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Black Sea

April 07, 2024

This article is about the large body of water. For other uses, see Black Sea (disambiguation).
"Euxine" redirects here. For the town of ancient Caria, see Euxine (Caria).

The Black Sea is a marginal mediterranean sea lying between Europe and Asia, east of the Balkans, south of the East European Plain, west of the Caucasus, and north of Anatolia. It is bounded by Bulgaria, Georgia, Romania, Russia, Turkey, and Ukraine. The Black Sea is supplied by major rivers, principally the Danube, Dnieper and Dniester. Consequently, while six countries have a coastline on the sea, its drainage basin includes parts of 24 countries in Europe.[2]

Black Sea
The location of the Black Sea
Map of the Black Sea with bathymetry and surrounding relief
LocationEastern Europe and West Asia
Coordinates44°N 35°E / 44°N 35°E / 44; 35
TypeSea
Primary inflowsDanube, Dnieper, Don, Dniester, Kuban, Black Sea undersea river
Primary outflowsBosporus
Basin countries
A large number of countries included in drainage basins for inflow rivers
Max. length1,175 km (730 mi)
Surface area436,402 km2 (168,500 sq mi)[1]
Average depth1,253 m (4,111 ft)
Max. depth2,212 m (7,257 ft)
Water volume547,000 km3 (131,200 cu mi)
Islands10+
The estuary of the Veleka in the Black Sea. Longshore drift has deposited sediment along the shoreline which has led to the formation of a spit (Sinemorets, Bulgaria).
Black Sea coast of western Georgia, with the skyline of Batumi on the horizon
Swallow's Nest in Crimea
Coastline of Samsun in Turkey
A sanatorium in Sochi, Russia

The Black Sea covers 436,400 km2 (168,500 sq mi) (not including the Sea of Azov),[3] has a maximum depth of 2,212 m (7,257 ft),[4] and a volume of 547,000 km3 (131,000 cu mi).[5] Most of its coasts ascend rapidly. These rises are the Pontic Mountains to the south, bar the southwest-facing peninsulas, the Caucasus Mountains to the east, and the Crimean Mountains to the mid-north. In the west, the coast is generally small floodplains below foothills such as the Strandzha; Cape Emine, a dwindling of the east end of the Balkan Mountains; and the Dobruja Plateau considerably farther north. The longest east–west extent is about 1,175 km (730 mi).[6] Important cities along the coast include (clockwise from the Bosporus) Burgas, Varna, Constanța, Odesa, Sevastopol, Novorossiysk, Sochi, Batumi, Trabzon and Samsun.

The Black Sea has a positive water balance, with an annual net outflow of 300 km3 (72 cu mi) per year through the Bosporus and the Dardanelles into the Aegean Sea.[7] While the net flow of water through the Bosporus and Dardanelles (known collectively as the Turkish Straits) is out of the Black Sea, water generally flows in both directions simultaneously: Denser, more saline water from the Aegean flows into the Black Sea underneath the less dense, fresher water that flows out of the Black Sea. This creates a significant and permanent layer of deep water that does not drain or mix and is therefore anoxic. This anoxic layer is responsible for the preservation of ancient shipwrecks which have been found in the Black Sea, which ultimately drains into the Mediterranean Sea, via the Turkish Straits and the Aegean Sea. The Bosporus strait connects it to the small Sea of Marmara which in turn is connected to the Aegean Sea via the strait of the Dardanelles. To the north, the Black Sea is connected to the Sea of Azov by the Kerch Strait.[citation needed]

The water level has varied significantly over geological time. Due to these variations in the water level in the basin, the surrounding shelf and associated aprons have sometimes been dry land. At certain critical water levels, connections with surrounding water bodies can become established. It is through the most active of these connective routes, the Turkish Straits, that the Black Sea joins the World Ocean. During geological periods when this hydrological link was not present, the Black Sea was an endorheic basin, operating independently of the global ocean system (similar to the Caspian Sea today). Currently, the Black Sea water level is relatively high; thus, water is being exchanged with the Mediterranean. The Black Sea undersea river is a current of particularly saline water flowing through the Bosporus Strait and along the seabed of the Black Sea, the first of its kind discovered.[citation needed]

Name edit

 
Coast of the Black Sea at Ordu
 
Kapchik Cape in Crimea
 
The Black Sea near Constanța, Romania
 
Coast of the Black Sea at Burgas

Modern names edit

Current names of the sea are usually equivalents of the English name "Black Sea", including these given in the countries bordering the sea:[8]

Such names have not yet been shown conclusively to predate the 13th century.[9]

In Greece, the historical name "Euxine Sea", which holds a different literal meaning (see below), is still widely used:

Historical names and etymology edit

The earliest known name of the Black Sea is the Sea of Zalpa, so called by both the Hattians[10] and their conquerors the Hittites. The Hattic city of Zalpa was "situated probably at or near the estuary of the Marrassantiya River, the modern Kızıl Irmak, on the Black Sea coast."[11]

The principal Greek name Póntos Áxeinos is generally accepted to be a rendering of the Iranian word *axšaina- ("dark colored").[9] Ancient Greek voyagers adopted the name as Á-xe(i)nos, identified with the Greek word áxeinos (inhospitable).[9] The name Πόντος Ἄξεινος Póntos Áxeinos (Inhospitable Sea), first attested in Pindar (c. 475 BC), was considered an ill omen and was euphemized to its opposite, Εὔξεινος Πόντος Eúxeinos Póntos (Hospitable Sea), also first attested in Pindar. This became the commonly used designation in Greek, although in mythological contexts the "true" name Póntos Áxeinos remained favoured.[9]

Strabo's Geographica (1.2.10) reports that in antiquity the Black Sea was often simply called "the Sea" (ὁ πόντος ho Pontos).[12] He thought that the sea was called the "Inhospitable Sea Πόντος Ἄξεινος Póntos Áxeinos by the inhabitants of the Pontus region of the southern shoreline before Greek colonisation due to its difficult navigation and hostile barbarian natives (7.3.6), and that the name was changed to "hospitable" after the Milesians colonised the region, bringing it into the Greek world.[13]

Popular supposition derives "Black Sea" from the dark color of the water or climatic conditions. Some scholars understand the name to be derived from a system of colour symbolism representing the cardinal directions, with black or dark for north, red for south, white for west, and green or light blue for east.[9] Hence "Black Sea" meant "Northern Sea". According to this scheme, the name could only have originated with a people living between the northern (black) and southern (red) seas: this points to the Achaemenids (550–330 BC).[9]

In the Greater Bundahishn, a Middle Persian Zoroastrian scripture, the Black Sea is called Siyābun.[14] In the tenth-century Persian geography book Hudud al-'Alam, the Black Sea is called Georgian Sea (daryā-yi Gurz).[15] The Georgian Chronicles use the name zğua sperisa ზღუა სპერისა (Sea of Speri) after the Kartvelian tribe of Speris or Saspers.[16] Other modern names such as Chyornoye more and Karadeniz (both meaning Black Sea) originated during the 13th century.[9] A 1570 map Asiae Nova Descriptio from Abraham Ortelius's Theatrum Orbis Terrarum labels the sea Mar Maggior (Great Sea), compare Latin Mare major.[17]

English writers of the 18th century often used Euxine Sea (/ˈjuːksɪn/ or /ˈjuːkˌsaɪn/).[18] During the Ottoman Empire, it was called either Bahr-e Siyah (Perso-Arabic) or Karadeniz (Ottoman Turkish), both meaning "Black Sea".[citation needed]

Geography edit

The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Black Sea as follows:[19]

On the Southwest. The Northeastern limit of the Sea of Marmara [A line joining Cape Rumili with Cape Anatoli (41°13'N)]. In the Kertch Strait. A line joining Cape Takil and Cape Panaghia (45°02'N).

The area surrounding the Black Sea is commonly referred to as the Black Sea Region. Its northern part lies within the Chernozem belt (black soil belt) which goes from eastern Croatia (Slavonia), along the Danube (northern Serbia, northern Bulgaria (Danubian Plain) and southern Romania (Wallachian Plain)) to northeast Ukraine and further across the Central Black Earth Region and southern Russia into Siberia.[20]

The littoral zone of the Black Sea is often referred to as the Pontic littoral or Pontic zone.[21]

The largest bays of the Black Sea are Karkinit Bay in Ukraine; the Gulf of Burgas in Bulgaria; Dnieprovski Bay and Dniestrovski Bay, both in Ukraine; and Sinop Bay and Samsun Bay, both in Turkey.[1]

Coastline and exclusive economic zones edit

Coastline length and area of exclusive economic zones
Country Coastline length (km)[1] Exclusive economic zones area (km2)[22]
  Turkey 1,329 172,484
  Ukraine 2,782 132,414
  Russia 800 67,351
  Bulgaria 354 35,132
  Georgia 310 22,947
  Romania 225 29,756
Total 5,800 460,084

Drainage basin edit

Main article: Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation

The largest rivers flowing into the Black Sea are:[1]

  1. Danube
  2. Dnieper
  3. Don
  4. Dniester
  5. Kızılırmak
  6. Kuban
  7. Sakarya
  8. Southern Bug
  9. Çoruh/Chorokhi
  10. Yeşilırmak
  11. Rioni
  12. Yeya
  13. Mius
  14. Kamchiya
  15. Enguri
  16. Kalmius
  17. Molochna
  18. Tylihul
  19. Velykyi Kuialnyk
  20. Veleka
  21. Rezovo
  22. Kodori
  23. Bzyb/Bzipi
  24. Supsa
  25. Mzymta

These rivers and their tributaries comprise a 2-million km2 (0.77-million sq mi) Black Sea drainage basin that covers wholly or partially 24 countries:[23][24][25][26][27]

Islands edit

Main article: List of islands in the Black Sea

Some islands in the Black Sea belong to Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey, and Ukraine:

  • St. Thomas Island – Bulgaria
  • St. Anastasia Island – Bulgaria
  • St. Cyricus Island – Bulgaria
  • St. Ivan Island – Bulgaria
  • St. Peter Island – Bulgaria
  • Sacalinu Mare Island – Romania
  • Sacalinu Mic Island – Romania
  • K Island – Romania and Ukraine
  • Utrish Island
  • Krupinin Island
  • Sudiuk Island
  • Kefken Island
  • Oreke Island
  • Giresun Island - Turkey
  • Dzharylhach Island – Ukraine
  • Zmiinyi (Snake) Island – Ukraine

Climate edit

 
Ice on the Gulf of Odesa

Short-term climatic variation in the Black Sea region is significantly influenced by the operation of the North Atlantic oscillation, the climatic mechanisms resulting from the interaction between the north Atlantic and mid-latitude air masses.[28] While the exact mechanisms causing the North Atlantic Oscillation remain unclear,[29] it is thought the climate conditions established in western Europe mediate the heat and precipitation fluxes reaching Central Europe and Eurasia, regulating the formation of winter cyclones, which are largely responsible for regional precipitation inputs[30] and influence Mediterranean sea surface temperatures (SSTs).[31]

The relative strength of these systems also limits the amount of cold air arriving from northern regions during winter.[32] Other influencing factors include the regional topography, as depressions and storm systems arriving from the Mediterranean are funneled through the low land around the Bosporus, with the Pontic and Caucasus mountain ranges acting as waveguides, limiting the speed and paths of cyclones passing through the region.[33]

Geology and bathymetry edit

 
The bay of Sudak, Crimea

The Black Sea is divided into two depositional basins—the Western Black Sea and Eastern Black Sea—separated by the Mid-Black Sea High, which includes the Andrusov Ridge, Tetyaev High, and Archangelsky High, extending south from the Crimean Peninsula. The basin includes two distinct relict back-arc basins which were initiated by the splitting of an Albian volcanic arc and the subduction of both the Paleo- and Neo-Tethys oceans, but the timings of these events remain uncertain. Arc volcanism and extension occurred as the Neo-Tethys Ocean subducted under the southern margin of Laurasia during the Mesozoic. Uplift and compressional deformation took place as the Neotethys continued to close. Seismic surveys indicate that rifting began in the Western Black Sea in the Barremian and Aptian followed by the formation of oceanic crust 20 million years later in the Santonian.[34][35][36] Since its initiation, compressional tectonic environments led to subsidence in the basin, interspersed with extensional phases resulting in large-scale volcanism and numerous orogenies, causing the uplift of the Greater Caucasus, Pontides, southern Crimean Peninsula and Balkanides mountain ranges.[37]

 
The Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge in Istanbul, Turkey, crosses the Bosporus strait near its entrance to the Black Sea. Connecting Europe and Asia, it is one of the tallest suspension bridges in the world.

During the Messinian salinity crisis in the neighboring Mediterranean Sea, water levels fell but without drying up the sea.[38] The collision between the Eurasian and African plates and the westward escape of the Anatolian block along the North Anatolian and East Anatolian faults dictates the current tectonic regime,[37] which features enhanced subsidence in the Black Sea basin and significant volcanic activity in the Anatolian region.[39] These geological mechanisms, in the long term, have caused the periodic isolations of the Black Sea from the rest of the global ocean system.

The large shelf to the north of the basin is up to 190 km (120 mi) wide and features a shallow apron with gradients between 1:40 and 1:1000. The southern edge around Turkey and the eastern edge around Georgia, however, are typified by a narrow shelf that rarely exceeds 20 km (12 mi) in width and a steep apron that is typically 1:40 gradient with numerous submarine canyons and channel extensions. The Euxine abyssal plain in the centre of the Black Sea reaches a maximum depth of 2,212 metres (7,257.22 feet) just south of Yalta on the Crimean Peninsula.[40]

Chronostratigraphy edit

The Paleo-Euxinian is described by the accumulation of eolian silt deposits (related to the Riss glaciation) and the lowering of sea levels (MIS 6, 8 and 10). The Karangat marine transgression occurred during the Eemian Interglacial (MIS 5e). This may have been the highest sea levels reached in the late Pleistocene. Based on this some scholars have suggested that the Crimean Peninsula was isolated from the mainland by a shallow strait during the Eemian Interglacial.[41]

The Neoeuxinian transgression began with an inflow of waters from the Caspian Sea. Neoeuxinian deposits are found in the Black Sea below −20 m (−66 ft) water depth in three layers. The upper layers correspond with the peak of the Khvalinian transgression, on the shelf shallow-water sands and coquina mixed with silty sands and brackish-water fauna, and inside the Black Sea Depression hydrotroilite silts. The middle layers on the shelf are sands with brackish-water mollusc shells. Of continental origin, the lower level on the shelf is mostly alluvial sands with pebbles, mixed with less common lacustrine silts and freshwater mollusc shells. Inside the Black Sea Depression they are terrigenous non-carbonate silts, and at the foot of the continental slope turbidite sediments.[42]

Hydrology edit

 
This SeaWiFS view reveals the colorful interplay of currents on the sea's surface.

The Black Sea is the world's largest body of water with a meromictic basin.[43] The deep waters do not mix with the upper layers of water that receive oxygen from the atmosphere. As a result, over 90% of the deeper Black Sea volume is anoxic water.[44] The Black Sea's circulation patterns are primarily controlled by basin topography and fluvial inputs, which result in a strongly stratified vertical structure. Because of the extreme stratification, it is classified as a salt wedge estuary.

The Black Sea experiences water transfer only with the Mediterranean Sea,[clarification needed] so all inflow and outflow occurs through the Bosporus and Dardanelles. Inflow from the Mediterranean has a higher salinity and density than the outflow, creating the classic estuarine circulation. This means that the inflow of dense water from the Mediterranean occurs at the bottom of the basin while the outflow of fresher Black Sea surface-water into the Sea of Marmara occurs near the surface. According to Gregg (2002), the outflow is 16,000 cubic metres per second (570,000 cubic feet per second) or around 500 cubic kilometres per year (120 cubic miles per year), and the inflow is 11,000 m3/s (390,000 cu ft/s) or around 350 km3/a (84 cu mi/a).[45]

The following water budget can be estimated:[when?]

  • Water in: 900 km3/a (220 cu mi/a)
    • Total river discharge: 370 km3/a (90 cu mi/a)[46]
    • Precipitation: 180 km3/a (40 cu mi/a)[47]
    • Inflow via Bosporus: 350 km3/a (80 cu mi/a)[45]
  • Water out: 900 km3/a (220 cu mi/a)
    • Evaporation: 400 km3/a (100 cu mi/a) (reduced greatly since the 1970s)[47]
    • Outflow via Bosporus: 500 km3/a (120 cu mi/a)[45]

The southern sill of the Bosporus is located at 36.5 m (120 ft) below present sea level (deepest spot of the shallowest cross-section in the Bosporus, located in front of Dolmabahçe Palace) and has a wet section of around 38,000 m2 (410,000 sq ft).[45] Inflow and outflow current speeds are averaged around 0.3 to 0.4 m/s (1.0 to 1.3 ft/s), but much higher speeds are found locally, inducing significant turbulence and vertical shear. This allows for turbulent mixing of the two layers.[48] