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Wikipedia

Peat

January 13, 2023

For other uses, see Peat (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with peat moss, a plant from which peat often forms, or turf, the top layer of soil from which grass grows.

Peat (/piːt/), also known as turf (/tɜːrf/), is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation or organic matter. It is unique to natural areas called peatlands, bogs, mires, moors, or muskegs.[1][2] The peatland ecosystem covers 3.7 million square kilometres (1.4 million square miles)[3] and is the most efficient carbon sink on the planet,[2][4] because peatland plants capture carbon dioxide (CO2) naturally released from the peat, maintaining an equilibrium. In natural peatlands, the "annual rate of biomass production is greater than the rate of decomposition", but it takes "thousands of years for peatlands to develop the deposits of 1.5 to 2.3 m [4.9 to 7.5 ft], which is the average depth of the boreal [northern] peatlands",[2] which store around 415 gigatonnes (Gt) of carbon (about 46 times 2019 global CO2 emissions).[3] Globally, peat stores up to 550 Gt of carbon, 42% of all soil carbon, which exceeds the carbon stored in all other vegetation types, including the world's forests, although it covers just 3% of the land's surface.[5][6]Sphagnum moss, also called peat moss, is one of the most common components in peat, although many other plants can contribute. The biological features of sphagnum mosses act to create a habitat aiding peat formation, a phenomenon termed 'habitat manipulation'.[7] Soils consisting primarily of peat are known as histosols. Peat forms in wetland conditions, where flooding or stagnant water obstructs the flow of oxygen from the atmosphere, slowing the rate of decomposition.[8] Peat properties such as organic matter content and saturated hydraulic conductivity can exhibit high spatial heterogeneity.[9]

A lump of peat
Peat stacks in Südmoslesfehn (district of Oldenburg, Germany) in 2013
Peat gatherers at Westhay, Somerset Levels in 1905
Peat extraction in East Frisia, Germany

Peatlands, particularly bogs, are the primary source of peat;[10] although less common, other wetlands, including fens, pocosins, and peat swamp forests, also deposit peat. Landscapes covered in peat are home to specific kinds of plants including Sphagnum moss, ericaceous shrubs, and sedges.[Notes 1] Because organic matter accumulates over thousands of years, peat deposits provide records of past vegetation and climate by preserving plant remains, such as pollen. This allows the reconstruction of past environments and the study of changes in land use.[11]

Peat is used by gardeners and for horticulture in certain parts of the world,[12] but this is being banned in some places.[13] By volume, there are about 4 trillion cubic metres of peat in the world.[14] Over time, the formation of peat is often the first step in the geological formation of fossil fuels such as coal, particularly low-grade coal such as lignite.[15]

Peat is not a renewable source of energy, due to its extraction rate in industrialized countries far exceeding its slow regrowth rate of 1 mm (0.04 in) per year,[16] and as it is also reported that peat regrowth takes place only in 30–40% of peatlands.[17] Centuries of burning and draining of peat by humans has released a significant amount of CO2 into the atmosphere,[18] and much peatland restoration is needed to help limit climate change.[19]

Formation

 
Peat in Lewis, Scotland

Peat forms when plant material does not fully decay in acidic and anaerobic conditions. It is composed mainly of wetland vegetation: principally bog plants including mosses, sedges, and shrubs. As it accumulates, the peat holds water. This slowly creates wetter conditions that allow the area of wetland to expand. Peatland features can include ponds, ridges, and raised bogs.[10] The characteristics of some bog plants actively promote bog formation. For example, sphagnum mosses actively secrete tannins, which preserve organic material. Sphagnum also have special water-retaining cells, known as hyaline cells, which can release water ensuring the bogland remains constantly wet which helps promote peat production.[20]

Most modern peat bogs formed 12,000 years ago in high latitudes after the glaciers retreated at the end of the last ice age.[21] Peat usually accumulates slowly at the rate of about a millimetre per year.[16] The estimated carbon content is 415 gigatonnes (457 billion short tons) (northern peatlands),[3] 50 Gt (55 billion short tons) (tropical peatlands) and 15 Gt (17 billion short tons) (South America).[22]

Types of peat material

Peat material is either fibric, hemic, or sapric. Fibric peats are the least decomposed and consist of intact fibre. Hemic peats are partially decomposed and sapric are the most decomposed.[23]

Phragmites peat are composed of reed grass, Phragmites australis, and other grasses. It is denser than many other types of peat.

Engineers may describe a soil as peat which has a relatively high percentage of organic material. This soil is problematic because it exhibits poor consolidation properties – it cannot be easily compacted to serve as a stable foundation to support loads, such as roads or buildings.

Peatlands distribution

In a widely cited article, Joosten and Clarke (2002) described peatlands or mires (which they claim are the same)[Notes 2][1] as

the most widespread of all wetland types in the world, representing 50 to 70% of global wetlands. They cover over 4 million square kilometres [1.5 million square miles] or 3% of the land and freshwater surface of the planet. In these ecosystems are found one third of the world's soil carbon and 10% of global freshwater resources. These ecosystems are characterized by the unique ability to accumulate and store dead organic matter from Sphagnum and many other non-moss species, as peat, under conditions of almost permanent water saturation. Peatlands are adapted to the extreme conditions of high water and low oxygen content, of toxic elements and low availability of plant nutrients. Their water chemistry varies from alkaline to acidic. Peatlands occur on all continents, from the tropical to boreal and Arctic zones from sea level to high alpine conditions.

 
PEATMAP is a GIS shapefile dataset that shows a distribution of peatlands that covers the entire world

A more recent estimate from an improved global peatland map, PEATMAP,[24] based on a meta-analysis of geospatial information at global, regional and national levels puts global coverage slightly higher than earlier peatland inventories at 4.23 million square kilometres (1.63 million square miles) approximately 2.84% of the world land area.[25] In Europe, peatlands extend to about 515,000 km2 (199,000 sq mi).[26] About 60% of the world's wetlands are made of peat.

Peat deposits are found in many places around the world, including northern Europe and North America. The North American peat deposits are principally found in Canada and the Northern United States. Some of the world's largest peatlands include the West Siberian Lowland, the Hudson Bay Lowlands, and the Mackenzie River Valley.[27] There is less peat in the Southern Hemisphere, in part because there is less land. That said, the vast Magellanic Moorland in South America (Southern Patagonia/Tierra del Fuego) is an extensive peat-dominated landscape.[27] Peat can be found in New Zealand, Kerguelen, the Falkland Islands, and Indonesia (Kalimantan [Sungai Putri, Danau Siawan, Sungai Tolak], Rasau Jaya (West Kalimantan), and Sumatra). Indonesia has more tropical peatlands and mangrove forests than any other nation on earth, but Indonesia is losing wetlands by 100,000 hectares (250,000 acres) per year.[28]

About 7% of all peatlands have been exploited for agriculture and forestry.[29] Under certain conditions, peat will turn into lignite coal over geologic periods of time.

General characteristics and uses

 
A peat stack in Ness on the Isle of Lewis (Scotland)
 
Worked bank in blanket bog, near Ulsta, Yell, Shetland Islands
 
Falkland Islanders shovelling peat in the 1950s
 
Peat fire

Traditionally peat is cut by hand and left to dry in the sun. But for industrial uses, companies may use pressure to extract water from the peat, which is soft and easily compressed, and once dry can be used as fuel. In many countries, including Ireland and Scotland, peat was traditionally stacked to dry in rural areas and used for cooking and domestic heating.

Peat can be a major fire hazard and is not extinguished by light rain.[30] Peat fires may burn for great lengths of time, or smoulder underground and reignite after winter if an oxygen source is present. Because they are easily compressed under minimal weight, peat deposits pose major difficulties to builders of structures, roads, and railways. When the West Highland railway line was built across Rannoch Moor in western Scotland, its builders had to float the tracks on a multi-thousand-ton mattress of tree roots, brushwood, earth and ash.

