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Fruit

In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants that is formed from the ovary after flowering.

Various fruits arranged at a stall in the Municipal Market of São Paulo
Fresh fruit mix of blackberries, strawberries, and raspberries

Fruits are the means by which flowering plants (also known as angiosperms) disseminate their seeds. Edible fruits in particular have long propagated using the movements of humans and animals in a symbiotic relationship that is the means for seed dispersal for the one group and nutrition for the other; in fact, humans and many animals have become dependent on fruits as a source of food.[1] Consequently, fruits account for a substantial fraction of the world's agricultural output, and some (such as the apple and the pomegranate) have acquired extensive cultural and symbolic meanings.

In common language usage, fruit normally means the seed-associated fleshy structures (or produce) of plants that typically are sweet or sour and edible in the raw state, such as apples, bananas, grapes, lemons, oranges, and strawberries. In botanical usage, the term fruit also includes many structures that are not commonly called 'fruits' in everyday language, such as nuts, bean pods, corn kernels, tomatoes, and wheat grains.[2][3]

Botanical vs. culinary

 
An arrangement of fruits commonly thought of as culinary vegetables, including corn (maize), tomatoes, and various squash

Many common language terms used for fruit and seeds differ from botanical classifications. For example, in botany, a fruit is a ripened ovary or carpel that contains seeds, e.g., an apple, pomegranate, tomato or a pumpkin. A nut is a type of fruit (and not a seed), and a seed is a ripened ovule.[4]

In culinary language, a fruit is the sweet- or not sweet- (even sour-) tasting produce of a specific plant (e.g., a peach, pear or lemon); nuts are hard, oily, non-sweet plant produce in shells (hazelnut, acorn). Vegetables, so called, typically are savory or non-sweet produce (zucchini, lettuce, broccoli, and tomato); but some may be sweet-tasting (sweet potato).[5]

Examples of botanically classified fruit that typically are called vegetables include: cucumber, pumpkin, and squash (all are cucurbits); beans, peanuts, and peas (all legumes); corn, eggplant, bell pepper (or sweet pepper), and tomato. The spices chili pepper and allspice are fruits, botanically speaking.[4] In contrast, rhubarb is often called a fruit when used in making pies, but the edible produce of rhubarb is actually the leaf stalk or petiole of the plant.[6] Edible gymnosperm seeds are often given fruit names, e.g., ginkgo nuts and pine nuts.

Botanically, a cereal grain, such as corn, rice, or wheat is a kind of fruit (termed a caryopsis). However, the fruit wall is thin and fused to the seed coat, so almost all the edible grain-fruit is actually a seed.[7]

Structure

 
Pomegranate fruit – whole and piece with arils

The outer layer, often edible, of most fruits is called the pericarp. Typically formed from the ovary, it surrounds the seeds; in some species, however, other structural tissues contribute to or form the edible portion. The pericarp may be described in three layers from outer to inner, i.e., the epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp.

Fruit that bears a prominent pointed terminal projection is said to be beaked.[8]

Development

A fruit results from the fertilizing and maturing of one or more flowers. The gynoecium, which contains the stigma-style-ovary system, is centered in the flower-head, and it forms all or part of the fruit.[9] Inside the ovary(ies) are one or more ovules. Here begins a complex sequence called double fertilization: a female gametophyte produces an egg cell for the purpose of fertilization.[10] (A female gametophyte is called a megagametophyte, and also called the embryo sac.) After double fertilization, the ovules will become seeds.

Ovules are fertilized in a process that starts with pollination, which is the movement of pollen from the stamens to the stigma-style-ovary system within the flower-head. After pollination, a pollen tube grows from the (deposited) pollen through the stigma down the style into the ovary to the ovule. Two sperm are transferred from the pollen to a megagametophyte. Within the megagametophyte one sperm unites with the egg, forming a zygote, while the second sperm enters the central cell forming the endosperm mother cell, which completes the double fertilization process.[11][12] Later the zygote will give rise to the embryo of the seed, and the endosperm mother cell will give rise to endosperm, a nutritive tissue used by the embryo.

As the ovules develop into seeds, the ovary begins to ripen and the ovary wall, the pericarp, may become fleshy (as in berries or drupes), or it may form a hard outer covering (as in nuts). In some multiseeded fruits, the extent to which a fleshy structure develops is proportional to the number of fertilized ovules.[13] The pericarp typically is differentiated into two or three distinct layers; these are called the exocarp (outer layer, also called epicarp), mesocarp (middle layer), and endocarp (inner layer).

In some fruits the sepals, petals, stamens and/or the style of the flower fall away as the fleshy fruit ripens. However, for simple fruits derived from an inferior ovary – i.e., one that lies below the attachment of other floral parts – there are parts (including petals, sepals, and stamens) that fuse with the ovary and ripen with it. For such a case, when floral parts other than the ovary form a significant part of the fruit that develops, it is called an accessory fruit. Examples of accessory fruits include apple, rose hip, strawberry and pineapple.

Because several parts of the flower besides the ovary may contribute to the structure of a fruit, it is important to study flower structure to understand how a particular fruit forms.[3] There are three general modes of fruit development:

  • Apocarpous fruits develop from a single flower (while having one or more separate, unfused, carpels); they are the simple fruits.
  • Syncarpous fruits develop from a single gynoecium (having two or more carpels fused together).
  • Multiple fruits form from many flowers – i.e., an inflorescence of flowers.

Classification of fruits

 
Dewberry flowers. Note the multiple pistils, each of which will produce a drupelet. Each flower will become a blackberry-like aggregate fruit.
 
Dewberry fruit

Consistent with the three modes of fruit development plant scientists have classified fruits into three main groups: simple fruits, aggregate fruits, and multiple (or composite) fruits.[14] The groupings reflect how the ovary and other flower organs are arranged and how the fruits develop, but they are not evolutionarily relevant as diverse plant taxa may be in the same group.

While the section of a fungus that produces spores is called a fruiting body,[15] fungi are members of the fungi kingdom and not of the plant kingdom.

Simple fruits

 
A dry simple fruit: milkweed (Asclepias syriaca); dehiscence of the follicular fruit reveals seeds within.

Simple fruits are the result of the ripening-to-fruit of a simple or compound ovary in a single flower with a single pistil. In contrast, a single flower with numerous pistils typically produces an aggregate fruit; and the merging of several flowers, or a 'multiple' of flowers, results in a 'multiple' fruit.[16] A simple fruit is further classified as to whether it is dry or fleshy.

