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Plant

May 04, 2023

For other uses, see Plant (disambiguation).

Plants are predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes, forming the kingdom Plantae. Many are multicellular. Historically, the plant kingdom encompassed all living things that were not animals, and included algae and fungi. All current definitions exclude the fungi and some of the algae. By one definition, plants form the clade Viridiplantae (Latin for "green plants") which consists of the green algae and the embryophytes or land plants. The latter include hornworts, liverworts, mosses, lycophytes, ferns, conifers and other gymnosperms, and flowering plants. A definition based on genomes includes the Viridiplantae, along with the red algae and the glaucophytes, in the clade Archaeplastida.

Plants
Temporal range:
Mesoproterozoic–present
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Clade: Diaphoretickes
(unranked): Archaeplastida
Kingdom: Plantae
sensu Copeland, 1956
Superdivisions

see text

Synonyms
  • Viridiplantae Cavalier-Smith 1981[1]
  • Chlorobionta Jeffrey 1982, emend. Bremer 1985, emend. Lewis and McCourt 2004[2]
  • Chlorobiota Kenrick and Crane 1997[3]
  • Chloroplastida Adl et al., 2005 [4]
  • Phyta Barkley 1939 emend. Holt & Uidica 2007
  • Cormophyta Endlicher, 1836
  • Cormobionta Rothmaler, 1948
  • Euplanta Barkley, 1949
  • Telomobionta Takhtajan, 1964
  • Embryobionta Cronquist et al., 1966
  • Metaphyta Whittaker, 1969

Green plants obtain most of their energy from sunlight, using chloroplasts derived from endosymbiosis with cyanobacteria. Chloroplasts perform photosynthesis using the pigment chlorophyll, which gives them their green colour. Some plants are parasitic and have lost the ability to produce normal amounts of chlorophyll or to photosynthesize. Plants are characterized by sexual reproduction and alternation of generations, but asexual reproduction is also common.

There are about 380,000 known species of plants, of which the majority, some 260,000, produce seeds. Green plants provide a substantial proportion of the world's molecular oxygen and are the basis of most of Earth's ecosystems. Grain, fruit, and vegetables are basic human foods and have been domesticated for millennia. Plants have many cultural and other uses, such as ornaments, building materials, writing materials, and, in great variety, they have been the source of medicines. The scientific study of plants is known as botany, a branch of biology.

Definition

Taxonomic history

Further information: Kingdom (biology) § History

All living things were traditionally placed into one of two groups, plants and animals. This classification dates from Aristotle (384–322 BC), who distinguished different levels of beings in his biology,[5] based on if living things have locomotion or had sensory organs.[6] Theophrastus, Aristotle's student, continued his work in plant taxonomy and classification.[7] Much later, Linnaeus (1707–1778) created the basis of the modern system of scientific classification, but retained the animal and plant kingdoms.[7]

Alternative concepts

When the name Plantae or plant is applied to a specific group of organisms or taxon, it usually refers to one of four concepts. From least to most inclusive, these four groupings are:

Name(s) Scope Description
Land plants, also known as Embryophyta Plantae sensu strictissimo Plants in the strictest sense include liverworts, hornworts, mosses, and vascular plants, as well as fossil plants similar to these surviving groups (e.g., Metaphyta Whittaker, 1969,[8] Plantae Margulis, 1971[9]).
Green plants, also known as Viridiplantae, Viridiphyta, Chlorobionta or Chloroplastida Plantae sensu stricto Plants in a strict sense include the green algae, and land plants that emerged within them, including stoneworts. The relationships between plant groups are still being worked out, and the names given to them vary considerably. The clade Viridiplantae encompasses a group of organisms that have cellulose in their cell walls, possess chlorophylls a and b and have plastids bound by only two membranes that are capable of photosynthesis and of storing starch. This clade is the main subject of this article (e.g., Plantae Copeland, 1956[10]).
Archaeplastida, also known as Plastida or Primoplantae Plantae sensu lato Plants in a broad sense comprise the green plants listed above plus the red algae (Rhodophyta) and the glaucophyte algae (Glaucophyta) that store Floridean starch outside the plastids, in the cytoplasm. This clade includes all of the organisms that eons ago acquired their primary chloroplasts directly by engulfing cyanobacteria (e.g., Plantae Cavalier-Smith, 1981[11]).
Old definitions of plant (obsolete) Plantae sensu amplo Plants in the widest sense refers to older, obsolete classifications that placed the unrelated groups of algae, fungi and bacteria in Plantae (e.g., Plantae or Vegetabilia Linnaeus,[12] Plantae Haeckel 1866,[13] Metaphyta Haeckel, 1894,[14] Plantae Whittaker, 1969[8]).

Evolution

Diversity

 
The desmid Cosmarium botrytis is a single cell.
 
The coast redwood Sequoia sempervirens is up to 380 feet (120 m) tall.

There are about 382,000 accepted species of plants,[15] of which the great majority, some 293,000, produce seeds.[16] The table below shows some species count estimates of different green plant (Viridiplantae) divisions. About 85–90% of all plants are flowering plants. Several projects are currently attempting to collect records on all plant species in online databases, e.g. the World Flora Online.[15][17]

Plants range in scale from single cells, such as many algae including desmids (from 10 micrometres across) and picozoans (less than 3 micrometres across),[18][19] to trees such as the conifer Sequoia sempervirens (up to 380 feet (120 m) tall ) and the angiosperm Eucalyptus regnans (up to 325 feet (99 m) tall ).[20]

Diversity of living green plant (Viridiplantae) divisions
Informal group Division name Common name No. of living species
Green algae Chlorophyta Green algae (chlorophytes) 3800–4300 [21][22]
Charophyta Green algae (e.g. desmids & stoneworts) 2800–6000 [23][24]
Bryophytes Marchantiophyta Liverworts 6000–8000 [25]
Anthocerotophyta Hornworts 100–200 [26]
Bryophyta Mosses 12000 [27]
Pteridophytes Lycopodiophyta Clubmosses 1200 [28]
Polypodiophyta Ferns, whisk ferns & horsetails 11000 [28]
Spermatophyte
(seed plants) 		Cycadophyta Cycads 160 [29]
Ginkgophyta Ginkgo 1 [30]
Pinophyta Conifers 630 [28]
Gnetophyta Gnetophytes 70 [28]
Magnoliophyta Flowering plants 258650 [31]

The naming of plants is governed by the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants[32] and the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants.[33]

Evolutionary scenarios

Further information: Evolutionary history of plants

The ancestors of land plants evolved in water. An algal scum formed on the land 1,200 million years ago, but it was not until the Ordovician, around 450 million years ago, that the first land plants appeared, with a level of organisation like that of bryophytes.[34][35] However, evidence from carbon isotope ratios in Precambrian rocks suggests that complex plants developed over 1000 mya.[36]

Primitive land plants began to diversify in the late Silurian, around 420 million years ago. Bryophytes, club mosses, ferns then appear in the fossil record.[37] Early plant anatomy is preserved in cellular detail in an early Devonian fossil assemblage from the Rhynie chert. These early plants were preserved by being petrified in chert formed in silica-rich volcanic hot springs.[38]

By the end of the Devonian, most of the basic features of plants today were present, including roots, leaves and secondary wood in trees such as Archaeopteris.[39][40] The Carboniferous Period saw the development of forests in swampy environments dominated by clubmosses and horsetails, including some as large as trees, and the appearance of early gymnosperms, the first seed plants.[41] The Permo-Triassic extinction event radically changed the structures of communities.[42] This may have set the scene for the evolution of flowering plants in the Triassic (~200 million years ago), with an adaptive radiation in the Cretaceous so rapid that Darwin called it an "abominable mystery".[43][44][45] Conifers diversified from the Late Triassic onwards, and became a dominant part of floras in the Jurassic.[46][47]

Towards a phylogenetic tree

A phylogenetic tree of Plantae, proposed in 1997 by Kenrick and Crane,[48] is as follows. The Prasinophyceae are a paraphyletic assemblage of early diverging green algal lineages, but are treated as a group outside the Chlorophyta:[49]

Plantae

Prasinophyceae (micromonads)

Streptobionta

Charophyta

Embryophytes

Marchantiophyta (liverworts)

Stomatophytes

Bryophyta (mosses)

Anthocerotophyta (hornworts)

Polysporangiates

Aglaophyton †

Horneophytopsida †

Tracheophytes

Rhyniophyta †

Eutracheophytes
Lycophytina
Euphyllophytina
Lignophyta

Spermatophytes (seed plants)

Progymnospermophyta †

Pteridophyta

(vascular plants)
(land plants)

A different classification followed Leliaert et al. 2011[50] and modified with Silar 2016[51][52][53] for the green algae clades and Novíkov & Barabaš-Krasni 2015[54] for the land plants clade. Notice that the Prasinophyceae are here placed inside the Chlorophyta.

Viridiplantae

Chlorophyta inc. Prasinophyceae

Streptobionta

Klebsormidiophyta

Phragmoplastophyta

Charophyta Rabenhorst 1863 emend. Lewis & McCourt 2004 (Stoneworts)

Coleochaetophyta

Zygnematophyta

Embryophyta

Marchantiophyta (Liverworts)

Stomatophyta

Bryophyta (True mosses)

Anthocerotophyta (Non-flowering hornworts)

Polysporangiophyta

†Horneophyta

†Aglaophyta

Tracheophyta (Vascular Plants)

(land plants)
(green plants)

Genomic phylogeny

In 2019, a phylogeny based on genomes and transcriptomes from 1,153 plant species was proposed.[55] The placing of algal groups is supported by phylogenies based on genomes from the Mesostigmatophyceae and Chlorokybophyceae that have since been sequenced. Both the "chlorophyte algae" and the "streptophyte algae" are treated as paraphyletic (vertical bars beside phylogenetic tree diagram) in this analysis, as the land plants arose from within those groups.[56][57] The classification of Bryophyta is supported both by Puttick et al. 2018,[58] and by phylogenies involving the hornwort genomes that have also since been sequenced.[59][60]

Physiology

Main article: Plant physiology

Plant cells

Main article: Plant cell
 
Plant cell structure

Plant cells have some distinctive features that other eukaryotic cells (such as those of animals) lack. These are the large water-filled central vacuole, chloroplasts, and the strong flexible cell wall, which is outside the cell membrane. Chloroplasts are derived from what was once a symbiosis of a non-photosynthetic cell and photosynthetic cyanobacteria. The cell wall, made mostly of cellulose, allows plant cells to swell up with water without bursting. The vacuole allows the cell to change in size while the amount of cytoplasm stays the same.[61]

Plant structure

Further information: Plant anatomy and Plant morphology
 
Anatomy of a seed plant. 1. Shoot system. 2. Root system. 3. Hypocotyl. 4. Terminal bud. 5. Leaf blade. 6. Internode. 7. Axillary bud. 8. Petiole. 9. Stem. 10. Node. 11. Tap root. 12. Root hairs. 13. Root tip. 14. Root cap

Most plants are multicellular. Just as in animals, plant cells differentiate and develop into multiple cell types, forming tissues such as the vascular tissue with specialized xylem and phloem of leaf veins and stems, and organs with different physiological functions such as roots to absorb water and minerals, stems for support and to transport water and synthesised molecules, leaves for photosynthesis, and flowers for reproduction.[62]

Photosynthesis

Main article: Photosynthesis

Plants photosynthesize, manufacturing food molecules using energy obtained from light. The primary mechanism plants have for capturing light energy is the green pigment chlorophyll, which plant cells have in their chloroplasts. The simple equation of photosynthesis is:[63]

 

This means that they release oxygen into the atmosphere. Green plants provide a substantial proportion of the world's molecular oxygen, alongside the contributions from photosynthetic algae and cyanobacteria.[64][65][66]

Growth and repair

Growth is determined by the interaction of a plant's genome with its physical and biotic environment.[67] Factors of the physical or abiotic environment include temperature, water, light, carbon dioxide, and nutrients in the soil.[68] Biotic factors that affect plant growth include crowding, grazing, beneficial symbiotic bacteria and fungi, and attacks by insects or plant diseases.[69]

Frost and dehydration can damage or kill plants. Some plants have antifreeze proteins, heat-shock proteins and sugars in their cytoplasm that enable them to tolerate these stresses.[70] Plants are continuously exposed to a range of physical and biotic stresses which cause DNA damage. Plants are able to tolerate and repair much of this damage.[71]

Reproduction

Main article: Plant reproduction

Plants reproduce to generate offspring, whether sexually, involving gametes, or asexually, involving ordinary growth. Many plants use both mechanisms.[72]

Sexual

 
Alternation of generations between a haploid (n) gametophyte (top) and a diploid (2n) sporophyte (bottom), in all types of plant

When reproducing sexually, plants have complex lifecycles involving alternation of generations. One generation, the sporophyte, which is diploid (with 2 sets of chromosomes), gives rise to the next generation, the gametophyte which is haploid (with one set of chromosomes), and in some plants reproduces asexually via spores. In non-flowering plants such as mosses and ferns, the sexual gametophyte forms most of the visible plant.[73] In seed plants (gymnosperms and flowering plants), the sporophyte forms most of the visible plant, and the gametophyte is very small. Flowering plants reproduce sexually using flowers, which contain male and female parts: these may be within the same (hermaphrodite) flower, on different flowers on the same plant, or on different plants. Male pollen enters the ovule to fertilize the egg cell of the female gametophyte. Fertilization takes place enclosed within the carpels or ovaries, which develop into fruits that contain seeds. Fruits may be dispersed whole, or they may split open and the seeds dispersed individually.[74]

Asexual

 
Ficinia spiralis spreads asexually with runners in the sand.

Plants reproduce asexually by growing any of a wide variety of structures capable of growing into new plants. At the simplest, plants such as mosses or liverworts may be broken into pieces, each of which may regrow into whole plants. The propagation of flowering plants by cuttings is a similar process. Structures such as runners enable plants to grow to cover an area, forming a clone. Many plants grow food storage structures such as tubers or bulbs which may each develop into a new plant.[75]

Some non-flowering plants, such as many liverworts, mosses and some clubmosses, along with a few flowering plants, grow small clumps of cells called gemmae which can detach and grow.[76][77]

Disease resistance

Main article: Plant disease resistance

Plants use pattern-recognition receptors to recognize pathogens such as bacteria that cause plant diseases. This recognition triggers a protective response. The first such plant receptors were identified in rice[78] and in Arabidopsis thaliana.[79]

Genomics

Further information: Plant genome

Plants have some of the largest genomes among all organisms.[80] The largest plant genome (in terms of gene number) is that of wheat (Triticum aestivum), predicted to encode ≈94,000 genes[81] and thus almost 5 times as many as the human genome. The first plant genome sequenced was that of Arabidopsis thaliana which encodes about 25,500 genes.[82] In terms of sheer DNA sequence, the smallest published genome is that of the carnivorous bladderwort (Utricularia gibba) at 82 Mb (although it still encodes 28,500 genes)[83] while the largest, from the Norway Spruce (Picea abies), extends over 19.6 Gb (encoding about 28,300 genes).[84]

Ecology

Main article: Plant ecology

Distribution

 
A map of a classification of the world's vegetation into biomes. Those named here include tundra, taiga, temperate broadleaf forest, temperate steppe, subtropical rainforest, Mediterranean vegetation, monsoon forest, arid desert, xeric shrubland, dry steppe, semiarid desert, grass savanna, tree savanna, subtropical and tropical dry forest, tropical rainforest, alpine tundra, and montane forests. Shown in gray is "ice sheet and polar desert" devoid of plants.