Peatland can also be an important source of drinking water providing nearly 4% of all potable water stored in reservoirs. In the UK, 43% of the population receives drinking water sourced from peatlands, with the number climbing to 68% in Ireland. Catchments containing peatlands are the main source of water for large cities, including Dublin.[31]

In the Bronze and Iron Ages, people used peat bogs for rituals to nature gods and spirits.[32] Bodies of the victims of such sacrifices have been found in various places in Scotland, England, Ireland, and especially northern Germany and Denmark. They are almost perfectly preserved by the tanning properties of the acidic water (see Tollund Man for one of the most famous examples of a bog body). Peat wetlands also used to have a degree of metallurgical importance in the Early Middle Ages, being the primary source of bog iron used to create swords and armour. Many peat swamps along the coast of Malaysia serve as a natural means of flood mitigation, with any overflow being absorbed by the peat, provided forests are still present to prevent peat fires.[citation needed]

Characteristics and uses by nation

Finland

 
The Toppila Power Station, a peat-fired facility in Oulu, Finland

The climate, geography, and environment of Finland favours bog and peat bog formation. Thus, peat is available in considerable quantities. It is burned to produce heat and electricity. Peat provides around 4% of Finland's annual energy production.[33]

Also, agricultural and forestry-drained peat bogs actively release more CO2 annually than is released in peat energy production in Finland. The average regrowth rate of a single peat bog, however, is indeed slow, from 1,000 up to 5,000 years. Furthermore, it is a common practice to forest used peat bogs instead of giving them a chance to renew. This leads to lower levels of CO2 storage than the original peat bog.

At 106 g CO2/MJ,[34] the carbon dioxide emissions of peat are higher than those of coal (at 94.6 g CO2/MJ) and natural gas (at 56.1). According to one study, increasing the average amount of wood in the fuel mixture from the current 2.6% to 12.5% would take the emissions down to 93 g CO2/MJ. That said, little effort is being made to achieve this.[35]

The International Mire Conservation Group (IMCG) in 2006 urged the local and national governments of Finland to protect and conserve the remaining pristine peatland ecosystems. This includes the cessation of drainage and peat extraction in intact mire sites and the abandoning of current and planned groundwater extraction that may affect these sites. A proposal for a Finnish peatland management strategy was presented to the government in 2011, after a lengthy consultation phase.[36]

Ireland

 
Industrial-milled peat production in a section of the Bog of Allen in the Irish Midlands: The 'turf' in the foreground is[citation needed] machine-produced for domestic use.

In the Republic of Ireland, a state-owned company called Bord na Móna was responsible for managing peat extraction. It processed the extracted peat into milled peat which was used in power stations and sold processed peat fuel in the form of peat briquettes which are[citation needed] used for domestic heating. These are oblong bars of densely compressed, dried, and shredded peat. Peat moss is[citation needed] a manufactured product for use in garden cultivation. Turf (dried out peat sods) is also commonly used in rural areas.[citation needed]

In January 2021 Bord na Móna announced that it had ceased all peat harvesting and cutting operations and would be moving its business to a climate solutions company.[37]

In 2022 the sale of peat for burning was prohibited, but some people are still allowed to cut and burn it.[38]

Russia

 
Shatura Power Station. Russia has the largest peat power capacity in the world

Use of peat for energy production was prominent in the Soviet Union, especially in 1965. In 1929, over 40% of the Soviet Union's electric energy came from peat, which dropped to 1% by 1980.

In the 1960s, larger sections of swamps and bogs in Western Russia were drained for agricultural and mining purposes.[39]

The Netherlands

 
Peat covered area (brown) 2,500 years ago in the Netherlands

2,500 years ago, the area now named the Netherlands was largely covered with peat. Drainage, causing compaction and oxidation and excavation have reduced peatlands (>40 cm (16 in) peat) to about 2,733 km2 (1,055 sq mi)[40] or 10% of the land area, mostly used as meadows. Drainage and excavation have lowered the surface of the peatlands. In the west of the country dikes and mills were built, creating polders so that dwelling and economic activities could continue below sea level, the first polder probably in 1533[41] and the last one in 1968. Harvesting of peat could continue in suitable locations as the lower peat layers below current sea level became exposed. This peat was deposited before the rise of the sea level in the Holocene. As a result, approximately 26% of the area[42] and 21% of the population[43] of the Netherlands are presently below sea level. The deepest point is in the Zuidplaspolder, 6.76 m (22.2 ft) below average sea level.

 
The Netherlands compared to sealevel

In 2020, the Netherlands imported 2,156 million kg of peat (5.39 million m3 (400 kg/m3 dry peat) [44]): 44.5% from Germany (2020), 9.5% from Estonia (2018), 9.2% from Latvia (2020), 7.2% from Ireland (2018), 8.0% from Sweden (2019), 6.5% from Lithuania (2020), 5.1% from Belgium (2019) and 1.7% from Denmark (2019)); 1,35 million kg was exported.[45] Most is used in gardening and greenhouse horticulture.

Since the Netherlands did not have many trees to use as firewood or charcoal, one use the Dutch made of the available peat was to fire kilns to make pottery.[46] During World War II, the Dutch Resistance came up with an unusual use for peat. Since peat was so available in the fields, resistance fighters sometimes stacked peat into human-sized piles and used the piles for target practice.[47]

Estonia

After oil shale in Estonia, peat is the second most mined natural resource.[48] The peat production sector has a yearly revenue of around €100 million and it is mostly export-oriented.[citation needed] Peat is extracted from around 14 thousand hectares (35,000 acres).[49]

India

Sikkim

The mountains of the Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau contains pockets of high-altitude wetlands.[50] Khecheopalri is one of the Sikkim's most famous and diverse peatlands in the eastern Indian territory of Sikkim, which includes 682 species representing 5 kingdoms, 196 families, and 453 genera.[51]

United Kingdom

England

England has around 1 million acres of peatland. Peatland in England store 584m tonnes of carbon in total but emit around 11m tonnes of CO2 every year due to degradation and draining. In 2021 only 124 people owned 60% of England's peat land.[52]

The extraction of peat from the Somerset Levels began during the Roman times and has been carried out since the Levels were first drained.[53] On Dartmoor, there were several commercial distillation plants formed and run by the British Patent Naphtha Company in 1844. These produced naphtha on a commercial scale from the high-quality local peat.[54]

Fenn's, Whixall and Bettisfield Mosses is an element of a post-Ice Age peat bog that straddles the England–Wales border and contains many rare plant and animal species due to the acidic environment created by the peat.[55] Only lightly hand-dug, it is now a national nature reserve and is being restored to its natural condition.

Industrial extraction of peat occurred at the Thorne Moor site, outside Doncaster near to the village of Hatfield. Government policy incentivised commercial removal to peat for agricultural use. This caused much destruction of the area during the 1980s. The removal of the peat resulted in later flooding further downstream at Goole due to the loss of water retaining peatlands.[56] Recently regeneration of peatland has occurred as part of the Thorne Moors project, and at Fleet Moss, organised by Yorkshire Wildlife Trust.[57]

Northern Ireland

In Northern Ireland, there is small-scale domestic turf cutting in rural areas, but areas of bogs have been diminished because of changes in agriculture. In response, afforestation has seen the establishment of tentative steps towards conservation such as Peatlands Park, County Armagh which is an Area of Special Scientific Interest.[58]

Scotland

Some Scotch whisky distilleries, such as those on Islay, use peat fires to dry malted barley. The drying process takes about 30 hours. This gives the whiskies a distinctive smoky flavour, often called "peatiness".[59][better source needed] The peatiness, or degree of peat flavour, of a whisky, is calculated in ppm of phenol. Normal Highland whiskies have a peat level of up to 30 ppm, and the whiskies on Islay usually have up to 50 ppm. In rare types like the Octomore,[60] the whisky can have more than 100 ppm of phenol. Scotch Ales can also use peat roasted malt, imparting a similar smoked flavor.

Wales

Wales has over 70,000 hectares of peatlands. Most of it is blanket peat bog in the highlands, but there are a few hundred hectares of peatland in lowland areas.[61] Some peatland areas in Wales are in poor condition. In 2020, the Welsh Government established a five-year peatland restoration initiative, which will be implemented by Natural Resources Wales (NRW).[62]

Canada

Canada is the top exporter of peat by value. In 2021, top exporters of peat (including peat litter), whether or not agglomerated, were Canada ($580,591.39K, 1,643,950,000 kg), European Union ($445,304.42K, 2,362,280,000 kg), Latvia ($275,459.14K, 2,184,860,000 kg), Netherlands ($235,250.84K, 1,312,850,000 kg), Germany ($223,414.66K, 1,721,170,000 kg).[63]

Generic characteristics and uses

Agriculture

See also: Potting soil § Peat

In Sweden, farmers use dried peat to absorb excrement from cattle that are wintered indoors. The most important property of peat is retaining moisture in container soil when it is dry while preventing the excess of water from killing roots when it is wet. Peat can store nutrients although it is not fertile itself – it is polyelectrolytic with a high ion-exchange capacity due to its oxidized lignin. Peat is discouraged as a soil amendment by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England, since 2003.[64] While bark-based peat-free potting soil mixes are on the rise, particularly in the UK, peat remains an important[citation needed] raw material for horticulture in some other European countries, Canada, as well as parts of the United States.

