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Algae

January 31, 2023

"Alga" redirects here. For other uses, see Algae (disambiguation) and Alga (disambiguation).

Algae (/ˈældʒiː, ˈælɡiː/; singular alga /ˈælɡə/) is an informal term for a large and diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. It is a polyphyletic grouping that includes species from multiple distinct clades. Included organisms range from unicellular microalgae, such as Chlorella, Prototheca and the diatoms, to multicellular forms, such as the giant kelp, a large brown alga which may grow up to 50 metres (160 ft) in length. Most are aquatic and autotrophic (they generate food internally) and lack many of the distinct cell and tissue types, such as stomata, xylem and phloem that are found in land plants. The largest and most complex marine algae are called seaweeds, while the most complex freshwater forms are the Charophyta, a division of green algae which includes, for example, Spirogyra and stoneworts.

Algae
An informal term for a diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotes
Temporal range:
Mesoproterozoic–present[1][2]
A variety of algae growing on the sea bed in shallow waters
A variety of microscopic unicellular and colonial freshwater algae
Scientific classification
Groups included
Typically excluded:

No definition of algae is generally accepted. One definition is that algae "have chlorophyll a as their primary photosynthetic pigment and lack a sterile covering of cells around their reproductive cells".[3] Likewise, the colorless Prototheca under Chlorophyta are all devoid of any chlorophyll. Although cyanobacteria are often referred to as "blue-green algae", most authorities exclude all prokaryotes from the definition of algae.[4][5]

Algae constitute a polyphyletic group[4] since they do not include a common ancestor, and although their plastids seem to have a single origin, from cyanobacteria,[6] they were acquired in different ways. Green algae are examples of algae that have primary chloroplasts derived from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. Diatoms and brown algae are examples of algae with secondary chloroplasts derived from an endosymbiotic red alga.[7] Algae exhibit a wide range of reproductive strategies, from simple asexual cell division to complex forms of sexual reproduction.[8]

Algae lack the various structures that characterize land plants, such as the phyllids (leaf-like structures) of bryophytes, rhizoids of non-vascular plants, and the roots, leaves, and other organs found in tracheophytes (vascular plants). Most are phototrophic, although some are mixotrophic, deriving energy both from photosynthesis and uptake of organic carbon either by osmotrophy, myzotrophy, or phagotrophy. Some unicellular species of green algae, many golden algae, euglenids, dinoflagellates, and other algae have become heterotrophs (also called colorless or apochlorotic algae), sometimes parasitic, relying entirely on external energy sources and have limited or no photosynthetic apparatus.[9][10][11] Some other heterotrophic organisms, such as the apicomplexans, are also derived from cells whose ancestors possessed plastids, but are not traditionally considered as algae. Algae have photosynthetic machinery ultimately derived from cyanobacteria that produce oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis, unlike other photosynthetic bacteria such as purple and green sulfur bacteria. Fossilized filamentous algae from the Vindhya basin have been dated back to 1.6 to 1.7 billion years ago.[12]

Because of the wide range of types of algae, they have increasing different industrial and traditional applications in human society. Traditional seaweed farming practices have existed for thousands of years and have strong traditions in East Asia food cultures. More modern algaculture applications extend the food traditions for other applications include cattle feed, using algae for bioremediation or pollution control, transforming sunlight into algae fuels or other chemicals used in industrial processes, and in medical and scientific applications. A 2020 review found that these applications of algae could play an important role in carbon sequestration in order to mitigate climate change while providing valuable value-add products for global economies.[13]

Etymology and study

The singular alga is the Latin word for 'seaweed' and retains that meaning in English.[14] The etymology is obscure. Although some speculate that it is related to Latin algēre, 'be cold',[15] no reason is known to associate seaweed with temperature. A more likely source is alliga, 'binding, entwining'.[16]

The Ancient Greek word for 'seaweed' was φῦκος (phŷkos), which could mean either the seaweed (probably red algae) or a red dye derived from it. The Latinization, fūcus, meant primarily the cosmetic rouge. The etymology is uncertain, but a strong candidate has long been some word related to the Biblical פוך (pūk), 'paint' (if not that word itself), a cosmetic eye-shadow used by the ancient Egyptians and other inhabitants of the eastern Mediterranean. It could be any color: black, red, green, or blue.[17]

Accordingly, the modern study of marine and freshwater algae is called either phycology or algology, depending on whether the Greek or Latin root is used. The name fucus appears in a number of taxa.

Classifications

Further information: wikispecies:Algae

The committee on the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature has recommended certain suffixes for use in the classification of algae. These are -phyta for division, -phyceae for class, -phycideae for subclass, -ales for order, -inales for suborder, -aceae for family, -oidease for subfamily, a Greek-based name for genus, and a Latin-based name for species.

Algal characteristics basic to primary classification

The primary classification of algae is based on certain morphological features. The chief among these are (a) pigment constitution of the cell, (b) chemical nature of stored food materials, (c) kind, number, point of insertion and relative length of the flagella on the motile cell, (d) chemical composition of cell wall and (e) presence or absence of a definitely organized nucleus in the cell or any other significant details of cell structure.

History of classification of algae

Although Carolus Linnaeus (1754) included algae along with lichens in his 25th class Cryptogamia, he did not elaborate further on the classification of algae.

Jean Pierre Étienne Vaucher (1803) was perhaps the first to propose a system of classification of algae, and he recognized three groups, Conferves, Ulves, and Tremelles. While Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link (1820) classified algae on the basis of the colour of the pigment and structure, William Henry Harvey (1836) proposed a system of classification on the basis of the habitat and the pigment. J. G. Agardh (1849–1898) divided algae into six orders: Diatomaceae, Nostochineae, Confervoideae, Ulvaceae, Floriadeae and Fucoideae. Around 1880, algae along with fungi were grouped under Thallophyta, a division created by Eichler (1836). Encouraged by this, Adolf Engler and Karl A. E. Prantl (1912) proposed a revised scheme of classification of algae and included fungi in algae as they were of opinion that fungi have been derived from algae. The scheme proposed by Engler and Prantl is summarised as follows:[18]

  1. Schizophyta
  2. Phytosarcodina
  3. Flagellata
  4. Dinoflagellata
  5. Bacillariophyta
  6. Conjugatae
  7. Chlorophyceae
  8. Charophyta
  9. Phaeophyceae
  10. Rhodophyceae
  11. Eumycetes (Fungi)
 
False-color scanning electron micrograph of the unicellular coccolithophore Gephyrocapsa oceanica

The algae contain chloroplasts that are similar in structure to cyanobacteria. Chloroplasts contain circular DNA like that in cyanobacteria and are interpreted as representing reduced endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. However, the exact origin of the chloroplasts is different among separate lineages of algae, reflecting their acquisition during different endosymbiotic events. The table below describes the composition of the three major groups of algae. Their lineage relationships are shown in the figure in the upper right. Many of these groups contain some members that are no longer photosynthetic. Some retain plastids, but not chloroplasts, while others have lost plastids entirely.

Phylogeny based on plastid[19] not nucleocytoplasmic genealogy:

Supergroup affiliation Members Endosymbiont Summary
Primoplantae/
Archaeplastida 		Cyanobacteria These algae have "primary" chloroplasts, i.e. the chloroplasts are surrounded by two membranes and probably developed through a single endosymbiotic event. The chloroplasts of red algae have chlorophylls a and c (often), and phycobilins, while those of green algae have chloroplasts with chlorophyll a and b without phycobilins. Land plants are pigmented similarly to green algae and probably developed from them, thus the Chlorophyta is a sister taxon to the plants; sometimes the Chlorophyta, the Charophyta, and land plants are grouped together as the Viridiplantae.
Excavata and Rhizaria Green algae

These groups have green chloroplasts containing chlorophylls a and b.[20] Their chloroplasts are surrounded by four and three membranes, respectively, and were probably retained from ingested green algae.

Chlorarachniophytes, which belong to the phylum Cercozoa, contain a small nucleomorph, which is a relict of the algae's nucleus.

Euglenids, which belong to the phylum Euglenozoa, live primarily in fresh water and have chloroplasts with only three membranes. The endosymbiotic green algae may have been acquired through myzocytosis rather than phagocytosis.[21]

Halvaria and Hacrobia Red algae

These groups have chloroplasts containing chlorophylls a and c, and phycobilins. The shape can vary; they may be of discoid, plate-like, reticulate, cup-shaped, spiral, or ribbon shaped. They have one or more pyrenoids to preserve protein and starch. The latter chlorophyll type is not known from any prokaryotes or primary chloroplasts, but genetic similarities with red algae suggest a relationship there.[22]

In the first three of these groups (Chromista), the chloroplast has four membranes, retaining a nucleomorph in cryptomonads, and they likely share a common pigmented ancestor, although other evidence casts doubt on whether the heterokonts, Haptophyta, and cryptomonads are in fact more closely related to each other than to other groups.[23][24]

The typical dinoflagellate chloroplast has three membranes, but considerable diversity exists in chloroplasts within the group, and a number of endosymbiotic events apparently occurred.[6] The Apicomplexa, a group of closely related parasites, also have plastids called apicoplasts, which are not photosynthetic, but appear to have a common origin with dinoflagellate chloroplasts.[6]

 
title page of Gmelin's Historia Fucorum, dated 1768

Linnaeus, in Species Plantarum (1753),[25] the starting point for modern botanical nomenclature, recognized 14 genera of algae, of which only four are currently considered among algae.[26] In Systema Naturae, Linnaeus described the genera Volvox and Corallina, and a species of Acetabularia (as Madrepora), among the animals.

