classical scholar Albrecht Dihle believed that Funan's main port, was the Kattigara referred to by the 2nd century Alexandrian geographer Ptolemy as the emporium where merchants from the Chinese and Roman empires met to trade. Dihle also believed that the location of Óc Eo best fit the details given by Ptolemy of a voyage made by a Graeco-Roman merchant named Alexander to Kattigara, situated at the easternmost end of the maritime trade route from the eastern Roman Empire.[65]

Georges Coedès said: "Fu-nan occupied a key position with regard to the maritime trade routes, and was inevitably a port of call both for the navigators who went through the Straits of Malacca and for those – probably more numerous – who made the transit over one of the isthmuses of the Malay Peninsula. Fu-nan may even have been the terminus of voyages from the Eastern Mediterranean, if it is the case that the Kattigara mentioned by Ptolemy was situated on the western coast of Indochina on the Gulf of Siam".[66]

 
Greco-Indian
 
Pyu
 
Indian
 
Funanese beads
First three: silver coins of foreign origin traded in Funan.

At Óc Eo, Roman coins were among the items of long-distance trade discovered by the French archaeologist Louis Malleret in the 1940s.[67] These include mid-2nd-century Roman golden medallions from the reigns of Antoninus Pius, and his adopted son and heir Marcus Aurelius.[68] From Óc Eo, archaeologists also found a fine gold pendant imitation of a aureus of Antoninus minted in c. 152 AD with caption ANTONINVS AVG PIVS (Antoninus Aug(ustus) Pius) and portrait of the emperor turning left. Similar gold sheet discs that imitated Roman coins minted by local Funanese also are rediscovered, included imitations of aureus of Antoninus (minted in c. 155–158), Commodus (c. 192), Septimius Severus (c. 198–202), perhaps the minting techniques were brought by traders including those from the Roman Empire.[69] It is perhaps no small coincidence that the first Roman embassy from "Daqin" recorded in Chinese history is dated 166 AD, allegedly sent by a Roman ruler named "Andun" (Chinese: 安敦; corresponding with the names Antoninus Pius or Marcus Aurelius Antoninus) and arriving through the Eastern Han Empire's southernmost frontier province of Jiaozhi in northern Vietnam.[68][70][71][72]

In addition to trade, Funan also benefited from a sophisticated agricultural system that included use of an elaborate system of water storage and irrigation. The Funanese population was concentrated mainly along the rivers of the Mekong Delta; the area was a natural region for the development of an economy based on fishing and rice cultivation.

Foreign relations edit

 
Envoy of Funan (扶南國) to the Liang dynasty. Part of "Entrance of the Foreign Visitors of Emperor Yuan of Liang" (梁元帝番客入朝圖) by the painter Gu Deqian (顧德謙) of the Southern Tang dynasty (937–976 CE).

Little is known about Funan's political history apart from its relations with China. The Funanese had diplomatic relations and traded with the Eastern Wu and Liang dynasties of southern China.[56] Contact with Southeast Asia began after the Southward expansion of the Han dynasty, and the annexation of Nanyue and other kingdoms situated in southern China. Goods imported or modelled on those from China, like bronze axes, have been excavated in Cambodia. An Eastern Wu embassy was sent from China to Funan in 228.[73] A brief conflict is recorded to have happened in the 270s, when Funan and its neighbour, Linyi, joined forces to attack the area of Tongking (Vietnamese: Đông Kinh, "eastern capital"), located in what is now modern Northern Vietnam (which was a Chinese colony at the time).

Funan maintained diplomatic relations with the Murunda dynasty of northern Kalinga during 3rd cen CE, when King Dhamadamadhara (Dharmatamadharasya) of Murunda received envoy Su-Wu who represented King Fan Chan of Funan (225–250 CE).[74][75][76]

According to Chinese sources, Funan was eventually conquered and absorbed by its vassal polity Chenla (pinyin: Zhēnlà). Chenla was a Khmer polity, and its inscriptions are in both Sanskrit and in Khmer. The last known ruler of Funan was Rudravarman (留陁跋摩, pinyin: Liútuóbámó) who ruled from 514 up to c. 545 CE.

The French historian Georges Coedès once hypothesized a relation between the rulers of Funan and the Shailendra dynasty of Indonesia. Coedès believed that the title of "mountain lord" used by the Sailendra kings may also have been used by the kings of Funan, since he also believed that the name "Funan" was a Chinese transcription related to the Khmer "phnom", which means "mountain."[77] Other scholars have rejected this hypothesis, pointing to the lack of evidence in early Cambodian epigraphy for the use of any such titles.[78]

People who came from the coast of Funan are also known to establish Chi Tu (the Red Earth Kingdom) in the Malay Peninsula. The Red Earth Kingdom is thought to be a derivation nation of Funan with its own kind of Khmer culture.

List of rulers of Funan edit

Order Sanskrit Name Names in Chinese Texts Reign
01 Neang Neak (Queen Soma) Liǔyè (柳葉) 1st/2nd century?
02 Preah Thong (Kaundinya I) Hùntián (混塡) / Hùnhuì (混湏) 1st/2nd century
03 Hun Pan-huang Hùnpánkuàng (混盤況) 2nd century
04 Pan-Pan Pánpán (盤盤) late 2nd century
05 Srei Meara Fàn Shīmàn (范師蔓) early 3rd century
06 Unknown Fàn Jīnshēng (范金生) c. 230?
07 Unknown Fàn Zhān (范旃) c. 230–c. 243 or later
08 Unknown Fàn Cháng (范長) after 243
09 Unknown Fàn Xún (范尋) 245/250–287
10 Unknown Unknown 4th century
11 Candana Zhāntán (旃檀) c. 357
12 Unknown Unknown Unknown
13 Kaundinya Qiáochénrú (僑陳如) c. 420
14 Sri Indravarman I Chílítuóbámó (持梨陀跋摩) c. 430–c. 440
15 Unknown Unknown Unknown
16 Unknown Unknown Unknown
17 Jayavarman Kaundinya Qiáochénrú Shéyébámó (僑陳如闍耶跋摩) 484–514
18 Guṇavarman c. 514
19 Rudravarman Liútuóbámó (留陁跋摩) 514–c. 550

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ Martin Stuart-Fox (2003). A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence. Allen & Unwin. p. 29. ISBN 9781864489545.
  2. ^ Dougald JW O′Reilly (2007). Early Civilizations of Southeast Asia. Altamira Press. p. 194.
  3. ^ Higham, C., 2001, The Civilization of Angkor, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 9781842125847
  4. ^ Michael Vickery, "Funan reviewed: Deconstructing the Ancients", Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême Orient XC-XCI (2003–2004), pp. 101–143
  5. ^ Trude Jacobsen (2016). "Funan, Kingdom of". The Encyclopedia of Empire. pp. 1–2. doi:10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe059. ISBN 978-1-118-44064-3.
  6. ^ Minh Giang Vu (2022). "FUNAN (Phu Nam) from a new perspective". Journal of Social Science and Humanities. 64 (3): 71–85. doi:10.31276/VMOSTJOSSH.64(3).71-85.
  7. ^ Pierre-Yves Manguin, "From Funan to Sriwijaya: Cultural continuities and discontinuities in the Early Historical maritime states of Southeast Asia", in 25 tahun kerjasama Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi dan Ecole française d'Extrême-Orient, Jakarta, Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi / EFEO, 2002, p. 59-82.
  8. ^ a b Hà Văn Tấn, "Oc Eo: Endogenous and Exogenous Elements", Viet Nam Social Sciences, 1–2 (7–8), 1986, pp.91–101.
  9. ^ Lương Ninh, "Funan Kingdom: A Historical Turning Point", Vietnam Archaeology, 147 3/2007: 74–89.
  10. ^ Schuessler, Axel (2007). ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaiʻi Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-2975-9.
  11. ^ Georges Cœdès, "La Stele de Ta-Prohm", Bulletin de l'Ecole française d'Extreme-Orient (BEFEO), Hanoi, VI, 1906, pp.44–81; George Cœdès, Histoire ancienne des États hindouisés d'Extrême-Orient, Hanoi, 1944, pp.44–45; Georges Cœdès, Les états hindouisés d'Indochine et d'Indonésie, Paris, E. de Boccard, 1948, p.128.
  12. ^ Claude Jacques, "'Funan', 'Zhenla'. The reality concealed by these Chinese views of Indochina", in R. B. Smith and W. Watson (eds.), Early South East Asia: Essays in Archaeology, History, and Historical Geography, New York, Oxford University Press, 1979, pp.371–9, pp.373, 375; Ha Van Tan, "Óc Eo: Endogenous and Exogenous Elements", Viet Nam Social Sciences, 1–2 (7–8), 1986, pp. 91–101, pp.91–92.
  13. ^ a b Claude Jacques, "‘Funan’, ‘Zhenla’: The Reality Concealed by these Chinese Views of Indochina", in R. B. Smith and W. Watson (eds.), Early South East Asia : Essays in Archaeology, History and Historical Geography, New York, Oxford University Press, 1979, pp.371–9, p.378.
  14. ^ See Vickery, "Funan Deconstructed"
  15. ^ Pelliot, Paul (1903). "Le Fou-nan". Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient (in French). 3: 303. doi:10.3406/befeo.1903.1216. Retrieved 22 October 2017.
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Literature edit