Freshwater aquaria

Peat is sometimes used in freshwater aquaria. It is seen most commonly in soft water or blackwater river systems such as those mimicking the Amazon River basin. In addition to being soft in texture and therefore suitable for demersal (bottom-dwelling) species such as Corydoras catfish, peat is reported to have a number of other beneficial functions in freshwater aquaria. It softens water by acting as an ion exchanger; it also contains substances that are beneficial for plants, and for the reproductive health of fishes. Peat can prevent algae growth and kill microorganisms. Peat often stains the water yellow or brown due to the leaching of tannins.[65]

Balneotherapy

Peat is[citation needed] widely used in balneotherapy (the use of bathing to treat disease). Many traditional spa treatments include peat as part of peloids. Such health treatments have an enduring tradition in European countries including Poland, the Czech Republic, Germany, and Austria. Some of these old spas date back to the 18th century and are still active today. The most common types of peat application in balneotherapy are peat muds, poultices, and suspension baths.[66]

Peat archives

Authors Rydin and Jeglum in Biology of Habitats described the concept of peat archives, a phrase coined by influential peatland scientist Harry Godwin in 1981.[67][68][69]

In a peat profile there is a fossilized record of changes over time in the vegetation, pollen, spores, animals (from microscopic to the giant elk), and archaeological remains that have been deposited in place, as well as pollen, spores and particles brought in by wind and weather. These remains are collectively termed the peat archives.

— Rydin, 2013

In Quaternary Palaeoecology, first published in 1980, Birks and Birks described how paleoecological studies "of peat can be used to reveal what plant communities were present (locally and regionally), what time period each community occupied, how environmental conditions changed, and how the environment affected the ecosystem in that time and place."[68][70]

Scientists continue to compare modern mercury (Hg) accumulation rates in bogs with historical natural-archives records in peat bogs and lake sediments to estimate the potential human impacts on the biogeochemical cycle of mercury, for example.[71] Over the years, different dating models and technologies for measuring date sediments and peat profiles accumulated over the last 100–150 years, have been used, including the widely used vertical distribution of 210Pb, the inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-SMS),[72] and more recently the initial penetration (IP).[73] In some cases, naturally mummified human bodies, often called "bog bodies", such as the Tollund Man in Denmark, having been discovered in 1950 and dated to have lived during the 4th century BC after being mistaken for a recent murder victim, have been discovered and exhumed for scientific purposes; prior to that, another "bog body", the Elling Woman, had been discovered in 1938 in the same bog about 60 m (200 ft) from the Tollund Man. She is believed to have lived during the late 3rd century BC and was ultimately a ritual sacrifice.

Peat hags

 
Peat hags at the start of Allt Lagan a' Bhainne tributary on Eilrig

Peat "hags" are a form of erosion that occurs at the sides of gullies that cut into the peat or, sometimes, in isolation.[74] Hags may result when flowing water cuts downwards into the peat and when fire or overgrazing exposes the peat surface. Once the peat is exposed in these ways, it is prone to further erosion by wind, water, and livestock. The result is overhanging vegetation and peat. Hags are too steep and unstable for vegetation to establish itself, so they continue to erode unless restorative action is taken.[74]

Environmental and ecological issues

 
Increase, and change relative to previous year, of the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide.

The distinctive ecological conditions of peat wetlands provide a habitat for distinctive fauna and flora. For example, whooping cranes nest in North American peatlands, while Siberian cranes nest in the West Siberian peatland. Such habitats also have many species of wild orchids and carnivorous plants. It takes centuries for a peat bog to recover from disturbance. (For more on biological communities, see wetland, bog or fen.)

The world's largest peat bog is located in Western Siberia. It is the size of France and Germany combined. Recent studies show that it is thawing for the first time in 11,000 years. As the permafrost melts, it could release billions of tonnes of methane gas into the atmosphere. The world's peatlands are thought to contain 180 to 455 billion metric tonnes of sequestered carbon, and they release into the atmosphere 20 to 45 million tonnes (22 to 50 million short tons; 20 to 44 million long tons) of methane annually. The peatlands' contribution to long-term fluctuations in these atmospheric gases has been a matter of considerable debate.[75]

One of the characteristics for peat is the bioaccumulations of metals often concentrated in the peat. Accumulated mercury is of significant environmental concern.[76]

Peat drainage

Large areas of organic wetland (peat) soils are currently drained for agriculture, forestry, and peat extraction (i.e. through canals[77]). This process is taking place all over the world. This not only destroys the habitat of many species but also heavily fuels climate change.[78] As a result of peat drainage, the organic carbon – which built over thousands of years and is normally underwater – is suddenly exposed to the air. It decomposes and turns into carbon dioxide (CO2), which is released into the atmosphere.[79] The global CO2 emissions from drained peatlands have increased from 1,058 Mton in 1990 to 1,298 Mton in 2008 (a 20% increase). This increase has particularly taken place in developing countries, of which Indonesia, Malaysia, and Papua New Guinea are the fastest-growing top emitters. This estimate excludes emissions from peat fires (conservative estimates amount to at least 4,000 Mton/CO2-eq./yr for south-east Asia). With 174 Mton/CO2-eq./yr the EU is after Indonesia (500 Mton) and before Russia (161 Mton) the world's second-largest emitter of drainage-related peatland CO2 (excl. extracted peat and fires). Total CO2 emissions from the worldwide 500,000 km2 of degraded peatland may exceed 2.0 Gtons (including emissions from peat fires) which is almost 6% of all global carbon emissions.[80]

Peat fires

See also: Slash and burn and Arctic methane release
 
Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997

Peat has a high carbon content and can burn under low moisture conditions. Once ignited by the presence of a heat source (e.g., a wildfire penetrating the subsurface), it smoulders. These smouldering fires can burn undetected for very long periods of time (months, years, and even centuries) propagating in a creeping fashion through the underground peat layer.

Despite the damage that the burning of raw peat can cause, bogs are naturally subject to wildfires and depend on the wildfires to keep woody competition from lowering the water table and shading out many bog plants. Several families of plants including the carnivorous Sarracenia (trumpet pitcher), Dionaea (Venus flytrap), Utricularia (bladderworts) and non-carnivorous plants such as the sandhills lily, toothache grass and many species of orchid are now threatened and in some cases endangered from the combined forces of human drainage, negligence, and absence of fire.[81][82][83]

The recent burning of peat bogs in Indonesia, with their large and deep growths containing more than 50 billion tonnes (55 billion short tons; 49 billion long tons) of carbon, has contributed to increases in world carbon dioxide levels.[84] Peat deposits in Southeast Asia could be destroyed by 2040.[85][86]

It is estimated that in 1997, peat and forest fires in Indonesia released between 0.81 and 2.57 gigatonnes (0.89 and 2.83 billion short tons; 0.80 and 2.53 billion long tons) of carbon; equivalent to 13–40 percent of the amount released by global fossil fuel burning, and greater than the carbon uptake of the world's biosphere. These fires may be responsible for the acceleration in the increase in carbon dioxide levels since 1998.[87][88] More than 100 peat fires in Kalimantan and East Sumatra have continued to burn since 1997; each year, these peat fires ignite new forest fires above the ground.

In North America, peat fires can occur during severe droughts throughout their occurrence, from boreal forests in Canada to swamps and fens in the subtropical southern Florida Everglades.[89] Once a fire has burnt through the area, hollows in the peat are burnt out, and hummocks are desiccated but can contribute to Sphagnum recolonization.[90]

In the summer of 2010, an unusually high heat wave of up to 40 °C (104 °F) ignited large deposits of peat in Central Russia, burning thousands of houses and covering the capital of Moscow with a toxic smoke blanket. The situation remained critical until the end of August 2010.[91][92]

In June 2019, despite some forest fire prevention methods being put in place, peat fires[93] in the Arctic emitted 50 megatonnes (55 million short tons; 49 million long tons) of CO2, which is equal to Sweden's total annual emissions.[94] The peat fires are linked to climate change, as they are much more likely to occur nowadays due to this effect.[95][96]

Protection

See also: Global Peatlands Initiative

In June 2002, the United Nations Development Programme launched the Wetlands Ecosystem and Tropical Peat Swamp Forest Rehabilitation Project. This project was targeted to last for 5 years, and brings together the efforts of various non-government organisations.

In November 2002, the International Peatland (formerly Peat) Society (IPS) and the International Mire Conservation Group (IMCG) published guidelines on the "Wise Use of Mires and Peatlands – Backgrounds and Principles including a framework for decision-making". The aim of this publication is to develop mechanisms that can balance the conflicting demands on the global peatland heritage, to ensure its wise use to meet the needs of humankind.

In June 2008, the IPS published the book Peatlands and Climate Change, summarising the currently available knowledge on the topic. In 2010, IPS presented a "Strategy for Responsible Peatland Management", which can be applied worldwide for decision-making.

Restoration

See also: Mire § Management and rehabilitation

The UNEP is supporting peatland restoration in Indonesia.[97] Often, restoration is done by blocking drainage channels in the peatland, and allowing natural vegetation to recover.[98]

See also

  Wetlands portal

Notes

  1. ^ See bog for more information on this aspect of peat.
  2. ^ Supported by the "Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs (DGIS) under the Global Peatland Initiative 2008-11-20 at the Wayback Machine, managed by Wetlands International in co-operation with the IUCN – Netherlands Committee, Alterra, the International Mire Conservation Group and the International Peatland Society."

References

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  2. ^ a b c Hugron, Sandrine; Bussières, Julie; Rochefort, Line (2013). (PDF) (Report). Laval, Québec, Canada: Peatland Ecology Research Group (PERG). Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 October 2017. Retrieved 22 February 2014.
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External links

 
The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on the topic of: Peat and coal
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Peat.
 
Look up peat in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
 
Wikisource has the text of The New Student's Reference Work article "Peat".
  • International Peatland Society
  • International Mire Conservation Group
  • Irish Peatland Conservation Council
  • Gardening without peat Royal Horticultural Society
  • Peat-free gardens RSPB
  • Massive peat burn is speeding climate change From The New Scientist
  • Peatlands articles on the BBC
  • Meadowview Biological Research Station
  • Peat and Peatlands Bibliography