In 1768, Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin (1744–1774) published the Historia Fucorum, the first work dedicated to marine algae and the first book on marine biology to use the then new binomial nomenclature of Linnaeus. It included elaborate illustrations of seaweed and marine algae on folded leaves.[27][28]

W. H. Harvey (1811–1866) and Lamouroux (1813)[29] were the first to divide macroscopic algae into four divisions based on their pigmentation. This is the first use of a biochemical criterion in plant systematics. Harvey's four divisions are: red algae (Rhodospermae), brown algae (Melanospermae), green algae (Chlorospermae), and Diatomaceae.[30][31]

At this time, microscopic algae were discovered and reported by a different group of workers (e.g., O. F. Müller and Ehrenberg) studying the Infusoria (microscopic organisms). Unlike macroalgae, which were clearly viewed as plants, microalgae were frequently considered animals because they are often motile.[29] Even the nonmotile (coccoid) microalgae were sometimes merely seen as stages of the lifecycle of plants, macroalgae, or animals.[32][33]

Although used as a taxonomic category in some pre-Darwinian classifications, e.g., Linnaeus (1753), de Jussieu (1789), Horaninow (1843), Agassiz (1859), Wilson & Cassin (1864), in further classifications, the "algae" are seen as an artificial, polyphyletic group.

Throughout the 20th century, most classifications treated the following groups as divisions or classes of algae: cyanophytes, rhodophytes, chrysophytes, xanthophytes, bacillariophytes, phaeophytes, pyrrhophytes (cryptophytes and dinophytes), euglenophytes, and chlorophytes. Later, many new groups were discovered (e.g., Bolidophyceae), and others were splintered from older groups: charophytes and glaucophytes (from chlorophytes), many heterokontophytes (e.g., synurophytes from chrysophytes, or eustigmatophytes from xanthophytes), haptophytes (from chrysophytes), and chlorarachniophytes (from xanthophytes).

With the abandonment of plant-animal dichotomous classification, most groups of algae (sometimes all) were included in Protista, later also abandoned in favour of Eukaryota. However, as a legacy of the older plant life scheme, some groups that were also treated as protozoans in the past still have duplicated classifications (see ambiregnal protists).

Some parasitic algae (e.g., the green algae Prototheca and Helicosporidium, parasites of metazoans, or Cephaleuros, parasites of plants) were originally classified as fungi, sporozoans, or protistans of incertae sedis,[34] while others (e.g., the green algae Phyllosiphon and Rhodochytrium, parasites of plants, or the red algae Pterocladiophila and Gelidiocolax mammillatus, parasites of other red algae, or the dinoflagellates Oodinium, parasites of fish) had their relationship with algae conjectured early. In other cases, some groups were originally characterized as parasitic algae (e.g., Chlorochytrium), but later were seen as endophytic algae.[35] Some filamentous bacteria (e.g., Beggiatoa) were originally seen as algae. Furthermore, groups like the apicomplexans are also parasites derived from ancestors that possessed plastids, but are not included in any group traditionally seen as algae.

Relationship to land plants

The first land plants probably evolved from shallow freshwater charophyte algae much like Chara almost 500 million years ago. These probably had an isomorphic alternation of generations and were probably filamentous. Fossils of isolated land plant spores suggest land plants may have been around as long as 475 million years ago.[36][37]

Morphology

 
The kelp forest exhibit at the Monterey Bay Aquarium: A three-dimensional, multicellular thallus

A range of algal morphologies is exhibited, and convergence of features in unrelated groups is common. The only groups to exhibit three-dimensional multicellular thalli are the reds and browns, and some chlorophytes.[38] Apical growth is constrained to subsets of these groups: the florideophyte reds, various browns, and the charophytes.[38] The form of charophytes is quite different from those of reds and browns, because they have distinct nodes, separated by internode 'stems'; whorls of branches reminiscent of the horsetails occur at the nodes.[38] Conceptacles are another polyphyletic trait; they appear in the coralline algae and the Hildenbrandiales, as well as the browns.[38]

Most of the simpler algae are unicellular flagellates or amoeboids, but colonial and nonmotile forms have developed independently among several of the groups. Some of the more common organizational levels, more than one of which may occur in the lifecycle of a species, are

  • Colonial: small, regular groups of motile cells
  • Capsoid: individual non-motile cells embedded in mucilage
  • Coccoid: individual non-motile cells with cell walls
  • Palmelloid: nonmotile cells embedded in mucilage
  • Filamentous: a string of connected nonmotile cells, sometimes branching
  • Parenchymatous: cells forming a thallus with partial differentiation of tissues

In three lines, even higher levels of organization have been reached, with full tissue differentiation. These are the brown algae,[39]—some of which may reach 50 m in length (kelps)[40]—the red algae,[41] and the green algae.[42] The most complex forms are found among the charophyte algae (see Charales and Charophyta), in a lineage that eventually led to the higher land plants. The innovation that defines these nonalgal plants is the presence of female reproductive organs with protective cell layers that protect the zygote and developing embryo. Hence, the land plants are referred to as the Embryophytes.

Turfs

The term algal turf is commonly used but poorly defined. Algal turfs are thick, carpet-like beds of seaweed that retain sediment and compete with foundation species like corals and kelps, and they are usually less than 15 cm tall. Such a turf may consist of one or more species, and will generally cover an area in the order of a square metre or more. Some common characteristics are listed:[43]

  • Algae that form aggregations that have been described as turfs include diatoms, cyanobacteria, chlorophytes, phaeophytes and rhodophytes. Turfs are often composed of numerous species at a wide range of spatial scales, but monospecific turfs are frequently reported.[43]
  • Turfs can be morphologically highly variable over geographic scales and even within species on local scales and can be difficult to identify in terms of the constituent species.[43]
  • Turfs have been defined as short algae, but this has been used to describe height ranges from less than 0.5 cm to more than 10 cm. In some regions, the descriptions approached heights which might be described as canopies (20 to 30 cm).[43]

Physiology

Many algae, particularly members of the Characeae species,[44] have served as model experimental organisms to understand the mechanisms of the water permeability of membranes, osmoregulation, turgor regulation,[clarification needed] salt tolerance, cytoplasmic streaming, and the generation of action potentials.

Phytohormones are found not only in higher plants, but in algae, too.[45]

Symbiotic algae

Some species of algae form symbiotic relationships with other organisms. In these symbioses, the algae supply photosynthates (organic substances) to the host organism providing protection to the algal cells. The host organism derives some or all of its energy requirements from the algae. Examples are:

Lichens

Main article: Lichen
 
Rock lichens in Ireland

Lichens are defined by the International Association for Lichenology to be "an association of a fungus and a photosynthetic symbiont resulting in a stable vegetative body having a specific structure".[46] The fungi, or mycobionts, are mainly from the Ascomycota with a few from the Basidiomycota. In nature, they do not occur separate from lichens. It is unknown when they began to associate.[47] One mycobiont associates with the same phycobiont species, rarely two, from the green algae, except that alternatively, the mycobiont may associate with a species of cyanobacteria (hence "photobiont" is the more accurate term). A photobiont may be associated with many different mycobionts or may live independently; accordingly, lichens are named and classified as fungal species.[48] The association is termed a morphogenesis because the lichen has a form and capabilities not possessed by the symbiont species alone (they can be experimentally isolated). The photobiont possibly triggers otherwise latent genes in the mycobiont.[49]

Trentepohlia is an example of a common green alga genus worldwide that can grow on its own or be lichenised. Lichen thus share some of the habitat and often similar appearance with specialized species of algae (aerophytes) growing on exposed surfaces such as tree trunks and rocks and sometimes discoloring them.

Coral reefs

Main articles: Coral, Coral reef, and Symbiodinium
 
Floridian coral reef

Coral reefs are accumulated from the calcareous exoskeletons of marine invertebrates of the order Scleractinia (stony corals). These animals metabolize sugar and oxygen to obtain energy for their cell-building processes, including secretion of the exoskeleton, with water and carbon dioxide as byproducts. Dinoflagellates (algal protists) are often endosymbionts in the cells of the coral-forming marine invertebrates, where they accelerate host-cell metabolism by generating sugar and oxygen immediately available through photosynthesis using incident light and the carbon dioxide produced by the host. Reef-building stony corals (hermatypic corals) require endosymbiotic algae from the genus Symbiodinium to be in a healthy condition.[50] The loss of Symbiodinium from the host is known as coral bleaching, a condition which leads to the deterioration of a reef.

Sea sponges

Main article: Sea sponge

Endosymbiontic green algae live close to the surface of some sponges, for example, breadcrumb sponges (Halichondria panicea). The alga is thus protected from predators; the sponge is provided with oxygen and sugars which can account for 50 to 80% of sponge growth in some species.[51]

Life cycle

Rhodophyta, Chlorophyta, and Heterokontophyta, the three main algal divisions, have life cycles which show considerable variation and complexity. In general, an asexual phase exists where the seaweed's cells are diploid, a sexual phase where the cells are haploid, followed by fusion of the male and female gametes. Asexual reproduction permits efficient population increases, but less variation is possible. Commonly, in sexual reproduction of unicellular and colonial algae, two specialized, sexually compatible, haploid gametes make physical contact and fuse to form a zygote. To ensure a successful mating, the development and release of gametes is highly synchronized and regulated; pheromones may play a key role in these processes.[52] Sexual reproduction allows for more variation and provides the benefit of efficient recombinational repair of DNA damages during meiosis, a key stage of the sexual cycle.[53] However, sexual reproduction is more costly than asexual reproduction.[54] Meiosis has been shown to occur in many different species of algae.[55]

Further information: Conceptacle

Numbers

 
Algae on coastal rocks at Shihtiping in Taiwan

The Algal Collection of the US National Herbarium (located in the National Museum of Natural History) consists of approximately 320,500 dried specimens, which, although not exhaustive (no exhaustive collection exists), gives an idea of the order of magnitude of the number of algal species (that number remains unknown).[56] Estimates vary widely. For example, according to one standard textbook,[57] in the British Isles the UK Biodiversity Steering Group Report estimated there to be 20,000 algal species in the UK. Another checklist reports only about 5,000 species. Regarding the difference of about 15,000 species, the text concludes: "It will require many detailed field surveys before it is possible to provide a reliable estimate of the total number of species ..."