Plants are distributed almost worldwide. While they inhabit several biomes which can be divided into a multitude of ecoregions,[85] only the hardy plants of the Antarctic flora, consisting of algae, mosses, liverworts, lichens, and just two flowering plants, have adapted to the prevailing conditions on that southern continent.[86]

Plants are often the dominant physical and structural component of the habitats where they occur. Many of the Earth's biomes are named for the type of vegetation because plants are the dominant organisms in those biomes, such as grassland, savanna, and tropical rainforest.[87]

Primary producers

Further information: Autotroph

The photosynthesis conducted by land plants and algae is the ultimate source of energy and organic material in nearly all ecosystems. Photosynthesis, at first by cyanobacteria and later by photosynthetic eukaryotes, radically changed the composition of the early Earth's anoxic atmosphere, which as a result is now 21% oxygen. Animals and most other organisms are aerobic, relying on oxygen; those that do not are confined to relatively rare anaerobic environments. Plants are the primary producers in most terrestrial ecosystems and form the basis of the food web in those ecosystems.[88] Plants form about 80% of the world biomass at about 450 gigatonnes (4.4×1011 long tons; 5.0×1011 short tons) of carbon.[89]

Ecological relationships

Numerous animals have coevolved with plants; flowering plants have evolved pollination syndromes, suites of flower traits that favour their reproduction. Many, including insect and bird partners, are pollinators, visiting flowers and accidentally transferring pollen in exchange for food in the form of pollen or nectar.[90]

Many animals disperse seeds that are adapted for such dispersal. Various mechanisms of dispersal have evolved. Some fruits offer nutritious outer layers attractive to animals, while the seeds are adapted to survive the passage through the animal's gut; others have hooks that enable them to attach to a mammal's fur.[91]Myrmecophytes are plants that have coevolved with ants. The plant provides a home, and sometimes food, for the ants. In exchange, the ants defend the plant from herbivores and sometimes competing plants. Ant wastes serve as organic fertilizer.[92]

The majority of plant species have fungi associated with their root systems in a mutualistic symbiosis known as mycorrhiza. The fungi help the plants gain water and mineral nutrients from the soil, while the plant gives the fungi carbohydrates manufactured in photosynthesis.[93] Some plants serve as homes for endophytic fungi that protect the plant from herbivores by producing toxins. The fungal endophyte Neotyphodium coenophialum in tall fescue grass has pest status in the American cattle industry.[94]

Many legumes have Rhizobium nitrogen-fixing bacteria in nodules of their roots, which fix nitrogen from the air for the plant to use; in return, the plants supply sugars to the bacteria.[95] Nitrogen fixed in this way can become available to other plants, and is important in agriculture; for example, farmers may grow a crop rotation of a legume such as beans, followed by a cereal such as wheat, to provide cash crops with a reduced input of nitrogen fertilizer.[96]

Some 1% of plants are parasitic. They range from the semi-parasitic mistletoe that merely takes some nutrients from its host, but still has photosynthetic leaves, to the fully-parasitic broomrape and toothwort that acquire all their nutrients through connections to the roots of other plants, and so have no chlorophyll. Full parasites can be extremely harmful to their plant hosts.[97]

Plants that grow on other plants, usually trees, without parasitizing them, are called epiphytes. These may support diverse arboreal ecosystems. Some may indirectly harm their host plant, such as by intercepting light. Hemiepiphytes like the strangler fig begin as epiphytes, but eventually set their own roots and overpower and kill their host. Many orchids, bromeliads, ferns, and mosses grow as epiphytes.[98] Among the epiphytes, the bromeliads accumulate water in their leaf axils; these water-filled cavities can support complex aquatic food webs.[99]

Some 630 species of plants are carnivorous, such as the Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula) and sundew (Drosera species). They trap small animals and digest them to obtain mineral nutrients, especially nitrogen and phosphorus.[100]

Competition

Competition for shared resources reduces a plant's growth.[101][102] Shared resources include sunlight, water and nutrients. Light is a critical resource because it is necessary for photosynthesis.[101] Plants use their leaves to shade other plants from sunlight and grow quickly to maximize their own expose.[101] Water too is essential for photosynthesis; roots compete to maximize water uptake from soil.[103] Some plants have deep roots that are able to locate water stored deep underground, and others have shallower roots that are capable of extending longer distances to collect recent rainwater.[103] Minerals are important for plant growth and development.[104] Common nutrients competed for amongst plants include nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.[105]

Importance

Main article: Plants in culture

Food

Main article: Agriculture
 
Mechanical harvest of oats

Human cultivation of plants is the core of agriculture, which in turn has played a key role in the history of world civilizations.[106] Humans depend on plants for food, either directly or as feed in animal husbandry. Agriculture includes agronomy for arable crops, horticulture for vegetables and fruit, and forestry for timber.[107][108] About 7,000 species of plant have been used for food, though most of today's food is derived from only 30 species. The major staples include cereals such as rice and wheat, starchy roots and tubers such as cassava and potato, and legumes such as peas and beans. Vegetable oils such as olive oil and palm oil provide lipids, while fruit and vegetables contribute vitamins and minerals to the diet.[109] The study of plant uses by people is called economic botany or ethnobotany.[110]

Medicines

Main article: Medicinal plants
 
A medieval physician preparing an extract from a medicinal plant, from an Arabic Dioscorides, 1224

Medicinal plants are a primary source of organic compounds, both for their medicinal and physiological effects, and for the industrial synthesis of a vast array of organic chemicals.[111] Many hundreds of medicines are derived from plants, both traditional medicines used in herbalism[112][113] and chemical substances purified from plants or first identified in them, sometimes by ethnobotanical search, and then synthesised for use in modern medicine. Modern medicines derived from plants include aspirin, taxol, morphine, quinine, reserpine, colchicine, digitalis and vincristine. Plants used in herbalism include ginkgo, echinacea, feverfew, and Saint John's wort. The pharmacopoeia of Dioscorides, De Materia Medica, describing some 600 medicinal plants, was written between 50 and 70 CE and remained in use in Europe and the Middle East until around 1600 CE; it was the precursor of all modern pharmacopoeias.[114][115][116]