To distribute their seeds, dry fruits may split open and discharge their seeds to the winds, which is called dehiscence.[17] Or the distribution process may rely upon the decay and degradation of the fruit to expose the seeds; or it may rely upon the eating of fruit and excreting of seeds by frugivores – both are called indehiscence. Fleshy fruits do not split open, but they also are indehiscent and they may also rely on frugivores for distribution of their seeds. Typically, the entire outer layer of the ovary wall ripens into a potentially edible pericarp.

Types of dry simple fruits, (with examples) include:

Fruits in which part or all of the pericarp (fruit wall) is fleshy at maturity are termed fleshy simple fruits.

Types of fleshy simple fruits, (with examples) include:

  • Berry – the berry is the most common type of fleshy fruit. The entire outer layer of the ovary wall ripens into a potentially edible "pericarp", (see below).
  • Stone fruit or drupe – the definitive characteristic of a drupe is the hard, "lignified" stone (sometimes called the "pit"). It is derived from the ovary wall of the flower: apricot, cherry, olive, peach, plum, mango.
  • Pome – the pome fruits: apples, pears, rosehips, saskatoon berry, etc., are a syncarpous (fused) fleshy fruit, a simple fruit, developing from a half-inferior ovary.[18] Pomes are of the family Rosaceae.

Berries

 
Fruits of four different banana cultivars (Bananas are berries.)
 
Strawberry, showing achenes attached to surface. Botanically, strawberries are not berries; they are classified as an aggregate accessory fruit.
 
Flower of Magnolia × wieseneri showing the many pistils making up the gynoecium in the middle of the flower. The fruit of this flower is an aggregation of follicles.

Berries are a type of simple fleshy fruit that issue from a single ovary.[19] (The ovary itself may be compound, with several carpels.) The botanical term true berry includes grapes, currants, cucumbers, eggplants (aubergines), tomatoes, chili peppers, and bananas, but excludes certain fruits that are called "-berry" by culinary custom or by common usage of the term – such as strawberries and raspberries. Berries may be formed from one or more carpels (i.e., from the simple or compound ovary) from the same, single flower. Seeds typically are embedded in the fleshy interior of the ovary.

Examples include:

  • Tomato – in culinary terms, the tomato is regarded as a vegetable, but it is botanically classified as a fruit and a berry.[20]
  • Banana – the fruit has been described as a "leathery berry".[21] In cultivated varieties, the seeds are diminished nearly to non-existence.
  • Pepo – berries with skin that is hardened: cucurbits, including gourds, squash, melons.
  • Hesperidium – berries with a rind and a juicy interior: most citrus fruit.
  • Cranberry, gooseberry, redcurrant, grape.

The strawberry, regardless of its appearance, is classified as a dry, not a fleshy fruit. Botanically, it is not a berry; it is an aggregate-accessory fruit, the latter term meaning the fleshy part is derived not from the plant's ovaries but from the receptacle that holds the ovaries.[22] Numerous dry achenes are attached to the outside of the fruit-flesh; they appear to be seeds but each is actually an ovary of a flower, with a seed inside.[22]

Schizocarps are dry fruits, though some appear to be fleshy. They originate from syncarpous ovaries but do not actually dehisce; rather, they split into segments with one or more seeds. They include a number of different forms from a wide range of families, including carrot, parsnip, parsley, cumin.[14]

Aggregate fruits

 
Detail of the raspberry flower: there is a clustering of pistils at the center of the flower. (A pistil consists of stigma, style, and ovary.) The stigma is the apical (at the apex) nodule that receives pollen; the style is the stem-like column that extends down to the ovary, which is the basal part that contains the seed-forming ovule.
 
Lilium unripe capsule fruit; an aggregate fruit.

An aggregate fruit is also called an aggregation, or etaerio; it develops from a single flower that presents numerous simple pistils.[16] Each pistil contains one carpel; together they form a fruitlet. The ultimate (fruiting) development of the aggregation of pistils is called an aggregate fruit, etaerio fruit, or simply an etaerio.

Different types of aggregate fruits can produce different etaerios, such as achenes, drupelets, follicles, and berries.

Some other broadly recognized species and their etaerios (or aggregations) are:

The pistils of the raspberry are called drupelets because each pistil is like a small drupe attached to the receptacle. In some bramble fruits such as blackberry the receptacle, an accessory part, elongates and then develops as part of the fruit, making the blackberry an aggregate-accessory fruit.[25] The strawberry is also an aggregate-accessory fruit, of which the seeds are contained in the achenes.[26] Notably in all these examples, the fruit develops from a single flower, with numerous pistils.

Multiple fruits

A multiple fruit is formed from a cluster of flowers, (a 'multiple' of flowers) – also called an inflorescence. Each ('smallish') flower produces a single fruitlet, which, as all develop, all merge into one mass of fruit.[27] Examples include pineapple, fig, mulberry, Osage orange, breadfruit. An inflorescence (a cluster) of white flowers, called a head, is produced first. After fertilization, each flower in the cluster develops into a drupe; as the drupes expand, they develop as a connate organ, merging into a multiple fleshy fruit called a syncarp.

Progressive stages of multiple flowering and fruit development can be observed on a single branch of the Indian mulberry, or noni. During the sequence of development, a progression of second, third, and more inflorescences are initiated in turn at the head of the branch or stem.

Accessory fruit forms

Fruits may incorporate tissues derived from other floral parts besides the ovary, including the receptacle, hypanthium, petals, or sepals. Accessory fruits occur in all three classes of fruit development – simple, aggregate, and multiple. Accessory fruits are frequently designated by the hyphenated term showing both characters. For example, a pineapple is a multiple-accessory fruit. a blackberry is an aggregate-accessory fruit, and an apple is a simple-accessory fruit.

Table of fleshy fruit examples

Types of fleshy fruits
Type Examples
Simple fleshy fruit True berry, stone fruit, pome
Aggregate fruit Boysenberry, lilium, magnolia, raspberry, pawpaw, blackberry, strawberry
Multiple fruit Fig, osage orange, mulberry, pineapple
True berry Banana, blackcurrant, blueberry, chili pepper, cranberry, eggplant, gooseberry, grape, guava, kiwifruit, lucuma, pomegranate, redcurrant, tomato, watermelon
True berry: Pepo Cucumber, gourd, melon, pumpkin
True berry: Hesperidium Grapefruit, lemon, lime, orange
Accessory fruit Apple, rose hip, stone fruit, pineapple, blackberry, strawberry

Seedless fruits

 
The fruit of a pineapple includes tissue from the sepals as well as the pistils of many flowers. It is a multiple-accessory fruit.