Regional and group estimates have been made, as well:

  • 5,000–5,500 species of red algae worldwide
  • "some 1,300 in Australian Seas"[58]
  • 400 seaweed species for the western coastline of South Africa,[59] and 212 species from the coast of KwaZulu-Natal.[60] Some of these are duplicates, as the range extends across both coasts, and the total recorded is probably about 500 species. Most of these are listed in List of seaweeds of South Africa. These exclude phytoplankton and crustose corallines.
  • 669 marine species from California (US)[61]
  • 642 in the check-list of Britain and Ireland[62]

and so on, but lacking any scientific basis or reliable sources, these numbers have no more credibility than the British ones mentioned above. Most estimates also omit microscopic algae, such as phytoplankton.

The most recent estimate suggests 72,500 algal species worldwide.[63]

Distribution

The distribution of algal species has been fairly well studied since the founding of phytogeography in the mid-19th century.[64] Algae spread mainly by the dispersal of spores analogously to the dispersal of Plantae by seeds and spores. This dispersal can be accomplished by air, water, or other organisms. Due to this, spores can be found in a variety of environments: fresh and marine waters, air, soil, and in or on other organisms.[64] Whether a spore is to grow into an organism depends on the combination of the species and the environmental conditions where the spore lands.

The spores of freshwater algae are dispersed mainly by running water and wind, as well as by living carriers.[64] However, not all bodies of water can carry all species of algae, as the chemical composition of certain water bodies limits the algae that can survive within them.[64] Marine spores are often spread by ocean currents. Ocean water presents many vastly different habitats based on temperature and nutrient availability, resulting in phytogeographic zones, regions, and provinces.[65]

To some degree, the distribution of algae is subject to floristic discontinuities caused by geographical features, such as Antarctica, long distances of ocean or general land masses. It is, therefore, possible to identify species occurring by locality, such as "Pacific algae" or "North Sea algae". When they occur out of their localities, hypothesizing a transport mechanism is usually possible, such as the hulls of ships. For example, Ulva reticulata and U. fasciata travelled from the mainland to Hawaii in this manner.

Mapping is possible for select species only: "there are many valid examples of confined distribution patterns."[66] For example, Clathromorphum is an arctic genus and is not mapped far south of there.[67] However, scientists regard the overall data as insufficient due to the "difficulties of undertaking such studies."[68]

Ecology

 
Phytoplankton, Lake Chūzenji

Algae are prominent in bodies of water, common in terrestrial environments, and are found in unusual environments, such as on snow and ice. Seaweeds grow mostly in shallow marine waters, under 100 m (330 ft) deep; however, some such as Navicula pennata have been recorded to a depth of 360 m (1,180 ft).[69] A type of algae, Ancylonema nordenskioeldii, was found in Greenland in areas known as the 'Dark Zone', which caused an increase in the rate of melting ice sheet.[70] Same algae was found in the Italian Alps, after pink ice appeared on parts of the Presena glacier.[71]

The various sorts of algae play significant roles in aquatic ecology. Microscopic forms that live suspended in the water column (phytoplankton) provide the food base for most marine food chains. In very high densities (algal blooms), these algae may discolor the water and outcompete, poison, or asphyxiate other life forms.

Algae can be used as indicator organisms to monitor pollution in various aquatic systems.[72] In many cases, algal metabolism is sensitive to various pollutants. Due to this, the species composition of algal populations may shift in the presence of chemical pollutants.[72] To detect these changes, algae can be sampled from the environment and maintained in laboratories with relative ease.[72]

On the basis of their habitat, algae can be categorized as: aquatic (planktonic, benthic, marine, freshwater, lentic, lotic),[73] terrestrial, aerial (subaerial),[74] lithophytic, halophytic (or euryhaline), psammon, thermophilic, cryophilic, epibiont (epiphytic, epizoic), endosymbiont (endophytic, endozoic), parasitic, calcifilic or lichenic (phycobiont).[75]

Cultural associations

In classical Chinese, the word 藻 is used both for "algae" and (in the modest tradition of the imperial scholars) for "literary talent". The third island in Kunming Lake beside the Summer Palace in Beijing is known as the Zaojian Tang Dao, which thus simultaneously means "Island of the Algae-Viewing Hall" and "Island of the Hall for Reflecting on Literary Talent".

Cultivation

This section is an excerpt from Algaculture.[edit]

Algaculture is a form of aquaculture involving the farming of species of algae.[76]

The majority of algae that are intentionally cultivated fall into the category of microalgae (also referred to as phytoplankton, microphytes, or planktonic algae). Macroalgae, commonly known as seaweed, also have many commercial and industrial uses, but due to their size and the specific requirements of the environment in which they need to grow, they do not lend themselves as readily to cultivation (this may change, however, with the advent of newer seaweed cultivators, which are basically algae scrubbers using upflowing air bubbles in small containers).

Commercial and industrial algae cultivation has numerous uses, including production of nutraceuticals such as omega-3 fatty acids (as algal oil)[77][78][79] or natural food colorants and dyes, food, fertilizers, bioplastics, chemical feedstock (raw material), protein-rich animal/aquaculture feed, pharmaceuticals, and algal fuel,[80] and can also be used as a means of pollution control.

Global production of farmed aquatic plants, overwhelmingly dominated by seaweeds, grew in output volume from 13.5 million tonnes in 1995 to just over 30 million tonnes in 2016.[81] Cultured microalgae already contribute to a wide range of sectors in the emerging bioeconomy.[82] Research suggests there are large potentials and benefits of algaculture for the development of a future healthy and sustainable food system.[83][84]

Seaweed farming

This section is an excerpt from Seaweed farming.[edit]
 
Underwater Eucheuma farming in the Philippines
 
A seaweed farmer in Nusa Lembongan (Indonesia) gathers edible seaweed that has grown on a rope.

Seaweed farming or kelp farming is the practice of cultivating and harvesting seaweed. In its simplest form, it consists of the management of naturally found batches. In its most advanced form, it consists of fully controlling the life cycle of the algae. The top seven most cultivated seaweed taxa are Eucheuma spp., Kappaphycus alvarezii, Gracilaria spp., Saccharina japonica, Undaria pinnatifida, Pyropia spp., and Sargassum fusiforme. Eucheuma and K. alvarezii are farmed for carrageenan (a gelling agent); Gracilaria is farmed for agar; while the rest are farmed for food.[85] The largest seaweed-producing countries are China, Indonesia, and the Philippines. Other notable producers include South Korea, North Korea, Japan, Malaysia, and Zanzibar (Tanzania).[86] Seaweed farming has frequently been developed as an alternative to improve economic conditions and to reduce fishing pressure and overexploited fisheries.[87]

Global production of farmed aquatic plants, overwhelmingly dominated by seaweeds, grew in output volume from 13.5×10^6 t (13,300,000 long tons; 14,900,000 short tons) in 1995 to just over 30×10^6 t (30,000,000 long tons; 33,000,000 short tons) in 2016.[88] As of 2014, seaweed was 27% of all marine aquaculture.[89]

Seaweed farming is a carbon negative crop, with a high potential for climate change mitigation.[90][89] The IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate recommends "further research attention" as a mitigation tactic.[91]

Bioreactors

This section is an excerpt from Algae bioreactor.[edit]
 
A close up of microalgae – Pavlova sp.
An algae bioreactor is used for cultivating micro or macro algae. Algae may be cultivated for the purposes of biomass production (as in a seaweed cultivator), wastewater treatment, CO2 fixation, or aquarium/pond filtration in the form of an algae scrubber.[92] Algae bioreactors vary widely in design, falling broadly into two categories: open reactors and enclosed reactors. Open reactors are exposed to the atmosphere while enclosed reactors, also commonly called photobioreactors, are isolated to varying extents from the atmosphere. Specifically, algae bioreactors can be used to produce fuels such as biodiesel and bioethanol, to generate animal feed, or to reduce pollutants such as NOx and CO2 in flue gases of power plants. Fundamentally, this kind of bioreactor is based on the photosynthetic reaction, which is performed by the chlorophyll-containing algae itself using dissolved carbon dioxide and sunlight energy. The carbon dioxide is dispersed into the reactor fluid to make it accessible for the algae. The bioreactor has to be made out of transparent material.

Uses

 
Harvesting algae

Agar

Agar, a gelatinous substance derived from red algae, has a number of commercial uses.[93] It is a good medium on which to grow bacteria and fungi, as most microorganisms cannot digest agar.

Alginates

Alginic acid, or alginate, is extracted from brown algae. Its uses range from gelling agents in food, to medical dressings. Alginic acid also has been used in the field of biotechnology as a biocompatible medium for cell encapsulation and cell immobilization. Molecular cuisine is also a user of the substance for its gelling properties, by which it becomes a delivery vehicle for flavours.

Between 100,000 and 170,000 wet tons of Macrocystis are harvested annually in New Mexico for alginate extraction and abalone feed.[94][95]

Energy source

Main articles: Algae fuel, Biological hydrogen production, Biohydrogen, Biodiesel, Ethanol fuel, Butanol fuel, Vegetable oil, Biogas, and Hydrothermal Liquefaction

To be competitive and independent from fluctuating support from (local) policy on the long run, biofuels should equal or beat the cost level of fossil fuels. Here, algae-based fuels hold great promise,[96][97] directly related to the potential to produce more biomass per unit area in a year than any other form of biomass. The break-even point for algae-based biofuels is estimated to occur by 2025.[98]

Fertilizer

Further information: Seaweed fertiliser
 
Seaweed-fertilized gardens on Inisheer

For centuries, seaweed has been used as a fertilizer; George Owen of Henllys writing in the 16th century referring to drift weed in South Wales:[99]

This kind of ore they often gather and lay on great heapes, where it heteth and rotteth, and will have a strong and loathsome smell; when being so rotten they cast on the land, as they do their muck, and thereof springeth good corn, especially barley ... After spring-tydes or great rigs of the sea, they fetch it in sacks on horse backes, and carie the same three, four, or five miles, and cast it on the lande, which doth very much better the ground for corn and grass.