January 13, 2023
peat, other, uses, disambiguation, confused, with, peat, moss, plant, from, which, peat, often, forms, turf, layer, soil, from, which, grass, grows, also, known, turf, ɜːr, accumulation, partially, decayed, vegetation, organic, matter, unique, natural, areas, . For other uses see Peat disambiguation Not to be confused with peat moss a plant from which peat often forms or turf the top layer of soil from which grass grows Peat p iː t also known as turf t ɜːr f is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation or organic matter It is unique to natural areas called peatlands bogs mires moors or muskegs 1 2 The peatland ecosystem covers 3 7 million square kilometres 1 4 million square miles 3 and is the most efficient carbon sink on the planet 2 4 because peatland plants capture carbon dioxide CO2 naturally released from the peat maintaining an equilibrium In natural peatlands the annual rate of biomass production is greater than the rate of decomposition but it takes thousands of years for peatlands to develop the deposits of 1 5 to 2 3 m 4 9 to 7 5 ft which is the average depth of the boreal northern peatlands 2 which store around 415 gigatonnes Gt of carbon about 46 times 2019 global CO2 emissions 3 Globally peat stores up to 550 Gt of carbon 42 of all soil carbon which exceeds the carbon stored in all other vegetation types including the world s forests although it covers just 3 of the land s surface 5 6 Sphagnum moss also called peat moss is one of the most common components in peat although many other plants can contribute The biological features of sphagnum mosses act to create a habitat aiding peat formation a phenomenon termed habitat manipulation 7 Soils consisting primarily of peat are known as histosols Peat forms in wetland conditions where flooding or stagnant water obstructs the flow of oxygen from the atmosphere slowing the rate of decomposition 8 Peat properties such as organic matter content and saturated hydraulic conductivity can exhibit high spatial heterogeneity 9 A lump of peat Peat stacks in Sudmoslesfehn district of Oldenburg Germany in 2013 Peat gatherers at Westhay Somerset Levels in 1905 Peat extraction in East Frisia Germany Peatlands particularly bogs are the primary source of peat 10 although less common other wetlands including fens pocosins and peat swamp forests also deposit peat Landscapes covered in peat are home to specific kinds of plants including Sphagnum moss ericaceous shrubs and sedges Notes 1 Because organic matter accumulates over thousands of years peat deposits provide records of past vegetation and climate by preserving plant remains such as pollen This allows the reconstruction of past environments and the study of changes in land use 11 Peat is used by gardeners and for horticulture in certain parts of the world 12 but this is being banned in some places 13 By volume there are about 4 trillion cubic metres of peat in the world 14 Over time the formation of peat is often the first step in the geological formation of fossil fuels such as coal particularly low grade coal such as lignite 15 Peat is not a renewable source of energy due to its extraction rate in industrialized countries far exceeding its slow regrowth rate of 1 mm 0 04 in per year 16 and as it is also reported that peat regrowth takes place only in 30 40 of peatlands 17 Centuries of burning and draining of peat by humans has released a significant amount of CO2 into the atmosphere 18 and much peatland restoration is needed to help limit climate change 19 Contents 1 Formation 2 Types of peat material 3 Peatlands distribution 4 General characteristics and uses 5 Characteristics and uses by nation 5 1 Finland 5 2 Ireland 5 3 Russia 5 4 The Netherlands 5 5 Estonia 5 6 India 5 6 1 Sikkim 5 7 United Kingdom 5 7 1 England 5 7 2 Northern Ireland 5 7 3 Scotland 5 7 4 Wales 5 8 Canada 6 Generic characteristics and uses 6 1 Agriculture 6 2 Freshwater aquaria 6 3 Balneotherapy 6 4 Peat archives 6 5 Peat hags 7 Environmental and ecological issues 7 1 Peat drainage 7 2 Peat fires 8 Protection 9 Restoration 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 External linksFormation Edit Peat in Lewis Scotland Peat forms when plant material does not fully decay in acidic and anaerobic conditions It is composed mainly of wetland vegetation principally bog plants including mosses sedges and shrubs As it accumulates the peat holds water This slowly creates wetter conditions that allow the area of wetland to expand Peatland features can include ponds ridges and raised bogs 10 The characteristics of some bog plants actively promote bog formation For example sphagnum mosses actively secrete tannins which preserve organic material Sphagnum also have special water retaining cells known as hyaline cells which can release water ensuring the bogland remains constantly wet which helps promote peat production 20 Most modern peat bogs formed 12 000 years ago in high latitudes after the glaciers retreated at the end of the last ice age 21 Peat usually accumulates slowly at the rate of about a millimetre per year 16 The estimated carbon content is 415 gigatonnes 457 billion short tons northern peatlands 3 50 Gt 55 billion short tons tropical peatlands and 15 Gt 17 billion short tons South America 22 Types of peat material EditPeat material is either fibric hemic or sapric Fibric peats are the least decomposed and consist of intact fibre Hemic peats are partially decomposed and sapric are the most decomposed 23 Phragmites peat are composed of reed grass Phragmites australis and other grasses It is denser than many other types of peat Engineers may describe a soil as peat which has a relatively high percentage of organic material This soil is problematic because it exhibits poor consolidation properties it cannot be easily compacted to serve as a stable foundation to support loads such as roads or buildings Peatlands distribution EditIn a widely cited article Joosten and Clarke 2002 described peatlands or mires which they claim are the same Notes 2 1 asthe most widespread of all wetland types in the world representing 50 to 70 of global wetlands They cover over 4 million square kilometres 1 5 million square miles or 3 of the land and freshwater surface of the planet In these ecosystems are found one third of the world s soil carbon and 10 of global freshwater resources These ecosystems are characterized by the unique ability to accumulate and store dead organic matter from Sphagnum and many other non moss species as peat under conditions of almost permanent water saturation Peatlands are adapted to the extreme conditions of high water and low oxygen content of toxic elements and low availability of plant nutrients Their water chemistry varies from alkaline to acidic Peatlands occur on all continents from the tropical to boreal and Arctic zones from sea level to high alpine conditions PEATMAP is a GIS shapefile dataset that shows a distribution of peatlands that covers the entire world A more recent estimate from an improved global peatland map PEATMAP 24 based on a meta analysis of geospatial information at global regional and national levels puts global coverage slightly higher than earlier peatland inventories at 4 23 million square kilometres 1 63 million square miles approximately 2 84 of the world land area 25 In Europe peatlands extend to about 515 000 km2 199 000 sq mi 26 About 60 of the world s wetlands are made of peat Peat deposits are found in many places around the world including northern Europe and North America The North American peat deposits are principally found in Canada and the Northern United States Some of the world s largest peatlands include the West Siberian Lowland the Hudson Bay Lowlands and the Mackenzie River Valley 27 There is less peat in the Southern Hemisphere in part because there is less land That said the vast Magellanic Moorland in South America Southern Patagonia Tierra del Fuego is an extensive peat dominated landscape 27 Peat can be found in New Zealand Kerguelen the Falkland Islands and Indonesia Kalimantan Sungai Putri Danau Siawan Sungai Tolak Rasau Jaya West Kalimantan and Sumatra Indonesia has more tropical peatlands and mangrove forests than any other nation on earth but Indonesia is losing wetlands by 100 000 hectares 250 000 acres per year 28 About 7 of all peatlands have been exploited for agriculture and forestry 29 Under certain conditions peat will turn into lignite coal over geologic periods of time General characteristics and uses Edit A peat stack in Ness on the Isle of Lewis Scotland Worked bank in blanket bog near Ulsta Yell Shetland Islands Falkland Islanders shovelling peat in the 1950s Peat fire Traditionally peat is cut by hand and left to dry in the sun But for industrial uses companies may use pressure to extract water from the peat which is soft and easily compressed and once dry can be used as fuel In many countries including Ireland and Scotland peat was traditionally stacked to dry in rural areas and used for cooking and domestic heating Peat can be a major fire hazard and is not extinguished by light rain 30 Peat fires may burn for great lengths of time or smoulder underground and reignite after winter if an oxygen source is present Because they are easily compressed under minimal weight peat deposits pose major difficulties to builders of structures roads and railways When the West Highland railway line was built across Rannoch Moor in western Scotland its builders had to float the tracks on a multi thousand ton mattress of tree roots brushwood earth and ash Peatland can also be an important source of drinking water providing nearly 4 of all potable water stored in reservoirs In the UK 43 of the population receives drinking water sourced from peatlands with the number climbing to 68 in Ireland Catchments containing peatlands are the main source of water for large cities including Dublin 31 In the Bronze and Iron Ages people used peat bogs for rituals to nature gods and spirits 32 Bodies of the victims of such sacrifices have been found in various places in Scotland England Ireland and especially northern Germany and Denmark They are almost perfectly preserved by the tanning properties of the acidic water see Tollund Man for one of the most famous examples of a bog body Peat wetlands also used to have a degree of metallurgical importance in the Early Middle Ages being the primary source of bog iron used to create swords and armour Many peat swamps along the coast of Malaysia serve as a natural means of flood mitigation with any overflow being absorbed by the peat provided forests are still present to prevent peat fires citation needed Characteristics and uses by nation EditFinland Edit This section needs to be updated Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information January 2022 The Toppila Power Station a peat fired facility in Oulu Finland The climate geography and environment of Finland favours bog and peat bog formation Thus peat is available in considerable quantities It is burned to produce heat and electricity Peat provides around 4 of Finland s annual energy production 33 Also agricultural and forestry drained peat bogs actively release more CO2 annually than is released in