  • George Cœdès, The Indianized States of Southeast Asia (translated from the French by Susan Brown Cowing). Honolulu: East West Center Press, 1968
  • George Cœdès, "Études Cambodgiennes XXV: Deux inscriptions sanskrites du Fou-nan",Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême Orient XXXI (1931), pp. 1–12
  • Louis Finot, "Notes d'Épigraphie XI: Les Inscriptions de Mi-so'n", Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême Orient IV (1904), pp. 918–925
  • Karl-Heinz Golzio, "Kauṇḍinya in Südostasien", in Martin Straube, Roland Steiner, Jayandra Soni, Michael Hahn and Mitsuyo Demoto (eds.) Pāsādikadānaṁ. Festschrift für Bhikkhu Pāsādika, Marburg: Indica et Tibetica Verlag 2009, pp. 157–165
  • Heinrich Hackmann, Erklärendes Wörterbuch zum chinesischen Buddhismus. Chinesisch-Sanskrit-deutsch. Von Heinrich Hackmann. Nach seinem handschriftlichen Nachlass überrbeitet von Johannes Nobel, Leiden: E. J. Brill 1952
  • Claude Jacques, "'Funan', 'Zhenla'. The reality concealed by these Chinese views of Indochina", in R. B. Smith and W. Watson (eds.), Early South East Asia: Essays in Archaeology, History, and Historical Geography, New York, Oxford University Press, 1979, pp. 371–9.
  • Claude Jacques,‘Funan: a major early Southeast Asian State’, in The Khmer Empire: Cities and Sanctuaries, Fifth to Thirteenth Century, translated by Tom White, Bangkok, River Books, 2007, pp. 43–66.
  • James C.M. Khoo (editor), Art & archaeology of Fu Nan: pre-Khmer Kingdom of the lower Mekong valley, Bangkok, The Southeast Asian Ceramic Society, Orchid Press, 2003
  • Lương Ninh, Vương quó̂c Phù Nam: lịch sử và văn hóa [Fu Nan: history and culture], Hà Nội, Viên văn hóa và Nhà xuât bản Văn hóa thông tin, 2005
  • Lương Ninh, «Nước Chi Tôn», một quőc gia cở ở miển tây sông Hậu, ("Chi Tôn", an ancient state in the western bank of the Hậu river), Khảo cổ học, ső 1, 1981, tr.38
  • Pierre-Yves Manguin, "The archaeology of Fu Nan in the Mekong River Delta: the Oc Eo culture of Viet Nam", in Nancy Tingley and Andreas Reinecke, Arts of ancient Viet Nam: from River Plain to Open Sea, Houston, Museum of Fine Arts, 2009, pp. 100–118.
  • Pierre-Yves Manguin, "From Funan to Sriwijaya: Cultural continuities and discontinuities in the Early Historical maritime states of Southeast Asia", in 25 tahun kerjasama Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi dan Ecole française d'Extrême-Orient, Jakarta, Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi / EFEO, 2002, p. 59–82.
  • Pelliot, Paul (1903). "Le Fou-nan". Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient (in French). 3: 248–303. doi:10.3406/befeo.1903.1216. Retrieved 22 October 2017.
  • Miriam T. Stark, "From Funan to Angkor: Collapse and Regeneration in Ancient Cambodia", G. Schwartz, J. Nichols (eds.), After Collapse: The Regeneration of Societies, University of Arizona Press, 2006, pp. 144–167.
  • Michael Vickery, Society, Economics, and Politics in pre-Angkor Cambodia: The 7th–8th centuries. Tokyo: The Center for East Asian Cultural Studies for Unesco, The Toyo Bunko, 1998
  • Michael Vickery, "Funan reviewed: Deconstructing the Ancients." Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême Orient XC-XCI (2003–2004), pp. 101–143. [2]
  • An Giang Province Bureau of Culture, Sport and Tourism, Office of Cultural Heritage; An Giang Province Management Commission for Oc Eo Cultural Relics, Di Sản Văn Hóa Phù Nam-Óc Eo, An Giang-Việt Nam: Thế kỷ I-VII (Phu Nam-Oc Eo Heritage, An Giang-Vietnam: 1st–7th Century), [Long Xuyên], An Giang, 2013.

External links edit

  • Library of Congress Country Studies: Cambodia
  • SIDDHAM : the Asia inscriptions database

funan, other, uses, disambiguation, nokor, phnom, redirects, here, thai, province, nakhon, phanom, province, chinese, 扶南, pinyin, fúnán, khmer, ណន, hvunân, fuːnɑːn, vietnamese, phù, chữ, hán, 夫南, name, given, chinese, cartographers, geographers, writers, ancie. For other uses see Funan disambiguation Nokor Phnom redirects here For the Thai province see Nakhon Phanom Province Funan Chinese 扶南 pinyin Funan Khmer ហ វ ណន Hvunan fuːnɑːn Vietnamese Phu Nam Chữ Han 夫南 was the name given by Chinese cartographers geographers and writers to an ancient Indianized state or rather a loose network of states Mandala 1 2 located in mainland Southeast Asia centered on the Mekong Delta that existed from the first to sixth century CE The name is found in Chinese historical texts describing the kingdom and the most extensive descriptions are largely based on the report of two Chinese diplomats Kang Tai and Zhu Ying representing the Eastern Wu dynasty who sojourned in Funan in the mid 3rd century CE 3 24 Funanហ វ ណន Khmer Hvunan68 CE 550 CEMap of indianized kingdoms of Indochina 1st to 9th centuries CE CapitalVyadhapura common Sanskrit religious ReligionHinduism BuddhismGovernmentMonarchyHistorical eraClassical Antiquity Established68 CE Disestablished550 CECurrencyNative coinsSucceeded byChenlaToday part ofCambodia Thailand VietnamFunan is known in the modern languages of the region as Vnum Old Khmer វ ន Nokor Phnom Khmer នគរភ ន Nokor Phnum nɔkɔː pʰnum lit Mountain Kingdom Funan Thai funan and Phu Nam Vietnamese However the name Funan is not found in any texts of local origin from the period and it is not known what name the people of Funan gave to their polity Some scholars argued that ancient Chinese scholars transcribed the word Funan from a word related to vnaṃ modern phnoṃ meaning mountain Others however thought that Funan may not be a transcription at all but rather it meant what it says in Chinese The first inscription in the Khmer language is dated shortly after the fall of Funan Like the very name of the kingdom the ethno linguistic nature of the people is the subject of much discussion among specialists The leading hypotheses are that the Funanese were mostly Mon Khmer or that they were mostly Austronesian or that they constituted a multi ethnic society The available evidence is inconclusive on this issue Michael Vickery has said that even though identification of the language of Funan is not possible the evidence strongly suggests that the population was Khmer 4 However several studies demonstrates that inhabitants of Funan probably spoke Malayo Polynesian languages as in neighboring Champa 5 6 The results of archaeology at Oc Eo have demonstrated no true discontinuity between Oc Eo and pre Angkorian levels indicating Khmer linguistic dominance in the area under Funan control 7 Based on the testimony of the Chinese historians the polity Funan is believed to have been established in the 1st century CE in the Mekong Delta but archaeological research has shown that extensive human settlement in the region may have gone back as far as the 4th century BCE Though regarded by Chinese authors as a single unified polity some modern scholars suspect that Funan may have been a collection of city states that sometimes were at war with one another and at other times constituted a political unity 8 From archaeological evidence which includes Roman Chinese and Indian goods excavated at the ancient mercantile centre of oc Eo in southern Vietnam it is known that Funan must have been a powerful trading state 9 Excavations at Angkor Borei in southern Cambodia have likewise delivered evidence of an important settlement Since oc Eo was linked to a port on the coast and to Angkor Borei by a system of canals it is possible that all of these locations together constituted the heartland of Funan Contents 1 Etymology 2 Sources 3 History 3 1 Origins of Funan 3 2 Myth of Origin and Indianisation 3 2 1 Multiple sources of the myth 3 2 2 Interpretation of the Myths 3 3 Apex and decline of Funan 3 4 Legacy 4 Society 4 1 Capital 4 2 Culture 4 3 Economy 4 4 Foreign relations 5 List of rulers of Funan 6 See also 7 References 8 Literature 9 External linksEtymology editSome scholars have advanced speculative proposal regarding the origin and meaning of the word Funan It is often said that the name Funan Middle Chinese pronunciation of 扶南 bju nậm Later Han pronunciation buɑ nem 10 represents a transcription from some local language into Chinese For example French scholar Georges Coedes advanced the theory that in using the word Funan ancient Chinese scholars were transcribing a word related to the Khmer word bnaṃ or vnaṃ modern phnoṃ meaning mountain 11 However the epigraphist Claude Jacques pointed out that this explanation was based on a mistranslation of the Sanskrit word parvatabupala in the ancient inscriptions as equivalent to the Khmer word bnaṃ and a mis identification of the King Bhavavarman I mentioned in them as the conqueror of Funan 12 It has also been observed that in Chinese the character 南 pinyin nan Vietnamese nam is frequently used in geographical terms to mean South Chinese scholars used it in this sense in naming other locations or regions of Southeast Asia such as Annam 13 Thus Funan may be an originally Chinese word and may not be a transcription at all Jacques proposed that use of the name Funan should be abandoned in favour of the names such as Bhavapura Aninditapura Shresthapura and Vyadhapura which are known from inscriptions to have been used at the time for cities in the region as opposed to Funan or Zhenla which are unknown in the Old Khmer language 13 Sources edit nbsp The archeological site of Go Cay Thi Oc EoThe first modern scholar to reconstruct the history of the ancient polity of Funan was Paul Pelliot who in his ground breaking article Le Fou nan of 1903 drew exclusively on Chinese historical records to set forth the sequence of documented events connecting the foundation of Funan in approximately the 1st century CE with its demise by conquest in the 6th to 7th century Scholars critical of Pelliot s Chinese sources have expressed scepticism regarding his conclusions 14 Chinese records dating from the 3rd century CE beginning with the Sanguo zhi 三國志 Records of the Three Kingdoms completed in 289 CE by Chen Shou 陳壽 233 297 record the arrival of two Funanese embassies at the court of Lǚ Dai 呂待 governor in the southern Chinese kingdom of Wu 吳 the first embassy arrived between 225 and 230 CE the second in the year 243 15 Later sources such as the Liang shu 梁書 Book of Liang of Yao Cha 姚察 533 606 and Yao Silian 姚思廉 d 637 completed in 636 discuss the mission of the 3rd century Chinese envoys Kang Tai 康泰 and Zhu Ying 朱應 from the Kingdom of Wu to Funan The writings of these envoys though no longer extant in their original condition were excerpted and as such preserved in the later dynastic histories and form the basis for much of what we know about Funan Since the publication of Pelliot s article archaeological excavation in Vietnam and Cambodia especially excavation of sites related to the oc Eo culture have supported and supplemented his conclusion History edit nbsp The archaeological site of Go Thap Muoi Đồng ThapSee also Indosphere Origins of Funan edit Chinese sources relate a local legend to document Funan s origin that a foreigner named Huntian 混填 pinyin Huntian established the Kingdom of Funan around the 1st century CE in the Mekong Delta of southern Vietnam Archeological evidence shows that extensive human settlement in the region may go back as far as the 4th century BCE Though treated by Chinese historians as a single unified empire according to some modern scholars Funan may have been a collection of city states that sometimes warred with one another and at other times constituted a political unity 8 The ethnic and linguistic origins of the Funanese people have consequently been subject to scholarly debate and no firm conclusions can be drawn based on the evidence available The Funanese may have been Cham or from another Austronesian group or they may have been Khmer or from another Austroasiatic group It is possible that they are the ancestors of those indigenous people dwelling in the southern part of Vietnam today who refer themselves as Khmer or Khmer Krom The Khmer term krom means below or lower part of and is used to refer to territory that was later colonized by Vietnamese immigrants and taken up into the modern state of Vietnam 16 While no