Seedlessness is an important feature of some fruits of commerce. Commercial cultivars of bananas and pineapples are examples of seedless fruits. Some cultivars of citrus fruits (especially grapefruit, mandarin oranges, navel oranges), satsumas, table grapes, and of watermelons are valued for their seedlessness. In some species, seedlessness is the result of parthenocarpy, where fruits set without fertilization. Parthenocarpic fruit-set may (or may not) require pollination, but most seedless citrus fruits require a stimulus from pollination to produce fruit.[28] Seedless bananas and grapes are triploids, and seedlessness results from the abortion of the embryonic plant that is produced by fertilization, a phenomenon known as stenospermocarpy, which requires normal pollination and fertilization.[29]

Seed dissemination

Variations in fruit structures largely depend on the modes of dispersal applied to their seeds. Dispersal is achieved by wind or water, by explosive dehiscence, and by interactions with animals.[30]

Some fruits present their outer skins or shells coated with spikes or hooked burrs; these evolved either to deter would-be foragers from feeding on them, or to serve to attach themselves to the hair, feathers, legs, or clothing of animals, thereby using them as dispersal agents. These plants are termed zoochorous; common examples include cocklebur, unicorn plant, and beggarticks (or Spanish needle).[31][32]

By developments of mutual evolution the fleshy produce of fruits typically appeals to hungry animals, such that the seeds contained within are taken in, carried away and later deposited (i.e., defecated) at a distance from the parent plant. Likewise, the nutritious, oily kernels of nuts typically motivate birds and squirrels to hoard them, burying them in soil to retrieve later during the winter of scarcity; thereby, uneaten seeds are sown effectively under natural conditions to germinate and grow a new plant some distance away from the parent.[4]

Other fruits have evolved flattened and elongated wings or helicopter-like blades, e.g., elm, maple, and tuliptree. This mechanism increases dispersal distance away from the parent via wind. Other wind-dispersed fruit have tiny "parachutes", e.g., dandelion, milkweed, salsify.[30]

Coconut fruits can float thousands of miles in the ocean, thereby spreading their seeds. Other fruits that can disperse via water are nipa palm and screw pine.[30]

Some fruits have evolved propulsive mechanisms that fling seeds substantial distances –(perhaps up to 100 m (330 ft) in the case of the sandbox tree) – via explosive dehiscence or other such mechanisms (see impatiens and squirting cucumber).[33]

Food uses

 
Picking blackberries in Oklahoma

A cornucopia of fruits – fleshy (simple) fruits from apples to berries to watermelon; dry (simple) fruits including beans and rice and coconuts; aggregate fruits including strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, pawpaw; multiple fruits such as pineapple, fig, mulberries – are commercially valuable as human food. They are eaten both fresh and as jams, marmalade and other fruit preserves. They are used extensively in manufactured and processed foods (cakes, cookies, baked goods, flavorings, ice cream, yogurt, canned vegetables, frozen vegetables and meals) and beverages such as fruit juices and alcoholic beverages (brandy, fruit beer, wine).[34] Spices like vanilla, black pepper, paprika, and allspice are derived from berries. Olive fruit is pressed for olive oil and similar processing is applied to other oil bearing fruits/vegetables.[35]

Fruits are also used for socializing and gift-giving in the form of fruit baskets and fruit bouquets.[36][37]

Typically, many botanical fruits – "vegetables" in culinary parlance – (including tomato, green beans, leaf greens, bell pepper, cucumber, eggplant, okra, pumpkin, squash, zucchini) are bought and sold daily in fresh produce markets and greengroceries and carried back to kitchens, at home or restaurant, for preparation of meals.[38]

Storage

All fruits benefit from proper post harvest care, and in many fruits, the plant hormone ethylene causes ripening. Therefore, maintaining most fruits in an efficient cold chain is optimal for post harvest storage, with the aim of extending and ensuring shelf life.[39]

Nutritional value

 
Comparing fresh fruits for fiber, potassium (K), and vitamin C.[citation needed] Each disk-point refers to a 100 g (3.5 oz) serving of the fresh fruit named. The size of the disk represents the amount of fiber (as percentage of the recommended daily allowance, RDA) in a serving of fruit (see key at upper right). The amount of vitamin C (as percent RDA) is plotted on the x–axis and the amount of potassium (K), in mg on the y–axis. Bananas are high in value for fiber and potassium, and oranges for fiber and vitamin C. (Apricots are highest in potassium; strawberries are rich in vitamin C.) Watermelon, providing low levels of both K and vitamin C and almost no fiber, is of least value for the three nutrients together.

Various culinary fruits provide significant amounts of fiber and water, and many are generally high in vitamin C.[40] An overview of numerous studies showed that fruits (e.g., whole apples or whole oranges) are satisfying (filling) by simply eating and chewing them.[41]

The dietary fiber consumed in eating fruit promotes satiety, and may help to control body weight and aid reduction of blood cholesterol, a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases.[42] Fruit consumption is under preliminary research for the potential to improve nutrition and affect chronic diseases.[43][44] Regular consumption of fruit is generally associated with reduced risks of several diseases and functional declines associated with aging.[45][46][47]

Food safety

For food safety, the CDC recommends proper fruit handling and preparation to reduce the risk of food contamination and foodborne illness. Fresh fruits and vegetables should be carefully selected; at the store, they should not be damaged or bruised; and precut pieces should be refrigerated or surrounded by ice.

All fruits and vegetables should be rinsed before eating. This recommendation also applies to produce with rinds or skins that are not eaten. It should be done just before preparing or eating to avoid premature spoilage.

Fruits and vegetables should be kept separate from raw foods like meat, poultry, and seafood, as well as from utensils that have come in contact with raw foods. Fruits and vegetables that are not going to be cooked should be thrown away if they have touched raw meat, poultry, seafood, or eggs.

All cut, peeled, or cooked fruits and vegetables should be refrigerated within two hours. After a certain time, harmful bacteria may grow on them and increase the risk of foodborne illness.[48]

Allergies

Fruit allergies make up about 10 percent of all food related allergies.[49][50]

Nonfood uses

 
Porcelain vine is usually planted for its showy, colourful berries.[51]

Because fruits have been such a major part of the human diet, various cultures have developed many different uses for fruits they do not depend on for food. For example:

See also

References

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  54. ^ Cothran, James R. (2003). Gardens and Historic Plants of the Antebellum South. University of South Carolina Press. p. 221. ISBN 978-1-57003-501-2.
  55. ^ Adrosko, Rita J. (1971). Natural Dyes and Home Dyeing: A Practical Guide with over 150 Recipes. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-22688-0.
  56. ^ Nathaniel Hawthorne, "The Great Carbuncle", in Twice-Told Tales, 1837: Hide it [the great carbuncle] under thy cloak, say'st thou? Why, it will gleam through the holes, and make thee look like a jack-o'-lantern!
  57. ^ "Grow Your Own Loofah Sponges at Home for Pennies (Yes, You Really Can!)". Dr. Axe. Retrieved 2023-01-02.
  58. ^ Wake, Warren (2000). Design Paradigms: A Sourcebook for Creative Visualization. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 162–63. ISBN 978-0-471-29976-9.
  59. ^ . The Coconut Museum. Archived from the original on 2006-09-06. Retrieved 2006-09-14.
  60. ^ Watt, George (1904). "Coix spp. (Job's tears)". Agricultural Ledger. 11 (13): 191.