Today, algae are used by humans in many ways; for example, as fertilizers, soil conditioners, and livestock feed.[100] Aquatic and microscopic species are cultured in clear tanks or ponds and are either harvested or used to treat effluents pumped through the ponds. Algaculture on a large scale is an important type of aquaculture in some places. Maerl is commonly used as a soil conditioner.

Nutrition

See also: Edible seaweed and Algae powder
 
Dulse, a type of edible seaweed

Naturally growing seaweeds are an important source of food, especially in Asia, leading some to label them as superfoods.[101] They provide many vitamins including: A, B1, B2, B6, niacin, and C, and are rich in iodine, potassium, iron, magnesium, and calcium.[102] In addition, commercially cultivated microalgae, including both algae and cyanobacteria, are marketed as nutritional supplements, such as spirulina,[103] Chlorella and the vitamin-C supplement from Dunaliella, high in beta-carotene.

Algae are national foods of many nations: China consumes more than 70 species, including fat choy, a cyanobacterium considered a vegetable; Japan, over 20 species such as nori and aonori;[104] Ireland, dulse; Chile, cochayuyo.[105] Laver is used to make laver bread in Wales, where it is known as bara lawr; in Korea, gim. It is also used along the west coast of North America from California to British Columbia, in Hawaii and by the Māori of New Zealand. Sea lettuce and badderlocks are salad ingredients in Scotland, Ireland, Greenland, and Iceland. Algae is being considered a potential solution for world hunger problem.[106][107][108]

Two popular forms of algae are used in cuisine:

Furthermore, it contains all nine of the essential amino acids the body does not produce on its own[109]

The oils from some algae have high levels of unsaturated fatty acids. For example, Parietochloris incisa is very high in arachidonic acid, where it reaches up to 47% of the triglyceride pool.[111] Some varieties of algae favored by vegetarianism and veganism contain the long-chain, essential omega-3 fatty acids, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). Fish oil contains the omega-3 fatty acids, but the original source is algae (microalgae in particular), which are eaten by marine life such as copepods and are passed up the food chain.[112] Algae have emerged in recent years as a popular source of omega-3 fatty acids for vegetarians who cannot get long-chain EPA and DHA from other vegetarian sources such as flaxseed oil, which only contains the short-chain alpha-linolenic acid (ALA).

Pollution control

  • Sewage can be treated with algae,[113] reducing the use of large amounts of toxic chemicals that would otherwise be needed.
  • Algae can be used to capture fertilizers in runoff from farms. When subsequently harvested, the enriched algae can be used as fertilizer.
  • Aquaria and ponds can be filtered using algae, which absorb nutrients from the water in a device called an algae scrubber, also known as an algae turf scrubber.[114][115][116][117]

Agricultural Research Service scientists found that 60–90% of nitrogen runoff and 70–100% of phosphorus runoff can be captured from manure effluents using a horizontal algae scrubber, also called an algal turf scrubber (ATS). Scientists developed the ATS, which consists of shallow, 100-foot raceways of nylon netting where algae colonies can form, and studied its efficacy for three years. They found that algae can readily be used to reduce the nutrient runoff from agricultural fields and increase the quality of water flowing into rivers, streams, and oceans. Researchers collected and dried the nutrient-rich algae from the ATS and studied its potential as an organic fertilizer. They found that cucumber and corn seedlings grew just as well using ATS organic fertilizer as they did with commercial fertilizers.[118] Algae scrubbers, using bubbling upflow or vertical waterfall versions, are now also being used to filter aquaria and ponds.

Polymers

Various polymers can be created from algae, which can be especially useful in the creation of bioplastics. These include hybrid plastics, cellulose-based plastics, poly-lactic acid, and bio-polyethylene.[119] Several companies have begun to produce algae polymers commercially, including for use in flip-flops[120] and in surf boards.[121]

Bioremediation

The alga Stichococcus bacillaris has been seen to colonize silicone resins used at archaeological sites; biodegrading the synthetic substance.[122]

Pigments

The natural pigments (carotenoids and chlorophylls) produced by algae can be used as alternatives to chemical dyes and coloring agents.[123] The presence of some individual algal pigments, together with specific pigment concentration ratios, are taxon-specific: analysis of their concentrations with various analytical methods, particularly high-performance liquid chromatography, can therefore offer deep insight into the taxonomic composition and relative abundance of natural algae populations in sea water samples.[124][125]

Stabilizing substances

Main articles: Carrageenan and Chondrus crispus

Carrageenan, from the red alga Chondrus crispus, is used as a stabilizer in milk products.

Additional images

  •  

    Algae bladder

See also

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Bibliography

General

  • Chapman, V.J. (1950). Seaweeds and their Uses. London: Methuen. ISBN 978-0-412-15740-0.
  • Fritsch, F. E. (1945) [1935]. The Structure and Reproduction of the Algae. Vol. I & II. Cambridge University Press.
  • van den Hoek, C.; Mann, D. G.; Jahns, H. M. (1995). Algae: An Introduction to Phycology. Cambridge University Press.
  • Kassinger, Ruth (2020). Slime: How Algae Created Us, Plague Us, and Just Might Save Us. Mariner.
  • Lembi, C. A.; Waaland, J.R. (1988). Algae and Human Affairs. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-32115-0.
  • Mumford, T. F.; Miura, A. (1988). "Porphyra as food: cultivation and economic". In Lembi, C. A.; Waaland, J. R. (eds.). Algae and Human Affairs. Cambridge University Press. pp. 87–117. ISBN 978-0-521-32115-0..
  • Round, F. E. (1981). The Ecology of Algae. London: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-22583-0.
  • Smith, G. M. (1938). Cryptogamic Botany. Vol. I. New York: McGraw-Hill.
  • Ask, E.I (1990). Cottonii and Spinosum Cultivation Handbook. FMC BioPolymer Corporation.Philippines.

Regional

Britain and Ireland

  • Brodie, Juliet; Burrows, Elsie M.; Chamberlain, Yvonne M.; Christensen, Tyge; Dixon, Peter Stanley; Fletcher, R. L.; Hommersand, Max H.; Irvine, Linda M.; Maggs, Christine A. (1977–2003). Seaweeds of the British Isles: A Collaborative Project of the British Phycological Society and the British Museum (Natural History). London / Andover: British Museum of Natural History, HMSO / Intercept. ISBN 978-0-565-00781-2.
  • Cullinane, John P. (1973). Phycology of the South Coast of Ireland. Cork: Cork University Press.
  • Hardy, F. G.; Aspinall, R. J. (1988). An Atlas of the Seaweeds of Northumberland and Durham. The Hancock Museum, University Newcastle upon Tyne: Northumberland Biological Records Centre. ISBN 978-0-9509680-5-6.
  • Hardy, F. G.; Guiry, Michael D.; Arnold, Henry R. (2006). A Check-list and Atlas of the Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland (Revised ed.). London: British Phycological Society. ISBN 978-3-906166-35-3.
  • John, D. M.; Whitton, B. A.; Brook, J. A. (2002). The Freshwater Algal Flora of the British Isles. Cambridge / New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77051-4.
  • Knight, Margery; Parke, Mary W. (1931). Manx Algae: An Algal Survey of the South End of the Isle of Man. Liverpool Marine Biology Committee Memoirs on Typical British Marine Plants & Animals. Vol. XXX. Liverpool: University Press.
  • Morton, Osborne (1994). Marine Algae of Northern Ireland. Belfast: Ulster Museum. ISBN 978-0-900761-28-7.
  • Morton, Osborne (1 December 2003). "The Marine Macroalgae of County Donegal, Ireland". Bulletin of the Irish Biogeographical Society. 27: 3–164.

Australia

  • Huisman, J. M. (2000). Marine Plants of Australia. University of Western Australia Press. ISBN 978-1-876268-33-6.

New Zealand

  • Chapman, Valentine Jackson; Lindauer, VW; Aiken, M.; Dromgoole, F. I. (1970) [1900, 1956, 1961, 1969]. The Marine algae of New Zealand. London / Lehre, Germany: Linnaean Society of London / Cramer.

Europe

  • Cabioc'h, Jacqueline; Floc'h, Jean-Yves; Le Toquin, Alain; Boudouresque, Charles-François; Meinesz, Alexandre; Verlaque, Marc (1992). Guide des algues des mers d'Europe: Manche/Atlantique-Méditerranée (in French). Lausanne, Suisse: Delachaux et Niestlé. ISBN 978-2-603-00848-5.
  • Gayral, Paulette (1966). Les Algues de côtes françaises (manche et atlantique), notions fondamentales sur l'écologie, la biologie et la systématique des algues marines (in French). Paris: Doin, Deren et Cie.
  • Guiry, Michael. D.; Blunden, G. (1991). Seaweed Resources in Europe: Uses and Potential. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-92947-5.
  • Míguez Rodríguez, Luís (1998). Algas mariñas de Galicia: Bioloxía, gastronomía, industria (in Galician). Vigo: Edicións Xerais de Galicia. ISBN 978-84-8302-263-4.
  • Otero, J. (2002). Guía das macroalgas de Galicia (in Galician). A Coruña: Baía Edicións. ISBN 978-84-89803-22-0.
  • Bárbara, I.; Cremades, J. (1993). Guía de las algas del litoral gallego (in Spanish). A Coruña: Concello da Coruña – Casa das Ciencias.

Arctic

  • Kjellman, Frans Reinhold (1883). The algae of the Arctic Sea: A survey of the species, together with an exposition of the general characters and the development of the flora. Vol. 20. Stockholm: Kungl. Svenska vetenskapsakademiens handlingar. pp. 1–350.

Greenland

  • Lund, Søren Jensen (1959). The Marine Algae of East Greenland. Kövenhavn: C.A. Reitzel. 9584734.

Faroe Islands

  • Børgesen, Frederik (1970) [1903]. "Marine Algae". In Warming, Eugene (ed.). Botany of the Faröes Based Upon Danish Investigations, Part II. Copenhagen: Det nordiske Forlag. pp. 339–532..