conclusive study to determine whether Funan s ethnolinguistic components were Austronesian or Austroasiatic there is dispute among scholars According to the majority of Vietnamese academics for example Mac Duong stipulates that Funan s core population certainly were the Austronesians not Khmer the fall of Funan and the rise of Zhenla from the north in the 6th century indicate the arrival of the Khmer to the Mekong Delta That thesis received support from D G E Hall 17 Recent archaeological research lends weight to the conclusion that Funan was a Mon Khmer polity 18 In his Funan review Michael Vickery expresses himself a strong supporter of Funan s Khmer predominance theory It is also possible that Funan was a multicultural society including various ethnic and linguistic groups In the late 4th and 5th centuries Indianization advanced more rapidly in part through renewed impulses from the south Indian Pallava dynasty and the north Indian Gupta Empire 16 The only extant local writings from the period of Funan are paleographic Pallava Grantha inscriptions in Sanskrit of the Pallava dynasty a scholarly language used by learned and ruling elites throughout South and Southeast Asia These inscriptions give no information about the ethnicity or vernacular tongue of the Funanese Funan may have been the Suvarnabhumi referred to in ancient Indian texts 19 Among the Khmer Krom of the lower Mekong region the belief is held that they are the descendants of ancient Funan the core of Suvarnabhumi Suvarnadvipa which covered a vast extent of Southeast Asia including present day Cambodia southern Vietnam Thailand Laos Burma Malaya Sumatra and other parts of Indonesia 20 In December 2017 Dr Vong Sotheara of the Royal University of Phnom Penh discovered a Pre Angkorian stone inscription in the Province of Kampong Speu Baset District which he tentatively dated to 633 CE According to him the inscription would prove that Suvarnabhumi was the Khmer Empire The inscription translated read The great King Isanavarman is full of glory and bravery He is the King of Kings who rules over Suvarnabhumi until the sea which is the border while the kings in the neighbouring states honour his order to their heads 21 Myth of Origin and Indianisation edit nbsp A statue of Queen SomaMultiple sources of the myth edit Huntian Kaundinya IThe Book of Liang records a local legend to document Funan s origin that of the foundation of Funan by the foreigner Huntian 混塡 Middle Chinese pronunciation ɦwenx tɦian He came from the southern country Jiao 徼 an unidentified location perhaps on the Malaysian Peninsula or in the Indonesian archipelago after dreaming that his personal genie had delivered a divine bow to him and had directed him to embark on a large merchant junk In the morning he proceeded to the temple where he found a bow at the foot of the genie s tree He then boarded a ship which the genie caused to land in Funan The queen of the country Liǔye 柳葉 Willow Leaf Queen Soma Middle Chinese Iiu iap wanted to pillage the ship and seize it so Huntian shot an arrow from his divine bow which pierced through Liǔye s ship 22 37 Frightened she gave herself up and Huntian took her for his wife But unhappy to see her naked he folded a piece of material to make a garment through which he made her pass her head Then he governed the country and passed power on to his son 22 37 who was the founder of seven cities Nearly the same story appeared in the Jin shu 晉書 Book of Jin compiled by Fang Xuanling in 648 CE however in the Book of Jin the names given to the foreign conqueror and his native wife are Hunhui 混湏 and Yeliǔ 葉柳 Some scholars have identified the conqueror Huntian of the Book of Liang with the Brahmin Kauṇḍinya who married a naga snake princess named Soma as set forth in a Sanskrit inscription found at Mỹ Sơn 22 37 and dated 658 CE see below Other scholars 23 have rejected this identification pointing out that the word Huntian has only two syllables while the word Kauṇḍinya has three and arguing that Chinese scholars would not have used a two syllable Chinese word to transcribe a three syllable word from another language 24 The story of Kaundinya is also set forth briefly in the Sanskrit inscription C 96 of the Cham king Prakasadharma found at Mỹ Sơn It is dated Sunday 18 February 658 CE and thus belongs to the post Funanese period and states in relevant part stanzas XVI XVIII 25 It was there at the city of Bhavapura that Kauṇḍinya the foremost among brahmins planted the spear which he had obtained from Droṇa s Son Asvatthaman the best of brahmins There was a daughter of a king of serpents called Soma who founded a family in this world Having attained through love to a radically different element she lived in the abode of man She was taken as wife by the excellent Brahmin Kauṇḍinya for the sake of accomplishing a certain task 26 nbsp This stele found at Thap Mười in Đồng Thap Province Vietnam and now located in the Museum of History in Ho Chi Minh City is one of the few extant writings that can be attributed confidently to the kingdom of Funan The text is in Sanskrit written in Grantha script of the Pallava dynasty dated to the mid 5th century CE and tells of a donation in honour of Vishnu by a Prince Gunavarman of the Kaundinya lineage The Sanskrit inscription K 5 of Thap Mười known as Prasat Pram Loven in Khmer which is now on display in the Museum of Vietnamese History in Ho Chi Minh City refers to a Prince Guṇavarman younger son nṛpasunu balo pi of a king Ja yavarman who was the moon of the Kauṇḍinya line kauṇḍi n ya vaṅ sasasina and chief of a realm wrested from the mud 27 The legend of Kaundinya is paralleled in modern Khmer folklore where the foreign prince is known as Preah Thaong and the queen as Neang Neak In this version of the story Preah Thaong arrives by sea to an island marked by a giant thlok tree native to Cambodia On the island he finds the home of the nagas and meets Neang Neak daughter of the naga king He marries her with blessings from her father and returns to the human world The naga king drinks the sea around the island and confers the name Kampuchea Thipdei which is derived from the Sanskrit Kambujadhipati and may be translated into English as the lord of Cambodia In another version it is stated that Preah Thaong fights Neang Neak 28 29 30 Kaundinya II nbsp Ruins of Nam Linh Son Oc EoEven if the Chinese Huntian is not the proper transcription of the Sanskrit Kaundinya the name Kaundinya Kauṇḍinya Koṇḍanna Koṇḍinya etc is nevertheless an important one in the history of Funan Chinese sources mention another person of the name Qiaochenru 僑陳如 31 A person of that name is mentioned in the Book of Liang in a story that appears somewhat after the story of Huntian According to this source Qiaochenru was one of the successors of the king Tianzhu Zhantan 天竺旃檀 Candana from India a ruler of Funan who in the year 357 CE sent tamed elephants as tribute to Emperor Mu of Jin r 344 361 personal name Simǎ Dan 司馬聃 He Qiaochenru was originally a Brahmin from India There a voice told him you must go reign over Funan and he rejoiced in his heart In the south he arrived at Panpan 盤盤 The people of Funan appeared to him the whole kingdom rose up with joy went before him and chose him king He changed all the laws to conform to the system of India Interpretation of the Myths edit Keneth Hall remarks that the basic details of the Chinese legend are reiterated elsewhere in Indian and Southeast Asian folklore 32 The historian Gabriel Ferrand believed that some Indian merchants might have immigrated to the region and established relations with the natives and that s how the myth emerged 33 Some Indian historians have taken this myth to extreme length and speculate that a large population of South Asians colonized Funan 34 Dutch historian J C van Leur stressed that it was the local rulers who recognized the benefits of associating with their relatively advanced social technologies and drew from the Indian traditions by encouraging migration of Brahmin clerks to help with the administration 35 As per O W Wolters there was a mutual sharing process in the evolution of Indianized statecraft and no mass influx of Brahmans He said that it was rather the Indianized local Southeast Asian traders who provided the initial contact with Indian cultural traditions and the local rulers followed up He also stated that Hindu traditions was selectively mobilized by the local rulers to strengthen the political alliances among fragile polity of the states in that period 36 A DNA sample taken from a protohistoric individual from the Wat Komnou cemetery at the Angkor Borei site in Cambodia contains substantial level of South Asian admixture ca 40 50 Radiocarbon dating result on the human bone 95 confidence interval is 78 234 calCE indicate that this individual lived during the early period of Funan 37 Apex and decline of Funan edit Successive rulers following Hun t ien included Hun p an huang P an p an and then Fan Shih man Great King of Funan who had large ships built and sailing all over the immense sea he attacked more than ten kingdoms he extended his territory five or six thousand li Fan Shih man died on a military expedition to Chin lin Frontier of Gold He was followed by Chin cheng Fan Chan Ch ang and then Fan Hsun in successive assassinations Before his death Fan Chan sent embassies to India and China in 243 22 38 40 42 46 56 59 60 38 283 284 285 Around 245 Funan was described as having walled villages palaces and dwellings They devote themselves to agriculture they like to engrave ornaments and chisel Many of their eating utensils are silver Taxes are paid in gold silver pearls perfumes There are books and depositories of archives and other things The Indianised ruler Chan T an was ruling in 357 followed by another Indianised ruler Chiao Chen ju Kaundinya in the fifth century who changed all the laws to conform to the system of India In 480 She yeh pa mo Jayavarman or Protege of Victory reigned until his death in 514 One of his sons Rudravarman killed the other Gunavarman for the throne and became the last king of Funan 22 38 40 42 46 56 59 60 38 283 284 285 Funan reached the apex of its power under the 3rd century king Fan Shiman pinyin Fan Shiman Fan Shiman expanded his empire s navy and improved the Funanese bureaucracy creating a quasi feudal pattern that left local customs and identities largely intact particularly in the empire s further reaches Fan Shiman and his successors also sent ambassadors to China and India to regulate sea trade The kingdom likely accelerated the process of Indianization of Southeast Asia Later kingdoms of Southeast Asia such as Chenla may have emulated the Funanese court The Funanese established a strong system of mercantilism and commercial monopolies that would become a pattern for empires in the region 39 Funan s dependence on maritime trade is seen as a cause for the beginning of Funan s downfall Their coastal ports allowed trade with foreign regions that funnelled goods to the north and coastal populations However the shift in maritime trade to Sumatra the rise in the Srivijaya trade empire and the taking of trade routes all throughout Southeast Asia by China leads to economic instability in the south and forces politics and economy northward 39 Funan was superseded and absorbed in the 6th century by the Khmer polity of the Chenla Kingdom Zhenla 40 The king had his capital in the city of T e mu Suddenly his city was subjugated by Chenla and he had to migrate south to the city of Nafuna Middle Chinese na piiidt na 22 65 The Book of Sui complied in 636 states The Kingdom of Zhenla is to the southwest of Linyi and was originally subject to Funan The surname of its former king was that of the Cha li clan his given name was Zhiduo si na 質多斯那 His ancestors had gradually become more powerful and flourishing until the time of Zhi duo sina himself who annexed Funan and possessed it The New Book of Tang c 1060 tells that Yishenaxiandai 伊奢那先代 son of Citrasena Mahendravarman subdued Funan and annexed Funan territory in the beginning of the Zhenguan era 627 649 when Emperor Taizong of Tang ruled The first inscription in the Khmer language is dated shortly after the fall of Funan A concentration of later Khmer inscriptions in southern Cambodia may suggest the even earlier presence of a Khmer population 41 Despite absence of compelling evidence as to the ethnicity of the Funanese modern scholar Michael Vickery has stated that on present evidence it is impossible to assert that Funan as an area and its dominant groups were anything but Khmer 42 Legacy edit The King of the mountain was the monarch of Funan 43 44 45 46 There was a mountain regarded as holy 47 44 Mountain in Khmer sounds similar to Funan 48 49 50 The Java based Sailendras claimed that the Funan monarchs were their ancestors Cambodia was taken control of after a sojourn in Java by Jayavarman II 51 52 53 The Mountain Kings of Funan were claimed as the forebears of the Malacca Sultanate and Brunei Sultanate 54 55 Society edit nbsp Bodhisattva Lokeshvara of Phnom Da style 7th century Mỹ Tho Guimet MuseumKeeping in mind that Funanese records did not survive into the modern period much of what is known came from archaeological excavation Excavations yielded discoveries of brick wall structures precious metals and pot from southern Cambodia and Vietnam Also found was a large canal system that linked the settlements of Angkor Borei and coastal outlets this suggests a highly organised government 56 Funan was a complex and sophisticated society with a high population density advanced technology and a complex social system Capital edit nbsp A temple at the archaeological site of Angkor BoreiOn the assumption that Funan was a single unified polity scholars have advanced various linguistic arguments about the location of its capital One theory based on the presumed connection between the word Funan and the Khmer word phnom locates the capital in the vicinity of Ba Phnoṃ near the modern Cambodian town of Banam in Prey Veng Province Another theory propounded by George Coedes is that the capital was a town identified in Angkorian inscriptions as Vyadhapura City of the Hunter 57 Coedes based his theory on a passage in the Chinese histories which identified the capital as Temu 特牧 pinyin Temu Coedes claimed this name represented a transcription from the Khmer word dalmak which he translated as hunter This theory has been rejected by other scholars on the grounds that dalmak means trapper not hunter 58 Unfortunately only limited archaeological research has been conducted on Funan in southern Cambodia and Cochinchina in the last few decades and it is precisely this region that reputedly housed the capital or capitals of Funan 59 However archaeological surveys and excavations were carried out by joint Cambodian Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts Royal University of Fine Arts and international teams at Angkor Borei since 1994 continuing into the 2000s The research included excavation and dating of human burials at Wat Kamnou Numerous brick features architectural remains and landscape features such as mounds canals and reservoirs have also been identified Some have been dated with a wide spectrum of results ranging from the late centuries BCE to the Angkorian period A significant canal system linking the site of Oc Eo has also been researched and dated Phon Kaseka led a Royal Academy of Cambodia and Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts team also with Royal University of Fine Arts personnel conducted Iron Age to Funan period burial excavations at neighboring Phnom Borei Large landscape features notable settlement mounds and other sites exhibiting Funan material culture and settlement patterns extend from at least Phnom Chisor through Oc Eo and numerous sites in Vietnam Vietnamese archaeologists have also conducted a fair amount of research on Funan sites in the lower Mekong region Many of the mounds show evidence of material culture and landscape modification inclusive of species genera biological regimes ranging from the metal age through the post Angkorian period and later as evidenced by 13th through 16th century CE Chinese Thai Vietnamese and Cham ceramics The evidence suggests a 2000 year or longer period of urbanization continuous activity and relatively strong albeit indirect and multi nodal connections to long distance value chains Nevertheless it is quite evident that periods of intense production consumption activity commercial and political centrality fluctuated The Funan period seems to have been the heyday and Angkor Borei may have been Funan s premiere capital for much of that period However many of the settlements did not necessarily spring up out of nowhere or vanish quickly They were certainly well integrated into pre Funan Funan Zhenla Chenla Angkorian and post Angkorian socio economic and political networks The urbanization and networking processes demonstrate significant continuity evolution and longevity before and after the typical first to sixth century CE historic classification scheme Culture edit nbsp Gold foil at Oc Eo nbsp Wooden Buddha statue nbsp Funanese Sanskrit inscription nbsp Funan Lingam nbsp Funanese Buddha statue Funanese culture was a mixture of native beliefs and Indian ideas The kingdom is said to have been heavily influenced by Indian culture and to have employed Indians for state administration purposes Sanskrit was the language at the court and the Funanese advocated Hinduism and after the fifth century Buddhist religious doctrines citation needed Records show that taxes were paid in silver gold pearls and perfumed wood Kang Tai 康泰 and Zhu Ying 朱應 reported that the Funanese practised slavery and that justice was rendered through trial by ordeal including such methods as carrying a red hot iron chain and retrieving gold rings and eggs from boiling water citation needed Archaeological evidence largely corresponds to Chinese records The Chinese described the Funanese as people who lived on stilt houses cultivated rice and sent tributes of gold silver ivory and exotic animals 60 Kang Tai s report was unflattering to Funanese civilisation though Chinese court records show that a group of Funanese musicians visited China in 263 CE The Chinese emperor was so impressed that he ordered the establishment of an institute for Funanese music near Nanking 61 The Funanese were reported to have extensive book collections and archives throughout their country demonstrating a high level of scholarly achievements Two Buddhist monks from Funan named Mandrasena and Sanghapala 22 58 92 took up residency in China in the 5th to 6th centuries and translated several Buddhist sutras from Sanskrit or a prakrit into Chinese 62 Among these texts is the Mahayana Saptasatika Prajnaparamita Sutra also called the Mahaprajnaparamita Manjusriparivarta Sutra 63 This text was separately translated by both monks 62 The bodhisattva Manjusri is a prominent figure in this text Economy edit nbsp Aureus nbsp Funanese gold nbsp Funanese jewelryFunanese gold objects Left A local imitation of aureus issued by Commodus Legend L ucius AEL ius AVREL ius COMMO odus AUG ustus P ius FEL ix nbsp A view of Mount Ba The Oc Eo An Giang Province VietnamFunan was Southeast Asia s first great economy It became prosperous through maritime trade and agriculture The kingdom apparently minted its own silver coinage bearing the image of the crested argus or hamsa bird 64 Funan came into prominence at a time when the trade route from India to China consisted of a maritime leg from India to the Isthmus of Kra the narrow portion of the Malay peninsula a portage across the isthmus and then a coast hugging journey by ship along the Gulf of Siam past the Mekong Delta and along the Vietnamese coast to China Funanese kings of the 2nd century conquered polities on the isthmus itself and thus may have controlled the entire trade route from Malaysia to central Vietnam The Funanese settlement of oc Eo located near the Straits of Malacca provided a port of call and entrepot for this international trade route Archaeological evidence discovered at what may have been the commercial centre of Funan at oc Eo includes Roman as well as Persian Indian and Greek artefacts The German classical scholar Albrecht Dihle believed that Funan s main port was the Kattigara referred to by the 2nd century Alexandrian geographer Ptolemy as the emporium where merchants from the Chinese and Roman empires met to trade Dihle also believed that the location of oc Eo best fit the details given by Ptolemy of a voyage made by a Graeco Roman merchant named Alexander to Kattigara situated at the easternmost end of the maritime trade route from the eastern Roman Empire 65 Georges Coedes said Fu nan occupied a key position with regard to the maritime trade routes and was inevitably a port of call both for the navigators who went through the Straits of Malacca and for those probably more numerous who made the transit over one of the isthmuses of the Malay Peninsula Fu nan may even have been the terminus of voyages from the Eastern Mediterranean if it is the case that the Kattigara mentioned by Ptolemy was situated on the western coast of Indochina on the Gulf of Siam 66 nbsp Greco Indian nbsp Pyu nbsp Indian nbsp Funanese beadsFirst three silver coins of foreign origin traded in Funan At oc Eo Roman coins were among the items of long distance trade discovered by the French archaeologist Louis Malleret in the 1940s 67 These include mid 2nd century Roman golden medallions from the reigns of Antoninus Pius and his adopted son and heir Marcus Aurelius 68 From oc Eo archaeologists also found a fine gold pendant imitation of a aureus of Antoninus minted in c 152 AD with caption ANTONINVS AVG PIVS Antoninus Aug ustus Pius and portrait of the emperor turning left Similar gold sheet discs that imitated Roman coins minted by local Funanese also are rediscovered included imitations of aureus of Antoninus minted in c 155 158 Commodus c 192 Septimius Severus c 198 202 perhaps the minting techniques were brought by traders including those from the Roman Empire 69 It is perhaps no small coincidence that the first Roman embassy from Daqin recorded in Chinese history is dated 166 AD allegedly sent by a Roman ruler named Andun Chinese 安敦 corresponding with the names Antoninus Pius or Marcus Aurelius Antoninus and arriving through the Eastern Han Empire s southernmost frontier province of Jiaozhi in northern Vietnam 68 70 71 72 In addition to trade Funan also benefited from a sophisticated agricultural system that included use of an elaborate system of water storage and irrigation The Funanese population was concentrated mainly along the rivers of the Mekong Delta the area was a natural region for the development of an economy based on fishing and rice cultivation Foreign relations edit nbsp Envoy of Funan 扶南國 to the Liang dynasty Part of Entrance of the Foreign Visitors of Emperor Yuan of Liang 梁元帝番客入朝圖 by the painter Gu Deqian 顧德謙 of the Southern Tang dynasty 937 976 CE Little is known about Funan s political history apart from its relations with China The Funanese had diplomatic relations and traded with the Eastern Wu and Liang dynasties of southern China 56 Contact with Southeast Asia began after the Southward expansion of the Han dynasty and the annexation of Nanyue and other kingdoms situated in southern China Goods imported or modelled on those from China like bronze axes have been excavated in Cambodia An Eastern Wu embassy was sent from China to Funan in 228 73 A brief conflict is recorded to have happened in the 270s when Funan and its neighbour Linyi joined forces to attack the area of Tongking Vietnamese Đong Kinh eastern capital located in what is now modern Northern Vietnam which was a Chinese colony at the time Funan maintained diplomatic relations with the Murunda dynasty of northern Kalinga during 3rd cen CE when King Dhamadamadhara Dharmatamadharasya of Murunda received envoy Su Wu who represented King Fan Chan of Funan 225 250 CE 74 75 76 According to Chinese sources Funan was eventually conquered and absorbed by its vassal polity Chenla pinyin Zhenla Chenla was a Khmer polity and its inscriptions are in both Sanskrit and in Khmer The last known ruler of Funan was Rudravarman 留陁跋摩 pinyin Liutuobamo who ruled from 514 up to c 545 CE The French historian Georges Coedes once hypothesized a relation between the rulers of Funan and the Shailendra dynasty of Indonesia Coedes believed that the title of mountain lord used by the Sailendra kings may also have been used by the kings of Funan since he also believed that the name Funan was a Chinese transcription related to the Khmer phnom which means mountain 77 Other scholars have rejected this hypothesis pointing to the lack of evidence in early Cambodian epigraphy for the use of any such titles 78 People who came from the coast of Funan are also known to establish Chi Tu the Red Earth Kingdom in the Malay Peninsula The Red Earth Kingdom is thought to be a derivation nation of Funan with its own kind of Khmer culture List of rulers of Funan editOrder Sanskrit Name Names in Chinese Texts Reign01 Neang Neak Queen Soma Liǔye 柳葉 1st 2nd century 02 Preah Thong Kaundinya I Huntian 混塡 Hunhui 混湏 1st 2nd century03 Hun Pan huang Hunpankuang 混盤況 2nd century04 Pan Pan Panpan 盤盤 late 2nd century05 Srei Meara Fan Shiman 范師蔓 early 3rd century06 Unknown Fan Jinsheng 范金生 c 230 07 Unknown Fan Zhan 范旃 c 230 c 243 or later08 Unknown Fan Chang 范長 after 24309 Unknown Fan Xun 范尋 245 250 28710 Unknown Unknown 4th century11 Candana Zhantan 旃檀 c 35712 Unknown Unknown Unknown13 Kaundinya Qiaochenru 僑陳如 c 42014 Sri Indravarman I Chilituobamo 持梨陀跋摩 c 430 c 44015 Unknown Unknown Unknown16 Unknown Unknown Unknown17 Jayavarman Kaundinya Qiaochenru Sheyebamo 僑陳如闍耶跋摩 484 51418 Guṇavarman c 51419 Rudravarman Liutuobamo 留陁跋摩 514 c 550See also editMnong people Angkor Borei and Phnom Da oc Eo Cat Tien archaeological site Pan PanReferences edit Martin Stuart Fox 2003 A Short History of China and Southeast Asia Tribute Trade and Influence Allen amp Unwin p 29 ISBN 9781864489545 Dougald JW O Reilly 2007 Early Civilizations of Southeast Asia Altamira Press p 194 Higham C 2001 The Civilization of Angkor London Weidenfeld amp Nicolson ISBN 9781842125847 Michael Vickery Funan reviewed Deconstructing the Ancients Bulletin de l Ecole Francaise d Extreme Orient XC XCI 2003 2004 pp 101 143 Trude Jacobsen 2016 Funan Kingdom of The Encyclopedia of Empire pp 1 2 doi 10 1002 9781118455074 wbeoe059 ISBN 978 1 118 44064 3 Minh Giang Vu 2022 FUNAN Phu Nam from a new perspective Journal of Social Science and Humanities 64 3 71 85 doi 10 31276 VMOSTJOSSH 64 3 71 85 Pierre Yves Manguin From Funan to Sriwijaya Cultural continuities and discontinuities in the Early Historical maritime states of Southeast Asia in 25 tahun kerjasama Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi dan Ecole francaise d Extreme Orient Jakarta Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi EFEO 2002 p 59 82 a b Ha Văn Tấn Oc Eo Endogenous and Exogenous Elements Viet Nam Social Sciences 1 2 7 8 1986 pp 91 101 Lương Ninh Funan Kingdom A Historical Turning Point Vietnam Archaeology 147 3 2007 74 89 Schuessler Axel 2007 ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese Honolulu HI University of Hawaiʻi Press ISBN 978 0 8248 2975 9 Georges Cœdes La Stele de Ta Prohm Bulletin de l Ecole francaise d Extreme Orient BEFEO Hanoi VI 1906 pp 44 81 George Cœdes Histoire ancienne des Etats hindouises d Extreme Orient Hanoi 1944 pp 44 45 Georges Cœdes Les etats hindouises d Indochine et d Indonesie Paris E de Boccard 1948 p 128 Claude Jacques Funan Zhenla The reality concealed by these Chinese views of Indochina in R B Smith and W Watson eds Early South East Asia Essays in Archaeology History and Historical Geography New York Oxford University Press 1979 pp 371 9 pp 373 375 Ha Van Tan oc Eo Endogenous and Exogenous Elements Viet Nam Social Sciences 1 2 7 8 1986 pp 91 101 pp 91 92 a b Claude Jacques Funan Zhenla The Reality Concealed by these Chinese Views of Indochina in R B Smith and W Watson eds Early South East Asia Essays in Archaeology History and Historical Geography New York Oxford University Press 1979 pp 371 9 p 378 See Vickery Funan Deconstructed Pelliot Paul 1903 Le Fou nan Bulletin de l Ecole francaise d Extreme Orient in French 3 303 doi 10 3406 befeo 1903 1216 Retrieved 22 October 2017 a b Asia A Concise History by Milton W Meyer p 62 Wessel Ingrid 1994 Nationalism and Ethnicity in Southeast Asia Proceedings of the Conference Nationalism and Ethnicity in Southeast Asia at Humboldt University Berlin October 1993 Band 2 LIT ISBN 978 3 82582 191 3 Miksic John Norman Yian Goh Geok 2016 Ancient Southeast Asia Routledge Pang Khat Le Bouddhisme au Cambodge Rene de Berval Presence du Bouddhisme Paris Gallimard 1987 pp 535 551 pp 537 538 Amarajiva Lochan India and Thailand Early Trade Routes and Sea Ports S K Maity Upendra Thakur A K Narain eds Studies in Orientology Essays in Memory of Prof A L Basham Agra Y K Publishers 1988 pp 222 235 pp 222 229 230 Prapod Assavavirulhakarn The Ascendancy of Theravada Buddhism in Southeast Asia Chieng Mai Silkworm Books 2010 p 55 Philip Taylor The Khmer lands of Vietnam Environment Cosmology and Sovereignty Honolulu Asian Studies Association of Australia in association with University of Hawaiʻi Press 2014 pp 36 37 65 67 271 Rinith Taing Was Cambodia home to Asia s ancient Land of Gold The Phnom Penh Post 5 January 2018 a b c d e f g Coedes George 1968 Walter F Vella ed The Indianized States of Southeast Asia trans Susan Brown Cowing University of Hawaii Press ISBN 978 0 8248 0368 1 Vickery Funan reviewed p 197 Edwin George Pulleyblank Lexicon of reconstructed pronunciation in early Middle Chinese and early mandarin Vancouver UBC Press 1991 pp 135 and 306 Louis Finot Notes d Epigraphie XI Les Inscriptions de Mi so n p 923 Golzio Kauṇḍinya in Sudostasien pp 157 165 Georges Cœdes Etudes Cambodgiennes XXV Deux inscriptions sanskrites du Fou nan pp 2 8 Rudiger Gaudes Kaundinya Preah Thong and the Nagi Soma Some Aspects of a Cambodian Legend p 337 Eveline Poree Maspero Nouvelle Etude sur la Nagi Soma pp 239 amp 246 R C Majumdar Kambuja Desa or An Ancient Cambodian Colony in Cambodia pp 18 19 Hackmann Erklaren des Worterbuch zum chinesischen Buddhismus p 80 s v Chiao ch en ju Keneth Hall The Indianization of Funan An Economic History of Southeast Asia s First State 1982 The legend focuses upon the marriage between the foreigner bearing the Indian name Kaundinya a great Brahman and a local Nagi princess daughter of the ruler of the water realm This legend is broadly used to symbolise the union of Indian and indigenous cultures Kaundinya representing the more sophisticated Indian culture and religion and the Navi princess symbolic of local ways and indigenous fertility cults The marriage myth attempts to explain not only the penetration of Indian culture into Southeast Asia but also the origin of Southeast Asian kingship Historians have not however been in agreement on its interpretation Keneth Hall The Indianization of Funan An Economic History of Southeast Asia s First State 1982 A classical account of the process symbolized in the Kaundinya myth is provided in the historical reconstruction by the French historian Gabriel Ferrand The true picture must have been something like this two or three Indian vessels sailing together arrived there The newcomers established relations with the chiefs of the country earning favor with them by means of presents treatment of illnesses and amulets No one could use such procedures better than an Indian He would undoubtedly pass himself off as a royal or princely extraction and his host could not help but be favorably impressed Keneth Hall The Indianization of Funan An Economic History of Southeast Asia s First State 1982 Ferrand s theme of Indians travelling to Southeast Asia and providing guidance over a cultural transformation is carried to the extreme by several Indian historians who have argued that large number of South Asians not only migrated to but also colonized Funan and other early centers of civilization in Southeast Asia Keneth Hall The Indianization of Funan An Economic History of Southeast Asia s First State 1982 p 84 Keneth Hall The Indianization of Funan An Economic History of Southeast Asia s First State 1982 O W Wolters has stressed a mutual sharing process in the evolution of Indianized statecraft in Southeast Asia Southeast Asian traders provided the initial contact with and knowledge of the Indian cultural traditions Southeast Asian rulers followed up thus the Indianizing of their realm was due not to commercial pressures not to a massive influx of Indian Brahmans but to a recognition that Indian culture provided certain opportunities for administrative and technological advancement The initial era of trade contact was one of adaption and learning It was a Southeast Asian initiative not Indian and it was a slow process of cultural synthesis not rapid imposition of Hinduism made possible by a massive influx of Brahmans that was responsible for the Indianization of Southeast Asia Hindu traditions was this selectively mobilized to reinforce political alliances within the fragile polity of these early states Changmai Piya Pinhasi Ron Pietrusewsky Michael Stark Miriam T Ikehara Quebral Rona Michi Reich David Flegontov Pavel 29 December 2022 Ancient DNA from Protohistoric Period Cambodia indicates that South Asians admixed with local populations as early as 1st 3rd centuries CE Scientific Reports 12 1 22507 Bibcode 2022NatSR 1222507C doi 10 1038 s41598 022 26799 3 ISSN 2045 2322 PMC 9800559 PMID 36581666 a b Higham C 2014 Early Mainland Southeast Asia Bangkok River Books Co Ltd ISBN 9786167339443 a b Stark M T 2006 From Funan to Angkor Collapse and regeneration in ancient Cambodia After collapse The regeneration of complex societies 144 167 Nick Ray 2009 Vietnam Cambodia Laos amp the Greater Mekong Lonely Planet pp 30 ISBN 978 1 74179 174 7 Michael Vickery What to Do about The Khmers Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 27 2 1996 p 390 Michael Vickery Funan Reviewed Deconstructing the Ancients p 125 Carlos Ramirez Faria 1 January 2007 Concise Encyclopeida Of World History Atlantic Publishers amp Dist pp 106 ISBN 978 81 269 0775 5 a b Kenneth R Hal 1985 Maritime Trade and State Development in Early Southeast Asia University of Hawaii Press p 63 ISBN 978 0 8248 0843 3 Chikyō Yamamoto 1990 Introduction to Buddhist art International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan p 121 ISBN 978 81 85179 44 5 Christopher Tadgell 23 October 2015 The East Buddhists Hindus and the Sons of Heaven Routledge pp 345 ISBN 978 1 136 75384 8 Stewart Wavell 1988 The Naga King s Daughter Antara Book Company p 12 ISBN 978 967 80 0023 9 Nick Ray Greg Bloom Daniel Robinson 2010 Cambodia Lonely Planet pp 26 ISBN 978 1 74220 319 5 Vladimir Braginsky 18 March 2014 Classical Civilizations of South East Asia Routledge pp 143 ISBN 978 1 136 84879 7 Nick Ray Daniel Robinson 2008 Cambodia Ediz Inglese Lonely Planet pp 26 GGKEY ALKFLS6LY8Y Greater India Society 1934 Journal p 69 Chamber s Encyclopaedia International Learnings Systems 1968 p 764 The Encyclopedia Americana Americana Corporation 1976 p 204 ISBN 978 0 7172 0107 5 Marie Sybille de Vienne 9 March 2015 Brunei From the Age of Commerce to the 21st Century NUS Press pp 43 ISBN 978 9971 69 818 8 Graham Saunders 5 November 2013 A History of Brunei Routledge pp 8 ISBN 978 1 136 87394 2 a b Charles Holcombe Trade Buddhism Maritime trade immigration and the Buddhist landfall in early Japan p 280 Coedes The Indianized States of Southeast Asia pp 36 ff Michael Vickery Society Economics and Politics in pre Angkor Cambodia The 7th 8th centuries pp 36 ff Miriam T Stark et al Results of the 1995 1996 Archaeological Field Investigations at Angkor Borei Cambodia Archived 23 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine Asian Perspectives vol 38 no 1 1999 at University of Hawai i pp 7ff Pelliot Paul 1903 Le Fou nan Bulletin de l Ecole francaise d Extreme Orient in French 3 248 303 doi 10 3406 befeo 1903 1216 Retrieved 22 October 2017 D R Sardesai Southeast Asia Past And Present 3rd ed 1994 Westview Press ISBN 978 0 8133 1706 9 p 23 a b T oung Pao International Journal of Chinese Studies 1958 p 185 The Korean Buddhist Canon A Descriptive Catalog T 232 Lương Ninh oc Eo Cảng thị quốc tế của Vương quốc Phu Nam oc Eo International Trade Port of Funnan Kingdom Khảo cổ học Vietnam Archaeology 3 2011 pp 39 44 Albrecht Dihle Serer und Chinesen in Antike und Orient Gesammelte Aufsatze Heidelberg Carl Winter 1984 S 209 Georges Coedes Les Peuples de la Peninsule Indochinoise Histoire Civilisations Paris Dunod 1962 pp 62 translated by H M Wright The Making of South East Asia Berkeley University of California Press 1966 p 58 59 Milton Osborne 2006 The Mekong Turbulent Past Uncertain Future Crows Nest Allen amp Unwin revised edition first published in 2000 ISBN 1 74114 893 6 pp 24 25 a b Gary K Young 2001 Rome s Eastern Trade International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC AD 305 London amp New York Routledge ISBN 0 415 24219 3 p 29 Borell Brigitte 2014 The Power of Images Coin Portraits of Roman Emperors on Jewellery Pendants in Early Southeast Asia Zeitschrift fur Archaologie Aussereuropaischer Kulturen 6 Beitrage zur Allgemeinen und Vergleichenden Archaologie pp 7 44 Yu Ying shih 1986 Han Foreign Relations in Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe eds The Cambridge History of China Volume I the Ch in and Han Empires 221 B C A D 220 377 462 Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 460 461 ISBN 978 0 521 24327 8 de Crespigny Rafe 2007 A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms 23 220 AD Leiden Koninklijke Brill p 600 ISBN 978 90 04 15605 0 Paul Halsall 2000 1998 Jerome S Arkenberg ed East Asian History Sourcebook Chinese Accounts of Rome Byzantium and the Middle East c 91 B C E 1643 C E Fordham edu Fordham University Retrieved 17 September 2016 Gernet Jacques 1996 A History of Chinese Civilization Cambridge University Press pp 126 127 196 197 ISBN 978 0 521 49781 7 Pelliot Paul 1903 Le Fou nan Bulletin de l Ecole francaise d Extreme Orient in French 3 292 doi 10 3406 befeo 1903 1216 Retrieved 12 April 2021 Coedes George 1968 Walter F Vella ed The Indianized States of Southeast Asia PDF trans Susan Brown Cowing University of Hawaii Press pp 46 47 ISBN 978 0 8248 0368 1 Benudhar Patra November 2011 Kalinga and Funan A Study in Ancient Relations PDF Orissa Review retrieved 4 April 2021 Cœdes The Indianized States of Southeast Asia p 36 Vickery Funan Reviewed pp 103 132 133 Literature editGeorge Cœdes The Indianized States of Southeast Asia translated from the French by Susan Brown Cowing Honolulu East West Center Press 1968 George Cœdes Etudes Cambodgiennes XXV Deux inscriptions sanskrites du Fou nan Bulletin de l Ecole Francaise d Extreme Orient XXXI 1931 pp 1 12 Louis Finot Notes d Epigraphie XI Les Inscriptions de Mi so n Bulletin de l Ecole Francaise d Extreme Orient IV 1904 pp 918 925 Karl Heinz Golzio Kauṇḍinya in Sudostasien in Martin Straube Roland Steiner Jayandra Soni Michael Hahn and Mitsuyo Demoto eds Pasadikadanaṁ Festschrift fur Bhikkhu Pasadika Marburg Indica et Tibetica Verlag 2009 pp 157 165 Heinrich Hackmann Erklarendes Worterbuch zum chinesischen Buddhismus Chinesisch Sanskrit deutsch Von Heinrich Hackmann Nach seinem handschriftlichen Nachlass uberrbeitet von Johannes Nobel Leiden E J Brill 1952 Claude Jacques Funan Zhenla The reality concealed by these Chinese views of Indochina in R B Smith and W Watson eds Early South East Asia Essays in Archaeology History and Historical Geography New York Oxford University Press 1979 pp 371 9 Claude Jacques Funan a major early Southeast Asian State in The Khmer Empire Cities and Sanctuaries Fifth to Thirteenth Century translated by Tom White Bangkok River Books 2007 pp 43 66 James C M Khoo editor Art amp archaeology of Fu Nan pre Khmer Kingdom of the lower Mekong valley Bangkok The Southeast Asian Ceramic Society Orchid Press 2003 Lương Ninh Vương quo c Phu Nam lịch sử va văn hoa Fu Nan history and culture Ha Nội Vien văn hoa va Nha xuat bản Văn hoa thong tin 2005 Lương Ninh Nước Chi Ton một quoc gia cở ở miển tay song Hậu Chi Ton an ancient state in the western bank of the Hậu river Khảo cổ học so 1 1981 tr 38 Pierre Yves Manguin The archaeology of Fu Nan in the Mekong River Delta the Oc Eo culture of Viet Nam in Nancy Tingley and Andreas Reinecke Arts of ancient Viet Nam from River Plain to Open Sea Houston Museum of Fine Arts 2009 pp 100 118 Pierre Yves Manguin From Funan to Sriwijaya Cultural continuities and discontinuities in the Early Historical maritime states of Southeast Asia in 25 tahun kerjasama Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi dan Ecole francaise d Extreme Orient Jakarta Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi EFEO 2002 p 59 82 Pelliot Paul 1903 Le Fou nan Bulletin de l Ecole francaise d Extreme Orient in French 3 248 303 doi 10 3406 befeo 1903 1216 Retrieved 22 October 2017 Miriam T Stark From Funan to Angkor Collapse and Regeneration in Ancient Cambodia G Schwartz J Nichols eds After Collapse The Regeneration of Societies University of Arizona Press 2006 pp 144 167 1 Michael Vickery Society Economics and Politics in pre Angkor Cambodia The 7th 8th centuries Tokyo The Center for East Asian Cultural Studies for Unesco The Toyo Bunko 1998 Michael Vickery Funan reviewed Deconstructing the Ancients Bulletin de l Ecole Francaise d Extreme Orient XC XCI 2003 2004 pp 101 143 2 An Giang Province Bureau of Culture Sport and Tourism Office of Cultural Heritage An Giang Province Management Commission for Oc Eo Cultural Relics Di Sản Văn Hoa Phu Nam oc Eo An Giang Việt Nam Thế kỷ I VII Phu Nam Oc Eo Heritage An Giang Vietnam 1st 7th Century Long Xuyen An Giang 2013 External links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Funan Library of Congress Country Studies Cambodia SIDDHAM the Asia inscriptions database Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Funan amp oldid 1215612485, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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