Further reading

  • Gollner, Adam J. (2010). The Fruit Hunters: A Story of Nature, Adventure, Commerce, and Obsession. Scribner. ISBN 978-0-7432-9695-3.
  • Watson, R. R., and Preedy, V.R. (2010, eds.). Bioactive Foods in Promoting Health: Fruits and Vegetables. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-374628-3.

External links

  • at bioimages.Vanderbilt.edu
  • at bioimages.Vanderbilt.edu
  • Fruit Facts 2020-07-12 at the Wayback Machine from California Rare Fruit Growers, Inc.
  • Photo ID of Fruits 2021-01-09 at the Wayback Machine by Capt. Pawanexh Kohli
  • "Fruit" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.

fruit, other, uses, disambiguation, botany, fruit, seed, bearing, structure, flowering, plants, that, formed, from, ovary, after, flowering, various, fruits, arranged, stall, municipal, market, são, paulo, fresh, fruit, blackberries, strawberries, raspberries,. For other uses see Fruit disambiguation In botany a fruit is the seed bearing structure in flowering plants that is formed from the ovary after flowering Various fruits arranged at a stall in the Municipal Market of Sao Paulo Fresh fruit mix of blackberries strawberries and raspberries Fruits are the means by which flowering plants also known as angiosperms disseminate their seeds Edible fruits in particular have long propagated using the movements of humans and animals in a symbiotic relationship that is the means for seed dispersal for the one group and nutrition for the other in fact humans and many animals have become dependent on fruits as a source of food 1 Consequently fruits account for a substantial fraction of the world s agricultural output and some such as the apple and the pomegranate have acquired extensive cultural and symbolic meanings In common language usage fruit normally means the seed associated fleshy structures or produce of plants that typically are sweet or sour and edible in the raw state such as apples bananas grapes lemons oranges and strawberries In botanical usage the term fruit also includes many structures that are not commonly called fruits in everyday language such as nuts bean pods corn kernels tomatoes and wheat grains 2 3 Contents 1 Botanical vs culinary 2 Structure 3 Development 4 Classification of fruits 4 1 Simple fruits 4 1 1 Berries 4 2 Aggregate fruits 4 3 Multiple fruits 4 4 Accessory fruit forms 4 5 Table of fleshy fruit examples 5 Seedless fruits 6 Seed dissemination 7 Food uses 7 1 Storage 7 2 Nutritional value 7 3 Food safety 7 4 Allergies 8 Nonfood uses 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External linksBotanical vs culinarySee also Vegetable Terminology An arrangement of fruits commonly thought of as culinary vegetables including corn maize tomatoes and various squash Many common language terms used for fruit and seeds differ from botanical classifications For example in botany a fruit is a ripened ovary or carpel that contains seeds e g an apple pomegranate tomato or a pumpkin A nut is a type of fruit and not a seed and a seed is a ripened ovule 4 In culinary language a fruit is the sweet or not sweet even sour tasting produce of a specific plant e g a peach pear or lemon nuts are hard oily non sweet plant produce in shells hazelnut acorn Vegetables so called typically are savory or non sweet produce zucchini lettuce broccoli and tomato but some may be sweet tasting sweet potato 5 Examples of botanically classified fruit that typically are called vegetables include cucumber pumpkin and squash all are cucurbits beans peanuts and peas all legumes corn eggplant bell pepper or sweet pepper and tomato The spices chili pepper and allspice are fruits botanically speaking 4 In contrast rhubarb is often called a fruit when used in making pies but the edible produce of rhubarb is actually the leaf stalk or petiole of the plant 6 Edible gymnosperm seeds are often given fruit names e g ginkgo nuts and pine nuts Botanically a cereal grain such as corn rice or wheat is a kind of fruit termed a caryopsis However the fruit wall is thin and fused to the seed coat so almost all the edible grain fruit is actually a seed 7 StructureMain article Fruit anatomy Pomegranate fruit whole and piece with arils The outer layer often edible of most fruits is called the pericarp Typically formed from the ovary it surrounds the seeds in some species however other structural tissues contribute to or form the edible portion The pericarp may be described in three layers from outer to inner i e the epicarp mesocarp and endocarp Fruit that bears a prominent pointed terminal projection is said to be beaked 8 DevelopmentA fruit results from the fertilizing and maturing of one or more flowers The gynoecium which contains the stigma style ovary system is centered in the flower head and it forms all or part of the fruit 9 Inside the ovary ies are one or more ovules Here begins a complex sequence called double fertilization a female gametophyte produces an egg cell for the purpose of fertilization 10 A female gametophyte is called a megagametophyte and also called the embryo sac After double fertilization the ovules will become seeds Ovules are fertilized in a process that starts with pollination which is the movement of pollen from the stamens to the stigma style ovary system within the flower head After pollination a pollen tube grows from the deposited pollen through the stigma down the style into the ovary to the ovule Two sperm are transferred from the pollen to a megagametophyte Within the megagametophyte one sperm unites with the egg forming a zygote while the second sperm enters the central cell forming the endosperm mother cell which completes the double fertilization process 11 12 Later the zygote will give rise to the embryo of the seed and the endosperm mother cell will give rise to endosperm a nutritive tissue used by the embryo As the ovules develop into seeds the ovary begins to ripen and the ovary wall the pericarp may become fleshy as in berries or drupes or it may form a hard outer covering as in nuts In some multiseeded fruits the extent to which a fleshy structure develops is proportional to the number of fertilized ovules 13 The pericarp typically is differentiated into two or three distinct layers these are called the exocarp outer layer also called epicarp mesocarp middle layer and endocarp inner layer In some fruits the sepals petals stamens and or the style of the flower fall away as the fleshy fruit ripens However for simple fruits derived from an inferior ovary i e one that lies below the attachment of other floral parts there are parts including petals sepals and stamens that fuse with the ovary and ripen with it For such a case when floral parts other than the ovary form a significant part of the fruit that develops it is called an accessory fruit Examples of accessory fruits include apple rose hip strawberry and pineapple Because several parts of the flower besides the ovary may contribute to the structure