peat energy production in Finland The average regrowth rate of a single peat bog however is indeed slow from 1 000 up to 5 000 years Furthermore it is a common practice to forest used peat bogs instead of giving them a chance to renew This leads to lower levels of CO2 storage than the original peat bog At 106 g CO2 MJ 34 the carbon dioxide emissions of peat are higher than those of coal at 94 6 g CO2 MJ and natural gas at 56 1 According to one study increasing the average amount of wood in the fuel mixture from the current 2 6 to 12 5 would take the emissions down to 93 g CO2 MJ That said little effort is being made to achieve this 35 The International Mire Conservation Group IMCG in 2006 urged the local and national governments of Finland to protect and conserve the remaining pristine peatland ecosystems This includes the cessation of drainage and peat extraction in intact mire sites and the abandoning of current and planned groundwater extraction that may affect these sites A proposal for a Finnish peatland management strategy was presented to the government in 2011 after a lengthy consultation phase 36 Ireland Edit Industrial milled peat production in a section of the Bog of Allen in the Irish Midlands The turf in the foreground is citation needed machine produced for domestic use In the Republic of Ireland a state owned company called Bord na Mona was responsible for managing peat extraction It processed the extracted peat into milled peat which was used in power stations and sold processed peat fuel in the form of peat briquettes which are citation needed used for domestic heating These are oblong bars of densely compressed dried and shredded peat Peat moss is citation needed a manufactured product for use in garden cultivation Turf dried out peat sods is also commonly used in rural areas citation needed In January 2021 Bord na Mona announced that it had ceased all peat harvesting and cutting operations and would be moving its business to a climate solutions company 37 In 2022 the sale of peat for burning was prohibited but some people are still allowed to cut and burn it 38 Russia Edit Shatura Power Station Russia has the largest peat power capacity in the worldThis section needs to be updated Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information August 2020 Use of peat for energy production was prominent in the Soviet Union especially in 1965 In 1929 over 40 of the Soviet Union s electric energy came from peat which dropped to 1 by 1980 The Bor Peat Briquette Factory Russia In the 1960s larger sections of swamps and bogs in Western Russia were drained for agricultural and mining purposes 39 The Netherlands Edit Peat covered area brown 2 500 years ago in the Netherlands2 500 years ago the area now named the Netherlands was largely covered with peat Drainage causing compaction and oxidation and excavation have reduced peatlands gt 40 cm 16 in peat to about 2 733 km2 1 055 sq mi 40 or 10 of the land area mostly used as meadows Drainage and excavation have lowered the surface of the peatlands In the west of the country dikes and mills were built creating polders so that dwelling and economic activities could continue below sea level the first polder probably in 1533 41 and the last one in 1968 Harvesting of peat could continue in suitable locations as the lower peat layers below current sea level became exposed This peat was deposited before the rise of the sea level in the Holocene As a result approximately 26 of the area 42 and 21 of the population 43 of the Netherlands are presently below sea level The deepest point is in the Zuidplaspolder 6 76 m 22 2 ft below average sea level The Netherlands compared to sealevel In 2020 the Netherlands imported 2 156 million kg of peat 5 39 million m3 400 kg m3 dry peat 44 44 5 from Germany 2020 9 5 from Estonia 2018 9 2 from Latvia 2020 7 2 from Ireland 2018 8 0 from Sweden 2019 6 5 from Lithuania 2020 5 1 from Belgium 2019 and 1 7 from Denmark 2019 1 35 million kg was exported 45 Most is used in gardening and greenhouse horticulture Since the Netherlands did not have many trees to use as firewood or charcoal one use the Dutch made of the available peat was to fire kilns to make pottery 46 During World War II the Dutch Resistance came up with an unusual use for peat Since peat was so available in the fields resistance fighters sometimes stacked peat into human sized piles and used the piles for target practice 47 Estonia Edit After oil shale in Estonia peat is the second most mined natural resource 48 The peat production sector has a yearly revenue of around 100 million and it is mostly export oriented citation needed Peat is extracted from around 14 thousand hectares 35 000 acres 49 India Edit Sikkim Edit The mountains of the Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau contains pockets of high altitude wetlands 50 Khecheopalri is one of the Sikkim s most famous and diverse peatlands in the eastern Indian territory of Sikkim which includes 682 species representing 5 kingdoms 196 families and 453 genera 51 United Kingdom Edit England Edit England has around 1 million acres of peatland Peatland in England store 584m tonnes of carbon in total but emit around 11m tonnes of CO2 every year due to degradation and draining In 2021 only 124 people owned 60 of England s peat land 52 The extraction of peat from the Somerset Levels began during the Roman times and has been carried out since the Levels were first drained 53 On Dartmoor there were several commercial distillation plants formed and run by the British Patent Naphtha Company in 1844 These produced naphtha on a commercial scale from the high quality local peat 54 Fenn s Whixall and Bettisfield Mosses is an element of a post Ice Age peat bog that straddles the England Wales border and contains many rare plant and animal species due to the acidic environment created by the peat 55 Only lightly hand dug it is now a national nature reserve and is being restored to its natural condition Industrial extraction of peat occurred at the Thorne Moor site outside Doncaster near to the village of Hatfield Government policy incentivised commercial removal to peat for agricultural use This caused much destruction of the area during the 1980s The removal of the peat resulted in later flooding further downstream at Goole due to the loss of water retaining peatlands 56 Recently regeneration of peatland has occurred as part of the Thorne Moors project and at Fleet Moss organised by Yorkshire Wildlife Trust 57 Northern Ireland Edit In Northern Ireland there is small scale domestic turf cutting in rural areas but areas of bogs have been diminished because of changes in agriculture In response afforestation has seen the establishment of tentative steps towards conservation such as Peatlands Park County Armagh which is an Area of Special Scientific Interest 58 Scotland Edit Some Scotch whisky distilleries such as those on Islay use peat fires to dry malted barley The drying process takes about 30 hours This gives the whiskies a distinctive smoky flavour often called peatiness 59 better source needed The peatiness or degree of peat flavour of a whisky is calculated in ppm of phenol Normal Highland whiskies have a peat level of up to 30 ppm and the whiskies on Islay usually have up to 50 ppm In rare types like the Octomore 60 the whisky can have more than 100 ppm of phenol Scotch Ales can also use peat roasted malt imparting a similar smoked flavor Wales Edit Wales has over 70 000 hectares of peatlands Most of it is blanket peat bog in the highlands but there are a few hundred hectares of peatland in lowland areas 61 Some peatland areas in Wales are in poor condition In 2020 the Welsh Government established a five year peatland restoration initiative which will be implemented by Natural Resources Wales NRW 62 Canada Edit Canada is the top exporter of peat by value In 2021 top exporters of peat including peat litter whether or not agglomerated were Canada 580 591 39K 1 643 950 000 kg European Union 445 304 42K 2 362 280 000 kg Latvia 275 459 14K 2 184 860 000 kg Netherlands 235 250 84K 1 312 850 000 kg Germany 223 414 66K 1 721 170 000 kg 63 Generic characteristics and uses EditAgriculture Edit See also Potting soil Peat In Sweden farmers use dried peat to absorb excrement from cattle that are wintered indoors The most important property of peat is retaining moisture in container soil when it is dry while preventing the excess of water from killing roots when it is wet Peat can store nutrients although it is not fertile itself it is polyelectrolytic with a high ion exchange capacity due to its oxidized lignin Peat is discouraged as a soil amendment by the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew England since 2003 64 While bark based peat free potting soil mixes are on the rise particularly in the UK peat remains an important citation needed raw material for horticulture in some other European countries Canada as well as parts of the United States Freshwater aquaria Edit Peat is sometimes used in freshwater aquaria It is seen most commonly in soft water or blackwater river systems such as those mimicking the Amazon River basin In addition to being soft in texture and therefore suitable for demersal bottom dwelling species such as Corydoras catfish peat is reported to have a number of other beneficial functions in freshwater aquaria It softens water by acting as an ion exchanger it also contains substances that are beneficial for plants and for the reproductive health of fishes Peat can prevent algae growth and kill microorganisms Peat often stains the water yellow or brown due to the leaching of tannins 65 Balneotherapy Edit Peat is citation needed widely used in balneotherapy the use of bathing to treat disease Many traditional spa treatments include peat as part of peloids Such health treatments have an enduring tradition in European countries including Poland the Czech Republic Germany and Austria Some of these old spas date back to the 18th century and are still active today The most common types of peat application in balneotherapy are peat muds poultices and suspension baths 66 Peat archives Edit Authors Rydin and Jeglum in Biology of Habitats described the concept of peat archives a phrase coined by influential peatland scientist Harry Godwin in 1981 67 68 69 In a peat profile there is a fossilized record of changes over time in the vegetation pollen spores animals from microscopic to the giant elk and archaeological remains that have been deposited in place as well as pollen spores and particles brought in by wind and weather These remains are collectively termed the peat archives Rydin 2013 In Quaternary Palaeoecology first published in 1980 Birks and Birks described how paleoecological studies of peat can be used to reveal what plant communities were present locally and regionally what time period each community occupied how environmental conditions changed and how the environment affected the ecosystem in that time and place 68 70 Scientists continue to compare modern mercury Hg accumulation rates in bogs with historical natural archives records in peat bogs and lake sediments to estimate the potential human impacts on the biogeochemical cycle of mercury