Nonfood products

Main article: Non-food crop
 
Timber in storage for later processing at a sawmill

Plants grown as industrial crops are the source of a wide range of products used in manufacturing.[117] Nonfood products include essential oils, natural dyes, pigments, waxes, resins, tannins, alkaloids, amber and cork. Products derived from plants include soaps, shampoos, perfumes, cosmetics, paint, varnish, turpentine, rubber, latex, lubricants, linoleum, plastics, inks, and gums. Renewable fuels from plants include firewood, peat and other biofuels.[118][119] The fossil fuels coal, petroleum and natural gas are derived from the remains of aquatic organisms including phytoplankton in geological time.[120] Many of the coal fields date to the Carboniferous period of Earth's history. Terrestrial plants also form type III kerogen, a source of natural gas.[121][122]

Structural resources and fibres from plants are used to construct dwellings and to manufacture clothing. Wood is used for buildings, boats, and furniture, and for smaller items such as musical instruments and sports equipment. Wood is pulped to make paper and cardboard.[123] Cloth is often made from cotton, flax, ramie or synthetic fibres such as rayon and acetate derived from plant cellulose. Thread used to sew cloth likewise comes in large part from cotton.[124]

Ornamental plants

Main article: Ornamental plant
 
A rose espalier at Niedernhall in Germany

Thousands of plant species are cultivated for their beauty and to provide shade, modify temperatures, reduce wind, abate noise, provide privacy, and reduce soil erosion. Plants are the basis of a multibillion-dollar per year tourism industry, which includes travel to historic gardens, national parks, rainforests, forests with colorful autumn leaves, and festivals such as Japan's[125] and America's cherry blossom festivals.[126]

Plants may be grown indoors as houseplants, or in specialized buildings such as greenhouses. Plants such as Venus flytrap, sensitive plant and resurrection plant are sold as novelties. Art forms specializing in the arrangement of cut or living plant include bonsai, ikebana, and the arrangement of cut or dried flowers. Ornamental plants have sometimes changed the course of history, as in tulipomania.[127]

In science

Further information: Model organism
 
Barbara McClintock used maize to study inheritance of traits.

Basic biological research has often used plants as its model organisms. In genetics, the breeding of pea plants allowed Gregor Mendel to derive the basic laws governing inheritance,[128] and examination of chromosomes in maize allowed Barbara McClintock to demonstrate their connection to inherited traits.[129] The plant Arabidopsis thaliana is used in laboratories as a model organism to understand how genes control the growth and development of plant structures.[130] Tree rings provide a method of dating in archeology, and a record of past climates.[131] The study of plant fossils, or Paleobotany, provides information about the evolutions of plants, paleogeographical reconstructions, and past climate change. Plant fossils can also help determine the age of rocks.[132]

In mythology, religion, and culture

Plants including trees appear in mythology, religion, and literature.[133][134][135] Flowers are often used as memorials, gifts and to mark special occasions such as births, deaths, weddings and holidays. Flower arrangements may be used to send hidden messages.[136] Architectural designs resembling plants appear in the capitals of Ancient Egyptian columns, which were carved to resemble either the Egyptian white lotus or the papyrus.[137] Images of plants and especially of flowers are often used in paintings.[138][139]

Negative effects

Weeds are commercially or aesthetically undesirable plants growing in managed environments such as in agriculture and gardens.[140] People have spread many plants beyond their native ranges; some of these plants have become invasive, damaging existing ecosystems by displacing native species, and sometimes becoming serious weeds of cultivation.[141]

Some plants that produce windblown pollen, including grasses, invoke allergic reactions in people who suffer from hay fever.[142] Many plants produce toxins to protect themselves from herbivores. Major classes of plant toxins include alkaloids, terpenoids, and phenolics.[143] These can be harmful to humans and livestock by ingestion[144][145] or, as with poison ivy, by contact.[146] Some plants have negative effects on other plants, preventing seedling growth or the growth of nearby plants by releasing allopathic chemicals.[147]

See also

References

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  143. ^ . Plant Defense Systems & Medicinal Botany. Archived from the original on 3 July 2007. Retrieved 21 May 2007.
  144. ^ Bevan-Jones, Robert (1 August 2009). Poisonous Plants: A Cultural and Social History. Windgather Press. ISBN 978-1-909686-22-9.
  145. ^ Livestock-Poisoning Plants of California. UCANR Publications. ISBN 978-1-60107-674-8.
  146. ^ Crosby, Donald G. (1 April 2004). The Poisoned Weed: Plants Toxic to Skin. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-028870-9.
  147. ^ Grodzinskii, A. M. (1 March 2016). Allelopathy in the Life of Plants and their Communities. Scientific Publishers. ISBN 978-93-86102-04-1.

Further reading

General:

  • Evans, L.T. (1998). Feeding the Ten Billion – Plants and Population Growth. Cambridge University Press. Paperback, 247 pages. ISBN 0-521-64685-5.
  • Kenrick, Paul & Crane, Peter R. (1997). The Origin and Early Diversification of Land Plants: A Cladistic Study. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 1-56098-730-8.
  • Raven, Peter H.; Evert, Ray F.; & Eichhorn, Susan E. (2005). Biology of Plants (7th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 0-7167-1007-2.
  • Taylor, Thomas N. & Taylor, Edith L. (1993). The Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-651589-4.

Species estimates and counts:

  • International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) Species Survival Commission (2004). IUCN Red List The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
  • Prance, G. T. (2001). "Discovering the Plant World". Taxon. 50 (2, Golden Jubilee Part 4): 345–359. doi:10.2307/1223885. JSTOR 1223885.

External links

 
The Wikibook Dichotomous Key has a page on the topic of: Plantae
Botanical and vegetation databases
  • African Plants Initiative database
  • Australia
  • Chilean plants at Chilebosque
  • e-Floras (Flora of China, Flora of North America and others) 19 February 2022 at the Wayback Machine
  • Flora Europaea
  • Flora of Central Europe (in German)
  • Flora of North America 19 February 2022 at the Wayback Machine
  • List of Japanese Wild Plants Online 16 March 2022 at the Wayback Machine
  • Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center – Native Plant Information Network at University of Texas, Austin
  • The Plant List 25 February 2022 at the Wayback Machine
  • United States Department of Agriculture not limited to continental US species

May 04, 2023
plant, other, uses, disambiguation, predominantly, photosynthetic, eukaryotes, forming, kingdom, many, multicellular, historically, plant, kingdom, encompassed, living, things, that, were, animals, included, algae, fungi, current, definitions, exclude, fungi, . For other uses see Plant disambiguation Plants are predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes forming the kingdom Plantae Many are multicellular Historically the plant kingdom encompassed all living things that were not animals and included algae and fungi All current definitions exclude the fungi and some of the algae By one definition plants form the clade Viridiplantae Latin for green plants which consists of the green algae and the embryophytes or land plants The latter include hornworts liverworts mosses lycophytes ferns conifers and other gymnosperms and flowering plants A definition based on genomes includes the Viridiplantae along with the red algae and the glaucophytes in the clade Archaeplastida PlantsTemporal range Mesoproterozoic present Pha Proterozoic Archean Had Scientific classificationDomain EukaryotaClade Diaphoretickes unranked ArchaeplastidaKingdom Plantaesensu Copeland 1956Superdivisionssee textSynonymsViridiplantae Cavalier Smith 1981 1 Chlorobionta Jeffrey 1982 emend Bremer 1985 emend Lewis and McCourt 2004 2 Chlorobiota Kenrick and Crane 1997 3 Chloroplastida Adl et al 2005 4 Phyta Barkley 1939 emend Holt amp Uidica 2007 Cormophyta Endlicher 1836 Cormobionta Rothmaler 1948 Euplanta Barkley 1949 Telomobionta Takhtajan 1964 Embryobionta Cronquist et al 1966 Metaphyta Whittaker 1969Green plants obtain most of their energy from sunlight using chloroplasts derived from endosymbiosis with cyanobacteria Chloroplasts perform photosynthesis using the pigment chlorophyll which gives them their green colour Some plants are parasitic and have lost the ability to produce normal amounts of chlorophyll or to photosynthesize Plants are characterized by sexual reproduction and alternation of generations but asexual reproduction is also common There are about 380 000 known species of plants of which the majority some 260 000 produce seeds Green plants provide a substantial proportion of the world s molecular oxygen and are the basis of most of Earth s ecosystems Grain fruit and vegetables are basic human foods and have been domesticated for millennia Plants have many cultural and other uses such as ornaments building materials writing materials and in great variety they have been the source of medicines The scientific study of plants is known as botany a branch of biology Contents 1 Definition 1 1 Taxonomic history 1 2 Alternative concepts 2 Evolution 2 1 Diversity 2 2 Evolutionary scenarios 2 3 Towards a phylogenetic tree 2 4 Genomic phylogeny 3 Physiology 3 1 Plant cells 3 2 Plant structure 3 3 Photosynthesis 3 4 Growth and repair 3 5 Reproduction 3 5 1 Sexual 3 5 2 Asexual 3 6 Disease resistance 3 7 Genomics 4 Ecology 4 1 Distribution 4 2 Primary producers 4 3 Ecological relationships 4 4 Competition 5 Importance 5 1 Food 5 2 Medicines 5 3 Nonfood products 5 4 Ornamental plants 5 5 In science 5 6 In mythology religion and culture 5 7 Negative effects 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External linksDefinitionTaxonomic history Further information Kingdom biology History All living things were traditionally placed into one of two groups plants and animals This classification dates from Aristotle 384 322 BC who distinguished different levels of beings in his biology 5 based on if living things have locomotion or had sensory organs 6 Theophrastus Aristotle s student continued his work in plant taxonomy and classification 7 Much later Linnaeus 1707 1778 created the basis of the modern system of scientific classification but retained the animal and plant kingdoms 7 Alternative concepts When the name Plantae or plant is applied to a specific group of organisms or taxon it usually refers to one of four concepts From least to most inclusive these four groupings are Name s Scope DescriptionLand plants also known as Embryophyta Plantae sensu strictissimo Plants in the strictest sense include liverworts hornworts mosses and vascular plants as well as fossil plants similar to these surviving groups e g Metaphyta Whittaker 1969 8 Plantae Margulis 1971 9 Green plants also known as Viridiplantae Viridiphyta Chlorobionta or Chloroplastida Plantae sensu stricto Plants in a strict sense include the green algae and land plants that emerged within them including stoneworts The relationships between plant groups are still being worked out and the names given to them vary considerably The clade Viridiplantae encompasses a group of organisms that have cellulose in their cell walls possess chlorophylls a and b and have plastids bound by only two membranes that are capable of photosynthesis and of storing starch This clade is the main subject of this article e g Plantae Copeland 1956 10 Archaeplastida also known as Plastida or Primoplantae Plantae sensu lato Plants in a broad sense comprise the green plants listed above plus the red algae Rhodophyta and the glaucophyte algae Glaucophyta that store Floridean starch outside the plastids in the cytoplasm This clade includes all of the organisms that eons ago acquired their primary chloroplasts directly by engulfing cyanobacteria e g Plantae Cavalier Smith 1981 11 Old definitions of plant obsolete Plantae sensu amplo Plants in the widest sense refers to older obsolete classifications that placed the unrelated groups of algae fungi and bacteria in Plantae e g Plantae or Vegetabilia Linnaeus 12 Plantae Haeckel 1866 13 Metaphyta Haeckel 1894 14 Plantae Whittaker 1969 8 EvolutionDiversity The desmid Cosmarium botrytis is a single cell The coast redwood Sequoia sempervirens is up to 380 feet 120 m tall There are about 382 000 accepted species of plants 15 of which the great majority some 293 000 produce seeds 16 The table below shows some species count estimates of different green plant Viridiplantae divisions About 85 90 of all plants are flowering plants Several projects are currently attempting to collect records on all plant species in online databases e g the World Flora Online 15 17 Plants range in scale from single cells such as many algae including desmids from 10 micrometres across and picozoans less than 3 micrometres across 18 19 to trees such as the conifer Sequoia sempervirens up to 380 feet 120 m tall and the angiosperm Eucalyptus regnans up to 325 feet 99 m tall 20 Diversity of living green plant Viridiplantae divisions Informal group Division name Common name No of living speciesGreen algae Chlorophyta Green algae chlorophytes 3800 4300 21 22 Charophyta Green algae e g desmids amp stoneworts 2800 6000 23 24 Bryophytes Marchantiophyta Liverworts 6000 8000 25 Anthocerotophyta Hornworts 100 200 26 Bryophyta Mosses 12000 27 Pteridophytes Lycopodiophyta Clubmosses 1200 28 Polypodiophyta Ferns whisk ferns amp horsetails 11000 28 Spermatophyte seed plants Cycadophyta Cycads 160 29 Ginkgophyta Ginkgo 1 30 Pinophyta Conifers 630 28 Gnetophyta Gnetophytes 70 28 Magnoliophyta Flowering plants 258650 31 The naming of plants is governed by the International Code of Nomenclature for algae fungi and plants 32 and the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants 33 Evolutionary scenarios Further information Evolutionary history of plants The ancestors of land plants evolved in water An algal scum formed on the land 1 200 million years ago but it was not until the Ordovician around 450 million years ago that the first land plants appeared with a level of organisation like that of bryophytes 34 35 However evidence from carbon isotope ratios in Precambrian rocks suggests that complex plants developed over 1000 mya 36 Primitive land plants began to diversify in the late Silurian around 420 million years ago Bryophytes club mosses ferns then appear in the fossil record 37 Early plant anatomy is preserved in cellular detail in an early Devonian fossil assemblage from the Rhynie chert These early plants were preserved by being petrified in chert formed in silica rich volcanic hot springs 38 By the end of the Devonian most of the basic features of plants today were present including roots leaves and secondary wood in trees such as Archaeopteris 39 40 The Carboniferous Period saw the development of forests in swampy environments dominated by clubmosses and horsetails including some as large as trees and the appearance of early gymnosperms the first seed plants 41 The Permo Triassic extinction event radically changed the structures of communities 42 This may have set the scene for the evolution of flowering plants in the Triassic 200 million years ago with an adaptive radiation in the Cretaceous so rapid that Darwin called it an abominable mystery 43 44 45 Conifers diversified from the Late Triassic onwards and became a dominant part of floras in the Jurassic 46 47 Cross section of a stem of Rhynia an early land plant preserved in Rhynie chert from the early Devonian By the Devonian plants had adapted to land with roots and woody stems In the Carboniferous horsetails such as Asterophyllites proliferated in swampy forests Conifers became diverse and often dominant in the Jurassic Cone of Araucaria mirabilis Adaptive radiation in the Cretaceous created many flowering plants such as Sagaria in the Ranunculaceae Towards a phylogenetic tree A phylogenetic tree of Plantae proposed in 1997 by Kenrick and Crane 48 is as follows The Prasinophyceae are a paraphyletic assemblage of early diverging green algal lineages but are treated as a group outside the Chlorophyta 49 Plantae Prasinophyceae micromonads Chlorophyta TrebouxiophyceaeChlorophyceaeUlvophyceaeStreptobionta CharophytaEmbryophytes Marchantiophyta liverworts Stomatophytes Bryophyta mosses Anthocerotophyta hornworts Polysporangiates Aglaophyton Horneophytopsida Tracheophytes Rhyniophyta Eutracheophytes Lycophytina LycopodiophytaZosterophyllophyta Euphyllophytina Lignophyta Spermatophytes seed plants Progymnospermophyta Pteridophyta vascular plants land plants A different classification followed Leliaert et al 2011 50 and modified with Silar 2016 51 52 53 for the green algae clades and Novikov amp Barabas Krasni 2015 54 for the land plants clade Notice that the Prasinophyceae are here placed inside the Chlorophyta Viridiplantae MesostigmatophyceaeChlorokybophyceaeSpirotaeniaChlorophyta inc PrasinophyceaeStreptobionta KlebsormidiophytaPhragmoplastophyta Charophyta Rabenhorst 1863 emend Lewis amp McCourt 2004 Stoneworts ColeochaetophytaZygnematophytaEmbryophyta Marchantiophyta Liverworts Stomatophyta Bryophyta True mosses Anthocerotophyta Non flowering hornworts Polysporangiophyta Horneophyta AglaophytaTracheophyta Vascular Plants land plants green plants Green algaeGenomic phylogeny In 2019 a phylogeny based on genomes and transcriptomes from 1 153 plant species was proposed 55 The placing of algal groups is supported by phylogenies based on genomes from the Mesostigmatophyceae and Chlorokybophyceae that have since been sequenced Both the chlorophyte algae and the streptophyte algae are treated as paraphyletic vertical bars beside phylogenetic tree diagram in this analysis as the land plants arose from within those groups 56 57 The classification of Bryophyta is supported both by Puttick et al 2018 58 and by phylogenies involving the hornwort genomes that have also since been sequenced 59 60 Archaeplastida Rhodophyta Glaucophyta Viridiplantae Chlorophyta Prasinococcales MesostigmatophyceaeChlorokybophyceaeSpirotaenia Klebsormidiales Chara ColeochaetalesZygnematophyceae Embryophytes Bryophytes Hornworts Liverworts Mosses Lycophytes Ferns Spermatophytes Gymnosperms Angiosperms seed plants land plants green plants chlorophyte algae streptophyte algae PhysiologyMain article Plant physiology Plant cells Main article Plant cell Plant cell structure Plant cells have some distinctive features that other eukaryotic cells such as those of animals lack These are the large water filled central vacuole chloroplasts and the strong flexible cell wall which is outside the cell membrane Chloroplasts are derived from what was once a symbiosis of a non photosynthetic cell and photosynthetic cyanobacteria The cell wall made mostly of cellulose allows plant cells to swell up with water without bursting The vacuole allows the cell to change in size while the amount of cytoplasm stays the same 61 Plant structure Further information Plant anatomy and Plant morphology Anatomy of a seed plant 1 Shoot system 2 Root system 3 Hypocotyl 4 Terminal bud 5 Leaf blade 6 Internode 7 Axillary bud 8 Petiole 9 Stem 10 Node 11 Tap root 12 Root hairs 13 Root tip 14 Root cap Most plants are multicellular Just as in animals plant cells differentiate and develop into multiple cell types forming tissues such as the vascular tissue with specialized xylem and phloem of leaf veins and stems and organs with different physiological functions such as roots to absorb water and minerals stems for support and to transport water and synthesised molecules leaves for photosynthesis and flowers for reproduction 62 Photosynthesis Main article Photosynthesis Plants photosynthesize manufacturing food molecules using energy obtained from light The primary mechanism plants have for capturing light energy is the green pigment chlorophyll which plant cells have in their chloroplasts The simple equation of photosynthesis is 63 6 CO 2 6 H 2 O light C 6 H 12 O 6 6 O 2 displaystyle ce 6CO2 6H2O gt text light C6H12O6 6O2 This means that they release oxygen into the atmosphere Green plants provide a substantial proportion of the world s molecular oxygen alongside the contributions from photosynthetic algae and cyanobacteria 64 65 66 Growth and repair Growth is determined by the interaction of a plant s genome with its physical and biotic environment 67 Factors of the physical or abiotic environment include temperature water light carbon dioxide and nutrients in the soil 68 Biotic factors that affect plant growth include crowding grazing beneficial symbiotic bacteria and fungi and attacks by insects or plant diseases 69 Frost and dehydration can damage or kill plants Some plants have antifreeze proteins heat shock proteins and sugars in their cytoplasm that enable them to tolerate these stresses 70 Plants are continuously exposed to a range of physical and biotic stresses which cause DNA damage Plants are able to tolerate and repair much of this damage 71 Reproduction Main article Plant reproduction Plants reproduce to generate offspring whether sexually involving gametes or asexually involving ordinary growth Many plants use both mechanisms 72 Sexual Alternation of generations between a haploid n gametophyte top and a diploid 2n sporophyte bottom in all types of plant When reproducing sexually plants have complex lifecycles involving alternation of generations One generation the sporophyte which is diploid with 2 sets of chromosomes gives rise to the next generation the gametophyte which is haploid with one set of chromosomes and in some plants reproduces asexually via spores In non flowering plants such as mosses and ferns the sexual gametophyte forms most of the visible plant 73 In seed plants gymnosperms and flowering plants the sporophyte forms most of the visible plant and the gametophyte is very small Flowering plants reproduce sexually using flowers which contain male and female parts these may be within the same hermaphrodite flower on different flowers on the same plant or on different plants Male pollen enters the ovule to fertilize the egg cell of the female gametophyte Fertilization takes place enclosed within the carpels or ovaries which develop into fruits that contain seeds Fruits may be dispersed whole or they may split open and the seeds dispersed individually 74 Asexual Ficinia spiralis spreads asexually with runners in the sand Plants reproduce asexually by growing any of a wide variety of structures capable of growing into new plants At the simplest plants such as mosses or liverworts may be broken into pieces each of which may regrow into whole plants The propagation of flowering plants by cuttings is a similar process Structures such as runners enable plants to grow to cover an area forming a clone Many plants grow food storage structures such as tubers or bulbs which may each develop into a new plant 75 Some non flowering plants such as many liverworts mosses and some clubmosses along with a few flowering plants grow small clumps of cells called gemmae which can detach and grow 76 77 Disease resistance Main article Plant disease resistance Plants use pattern recognition receptors to recognize pathogens such as bacteria that cause plant diseases This recognition triggers a protective response The first such plant receptors were identified in rice 78 and in Arabidopsis thaliana 79 Genomics Further information Plant genome Plants have some of the largest genomes among all organisms 80 The largest plant genome in terms of gene number is that of wheat Triticum aestivum predicted to encode 94 000 genes 81 and thus almost 5 times as many as the human genome The first plant genome sequenced was that of Arabidopsis thaliana which encodes about 25 500 genes 82 In terms of sheer DNA sequence the smallest published genome is that of the carnivorous bladderwort Utricularia gibba at 82 Mb although it still encodes 28 500 genes 83 while the largest from the Norway Spruce Picea abies extends over 19 6 Gb encoding about 28 300 genes 84 EcologyMain article Plant ecology Distribution A map of a classification of the world s vegetation into biomes Those named here include tundra taiga temperate broadleaf forest temperate steppe subtropical rainforest Mediterranean vegetation monsoon forest arid desert xeric shrubland dry steppe semiarid desert grass savanna tree savanna subtropical and tropical dry forest tropical rainforest alpine tundra and montane forests Shown in gray is ice sheet and polar desert devoid of plants Plants are distributed almost worldwide While they inhabit several biomes which can be divided into a multitude of ecoregions 85 only the hardy plants of the Antarctic flora consisting of algae mosses liverworts lichens and just two flowering plants have adapted to the prevailing conditions on that southern continent 86 Plants are often the dominant physical and structural component of the habitats where they occur Many of the Earth s biomes are named for the type of vegetation because plants are the dominant organisms in those biomes such as grassland savanna and tropical rainforest 87 Primary producers Further information Autotroph The photosynthesis conducted by land plants and algae is the ultimate source of energy and organic material in nearly all ecosystems Photosynthesis at first by cyanobacteria and later by photosynthetic eukaryotes radically changed the composition of the early Earth s anoxic atmosphere which as a result is now 21 oxygen Animals and most other organisms are aerobic relying on oxygen those that do not are confined to relatively rare anaerobic environments Plants are the primary producers in most terrestrial ecosystems and form the basis of the food web in those ecosystems 88 Plants form about 80 of the world biomass at about 450 gigatonnes 4 4 1011 long tons 5 0 1011 short tons of carbon 89 Ecological relationships Numerous animals have coevolved with plants flowering plants have evolved pollination syndromes suites of flower traits that favour their reproduction Many including insect and bird partners are pollinators visiting flowers and accidentally transferring pollen in exchange for food in the form of pollen or nectar 90 Many animals disperse seeds that are adapted for such dispersal Various mechanisms of dispersal have evolved Some fruits offer nutritious outer layers attractive to animals while the seeds are adapted to survive the passage through the animal s gut others have hooks that enable them to attach to a mammal s fur 91 Myrmecophytes are plants that have coevolved with ants The plant provides a home and sometimes food for the ants In exchange the ants defend the plant from herbivores and sometimes competing plants Ant wastes serve as organic fertilizer 92 The majority of plant species have fungi associated with their root systems in a mutualistic symbiosis known as mycorrhiza The fungi help the plants gain water and mineral nutrients from the soil while the plant gives the fungi carbohydrates manufactured in photosynthesis 93 Some plants serve as homes for endophytic fungi that protect the plant from herbivores by producing toxins The fungal endophyte Neotyphodium coenophialum in tall fescue grass has pest status in the American cattle industry 94 Many legumes have Rhizobium nitrogen fixing bacteria in nodules of their roots which fix nitrogen from the air for the plant to use in return the plants supply sugars to the bacteria 95 Nitrogen fixed in this way can become available to other plants and is important in agriculture for example farmers may grow a crop rotation of a legume such as beans followed by a cereal such as wheat to provide cash crops with a reduced input of nitrogen fertilizer 96 Some 1 of plants are parasitic They range from the semi parasitic mistletoe that merely takes some nutrients from its host but still has photosynthetic leaves to the fully parasitic broomrape and toothwort that acquire all their nutrients through connections to the roots of other plants and so have no chlorophyll Full parasites can be extremely harmful to their plant hosts 97 Plants that grow on other plants usually trees without parasitizing them are called epiphytes These may support diverse arboreal ecosystems Some may indirectly harm their host plant such as by intercepting light Hemiepiphytes like the strangler fig begin as epiphytes but eventually set their own roots and overpower and kill their host Many orchids bromeliads ferns and mosses grow as epiphytes 98 Among the epiphytes the bromeliads accumulate water in their leaf axils these water filled cavities can support complex aquatic food webs 99 Some 630 species of plants are carnivorous such as the Venus flytrap Dionaea muscipula and sundew Drosera species They trap small animals and digest them to obtain mineral nutrients especially nitrogen and phosphorus 100 Bee gathering pollen orange pollen basket on its leg Hummingbird visiting a flower for nectar Seed dispersal by animals many hooked Geum urbanum fruits attached to a dog s fur Legumes have root nodules containing symbiotic Rhizobium nitrogen fixing bacteria A sundew leaf with sticky hairs curling to trap and digest a flyCompetition Competition for shared resources reduces a plant s growth 101 102 Shared resources include sunlight water and nutrients Light is a critical resource because it is necessary for photosynthesis 101 Plants use their leaves to shade other plants from sunlight and grow quickly to maximize their own expose 101 Water too is essential for photosynthesis roots compete to maximize water uptake from soil 103 Some plants have deep roots that are able to locate water stored deep underground and others have shallower roots that are capable of extending longer distances to collect recent rainwater 103 Minerals are important for plant growth and development 104 Common nutrients competed for amongst plants include nitrogen phosphorus and potassium 105 ImportanceMain article Plants in culture Food Main article Agriculture Mechanical harvest of oats Human cultivation of plants is the core of agriculture which in turn has played a key role in the history of world civilizations 106 Humans depend on plants for food either directly or as feed in animal husbandry Agriculture includes agronomy for arable crops horticulture for vegetables and fruit and forestry for timber 107 108 About 7 000 species of plant have been used for food though most of today s food is derived from only 30 species The major staples include cereals such as rice and wheat starchy roots and tubers such as cassava and potato and legumes such as peas and beans Vegetable oils such as olive oil and palm oil provide lipids while fruit and vegetables contribute vitamins and minerals to the diet 109 The study of plant uses by people is called economic botany or ethnobotany 110 Medicines Main article Medicinal plants A medieval physician preparing an extract from a medicinal plant from an Arabic Dioscorides 1224 Medicinal plants are a primary source of organic compounds both for their medicinal and physiological effects and for the industrial synthesis of a vast array of organic chemicals 111 Many hundreds of medicines are derived from plants both traditional medicines used in herbalism 112 113 and chemical substances purified from plants or first identified in them sometimes by ethnobotanical search and then synthesised for use in modern medicine Modern medicines derived from plants include aspirin taxol morphine quinine reserpine colchicine digitalis and vincristine Plants used in herbalism include ginkgo echinacea feverfew and Saint John s wort The pharmacopoeia of Dioscorides De Materia Medica describing some 600 medicinal plants was written between 50 and 70 CE and remained in use in Europe and the Middle East until around 1600 CE it was the precursor of all modern pharmacopoeias 114 115 116 Nonfood products Main article Non food crop Timber in storage for later processing at a sawmill Plants grown as industrial crops are the source of a wide range of products used in manufacturing 117 Nonfood products include essential oils natural dyes pigments waxes resins tannins alkaloids amber and cork Products derived from plants include soaps shampoos perfumes cosmetics paint varnish turpentine rubber latex lubricants linoleum plastics inks and gums Renewable fuels from plants include firewood peat and other biofuels 118 119 The fossil fuels coal petroleum and natural gas are derived from the remains of aquatic organisms including phytoplankton in geological time 120 Many of the coal fields date to the Carboniferous period of Earth s history Terrestrial plants also form type III kerogen a source of natural gas 121 122 Structural resources and fibres from plants are used to construct dwellings and to manufacture clothing Wood is used for buildings boats and furniture and for smaller items such as musical instruments and sports equipment Wood is pulped to make paper and cardboard 123 Cloth is often made from cotton flax ramie or synthetic fibres such as rayon and acetate derived from plant cellulose Thread used to sew cloth likewise comes in large part from cotton 124 Ornamental plants Main article Ornamental plant A rose espalier at Niedernhall in Germany Thousands of plant species are cultivated for their beauty and to provide shade modify temperatures reduce wind abate noise provide privacy and reduce soil erosion Plants are the basis of a multibillion dollar per year tourism industry which includes travel to historic gardens national parks rainforests forests with colorful autumn leaves and festivals such as Japan s 125 and America s cherry blossom festivals 126 Plants may be grown indoors as houseplants or in specialized buildings such as greenhouses Plants such as Venus flytrap sensitive plant and resurrection plant are sold as novelties Art forms specializing in the arrangement of cut or living plant include bonsai ikebana and the arrangement of cut or dried flowers Ornamental plants have sometimes changed the course of history as in tulipomania 127 In science Further information Model organism Barbara McClintock used maize to study inheritance of traits Basic biological research has often used plants as its model organisms In genetics the breeding of pea plants allowed Gregor Mendel to derive the basic laws governing inheritance 128 and examination of chromosomes in maize allowed Barbara McClintock to demonstrate their connection to inherited traits 129 The plant Arabidopsis thaliana is used in laboratories as a model organism to understand how genes control the growth and development of plant structures 130 Tree rings provide a method of dating in archeology and a record of past climates 131 The study of plant fossils or Paleobotany provides information about the evolutions of plants paleogeographical reconstructions and past climate change Plant fossils can also help determine the age of rocks 132 In mythology religion and culture Plants including trees appear in mythology religion and literature 133 134 135 Flowers are often used as memorials gifts and to mark special occasions such as births deaths weddings and holidays Flower arrangements may be used to send hidden messages 136 Architectural designs resembling plants appear in the capitals of Ancient Egyptian columns which were carved to resemble either the Egyptian white lotus or the papyrus 137 Images of plants and especially of flowers are often used in paintings 138 139 Negative effects The musk thistle is an invasive species in Texas Weeds are commercially or aesthetically undesirable plants growing in managed environments such as in agriculture and gardens 140 People have spread many plants beyond their native ranges some of these plants have become invasive damaging existing ecosystems by displacing native species and sometimes becoming serious weeds of cultivation 141 Some plants that produce windblown pollen including grasses invoke allergic reactions in people who suffer from hay fever 142 Many plants produce toxins to protect themselves from herbivores Major classes of plant toxins include alkaloids terpenoids and phenolics 143 These can be harmful to humans and livestock by ingestion 144 145 or as with poison ivy by contact 146 Some plants have negative effects on other plants preventing seedling growth or the growth of nearby plants by releasing allopathic chemicals 147 See alsoPlant identification Mycorrhizal networkReferences Cavalier Smith Tom 1981 Eukaryote kingdoms Seven or nine BioSystems 14 3 4 461 481 doi 10 1016 0303 2647 81 90050 2 PMID 7337818 Lewis L A McCourt R M 2004 Green algae and the origin of land plants American Journal of Botany 91 10 1535 1556 doi 10 3732 ajb 91 10 1535 PMID 21652308 Kenrick Paul Crane Peter R 1997 The origin and early diversification of land plants A cladistic study Washington D C Smithsonian Institution Press ISBN 978 1 56098 730 7 Adl S M et al 2005 The new higher level classification of eukaryotes with emphasis on the taxonomy of protists The Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology 52 5 399 451 doi 10 1111 j 1550 7408 2005 00053 x PMID 16248873 S2CID 8060916 Hull David L 2010 Science as a Process An Evolutionary Account of the Social and Conceptual Development of Science University of Chicago Press p 82 ISBN 9780226360492 Singh G 19 April 2016 Plant Systematics An Integrated Approach Third Edition CRC Press p 1 ISBN 978 1 4398 4363 5 a b Taxonomy and Classification obo Retrieved 7 March 2023 a b Whittaker R H 1969 New concepts of kingdoms or organisms PDF Science 163 3863 150 160 Bibcode 1969Sci 163 150W CiteSeerX 10 1 1 403 5430 doi 10 1126 science 163 3863 150 PMID 5762760 Archived from the original PDF on 17 November 2017 Retrieved 4 November 2014 Margulis Lynn 1971 Whittaker s five kingdoms of organisms minor revisions suggested by considerations of the origin of mitosis Evolution 25 1 242 245 doi 10 2307 2406516 JSTOR 2406516 PMID 28562945 Copeland H F 1956 The Classification of Lower Organisms Pacific Books p 6 Cavalier Smith Tom 1981 Eukaryote Kingdoms Seven or Nine BioSystems 14 3 4 461 481 doi 10 1016 0303 2647 81 90050 2 PMID 7337818 Linnaeus Carl 1751 Philosophia botanica in Latin 1st ed Stockholm Godofr Kiesewetter p 37 Archived from the original on 23 June 2016 Haeckel Ernst 1866 Generale Morphologie der Organismen Berlin Verlag von Georg Reimer vol 1 i xxxii 1 574 plates I II vol 2 i clx 1 462 plates I VIII Haeckel Ernst 1894 Die systematische Phylogenie a b An Online Flora of All Known Plants The World Flora Online Retrieved 25 March 2020 Numbers of threatened species by major groups of organisms 1996 2010 PDF International Union for Conservation of 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3 July 2007 Retrieved 21 May 2007 Bevan Jones Robert 1 August 2009 Poisonous Plants A Cultural and Social History Windgather Press ISBN 978 1 909686 22 9 Livestock Poisoning Plants of California UCANR Publications ISBN 978 1 60107 674 8 Crosby Donald G 1 April 2004 The Poisoned Weed Plants Toxic to Skin Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 028870 9 Grodzinskii A M 1 March 2016 Allelopathy in the Life of Plants and their Communities Scientific Publishers ISBN 978 93 86102 04 1 Further readingGeneral Evans L T 1998 Feeding the Ten Billion Plants and Population Growth Cambridge University Press Paperback 247 pages ISBN 0 521 64685 5 Kenrick Paul amp Crane Peter R 1997 The Origin and Early Diversification of Land Plants A Cladistic Study Washington D C Smithsonian Institution Press ISBN 1 56098 730 8 Raven Peter H Evert Ray F amp Eichhorn Susan E 2005 Biology of Plants 7th ed New York W H Freeman and Company ISBN 0 7167 1007 2 Taylor Thomas N amp Taylor Edith L 1993 The Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice Hall ISBN 0 13 651589 4 Species estimates and counts International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources IUCN Species Survival Commission 2004 IUCN Red List The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species Prance G T 2001 Discovering the Plant World Taxon 50 2 Golden Jubilee Part 4 345 359 doi 10 2307 1223885 JSTOR 1223885 External links The Wikibook Dichotomous Key has a page on the topic of Plantae Index Nominum Algarum Interactive Cronquist classification Plant Resources of Tropical Africa Tree of Life Archived 9 March 2022 at the Wayback MachineBotanical and vegetation databasesAfrican Plants Initiative database Australia Chilean plants at Chilebosque e Floras Flora of China Flora of North America and others Archived 19 February 2022 at the Wayback Machine Flora Europaea Flora of Central Europe in German Flora of North America Archived 19 February 2022 at the Wayback Machine List of Japanese Wild Plants Online Archived 16 March 2022 at the Wayback Machine Meet the Plants National Tropical Botanical Garden Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center Native Plant Information Network at University of Texas Austin The Plant List Archived 25 February 2022 at the Wayback Machine United States Department of Agriculture not limited to continental US species Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Plant amp oldid 1152464276 Cultivation, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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