of a fruit it is important to study flower structure to understand how a particular fruit forms 3 There are three general modes of fruit development Apocarpous fruits develop from a single flower while having one or more separate unfused carpels they are the simple fruits Syncarpous fruits develop from a single gynoecium having two or more carpels fused together Multiple fruits form from many flowers i e an inflorescence of flowers The development sequence of a typical drupe the nectarine Prunus persica over a 7 5 month period from bud formation in early winter to fruit ripening in midsummer The parts of a flower showing the stigma style ovary system An apple is a simple fleshy fruit Key parts are the epicarp or exocarp or outer skin not labelled and the mezocarp and endocarp labelled Insertion point There are three positions of insertion of the ovary at the base of a flower I superior II half inferior III inferior The insertion point is where the androecium parts a the petals p and the sepals s all converge and attach to the receptacle r Ovary gynoecium g In the noni flowers are produced in time sequence along the stem It is possible to see a progression of flowering fruit development and fruit ripening Twin applesClassification of fruits Dewberry flowers Note the multiple pistils each of which will produce a drupelet Each flower will become a blackberry like aggregate fruit Dewberry fruit Consistent with the three modes of fruit development plant scientists have classified fruits into three main groups simple fruits aggregate fruits and multiple or composite fruits 14 The groupings reflect how the ovary and other flower organs are arranged and how the fruits develop but they are not evolutionarily relevant as diverse plant taxa may be in the same group While the section of a fungus that produces spores is called a fruiting body 15 fungi are members of the fungi kingdom and not of the plant kingdom Simple fruits A dry simple fruit milkweed Asclepias syriaca dehiscence of the follicular fruit reveals seeds within Simple fruits are the result of the ripening to fruit of a simple or compound ovary in a single flower with a single pistil In contrast a single flower with numerous pistils typically produces an aggregate fruit and the merging of several flowers or a multiple of flowers results in a multiple fruit 16 A simple fruit is further classified as to whether it is dry or fleshy To distribute their seeds dry fruits may split open and discharge their seeds to the winds which is called dehiscence 17 Or the distribution process may rely upon the decay and degradation of the fruit to expose the seeds or it may rely upon the eating of fruit and excreting of seeds by frugivores both are called indehiscence Fleshy fruits do not split open but they also are indehiscent and they may also rely on frugivores for distribution of their seeds Typically the entire outer layer of the ovary wall ripens into a potentially edible pericarp Types of dry simple fruits with examples include Achene most commonly seen in aggregate fruits e g strawberry see below Capsule Brazil nut botanically it is not a nut Caryopsis cereal grains including wheat rice oats barley Cypsela an achene like fruit derived from the individual florets in a capitulum dandelion Fibrous drupe coconut walnut botanically neither is a true nut Follicle follicles are formed from a single carpel and opens by one suture milkweed also commonly seen in aggregate fruits magnolia peony Legume bean pea peanut botanically the peanut is the seed of a legume not a nut Loment a type of indehiscent legume sweet vetch or wild potato Nut beechnut hazelnut acorn of the oak botanically these are true nuts Samara ash elm maple key Schizocarp see below carrot seed Silique radish seed Silicle shepherd s purse Utricle beet Rumex Fruits in which part or all of the pericarp fruit wall is fleshy at maturity are termed fleshy simple fruits Types of fleshy simple fruits with examples include Berry the berry is the most common type of fleshy fruit The entire outer layer of the ovary wall ripens into a potentially edible pericarp see below Stone fruit or drupe the definitive characteristic of a drupe is the hard lignified stone sometimes called the pit It is derived from the ovary wall of the flower apricot cherry olive peach plum mango Pome the pome fruits apples pears rosehips saskatoon berry etc are a syncarpous fused fleshy fruit a simple fruit developing from a half inferior ovary 18 Pomes are of the family Rosaceae Berries Main articles Berry botany and Berry Fruits of four different banana cultivars Bananas are berries Strawberry showing achenes attached to surface Botanically strawberries are not berries they are classified as an aggregate accessory fruit Flower of Magnolia wieseneri showing the many pistils making up the gynoecium in the middle of the flower The fruit of this flower is an aggregation of follicles Berries are a type of simple fleshy fruit that issue from a single ovary 19 The ovary itself may be compound with several carpels The botanical term true berry includes grapes currants cucumbers eggplants aubergines tomatoes chili peppers and bananas but excludes certain fruits that are called berry by culinary custom or by common usage of the term such as strawberries and raspberries Berries may be formed from one or more carpels i e from the simple or compound ovary from the same single flower Seeds typically are embedded in the fleshy interior of the ovary Examples include Tomato in culinary terms the tomato is regarded as a vegetable but it is botanically classified as a fruit and a berry 20 Banana the fruit has been described as a leathery berry 21 In cultivated varieties the seeds are diminished nearly to non existence Pepo berries with skin that is hardened cucurbits including gourds squash melons Hesperidium berries with a rind and a juicy interior most citrus fruit Cranberry gooseberry redcurrant grape The strawberry regardless of its appearance is classified as a dry not a fleshy fruit Botanically it is not a berry it is an aggregate accessory fruit the latter term meaning the fleshy part is derived not from the plant s ovaries but from the receptacle that holds the ovaries 22 Numerous dry achenes are attached to the outside of the fruit flesh they appear to be seeds but each is actually an ovary of a flower with a seed inside 22 Schizocarps are dry fruits though some appear to be fleshy They originate from syncarpous ovaries but do not actually dehisce rather they split into segments with one or more seeds They include a number of different forms from a wide range of families including carrot parsnip parsley cumin 14 Aggregate fruits Main article Aggregate fruit Detail of the raspberry flower there is a clustering of pistils at the center of the flower A pistil consists of stigma style and ovary The stigma is the apical at the apex nodule that receives pollen the style is the stem like column that extends down to the ovary which is the basal part that contains the seed forming ovule Lilium unripe capsule fruit an aggregate fruit An aggregate fruit is also called an aggregation or etaerio it develops from a single flower that presents numerous simple pistils 16 Each pistil contains one carpel together they form a fruitlet The ultimate fruiting development of the aggregation of pistils is called an aggregate fruit etaerio fruit or simply an etaerio Different types of aggregate fruits can produce different etaerios such as achenes drupelets follicles and berries For example the Ranunculaceae species including Clematis and Ranunculus produces an etaerio of achenes Rubus species including raspberry an etaerio of drupelets Calotropis species an etaerio of follicles fruit Annona species an etaerio of berries 23 24 Some other broadly recognized species and their etaerios or aggregations are Teasel fruit is an aggregation of cypselas Tuliptree fruit is an aggregation of samaras Magnolia and peony fruit is an aggregation of follicles American sweet gum fruit is an aggregation of capsules Sycamore fruit is an aggregation of achenes The pistils of the raspberry are called drupelets because each pistil is like a small drupe attached to the receptacle In some bramble fruits such as blackberry the receptacle an accessory part elongates and then develops as part of the fruit making the blackberry an aggregate accessory fruit 25 The strawberry is also an aggregate accessory fruit of which the seeds are contained in the achenes 26 Notably in all these examples the fruit develops from a single flower with numerous pistils Multiple fruits Main article Multiple fruit A multiple fruit is formed from a cluster of flowers a multiple of flowers also called an inflorescence Each smallish flower produces a single fruitlet which as all develop all merge into one mass of fruit 27 Examples include pineapple fig mulberry Osage orange breadfruit An inflorescence a cluster of white flowers called a head is produced first After fertilization each flower in the cluster develops into a drupe as the drupes expand they develop as a connate organ merging into a multiple fleshy fruit called a syncarp Progressive stages of multiple flowering and fruit development can be observed on a single branch of the Indian mulberry or noni During the sequence of development a progression of second third and more inflorescences are initiated in turn at the head of the branch or stem Accessory fruit forms Main article Accessory fruit Fruits may incorporate tissues derived from other floral parts besides the ovary including the receptacle hypanthium petals or sepals Accessory fruits occur in all three classes of fruit development simple aggregate and multiple Accessory fruits are frequently designated by the hyphenated term showing both characters For example a pineapple is a multiple accessory fruit a blackberry is an aggregate accessory fruit and an apple is a simple accessory fruit Table of fleshy fruit examples Types of fleshy fruits Type ExamplesSimple fleshy fruit True berry stone fruit pomeAggregate fruit Boysenberry lilium magnolia raspberry pawpaw blackberry strawberryMultiple fruit Fig osage orange mulberry pineappleTrue berry Banana blackcurrant blueberry chili pepper cranberry eggplant gooseberry grape guava kiwifruit lucuma pomegranate redcurrant tomato watermelonTrue berry Pepo Cucumber gourd melon pumpkinTrue berry Hesperidium Grapefruit lemon lime orangeAccessory fruit Apple rose hip stone fruit pineapple blackberry strawberrySeedless fruits The fruit of a pineapple includes tissue from the sepals as well as the pistils of many flowers It is a multiple accessory fruit Seedlessness is an important feature of some fruits of commerce Commercial cultivars of bananas and pineapples are examples of seedless fruits Some cultivars of citrus fruits especially grapefruit mandarin oranges navel oranges satsumas table grapes and of watermelons are valued for their seedlessness In some species seedlessness is the result of parthenocarpy where fruits set without fertilization Parthenocarpic fruit set may or may not require pollination but most seedless citrus fruits require a stimulus from pollination to produce fruit 28 Seedless bananas and grapes are triploids and seedlessness results from the abortion of the embryonic plant that is produced by fertilization a phenomenon known as stenospermocarpy which requires normal pollination and fertilization 29 Seed disseminationVariations in fruit structures largely depend on the modes of dispersal applied to their seeds Dispersal is achieved by wind or water by explosive dehiscence and by interactions with animals 30 Some fruits present their outer skins or shells coated with spikes or hooked burrs these evolved either to deter would be foragers from feeding on them or to serve to attach themselves to the hair feathers legs or clothing of animals thereby using them as dispersal agents These plants are termed zoochorous common examples include cocklebur unicorn plant and beggarticks or Spanish needle 31 32 By developments of mutual evolution the fleshy produce of fruits typically appeals to hungry animals such that the seeds contained within are taken in carried away and later deposited i e defecated at a distance from the parent plant Likewise the nutritious oily kernels of nuts typically motivate birds and squirrels to hoard them burying them in soil to retrieve later during the winter of scarcity thereby uneaten seeds are sown effectively under natural conditions to germinate and grow a new plant some distance away from the parent 4 Other fruits have evolved flattened and elongated wings or helicopter like blades e g elm maple and tuliptree This mechanism increases dispersal distance away from the parent via wind Other wind dispersed fruit have tiny parachutes e g dandelion milkweed salsify 30 Coconut fruits can float thousands of miles in the ocean thereby spreading their seeds Other fruits that can disperse via water are nipa palm and screw pine 30 Some fruits have evolved propulsive mechanisms that fling seeds substantial distances perhaps up to 100 m 330 ft in the case of the sandbox tree via explosive dehiscence or other such mechanisms see impatiens and squirting cucumber 33 Food uses Picking blackberries in OklahomaA cornucopia of fruits fleshy simple fruits from apples to berries to watermelon dry simple fruits including beans and rice and coconuts aggregate fruits including strawberries raspberries blackberries pawpaw multiple fruits such as pineapple fig mulberries are commercially valuable as human food They are eaten both fresh and as jams marmalade and other fruit preserves They are used extensively in manufactured and processed foods cakes cookies baked goods flavorings ice cream yogurt canned vegetables frozen vegetables and meals and beverages such as fruit juices and alcoholic beverages brandy fruit beer wine 34 Spices like vanilla black pepper paprika and allspice are derived from berries Olive fruit is pressed for olive oil and similar processing is applied to other oil bearing fruits vegetables 35 Fruits are also used for socializing and gift giving in the form of fruit baskets and fruit bouquets 36 37 Typically many botanical fruits vegetables in culinary parlance including tomato green beans leaf greens bell pepper cucumber eggplant okra pumpkin squash zucchini are bought and sold daily in fresh produce markets and greengroceries and carried back to kitchens at home or restaurant for preparation of meals 38 Storage All fruits benefit from proper post harvest care and in many fruits the plant hormone ethylene causes ripening Therefore maintaining most fruits in an efficient cold chain is optimal for post harvest storage with the aim of extending and ensuring shelf life 39 Nutritional value Comparing fresh fruits for fiber potassium K and vitamin C citation needed Each disk point refers to a 100 g 3 5 oz serving of the fresh fruit named The size of the disk represents the amount of fiber as percentage of the recommended daily allowance RDA in a serving of fruit see key at upper right The amount of vitamin C as percent RDA is plotted on the x axis and the amount of potassium K in mg on the y axis Bananas are high in value for fiber and potassium and oranges for fiber and vitamin C Apricots are highest in potassium strawberries are rich in vitamin C Watermelon providing low levels of both K and vitamin C and almost no fiber is of least value for the three nutrients together Various culinary fruits provide significant amounts of fiber and water and many are generally high in vitamin C 40 An overview of numerous studies showed that fruits e g whole apples or whole oranges are satisfying filling by simply eating and chewing them 41 The dietary fiber consumed in eating fruit promotes satiety and may help to control body weight and aid reduction of blood cholesterol a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases 42 Fruit consumption is under preliminary research for the potential to improve nutrition and affect chronic diseases 43 44 Regular consumption of fruit is generally associated with reduced risks of several diseases and functional declines associated with aging 45 46 47 Food safety For food safety the CDC recommends proper fruit handling and preparation to reduce the risk of food contamination and foodborne illness Fresh fruits and vegetables should be carefully selected at the store they should not be damaged or bruised and precut pieces should be refrigerated or surrounded by ice All fruits and vegetables should be rinsed before eating This recommendation also applies to produce with rinds or skins that are not eaten It should be done just before preparing or eating to avoid premature spoilage Fruits and vegetables should be kept separate from raw foods like meat poultry and seafood as well as from utensils that have come in contact with raw foods Fruits and vegetables that are not going to be cooked should be thrown away if they have touched raw meat poultry seafood or eggs All cut peeled or cooked fruits and vegetables should be refrigerated within two hours After a certain time harmful bacteria may grow on them and increase the risk of foodborne illness 48 Allergies Fruit allergies make up about 10 percent of all food related allergies 49 50 Nonfood uses Porcelain vine is usually planted for its showy colourful berries 51 Because fruits have been such a major part of the human diet various cultures have developed many different uses for fruits they do not depend on for food For example Bayberry fruits provide a wax often used to make candles 52 Many dry fruits are used as decorations or in dried flower arrangements e g annual honesty cotoneaster lotus milkweed unicorn plant and wheat Ornamental trees and shrubs are often cultivated for their colorful fruits including beautyberry cotoneaster holly pyracantha skimmia and viburnum 53 Fruits of opium poppy are the source of opium which contains the drugs codeine and morphine as well as the biologically inactive chemical theabaine from which the drug oxycodone is synthesized 54 Osage orange fruits are used to repel cockroaches 55 Many fruits provide natural dyes e g cherry mulberry sumac and walnut 56 Dried gourds are used as bird houses cups decorations dishes musical instruments and water jugs Pumpkins are carved into Jack o lanterns for Halloween 57 The fibrous core of the mature and dry Luffa fruit is used as a sponge 58 The spiny fruit of burdock or cocklebur inspired the invention of Velcro 59 Coir fiber from coconut shells is used for brushes doormats floor tiles insulation mattresses sacking and as a growing medium for container plants The shell of the coconut fruit is used to make bird houses bowls cups musical instruments and souvenir heads 60 The hard and colorful grain fruits of Job s tears are used as decorative beads for jewelry garments and ritual objects 61 Fruit is often a subject of still life paintings See also Food portal Plants portalFruit tree Fruitarianism List of countries by fruit production List of culinary fruits List of foods List of fruit dishesReferences Lewis Robert A 2002 CRC Dictionary of Agricultural Sciences CRC Press ISBN 978 0 8493 2327 0 Schlegel Rolf H J 2003 Encyclopedic Dictionary of Plant Breeding and Related Subjects Haworth Press p 177 ISBN 978 1 56022 950 6 a b Mauseth James D 2003 Botany An Introduction to Plant Biology Jones and Bartlett pp 271 72 ISBN 978 0 7637 2134 3 a b c McGee Harold 2004 On Food and Cooking The Science and Lore of the Kitchen Simon amp Schuster pp 247 48 ISBN 978 0 684 80001 1 For a Supreme Court of the United States ruling on the matter see Nix v Hedden McGee 2004 On Food and Cooking p 367 ISBN 978 0 684 80001 1 Lewis 2002 CRC Dictionary of Agricultural Sciences p 238 ISBN 978 0 8493 2327 0 Glossary of Botanical Terms FloraBase Western Australian Herbarium Archived from the original on 8 October 2014 Retrieved 23 July 2014 Esau K 1977 Anatomy of seed plants John Wiley and Sons New York 1 Archived December 20 2010 at the Wayback Machine Mauseth James D 2003 Botany an introduction to plant biology Boston Jones and Bartlett Publishers p 258 ISBN 978 0 7637 2134 3 Rost Thomas L Weier T Elliot Weier Thomas Elliot 1979 Botany a brief introduction to plant biology New York Wiley pp 135 37 ISBN 978 0 471 02114 8 Mauseth 2003 Botany Chapter 9 Flowers and Reproduction ISBN 978 0 7637 2134 3 a b Singh Gurcharan 2004 Plants Systematics An Integrated Approach Science Publishers p 83 ISBN 978 1 57808 351 0 Sporophore from Encyclopaedia Britannica Archived from the original on 2011 02 22 a b Schlegel 2003 Encyclopedic Dictionary p 16 ISBN 978 1 56022 950 6 Schlegel 2003 Encyclopedic Dictionary p 123 ISBN 978 1 56022 950 6 Evolutionary trends in flowering plants New York Columbia University Press 1991 p 209 ISBN 978 0 231 07328 8 Sinha Nirmal Sidhu Jiwan Barta Jozsef Wu