Canary Islands

  • Børgesen, Frederik (1936) [1925, 1926, 1927, 1929, 1930]. Marine Algae from the Canary Islands. Copenhagen: Bianco Lunos.

Morocco

  • Gayral, Paulette (1958). Algues de la côte atlantique marocaine (in French). Casablanca: Rabat [Société des sciences naturelles et physiques du Maroc].

South Africa

  • Stegenga, H.; Bolton, J. J.; Anderson, R. J. (1997). Seaweeds of the South African West Coast. Bolus Herbarium, University of Cape Town. ISBN 978-0-7992-1793-3.

North America

  • Abbott, I. A.; Hollenberg, G. J. (1976). Marine Algae of California. California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-0867-8.
  • Greeson, Phillip E. (1982). An annotated key to the identification of commonly occurring and dominant genera of Algae observed in the Phytoplankton of the United States. Washington DC: US Department of the Interior, Geological Survey. Retrieved 19 December 2008.
  • Taylor, William Randolph (1969) [1937, 1957, 1962]. Marine Algae of the Northeastern Coast of North America. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-04904-2.
  • Wehr, J. D.; Sheath, R. G. (2003). Freshwater Algae of North America: Ecology and Classification. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-741550-5.

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Algae.
 
Wikispecies has information related to Algae.
  • Guiry, Michael; Guiry, Wendy. "AlgaeBase". – a database of all algal names including images, nomenclature, taxonomy, distribution, bibliography, uses, extracts
  • "Algae – Cell Centered Database". CCDb.UCSD.edu. San Diego: University of California.
  • . National Museum of Natural History, Department of Botany. 2008. Archived from the original on 1 December 2008. Retrieved 19 December 2008.
  • Anderson, Don; Keafer, Bruce; Kleindinst, Judy; Shaughnessy, Katie; Joyce, Katherine; Fino, Danielle; Shepherd, Adam (2007). "Harmful Algae". US National Office for Harmful Algal Blooms. from the original on 5 December 2008. Retrieved 19 December 2008.
  • . Department of Environment / Climate Change NSW Botanic Gardens Trust. Archived from the original on 30 December 2008. Retrieved 19 December 2008.
  • "Freshwater Algae Research". Phycology Section, Patrick Center for Environmental Research. 2011. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
  • . Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI). 1996–2008. Archived from the original on 25 January 2009. Retrieved 20 December 2008.
  • Silva, Paul (1997–2004). "Index Nominum Algarum (INA)". Berkeley: University Herbarium, University of California. from the original on 23 December 2008. Retrieved 19 December 2008.
  • "Algae: Protists with Chloroplasts". TolWeb.org.
  • "Research on microalgae". Algae.WUR.nl. Wageningen UR. 2009. from the original on 24 April 2009. Retrieved 18 May 2009.
  • . Australian Biological Resources Study. Archived from the original on 1 November 2012 – via Environment.gov.au.
  • "About Algae". NMH.ac.uk. Natural History Museum, United Kingdom.
  • EnAlgae 4 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine

January 31, 2023
algae, alga, redirects, here, other, uses, disambiguation, alga, disambiguation, singular, alga, informal, term, large, diverse, group, photosynthetic, eukaryotic, organisms, polyphyletic, grouping, that, includes, species, from, multiple, distinct, clades, in. Alga redirects here For other uses see Algae disambiguation and Alga disambiguation Algae ˈ ae l dʒ iː ˈ ae l ɡ iː singular alga ˈ ae l ɡ e is an informal term for a large and diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms It is a polyphyletic grouping that includes species from multiple distinct clades Included organisms range from unicellular microalgae such as Chlorella Prototheca and the diatoms to multicellular forms such as the giant kelp a large brown alga which may grow up to 50 metres 160 ft in length Most are aquatic and autotrophic they generate food internally and lack many of the distinct cell and tissue types such as stomata xylem and phloem that are found in land plants The largest and most complex marine algae are called seaweeds while the most complex freshwater forms are the Charophyta a division of green algae which includes for example Spirogyra and stoneworts AlgaeAn informal term for a diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotesTemporal range Mesoproterozoic present 1 2 Pha Proterozoic Archean Had nA variety of algae growing on the sea bed in shallow watersA variety of microscopic unicellular and colonial freshwater algaeScientific classificationGroups includedArchaeplastida Viridiplantae green algae Mesostigmatophyceae Chlorokybophyceae Chlorophyta Charophyta Rhodophyta red algae Glaucophyta Chlorarachniophytes Euglenids Heterokonts Bacillariophyceae Diatoms Axodines Bolidomonas Eustigmatophyceae Phaeophyceae brown algae Chrysophyceae golden algae Raphidophyceae Synurophyceae Xanthophyceae yellow green algae Cryptophyta Dinoflagellata HaptophytaTypically excluded Cyanobacteria blue green algae No definition of algae is generally accepted One definition is that algae have chlorophyll a as their primary photosynthetic pigment and lack a sterile covering of cells around their reproductive cells 3 Likewise the colorless Prototheca under Chlorophyta are all devoid of any chlorophyll Although cyanobacteria are often referred to as blue green algae most authorities exclude all prokaryotes from the definition of algae 4 5 Algae constitute a polyphyletic group 4 since they do not include a common ancestor and although their plastids seem to have a single origin from cyanobacteria 6 they were acquired in different ways Green algae are examples of algae that have primary chloroplasts derived from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria Diatoms and brown algae are examples of algae with secondary chloroplasts derived from an endosymbiotic red alga 7 Algae exhibit a wide range of reproductive strategies from simple asexual cell division to complex forms of sexual reproduction 8 Algae lack the various structures that characterize land plants such as the phyllids leaf like structures of bryophytes rhizoids of non vascular plants and the roots leaves and other organs found in tracheophytes vascular plants Most are phototrophic although some are mixotrophic deriving energy both from photosynthesis and uptake of organic carbon either by osmotrophy myzotrophy or phagotrophy Some unicellular species of green algae many golden algae euglenids dinoflagellates and other algae have become heterotrophs also called colorless or apochlorotic algae sometimes parasitic relying entirely on external energy sources and have limited or no photosynthetic apparatus 9 10 11 Some other heterotrophic organisms such as the apicomplexans are also derived from cells whose ancestors possessed plastids but are not traditionally considered as algae Algae have photosynthetic machinery ultimately derived from cyanobacteria that produce oxygen as a by product of photosynthesis unlike other photosynthetic bacteria such as purple and green sulfur bacteria Fossilized filamentous algae from the Vindhya basin have been dated back to 1 6 to 1 7 billion years ago 12 Because of the wide range of types of algae they have increasing different industrial and traditional applications in human society Traditional seaweed farming practices have existed for thousands of years and have strong traditions in East Asia food cultures More modern algaculture applications extend the food traditions for other applications include cattle feed using algae for bioremediation or pollution control transforming sunlight into algae fuels or other chemicals used in industrial processes and in medical and scientific applications A 2020 review found that these applications of algae could play an important role in carbon sequestration in order to mitigate climate change while providing valuable value add products for global economies 13 Contents 1 Etymology and study 2 Classifications 2 1 Algal characteristics basic to primary classification 2 2 History of classification of algae 3 Relationship to land plants 4 Morphology 4 1 Turfs 5 Physiology 6 Symbiotic algae 6 1 Lichens 6 2 Coral reefs 6 3 Sea sponges 7 Life cycle 8 Numbers 9 Distribution 10 Ecology 11 Cultural associations 12 Cultivation 12 1 Seaweed farming 12 2 Bioreactors 13 Uses 13 1 Agar 13 2 Alginates 13 3 Energy source 13 4 Fertilizer 13 5 Nutrition 13 6 Pollution control 13 7 Polymers 13 8 Bioremediation 13 9 Pigments 13 10 Stabilizing substances 14 Additional images 15 See also 16 References 17 Bibliography 17 1 General 17 2 Regional 17 2 1 Britain and Ireland 17 2 2 Australia 17 2 3 New Zealand 17 2 4 Europe 17 2 5 Arctic 17 2 6 Greenland 17 2 7 Faroe Islands 17 2 8 Canary Islands 17 2 9 Morocco 17 2 10 South Africa 17 2 11 North America 18 External linksEtymology and study EditThe singular alga is the Latin word for seaweed and retains that meaning in English 14 The etymology is obscure Although some speculate that it is related to Latin algere be cold 15 no reason is known to associate seaweed with temperature A more likely source is alliga binding entwining 16 The Ancient Greek word for seaweed was fῦkos phŷkos which could mean either the seaweed probably red algae or a red dye derived from it The Latinization fucus meant primarily the cosmetic rouge The etymology is uncertain but a strong candidate has long been some word related to the Biblical פוך puk paint if not that word itself a cosmetic eye shadow used by the ancient Egyptians and other inhabitants of the eastern Mediterranean It could be any color black red green or blue 17 Accordingly the modern study of marine and freshwater algae is called either phycology or algology depending on whether the Greek or Latin root is used The name fucus appears in a number of taxa Classifications EditFurther information wikispecies AlgaeThe committee on the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature has recommended certain suffixes for use in the classification of algae These are phyta for division phyceae for class phycideae for subclass ales for order inales for suborder aceae for family oidease for subfamily a Greek based name for genus and a Latin based name for species Algal characteristics basic to primary classification Edit The primary classification of algae is based on certain morphological features The chief among these are a pigment constitution of the cell b chemical nature of stored food materials c kind number point of insertion and relative length of the flagella on the motile cell d chemical composition of cell wall and e presence or absence of a definitely organized nucleus in the cell or any other significant details of cell structure History of classification of algae Edit Although Carolus Linnaeus 1754 included algae along with lichens in his 25th class Cryptogamia he did not elaborate further on the classification of algae Jean Pierre Etienne Vaucher 1803 was perhaps the first to propose a system of classification of algae and he recognized three groups Conferves Ulves and Tremelles While Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link 1820 classified algae on the basis of the colour of the pigment and structure William Henry Harvey 1836 proposed a system of classification on the basis of the habitat and the pigment J G Agardh 1849 1898 divided algae into six orders Diatomaceae Nostochineae Confervoideae Ulvaceae Floriadeae and Fucoideae Around 1880 algae along with fungi were grouped under Thallophyta a division created by Eichler 1836 Encouraged by this Adolf Engler and Karl A E Prantl 1912 proposed a revised scheme of classification of algae and included fungi in algae as they were of opinion that fungi have been derived from algae The scheme proposed by Engler and Prantl is summarised as follows 18 Schizophyta Phytosarcodina Flagellata Dinoflagellata Bacillariophyta Conjugatae Chlorophyceae Charophyta Phaeophyceae Rhodophyceae Eumycetes Fungi False color scanning electron micrograph of the unicellular coccolithophore Gephyrocapsa oceanica The algae contain chloroplasts that are similar in structure to cyanobacteria Chloroplasts contain circular DNA like that in cyanobacteria and are interpreted as representing reduced endosymbiotic cyanobacteria However the exact origin of the chloroplasts is different among separate lineages of algae reflecting their acquisition during different endosymbiotic events The table below describes the composition of the three major groups of algae Their lineage relationships are shown in the figure in the upper right Many of these groups contain some members that are no longer photosynthetic Some retain plastids but not chloroplasts while others have lost plastids entirely Phylogeny based on plastid 19 not nucleocytoplasmic genealogy CyanobacteriaGlaucophytesrhodoplasts RhodophytesHeterokontsCryptophytesHaptophyteschloroplasts EuglenophytesChlorophytesCharophytesLand plants Embryophyta ChlorarachniophytesSupergroup affiliation Members Endosymbiont SummaryPrimoplantae Archaeplastida Chlorophyta Rhodophyta Glaucophyta Cyanobacteria These algae have primary chloroplasts i e the chloroplasts are surrounded by two membranes and probably developed through a single endosymbiotic event The chloroplasts of red algae have chlorophylls a and c often and phycobilins while those of green algae have chloroplasts with chlorophyll a and b without phycobilins Land plants are pigmented similarly to green algae and probably developed from them thus the Chlorophyta is a sister taxon to the plants sometimes the Chlorophyta the Charophyta and land plants are grouped together as the Viridiplantae Excavata and Rhizaria Chlorarachniophytes Euglenids Green algae These groups have green chloroplasts containing chlorophylls a and b 20 Their chloroplasts are surrounded by four and three membranes respectively and were probably retained from ingested green algae Chlorarachniophytes which belong to the phylum Cercozoa contain a small nucleomorph which is a relict of the algae s nucleus Euglenids which belong to the phylum Euglenozoa live primarily in fresh water and have chloroplasts with only three membranes The endosymbiotic green algae may have been acquired through myzocytosis rather than phagocytosis 21 Halvaria and Hacrobia Heterokonts Dinoflagellates Haptophyta Cryptomonads Red algae These groups have chloroplasts containing chlorophylls a and c and phycobilins The shape can vary they may be of discoid plate like reticulate cup shaped spiral or ribbon shaped They have one or more pyrenoids to preserve protein and starch The latter chlorophyll type is not known from any prokaryotes or primary chloroplasts but genetic similarities with red algae suggest a relationship there 22 In the first three of these groups Chromista the chloroplast has four membranes retaining a nucleomorph in cryptomonads and they likely share a common pigmented ancestor although other evidence casts doubt on whether the heterokonts Haptophyta and cryptomonads are in fact more closely related to each other than to other groups 23 24 The typical dinoflagellate chloroplast has three membranes but considerable diversity exists in chloroplasts within the group and a number of endosymbiotic events apparently occurred 6 The Apicomplexa a group of closely related parasites also have plastids called apicoplasts which are not photosynthetic but appear to have a common origin with dinoflagellate chloroplasts 6 title page of Gmelin s Historia Fucorum dated 1768 Linnaeus in Species Plantarum 1753 25 the starting point for modern botanical nomenclature recognized 14 genera of algae of which only four are currently considered among algae 26 In Systema Naturae Linnaeus described the genera Volvox and Corallina and a species of Acetabularia as Madrepora among the animals In 1768 Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin 1744 1774 published the Historia Fucorum the first work dedicated to marine algae and the first book on marine biology to use the then new binomial nomenclature of Linnaeus It included elaborate illustrations of seaweed and marine algae on folded leaves 27 28 W H Harvey 1811 1866 and Lamouroux 1813 29 were the first to divide macroscopic algae into four divisions based on their pigmentation This is the first use of a biochemical criterion in plant systematics Harvey s four divisions are red algae Rhodospermae brown algae Melanospermae green algae Chlorospermae and Diatomaceae 30 31 At this time microscopic algae were discovered and reported by a different group of workers e g O F Muller and Ehrenberg studying the Infusoria microscopic organisms Unlike macroalgae which were clearly viewed as plants microalgae were frequently considered animals because they are often motile 29 Even the nonmotile coccoid microalgae were sometimes merely seen as stages of the lifecycle of plants macroalgae or animals 32 33 Although used as a taxonomic category in some pre Darwinian classifications e g Linnaeus 1753 de Jussieu 1789 Horaninow 1843 Agassiz 1859 Wilson amp Cassin 1864 in further classifications the algae are seen as an artificial polyphyletic group Throughout the 20th century most classifications treated the following groups as divisions or classes of algae cyanophytes rhodophytes chrysophytes xanthophytes bacillariophytes phaeophytes pyrrhophytes cryptophytes and dinophytes euglenophytes and chlorophytes Later many new groups were discovered e g Bolidophyceae and others were splintered from older groups charophytes and glaucophytes from chlorophytes many heterokontophytes e g synurophytes from chrysophytes or eustigmatophytes from xanthophytes haptophytes from chrysophytes and chlorarachniophytes from xanthophytes With the abandonment of plant animal dichotomous classification most groups of algae sometimes all were included in Protista later also abandoned in favour of Eukaryota However as a legacy of the older plant life scheme some groups that were also treated as protozoans in the past still have duplicated classifications see ambiregnal protists Some parasitic algae e g the green algae Prototheca and Helicosporidium parasites of metazoans or Cephaleuros parasites of plants were originally classified as fungi sporozoans or protistans of incertae sedis 34 while others e g the green algae Phyllosiphon and Rhodochytrium parasites of plants or the red algae Pterocladiophila and Gelidiocolax mammillatus parasites of other red algae or the dinoflagellates Oodinium parasites of fish had their relationship with algae conjectured early In other cases some groups were originally characterized as parasitic algae e g Chlorochytrium but later were seen as endophytic algae 35 Some filamentous bacteria e g Beggiatoa were originally seen as algae Furthermore groups like the apicomplexans are also parasites derived from ancestors that possessed plastids but are not included in any group traditionally seen as algae Relationship to land plants EditThe first land plants probably evolved from shallow freshwater charophyte algae much like Chara almost 500 million years ago These probably had an isomorphic alternation of generations and were probably filamentous Fossils of isolated land plant spores suggest land plants may have been around as long as 475 million years ago 36 37 Morphology Edit The kelp forest exhibit at the Monterey Bay Aquarium A three dimensional multicellular thallus A range of algal morphologies is exhibited and convergence of features in unrelated groups is common The only groups to exhibit three dimensional multicellular thalli are the reds and browns and some chlorophytes 38 Apical growth is constrained to subsets of these groups the florideophyte reds various browns and the charophytes 38 The form of charophytes is quite different from those of reds and browns because they have distinct nodes separated by internode stems whorls of branches reminiscent of the horsetails occur at the nodes 38 Conceptacles are another polyphyletic trait they appear in the coralline algae and the Hildenbrandiales as well as the browns 38 Most of the simpler algae are unicellular flagellates or amoeboids but colonial and nonmotile forms have developed independently among several of the groups Some of the more common organizational levels more than one of which may occur in the lifecycle of a species are Colonial small regular groups of motile cells Capsoid individual non motile cells embedded in mucilage Coccoid individual non motile cells with cell walls Palmelloid nonmotile cells embedded in mucilage Filamentous a string of connected nonmotile cells sometimes branching Parenchymatous cells forming a thallus with partial differentiation of tissuesIn three lines even higher levels of organization have been reached with full tissue differentiation These are the brown algae 39 some of which may reach 50 m in length kelps 40 the red algae 41 and the green algae 42 The most complex forms are found among the charophyte algae see Charales and Charophyta in a lineage that eventually led to the higher land plants The innovation that defines these nonalgal plants is the presence of female reproductive organs with protective cell layers that protect the zygote and developing embryo Hence the land plants are referred to as the Embryophytes Turfs Edit The term algal turf is commonly used but poorly defined Algal turfs are thick carpet like beds of seaweed that retain sediment and compete with foundation species like corals and kelps and they are usually less than 15 cm tall Such a turf may consist of one or more species and will generally cover an area in the order of a square metre or more Some common characteristics are listed 43 Algae that form aggregations that have been described as turfs include diatoms cyanobacteria chlorophytes phaeophytes and rhodophytes Turfs are often composed of numerous species at a wide range of spatial scales but monospecific turfs are frequently reported 43 Turfs can be morphologically highly variable over geographic scales and even within species on local scales and can be difficult to identify in terms of the constituent species 43 Turfs have been defined as short algae but this has been used to describe height ranges from less than 0 5 cm to more than 10 cm In some regions the descriptions approached heights which might be described as canopies 20 to 30 cm 43 This section needs expansion You can help by adding to it February 2021 Physiology EditMany algae particularly members of the Characeae species 44 have served as model experimental organisms to understand the mechanisms of the water permeability of membranes osmoregulation turgor regulation clarification needed salt tolerance cytoplasmic streaming and the generation of action potentials Phytohormones are found not only in higher plants but in algae too 45 Symbiotic algae EditSome species of algae form symbiotic relationships with other organisms In these symbioses the algae supply photosynthates organic substances to the host organism providing protection to the algal cells The host organism derives some or all of its energy requirements from the algae Examples are Lichens Edit Main article Lichen Rock lichens in Ireland Lichens are defined by the International Association for Lichenology to be an association of a fungus and a photosynthetic symbiont resulting in a stable vegetative body having a specific structure 46 The fungi or mycobionts are mainly from the Ascomycota with a few from the Basidiomycota In nature they do not occur separate from lichens It is unknown when they began to associate 47 One mycobiont associates with the same phycobiont species rarely two from the green algae except that alternatively the mycobiont may associate with a species of cyanobacteria hence photobiont is the more accurate term A photobiont may be associated with many different mycobionts or may live independently accordingly lichens are named and classified as fungal species 48 The association is termed a morphogenesis because the lichen has a form and capabilities not possessed by the symbiont species alone they can be experimentally isolated The photobiont possibly triggers otherwise latent genes in the mycobiont 49 Trentepohlia is an example of a common green alga genus worldwide that can grow on its own or be lichenised Lichen thus share some of the habitat and often similar appearance with specialized species of algae aerophytes growing on exposed surfaces such as tree trunks and rocks and sometimes discoloring them Coral reefs Edit Main articles Coral Coral reef and Symbiodinium Floridian coral reef Coral reefs are accumulated from the calcareous exoskeletons of marine invertebrates of the order Scleractinia stony corals These animals metabolize sugar and oxygen to obtain energy for their cell building processes including secretion of the exoskeleton with water and carbon dioxide as byproducts Dinoflagellates algal protists are often endosymbionts in the cells of the coral forming marine invertebrates where they accelerate host cell metabolism by generating sugar and oxygen immediately available through photosynthesis using incident light and the carbon dioxide produced by the host Reef building stony corals hermatypic corals require endosymbiotic algae from the genus Symbiodinium to be in a healthy condition 50 The loss of Symbiodinium from the host is known as coral bleaching a condition which leads to the deterioration of a reef Sea sponges Edit Main article Sea sponge Endosymbiontic green algae live close to the surface of some sponges for example breadcrumb sponges Halichondria panicea The alga is thus protected from predators the sponge is provided with oxygen and sugars which can account for 50 to 80 of sponge growth in some species 51 Life cycle EditRhodophyta Chlorophyta and Heterokontophyta the three main algal divisions have life cycles which show considerable variation and complexity In general an asexual phase exists where the seaweed s cells are diploid a sexual phase where the cells are haploid followed by fusion of the male and female gametes Asexual reproduction permits efficient population increases but less variation is possible Commonly in sexual reproduction of unicellular and colonial algae two specialized sexually compatible haploid gametes make physical contact and fuse to form a zygote To ensure a successful mating the development and release of gametes is highly synchronized and regulated pheromones may play a key role in these processes 52 Sexual reproduction allows for more variation and provides the benefit of efficient recombinational repair of DNA damages during meiosis a key stage of the sexual cycle 53 However sexual reproduction is more costly than asexual reproduction 54 Meiosis has been shown to occur in many different species of algae 55 Further information ConceptacleNumbers Edit Algae on coastal rocks at Shihtiping in Taiwan The Algal Collection of the US National Herbarium located in the National Museum of Natural History consists of approximately 320 500 dried specimens which although not exhaustive no exhaustive collection exists gives an idea of the order of magnitude of the number of algal species that number remains unknown 56 Estimates vary widely For example according to one standard textbook 57 in the British Isles the UK Biodiversity Steering Group Report estimated there to be 20 000 algal species in the UK Another checklist reports only about 5 000 species Regarding the difference of about 15 000 species the text concludes It will require many detailed field surveys before it is possible to provide a reliable estimate of the total number of species Regional and group estimates have been made as well 5 000 5 500 species of red algae worldwide some 1 300 in Australian Seas 58 400 seaweed species for the western coastline of South Africa 59 and 212 species from the coast of KwaZulu Natal 60 Some of these are duplicates as the range extends across both coasts and the total recorded is probably about 500 species Most of these are listed in List of seaweeds of South Africa These exclude phytoplankton and crustose corallines 669 marine species from California US 61 642 in the check list of Britain and Ireland 62 and so on but lacking any scientific basis or reliable sources these numbers have no more credibility than the British ones mentioned above Most estimates also omit microscopic algae such as phytoplankton The most recent estimate suggests 72 500 algal species worldwide 63 Distribution EditThe distribution of algal species has been fairly well studied since the founding of phytogeography in the mid 19th century 64 Algae spread mainly by the dispersal of spores analogously to the dispersal of Plantae by seeds and spores This dispersal can be accomplished by air water or other organisms Due to this spores can be found in a variety of environments fresh and marine waters air soil and in or on other organisms 64 Whether a spore is to grow into an organism depends on the combination of the species and the environmental conditions where the spore lands The spores of freshwater algae are dispersed mainly by running water and wind as well as by living carriers 64 However not all bodies of water can carry all species of algae as the chemical composition of certain water bodies limits the algae that can survive within them 64 Marine spores are often spread by ocean currents Ocean water presents many vastly different habitats based on temperature and nutrient availability resulting in phytogeographic zones regions and provinces 65 To some degree the distribution of algae is subject to floristic discontinuities caused by geographical features such as Antarctica long distances of ocean or general land masses It is therefore possible to identify species occurring by locality such as Pacific algae or North Sea algae When they occur out of their localities hypothesizing a transport mechanism is usually possible such as the hulls of ships For example Ulva reticulata and U fasciata travelled from the mainland to Hawaii in this manner Mapping is possible for select species only there are many valid examples of confined distribution patterns 66 For example Clathromorphum is an arctic genus and is not mapped far south of there 67 However scientists regard the overall data as insufficient due to the difficulties of undertaking such studies 68 Ecology Edit Phytoplankton Lake Chuzenji Algae are prominent in bodies of water common in terrestrial environments and are found in unusual environments such as on snow and ice Seaweeds grow mostly in shallow marine waters under 100 m 330 ft deep however some such as Navicula pennata have been recorded to a depth of 360 m 1 180 ft 69 A type of algae Ancylonema nordenskioeldii was found in Greenland in areas known as the Dark Zone which caused an increase in the rate of melting ice sheet 70 Same algae was found in the Italian Alps after pink ice appeared on parts of the Presena glacier 71 The various sorts of algae play significant roles in aquatic ecology Microscopic forms that live suspended in the water column phytoplankton provide the food base for most marine food chains In very high densities algal blooms these algae may discolor the water and outcompete poison or asphyxiate other life forms Algae can be used as indicator organisms to monitor pollution in various aquatic systems 72 In many cases algal metabolism is sensitive to various pollutants Due to this the species composition of algal populations may shift in the presence of chemical pollutants 72 To detect these changes algae can be sampled from the environment and maintained in laboratories with relative ease 72 On the basis of their habitat algae can be categorized as aquatic planktonic benthic marine freshwater lentic lotic 73 terrestrial aerial subaerial 74 lithophytic halophytic or euryhaline psammon thermophilic cryophilic epibiont epiphytic epizoic endosymbiont endophytic endozoic parasitic calcifilic or lichenic phycobiont 75 Cultural associations EditIn classical Chinese the word 藻 is used both for algae and in the modest tradition of the imperial scholars for literary talent The third island in Kunming Lake beside the Summer Palace in Beijing is known as the Zaojian Tang Dao which thus simultaneously means Island of the Algae Viewing Hall and Island of the Hall for Reflecting on Literary Talent Cultivation EditThis section is an excerpt from Algaculture edit Algaculture is a form of aquaculture involving the farming of species of algae 76 The majority of algae that are intentionally cultivated fall into the category of microalgae also referred to as phytoplankton microphytes or planktonic algae Macroalgae commonly known as seaweed also have many commercial and industrial uses but due to their size and the specific requirements of the environment in which they need to grow they do not lend themselves as readily to cultivation this may change however with the advent of newer seaweed cultivators which are basically algae scrubbers using upflowing air bubbles in small containers Commercial and industrial algae cultivation has numerous uses including production of nutraceuticals such as omega 3 fatty acids as algal oil 77 78 79 or natural food colorants and dyes food fertilizers bioplastics chemical feedstock raw material protein rich animal aquaculture feed pharmaceuticals and algal fuel 80 and can also be used as a means of pollution control Global production of farmed aquatic plants overwhelmingly dominated by seaweeds grew in output volume from 13 5 million tonnes in 1995 to just over 30 million tonnes in 2016 81 Cultured microalgae already contribute to a wide range of sectors in the emerging bioeconomy 82 Research suggests there are large potentials and benefits of algaculture for the development of a future healthy and sustainable food system 83 84 Seaweed farming Edit This section is an excerpt from Seaweed farming edit Underwater Eucheuma farming in the Philippines A seaweed farmer in Nusa Lembongan Indonesia gathers edible seaweed that has grown on a rope Seaweed farming or kelp farming is the practice of cultivating and harvesting seaweed In its simplest form it consists of the management of naturally found batches In its most advanced form it consists of fully controlling the life cycle of the algae The top seven most cultivated seaweed taxa are Eucheuma spp Kappaphycus alvarezii Gracilaria spp Saccharina japonica Undaria pinnatifida Pyropia spp and Sargassum fusiforme Eucheuma and K alvarezii are farmed for carrageenan a gelling agent Gracilaria is farmed for agar while the rest are farmed for food 85 The largest seaweed producing countries are China Indonesia and the Philippines Other notable producers include South Korea North Korea Japan Malaysia and Zanzibar Tanzania 86 Seaweed farming has frequently been developed as an alternative to improve economic conditions and to reduce fishing pressure and overexploited fisheries 87 Global production of farmed aquatic plants overwhelmingly dominated by seaweeds grew in output volume from 13 5 10 6 t 13 300 000 long tons 14 900 000 short tons in 1995 to just over 30 10 6 t 30 000 000 long tons 33 000 000 short tons in 2016 88 As of 2014 seaweed was 27 of all marine aquaculture 89 Seaweed farming is a carbon negative crop with a high potential for climate change mitigation 90 89 The IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate recommends further research attention as a mitigation tactic 91 Bioreactors Edit This section is an excerpt from Algae bioreactor edit A close up of microalgae Pavlova sp An algae bioreactor is used for cultivating micro or macro algae Algae may be cultivated for the purposes of biomass production as in a seaweed cultivator wastewater treatment CO2 fixation or aquarium pond filtration in the form of an algae scrubber 92 Algae bioreactors vary widely in design falling broadly into two categories open reactors and enclosed reactors Open reactors are exposed to the atmosphere while enclosed reactors also commonly called photobioreactors are isolated to varying extents from the atmosphere Specifically algae bioreactors can be used to produce fuels such as biodiesel and bioethanol to generate animal feed or to reduce pollutants such as NOx and CO2 in flue gases of power plants Fundamentally this kind of bioreactor is based on the photosynthetic reaction which is performed by the chlorophyll containing algae itself using dissolved carbon dioxide and sunlight energy The carbon dioxide is dispersed into the reactor fluid to make it accessible for the algae The bioreactor has to be made out of transparent material Uses Edit Harvesting algae Agar Edit Agar a gelatinous substance derived from red algae has a number of commercial uses 93 It is a good medium on which to grow bacteria and fungi as most microorganisms cannot digest agar Alginates Edit Alginic acid or alginate is extracted from brown algae Its uses range from gelling agents in food to medical dressings Alginic acid also has been used in the field of biotechnology as a biocompatible medium for cell encapsulation and cell immobilization Molecular cuisine is also a user of the substance for its gelling properties by which it becomes a delivery vehicle for flavours Between 100 000 and 170 000 wet tons of Macrocystis are harvested annually in New Mexico for alginate extraction and abalone feed 94 95 Energy source Edit Main articles Algae fuel Biological hydrogen production Biohydrogen Biodiesel Ethanol fuel Butanol fuel Vegetable oil Biogas and Hydrothermal Liquefaction To be competitive and independent from fluctuating support from local policy on the long run biofuels should equal or beat the cost level of fossil fuels Here algae based fuels hold great promise 96 97 directly related to the potential to produce more biomass per unit area in a year than any other form of biomass The break even point for algae based biofuels is estimated to occur by 2025 98 Fertilizer Edit Further information Seaweed fertiliser Seaweed fertilized gardens on Inisheer For centuries seaweed has been used as a fertilizer George Owen of Henllys writing in the 16th century referring to drift weed in South Wales 99 This kind of ore they often gather and lay on great heapes where it heteth and rotteth and will have a strong and loathsome smell when being so rotten they cast on the land as they do their muck and thereof springeth good corn especially barley After spring tydes or great rigs of the sea they fetch it in sacks on horse backes and carie the same three four or five miles and cast it on the lande which doth very much better the ground for corn and grass Today algae are used by humans in many ways for example as fertilizers soil conditioners and livestock feed 100 Aquatic and microscopic species are cultured in clear tanks or ponds and are either harvested or used to treat effluents pumped through the ponds Algaculture on a large scale is an important type of aquaculture in some places Maerl is commonly used as a soil conditioner Nutrition Edit See also Edible seaweed and Algae powder Dulse a type of edible seaweed Naturally growing seaweeds are an important source of food especially in Asia leading some to label them as superfoods 101 They provide many vitamins including A B1 B2 B6 niacin and C and are rich in iodine potassium iron magnesium and calcium 102 In addition commercially cultivated microalgae including both algae and cyanobacteria are marketed as nutritional supplements such as spirulina 103 Chlorella and the vitamin C supplement from Dunaliella high in beta carotene Algae are national foods of many nations China consumes more than 70 species including fat choy a cyanobacterium considered a vegetable Japan over 20 species such as nori and aonori 104 Ireland dulse Chile cochayuyo 105 Laver is used to make laver bread in Wales where it is known as bara lawr in Korea gim It is also used along the west coast of North America from California to British Columbia in Hawaii and by the Maori of New Zealand Sea lettuce and badderlocks are salad ingredients in Scotland Ireland Greenland and Iceland Algae is being considered a potential solution for world hunger problem 106 107 108 Two popular forms of algae are used in cuisine Chlorella This form of alga is found in freshwater and contains photosynthetic pigments in its chloroplast It is high in iron zinc magnesium vitamin B2 and Omega 3 fatty acids Furthermore it contains all nine of the essential amino acids the body does not produce on its own 109 Spirulina Known otherwise as a cyanobacterium a prokaryote incorrectly referred to as a blue green alga contains 10 more protein than Chlorella as well as more thiamine and copper 110 The oils from some algae have high levels of unsaturated fatty acids For example Parietochloris incisa is very high in arachidonic acid where it reaches up to 47 of the triglyceride pool 111 Some varieties of algae favored by vegetarianism and veganism contain the long chain essential omega 3 fatty acids docosahexaenoic acid DHA and eicosapentaenoic acid EPA Fish oil contains the omega 3 fatty acids but the original source is algae microalgae in particular which are eaten by marine life such as copepods and are passed up the food chain 112 Algae have emerged in recent years as a popular source of omega 3 fatty acids for vegetarians who cannot get long chain EPA and DHA from other vegetarian sources such as flaxseed oil which only contains the short chain alpha linolenic acid ALA Pollution control Edit Sewage can be treated with algae 113 reducing the use of large amounts of toxic chemicals that would otherwise be needed Algae can be used to capture fertilizers in runoff from farms When subsequently harvested the enriched algae can be used as fertilizer Aquaria and ponds can be filtered using algae which absorb nutrients from the water in a device called an algae scrubber also known as an algae turf scrubber 114 115 116 117 Agricultural Research Service scientists found that 60 90 of nitrogen runoff and 70 100 of phosphorus runoff can be captured from manure effluents using a horizontal algae scrubber also called an algal turf scrubber ATS Scientists developed the ATS which consists of shallow 100 foot raceways of nylon netting where algae colonies can form and studied its efficacy for three years They found that algae can readily be used to reduce the nutrient runoff from agricultural fields and increase the quality of water flowing into rivers streams and oceans Researchers collected and dried the nutrient rich algae from the ATS and studied its potential as an organic fertilizer They found that cucumber and corn seedlings grew just as well using ATS organic fertilizer as they did with commercial fertilizers 118 Algae scrubbers using bubbling upflow or vertical waterfall versions are now also being used to filter aquaria and ponds Polymers Edit Various polymers can be created from algae which can be especially useful in the creation of bioplastics These include hybrid plastics cellulose based plastics poly lactic acid and bio polyethylene 119 Several companies have begun to produce algae polymers commercially including for use in flip flops 120 and in surf boards 121 Bioremediation Edit The alga Stichococcus bacillaris has been seen to colonize silicone resins used at archaeological sites biodegrading the synthetic substance 122 Pigments Edit The natural pigments carotenoids and chlorophylls produced by algae can be used as alternatives to chemical dyes and coloring agents 123 The presence of some individual algal pigments together with specific pigment concentration ratios are taxon specific analysis of their concentrations with various analytical methods particularly high performance liquid chromatography can therefore offer deep insight into the taxonomic composition and relative abundance of natural algae populations in sea water samples 124 125 Stabilizing substances Edit Main articles Carrageenan and Chondrus crispus Carrageenan from the red alga Chondrus crispus is used as a stabilizer in milk products Additional images Edit Algae bladderSee also Edit Algae portalAlgaeBase AlgaePARC Eutrophication Iron fertilization Marimo algae Microbiofuels Microphyte Photobioreactor Phycotechnology Plant Toxoid 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naturelles et physiques du Maroc South Africa Edit Stegenga H Bolton J J Anderson R J 1997 Seaweeds of the South African West Coast Bolus Herbarium University of Cape Town ISBN 978 0 7992 1793 3 North America Edit Abbott I A Hollenberg G J 1976 Marine Algae of California California Stanford University Press ISBN 978 0 8047 0867 8 Greeson Phillip E 1982 An annotated key to the identification of commonly occurring and dominant genera of Algae observed in the Phytoplankton of the United States Washington DC US Department of the Interior Geological Survey Retrieved 19 December 2008 Taylor William Randolph 1969 1937 1957 1962 Marine Algae of the Northeastern Coast of North America Ann Arbor University of Michigan Press ISBN 978 0 472 04904 2 Wehr J D Sheath R G 2003 Freshwater Algae of North America Ecology and Classification Academic Press ISBN 978 0 12 741550 5 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Algae Wikispecies has information related to Algae Guiry Michael Guiry Wendy AlgaeBase a database of all algal names including images nomenclature taxonomy distribution bibliography uses extracts Algae Cell Centered Database CCDb UCSD edu San Diego University of California Algae Research National Museum of Natural History Department of Botany 2008 Archived from the original on 1 December 2008 Retrieved 19 December 2008 Anderson Don Keafer Bruce Kleindinst Judy Shaughnessy Katie Joyce Katherine Fino Danielle Shepherd Adam 2007 Harmful Algae US National Office for Harmful Algal Blooms Archived from the original on 5 December 2008 Retrieved 19 December 2008 Australian Freshwater Algae AFA Department of Environment Climate Change NSW Botanic Gardens Trust Archived from the original on 30 December 2008 Retrieved 19 December 2008 Freshwater Algae Research Phycology Section Patrick Center for Environmental Research 2011 Retrieved 17 December 2011 Monterey Bay Flora Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute MBARI 1996 2008 Archived from the original on 25 January 2009 Retrieved 20 December 2008 Silva Paul 1997 2004 Index Nominum Algarum INA Berkeley University Herbarium University of California Archived from the original on 23 December 2008 Retrieved 19 December 2008 Algae Protists with Chloroplasts TolWeb org Research on microalgae Algae WUR nl Wageningen UR 2009 Archived from the original on 24 April 2009 Retrieved 18 May 2009 Algae glossary Australian Biological Resources Study Archived from the original on 1 November 2012 via Environment gov au About Algae NMH ac uk Natural History Museum United Kingdom EnAlgae Archived 4 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Algae amp oldid 1136461349, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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