for example 71 Over the years different dating models and technologies for measuring date sediments and peat profiles accumulated over the last 100 150 years have been used including the widely used vertical distribution of 210Pb the inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry ICP SMS 72 and more recently the initial penetration IP 73 In some cases naturally mummified human bodies often called bog bodies such as the Tollund Man in Denmark having been discovered in 1950 and dated to have lived during the 4th century BC after being mistaken for a recent murder victim have been discovered and exhumed for scientific purposes prior to that another bog body the Elling Woman had been discovered in 1938 in the same bog about 60 m 200 ft from the Tollund Man She is believed to have lived during the late 3rd century BC and was ultimately a ritual sacrifice Peat hags Edit Peat hags at the start of Allt Lagan a Bhainne tributary on Eilrig Peat hags are a form of erosion that occurs at the sides of gullies that cut into the peat or sometimes in isolation 74 Hags may result when flowing water cuts downwards into the peat and when fire or overgrazing exposes the peat surface Once the peat is exposed in these ways it is prone to further erosion by wind water and livestock The result is overhanging vegetation and peat Hags are too steep and unstable for vegetation to establish itself so they continue to erode unless restorative action is taken 74 Environmental and ecological issues Edit Increase and change relative to previous year of the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide The distinctive ecological conditions of peat wetlands provide a habitat for distinctive fauna and flora For example whooping cranes nest in North American peatlands while Siberian cranes nest in the West Siberian peatland Such habitats also have many species of wild orchids and carnivorous plants It takes centuries for a peat bog to recover from disturbance For more on biological communities see wetland bog or fen The world s largest peat bog is located in Western Siberia It is the size of France and Germany combined Recent studies show that it is thawing for the first time in 11 000 years As the permafrost melts it could release billions of tonnes of methane gas into the atmosphere The world s peatlands are thought to contain 180 to 455 billion metric tonnes of sequestered carbon and they release into the atmosphere 20 to 45 million tonnes 22 to 50 million short tons 20 to 44 million long tons of methane annually The peatlands contribution to long term fluctuations in these atmospheric gases has been a matter of considerable debate 75 One of the characteristics for peat is the bioaccumulations of metals often concentrated in the peat Accumulated mercury is of significant environmental concern 76 Peat drainage Edit Large areas of organic wetland peat soils are currently drained for agriculture forestry and peat extraction i e through canals 77 This process is taking place all over the world This not only destroys the habitat of many species but also heavily fuels climate change 78 As a result of peat drainage the organic carbon which built over thousands of years and is normally underwater is suddenly exposed to the air It decomposes and turns into carbon dioxide CO2 which is released into the atmosphere 79 The global CO2 emissions from drained peatlands have increased from 1 058 Mton in 1990 to 1 298 Mton in 2008 a 20 increase This increase has particularly taken place in developing countries of which Indonesia Malaysia and Papua New Guinea are the fastest growing top emitters This estimate excludes emissions from peat fires conservative estimates amount to at least 4 000 Mton CO2 eq yr for south east Asia With 174 Mton CO2 eq yr the EU is after Indonesia 500 Mton and before Russia 161 Mton the world s second largest emitter of drainage related peatland CO2 excl extracted peat and fires Total CO2 emissions from the worldwide 500 000 km2 of degraded peatland may exceed 2 0 Gtons including emissions from peat fires which is almost 6 of all global carbon emissions 80 Peat fires Edit See also Slash and burn and Arctic methane release Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires 1997 Peat has a high carbon content and can burn under low moisture conditions Once ignited by the presence of a heat source e g a wildfire penetrating the subsurface it smoulders These smouldering fires can burn undetected for very long periods of time months years and even centuries propagating in a creeping fashion through the underground peat layer Despite the damage that the burning of raw peat can cause bogs are naturally subject to wildfires and depend on the wildfires to keep woody competition from lowering the water table and shading out many bog plants Several families of plants including the carnivorous Sarracenia trumpet pitcher Dionaea Venus flytrap Utricularia bladderworts and non carnivorous plants such as the sandhills lily toothache grass and many species of orchid are now threatened and in some cases endangered from the combined forces of human drainage negligence and absence of fire 81 82 83 The recent burning of peat bogs in Indonesia with their large and deep growths containing more than 50 billion tonnes 55 billion short tons 49 billion long tons of carbon has contributed to increases in world carbon dioxide levels 84 Peat deposits in Southeast Asia could be destroyed by 2040 85 86 It is estimated that in 1997 peat and forest fires in Indonesia released between 0 81 and 2 57 gigatonnes 0 89 and 2 83 billion short tons 0 80 and 2 53 billion long tons of carbon equivalent to 13 40 percent of the amount released by global fossil fuel burning and greater than the carbon uptake of the world s biosphere These fires may be responsible for the acceleration in the increase in carbon dioxide levels since 1998 87 88 More than 100 peat fires in Kalimantan and East Sumatra have continued to burn since 1997 each year these peat fires ignite new forest fires above the ground In North America peat fires can occur during severe droughts throughout their occurrence from boreal forests in Canada to swamps and fens in the subtropical southern Florida Everglades 89 Once a fire has burnt through the area hollows in the peat are burnt out and hummocks are desiccated but can contribute to Sphagnum recolonization 90 In the summer of 2010 an unusually high heat wave of up to 40 C 104 F ignited large deposits of peat in Central Russia burning thousands of houses and covering the capital of Moscow with a toxic smoke blanket The situation remained critical until the end of August 2010 91 92 In June 2019 despite some forest fire prevention methods being put in place peat fires 93 in the Arctic emitted 50 megatonnes 55 million short tons 49 million long tons of CO2 which is equal to Sweden s total annual emissions 94 The peat fires are linked to climate change as they are much more likely to occur nowadays due to this effect 95 96 Protection EditThis section needs to be updated Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information August 2020 See also Global Peatlands Initiative In June 2002 the United Nations Development Programme launched the Wetlands Ecosystem and Tropical Peat Swamp Forest Rehabilitation Project This project was targeted to last for 5 years and brings together the efforts of various non government organisations In November 2002 the International Peatland formerly Peat Society IPS and the International Mire Conservation Group IMCG published guidelines on the Wise Use of Mires and Peatlands Backgrounds and Principles including a framework for decision making The aim of this publication is to develop mechanisms that can balance the conflicting demands on the global peatland heritage to ensure its wise use to meet the needs of humankind In June 2008 the IPS published the book Peatlands and Climate Change summarising the currently available knowledge on the topic In 2010 IPS presented a Strategy for Responsible Peatland Management which can be applied worldwide for decision making Restoration EditThis section needs expansion You can help by adding to it August 2020 See also Mire Management and rehabilitation The UNEP is supporting peatland restoration in Indonesia 97 Often restoration is done by blocking drainage channels in the peatland and allowing natural vegetation to recover 98 See also EditAcid sulfate soil Acrotelm Climate change mitigation Preserving and enhancing carbon sinks Gytta Histosols Irish Peatland Conservation Council List of bogs Peat Cutting Monday Tropical peat Turbary Unified Soil Classification System Category Peat fired power stations Wetlands portalNotes Edit See bog for more information on this aspect of peat Supported by the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs DGIS under the Global Peatland Initiative Archived 2008 11 20 at the Wayback Machine managed by Wetlands International in co operation with the IUCN Netherlands Committee Alterra the International Mire Conservation Group and the International Peatland Society References Edit a b Joosten Hans Clarke Donal 2002 Wise Use of Mires and Peatlands Background and Principles including a Framework for Decision Making PDF Report Totnes Devon ISBN 951 97744 8 3 a b c Hugron Sandrine Bussieres Julie Rochefort Line 2013 Tree plantations within the context of ecological restoration of peatlands practical guide PDF Report Laval Quebec Canada Peatland Ecology Research Group PERG Archived from the original PDF on 16 October 2017 Retrieved 22 February 2014 a b c McGrath Matt 2020 08 10 Warming world devastating for frozen peatlands BBC News Retrieved 2020 08 11 Peatlands and climate change IUCN 2017 11 06 Retrieved 2019 08 16 Peatlands and climate change IUCN November 6 2017 Climate change and deforestation threaten world s largest tropical peatland Carbon Brief January 25 2018 Walker M D 2019 Sphagnum the biology of a habitat manipulator Sicklebrook publishing Sheffield U K Keddy P A 2010 Wetland Ecology Principles and Conservation 2nd edition Cambridge University Press Cambridge UK 497 p Chapter 1 Ahmad Sate Liu Haojie Beyer Florian Klove Bjorn Lennartz Bernd 25 February 2020 Spatial heterogeneity of soil properties in relation to microtopography in a non tidal rewetted coastal mire PDF Mires and Peat 26 4 1 18 doi 10 19189 MaP 2019 GDC StA 1779 a b Gorham E 1957 The development of peatlands Quarterly Review of Biology 32 2 145 66 doi 10 1086 401755 S2CID 129085635 Keddy P A 2010 Wetland Ecology Principles and Conservation 2nd edition Cambridge University Press Cambridge 497 pp 323 25 A growing concern peat is bad for the planet and for plants The Guardian 2021 06 06 Retrieved 2021 06 06 Bek David Turner Margi Lennartsson Peat compost to be banned luckily green alternatives are just as good for your garden The Conversation Retrieved 2021 06 06 World Energy Council 2007 Survey of Energy Resources 2007 PDF Archived from the original PDF on 2008 09 10 Retrieved 2008 08 11 Is coal still being formed today Australian Broadcasting Corporation 18 February 2013 Retrieved 25 October 2015 a b Keddy P A 2010 Wetland Ecology Principles and Conservation 2nd edition Cambridge University Press UK Cambridge 497 p Chapter 7 Aspects of treating peat as renewable or non renewable natural resource PDF Archived from the original PDF on 2013 01 21 Retrieved 2012 09 09 The History of Domestic Peat Fuel Exploitation in Relation to Carbon amp Climate Change UKEconet Wildtrack Publishing Retrieved 2021 06 06 How scientists are restoring boreal peatlands to help keep carbon in the ground World Economic Forum Retrieved 2021 06 06 Walker M D 2019 Sphagnum the biology of a habitat manipulator Sicklebrook Press 978 0 359 41313 3 Vitt D H L A Halsey and B J Nicholson 2005 The Mackenzie River basin pp 166 202 in L H Fraser and P A Keddy eds The World s Largest Wetlands Ecology and Conservation Cambridge University Press Cambridge 488 p Zicheng Yu Julie Loisel Daniel P Brosseau David W Beilman Stephanie J Hunt 2010 Global peatland dynamics since the Last Glacial Maximum Geophysical Research Letters Vol 37 L13402 5 CLASSIFICATION www fao org Retrieved 2017 03 28 Xu Jiren Morris Paul J Liu Junguo Holden Joseph 2017 F840 PEATMAP Refining estimates of global peatland distribution based on a meta analysis University of Leeds doi 10 5518 252 Xu Jiren Morris Paul J Liu Junguo Holden Joseph 2018 PEATMAP Refining estimates of global peatland distribution based on a meta analysis PDF CATENA 160 134 140 doi 10 1016 j catena 2017 09 010 IUCN UK Commission of Inquiry on Peatlands Archived 2014 03 07 at the Wayback Machine Full Report IUCN UK Peatland Programme October 2011 a b Fraser L H Fraser and P A Keddy eds 2005 The World s Largest Wetlands Ecology and Conservation Cambridge University Press Cambridge UK 488 p and P A Keddy eds 2005 The World s Largest Wetlands Ecology and Conservation Cambridge University Press Cambridge UK 488 p Waspada Online Retrieved 25 October 2015 World Energy Resources Peat World Energy Council 2013 PDF Volcano Wood Fuels World Energy Council Retrieved 2016 02 25 Lin Shaorun Cheung Yau Kuen Xiao Yang Huang Xinyan 2020 07 20 Can rain suppress smoldering peat fire Science of the Total Environment 727 138468 Bibcode 2020ScTEn 727m8468L doi 10 1016 j scitotenv 2020 138468 ISSN 0048 9697 PMID 32334212 S2CID 216146063 Xu Jiren Morris Paul J Liu Junguo Holden Joseph 2018 Hotspots of peatland derived potable water use identified by global analysis PDF Nature Sustainability 1 5 246 253 doi 10 1038 s41893 018 0064 6 ISSN 2398 9629 S2CID 134230602 NOVA The Perfect Corpse PBS www pbs org Statistics Finland Energy supply and consumption The CO2 emission factor of peat fuel Archived 2010 07 07 at the Wayback Machine Imcg net Retrieved on 2011 05 09 VTT 2004 Wood in peat fuel impact on the reporting of greenhouse gas emissions according to IPCC guidelines PDF Archived from the original PDF on 2007 09 27 Retrieved 2006 12 20 Salomaa Anne Paloniemi Riikka Ekroos Eri 2018 The case of conflicting Finnish peatland management Skewed representation of nature participation and policy instruments Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 223 694 702 doi 10 1016 j jenvman 2018 06 048 PMID 29975897 O Doherty Caroline 14 January 2021 Bord na Mona confirms it has ended peat harvesting for good Independent Retrieved 15 January 2021 Dublin Barry Hartigan in A burning issue for Ireland as the sale of peat is outlawed The Sunday Post Retrieved 2022 09 01 Serghey Stelmakovich Russia institutes peat fire prevention program Archived from the original on June 18 2010 Retrieved August 9 2010 Joosten Hans Tanneberger Franziska Moen Asbjorn 2017 Mires and peatlands of Europe Schweizerbart Science Publishers Stuttgart Germany 780 p Chapter Netherlands Reh W Steenbergen C Aten D 2007 Sea of Land The polder as an experimental atlas of Dutch landscape architecture 344 pp Uitgeverij Architectura amp Natura ISBN 9789071123962 Schiermeier Quirin 2010 Few fishy facts found in climate report Nature 466 170 170 doi 10 1038 466170a PMID 20613812 Milieurekeningen 2008 PDF Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek Retrieved 4 February 2010 Common substances materials foods and gravels www aqua calc com CBS opendata cbs nl Goederensoorten naar land minerale brandstoffen en chemie tr Goods by country mineral fuels and chemistry Prins Marcel amp Steenhuis Peter Henk Hidden Arthur A Levine Books New York copyright 2011 page 205 Ibid page 204 Peat Turbaliit Retrieved 2022 09 01 Ministeerium seisvad turbamaardlad on moistlik taas kasutusele votta ERR 25 April 2020 in Estonian O Neill Alexander et al 25 February 2020 Establishing Ecological Baselines Around a Temperate Himalayan Peatland Wetlands Ecology amp Management 28 2 375 388 doi 10 1007 s11273 020 09710 7 S2CID 211081106 O Neill A R 2019 Evaluating high altitude Ramsar wetlands in the Sikkim Eastern Himalayas Global Ecology and Conservation 20 e00715 19 doi 10 1016 j gecco 2019 e00715 Just 124 people own most of England s deep peat its largest carbon store The Guardian 2021 11 15 Retrieved 2021 11 15 Somerset Peat Paper Issues consultation for the Minerals Core Strategy PDF Somerset County Council September 2009 p 7 Archived from the original PDF on 10 March 2012 Retrieved 30 November 2011 Dartmoor Peat Dartmoor history Mawndiroedd Fenn s Whixall a Bettisfield Archived from the original on 2013 10 29 Retrieved 2013 10 27 Walker M D Sphagnum Sicklebrook Press ISBN 978 0 359 41313 3 Giving peat a nother chance Yorkshire Wildlife Trust www ywt org uk Retrieved 14 January 2021 Peatlands Park ASSI NI Environment Agency Retrieved 14 August 2010 permanent dead link Peat and Its Significance in Whisky Retrieved 25 October 2015 Octomore 5 Years 03 1 Retrieved 25 October 2015 Welsh Peatland Sustainable Management Scheme SMS Project National Trust Retrieved 2022 09 06 Natural Resources Wales The National Peatland Action Programme naturalresources wales Retrieved 2022 09 06 Peat including peat litter whether or not agglomerated exports by country in 2021 WITS World Integrated Solution World Bank Retrieved 19 May 2022 Peat free compost at Kew RBG Kew 2011 Archived from the original on 2011 09 16 Retrieved 2011 06 24 Scheurmann Ines 1985 Natural Aquarium Handbook The trans for Barron s Educational Series Hauppauge New York 2000 Munich Germany Grafe amp Unzer GmbH International Peatland Society permanent dead link Peat Balneology Medicine and Therapeutics Godwin Sir Harry 1981 The archives of the peat bogs Cambridge Cambridge University Press a b Rydin Hakan Jeglum John K 18 July 2013 8 Jun 2006 The Biology of Peatlands Biology of Habitats 2 ed University of Oxford Press p 400 ISBN 978 0198528722 Keddy P A 2010 Wetland Ecology Principles and Conservation 2 ed Cambridge UK Cambridge University Press pp 323 325 Birks Harry John Betteley Birks Hilary H 2004 1980 Quaternary Palaeoecology Blackburn Press pp 289 pages Biester Harald Bindler Richard 2009 Modelling Past Mercury Deposition from Peat Bogs The Influence of Peat Structure and 210Pb Mobility PDF Working Papers of the Finnish Forest Research Institute retrieved 21 October 2014 Archived copy PDF www elmvalefoundation org Archived from the original PDF on 2016 03 04 Retrieved 2014 10 22 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link Modeling the downward transport of 210Pb in mires and repercussions on the deriv EGU General Assembly Bibcode 2013EGUGA 1511054O a b Peat Hags Archived 2016 07 12 at the Wayback Machine at www yppartnership org uk website of the Yorkshire Peat Partnership Retrieved 9 July 2016 MacDonald Glen M Beilman David W Kremenetski Konstantine V Sheng Yongwei Smith Laurence C amp Velichko Andrei A 2006 Rapid early development of circumarctic peatlands and atmospheric CH4 and CO2 variations Science 314 5797 285 288 Bibcode 2006Sci 314 285M doi 10 1126 science 1131722 PMID 17038618 S2CID 45020372 Mitchell Carla P J Branfireun Brian A amp Kolka Randall K 2008 Spatial Characteristics of Net Methylmercury Production Hot Spots in Peatlands PDF Environmental Science and Technology American Chemical Society 42 4 1010 1016 Bibcode 2008EnST 42 1010M doi 10 1021 es0704986 PMID 18351065 Archived PDF from the original on 31 October 2008 Peatland drainage through canals Peatlands and climate change IUCN 2017 11 06 Retrieved 2020 01 23 Content from Wetlands org Wetlands International Peatlands and CO2 Emissions Wetlands org permanent dead link The Global Peat CO2 Picture Wetlands International and Greifswald University 2010 Michael Kevin Smith Meadowview Biological Research Station Preserving and Restoring Pitcher Plant Bogs Retrieved 25 October 2015 New lily species found in eastern N C Sandhills Retrieved 25 October 2015 toothache grass www dmr state ms us permanent dead link Lim XiaoZhi Vast Peat Fires Threaten Health and Boost Global Warming Scientific American Retrieved 2019 08 16 Asian peat fires add to warming BBC News 2005 09 03 Retrieved 2010 05 22 Joel S Levine 31 December 1999 Wildland fires and the environment a global synthesis UNEP Earthprint ISBN 978 92 807 1742 6 Retrieved 9 May 2011 web link Archived 2005 09 02 at the Wayback Machine Cat Lazaroff Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming Archived 2019 09 08 at the Wayback Machine Environment News Service Fred Pearce Massive peat burn is speeding climate change New Scientist 6 November 2004 Florida Everglades U S Geological Survey 15 January 2013 Archived from the original on 26 June 2008 Retrieved 11 June 2013 Fenton Nicole Lecomte Nicolas Legare Sonia amp Bergeron Yves 2005 Paludification in black spruce Picea mariana forests of eastern Canada Potential factors and management implications Forest Ecology and Management 213 1 3 151 159 doi 10 1016 j foreco 2005 03 017 Fog from peat fires blankets Moscow amid heat wave BBC 26 July 2010 Russia begins to localize fires others rage Associated Press 30 July 2010 Hines Morgan Thanks to climate change parts of the Arctic are on fire Scientists are concerned USA TODAY Unprecedented more than 100 Arctic wildfires burn in worst ever season The Guardian July 26 2019 Cormier Zoe Why the Arctic is smouldering www bbc com Retrieved 2019 08 28 Turetsky Merritt R Benscoter Brian Page Susan Rein Guillermo van der Werf Guido R Watts Adam 2014 12 23 Global vulnerability of peatlands to fire and carbon loss Nature Geoscience 8 1 11 14 doi 10 1038 ngeo2325 hdl 10044 1 21250 ISSN 1752 0894 Environment U N 2020 08 10 UNEP supports project to restore peatlands in Indonesia UN Environment Retrieved 2020 08 11 The natural world can help save us from climate catastrophe George Monbiot The Guardian April 3 2019 External links Edit The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on the topic of Peat and coal Wikimedia Commons has media related to Peat Look up peat in Wiktionary the free dictionary Wikisource has the text of The New Student s Reference Work article Peat International Peatland Society International Mire Conservation Group Irish Peatland Conservation Council Gardening without peat Royal Horticultural Society Peat free gardens RSPB Massive peat burn is speeding climate change From The New Scientist Peatlands articles on the BBC Meadowview Biological Research Station Peat and Peatlands Bibliography Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Peat amp oldid 1128803142, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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