James Cano M Pilar 2012 Handbook of Fruits and Fruit Processing John Wiley amp Sons ISBN 978 1 118 35263 2 Mark Abadi 26 May 2018 A tomato is actually a fruit but it s a vegetable at the same time Business Insider Retrieved 21 November 2019 Smith James P 1977 Vascular Plant Families Eureka Calif Mad River Press ISBN 978 0 916422 07 3 a b Esau K 1977 Anatomy of seed plants John Wiley and Sons New York ISBN 0 471 24520 8 Gupta Prof P K 2007 Genetics Classical To Modern Rastogi Publication pp 2 134 ISBN 978 81 7133 896 2 Rgukt in PDF www rkv rgukt in McGee 2004 On Food and Cooking pp 361 62 ISBN 978 0 684 80001 1 McGee 2004 On Food and Cooking pp 364 65 ISBN 978 0 684 80001 1 Schlegel 2003 Encyclopedic Dictionary p 282 ISBN 978 1 56022 950 6 Agusti Manuel Primo Millo Eduardo 2020 The Genus Citrus Woodhead Publishing pp 219 244 ISBN 978 0 12 812163 4 Spiegel Roy P E E Goldschmidt 1996 The Biology of Citrus Cambridge University Press pp 87 88 ISBN 978 0 521 33321 4 a b c Capon Brian 2005 Botany for Gardeners Timber Press pp 198 99 ISBN 978 0 88192 655 2 Heiser Charles B 2003 Weeds in My Garden Observations on Some Misunderstood Plants Timber Press pp 93 95 ISBN 978 0 88192 562 3 Heiser 2003 Weeds in My Garden pp 162 64 ISBN 978 0 88192 562 3 Feldkamp Susan 2002 Modern Biology Holt Rinehart and Winston p 634 ISBN 978 0 88192 562 3 McGee 2004 On Food and Cooking Chapter 7 A Survey of Common Fruits ISBN 978 0 684 80001 1 Farrell Kenneth T 1999 Spices Condiments and Seasonings Springer pp 17 19 ISBN 978 0 8342 1337 1 Best Gift Baskets for the Holidays Consumer Reports www consumerreports org Retrieved 2021 03 13 O Connor Clare How Edible Arrangements Sold 500 Million Of Fruit Bouquets In 2013 Forbes Retrieved 2021 03 13 McGee 2004 On Food and Cooking Chapter 6 A Survey of Common Vegetables ISBN 978 0 684 80001 1 Why Cold Chain for Fruits Kohli Pawanexh 2008 Fruits and Vegetables Post Harvest Care The Basics Crosstree Techno visors Archived from the original PDF on 2016 12 04 Retrieved 2009 09 28 Hulme AC 1970 The Biochemistry of Fruits and Their Products London amp New York Academic Press Holt S H Miller J C Petocz P Farmakalidis E September 1995 A satiety index of common foods European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 49 9 675 690 ISSN 0954 3007 PMID 7498104 Brown L Rosner B Willett W W Sacks F M January 1999 Cholesterol lowering effects of dietary fiber a meta analysis The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 69 1 30 42 doi 10 1093 ajcn 69 1 30 ISSN 0002 9165 PMID 9925120 Aune D Giovannucci E Boffetta P Fadnes LT Keum N Norat T Greenwood DC Riboli E Vatten LJ Tonstad S 2017 Fruit and vegetable intake and the risk of cardiovascular disease International Journal of Epidemiology 46 3 1029 1056 doi 10 1093 ije dyw319 PMC 5837313 PMID 28338764 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Angelino D Godos J Ghelfi F Tieri M Titta L Lafranconi A Marventano S Alonzo E Gambera A Sciacca S Buscemi S Ray S Galvano F Del Rio D Grosso G 2019 Fruit and vegetable consumption and health outcomes an umbrella review of observational studies International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 70 6 652 667 doi 10 1080 09637486 2019 1571021 PMID 30764679 S2CID 73455999 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Lim Stephen S Vos Theo Flaxman Abraham D Danaei Goodarz Shibuya Kenji Adair Rohani Heather Amann Markus Anderson H Ross Andrews Kathryn G 2012 12 15 A comparative risk assessment of burden of disease and injury attributable to 67 risk factors and risk factor clusters in 21 regions 1990 2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 9859 2224 60 doi 10 1016 S0140 6736 12 61766 8 ISSN 1474 547X PMC 4156511 PMID 23245609 Wang X Ouyang Y Liu J Zhu M Zhao G Bao W Hu FB 2014 Fruit and vegetable consumption and mortality from all causes cardiovascular disease and cancer systematic review and dose response meta analysis of prospective cohort studies BMJ 349 Jul 29 g4490 doi 10 1136 bmj g4490 PMC 4115152 PMID 25073782 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint uses authors parameter link Yip Cynthia Sau Chun Chan Wendy Fielding Richard March 2019 The Associations of Fruit and Vegetable Intakes with Burden of Diseases A Systematic Review of Meta Analyses Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics 119 3 464 481 doi 10 1016 j jand 2018 11 007 ISSN 2212 2672 PMID 30639206 S2CID 58628014 Nutrition for Everyone Fruits and Vegetables DNPAO CDC fruitsandveggiesmatter gov Archived from the original on 2009 05 09 Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America Aafa org Archived from the original on 2012 10 06 Retrieved 2014 04 25 Roy Mankovitz 2010 The Wellness Project ISBN 978 0 9801584 4 1 Retrieved 2014 04 25 Porcelain vine The Morton Arboretum Archived from the original on 2020 12 25 Retrieved 2020 11 24 K Amber December 1 2001 Candlemas Feast of Flames Llewellyn Worldwide p 155 ISBN 978 0 7387 0079 3 Adams Denise Wiles 2004 Restoring American Gardens An Encyclopedia of Heirloom Ornamental Plants 1640 1940 Timber Press ISBN 978 0 88192 619 4 Booth Martin 1999 Opium A History St Martin s Press ISBN 978 0 312 20667 3 Cothran James R 2003 Gardens and Historic Plants of the Antebellum South University of South Carolina Press p 221 ISBN 978 1 57003 501 2 Adrosko Rita J 1971 Natural Dyes and Home Dyeing A Practical Guide with over 150 Recipes Courier Dover Publications ISBN 978 0 486 22688 0 Nathaniel Hawthorne The Great Carbuncle in Twice Told Tales 1837 Hide it the great carbuncle under thy cloak say st thou Why it will gleam through the holes and make thee look like a jack o lantern Grow Your Own Loofah Sponges at Home for Pennies Yes You Really Can Dr Axe Retrieved 2023 01 02 Wake Warren 2000 Design Paradigms A Sourcebook for Creative Visualization John Wiley and Sons pp 162 63 ISBN 978 0 471 29976 9 The Many Uses of the Coconut The Coconut Museum Archived from the original on 2006 09 06 Retrieved 2006 09 14 Watt George 1904 Coix spp Job s tears Agricultural Ledger 11 13 191 Further readingGollner Adam J 2010 The Fruit Hunters A Story of Nature Adventure Commerce and Obsession Scribner ISBN 978 0 7432 9695 3 Watson R R and Preedy V R 2010 eds Bioactive Foods in Promoting Health Fruits and Vegetables Academic Press ISBN 978 0 12 374628 3 External linksImages of fruit development from flowers at bioimages Vanderbilt edu Fruit and seed dispersal images at bioimages Vanderbilt edu Fruit Facts Archived 2020 07 12 at the Wayback Machine from California Rare Fruit Growers Inc Photo ID of Fruits Archived 2021 01 09 at the Wayback Machine by Capt Pawanexh Kohli Fruit Encyclopaedia Britannica 11th ed 1911 Fruit at Wikipedia s sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Recipes from Wikibooks Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Fruit amp oldid 1139891233, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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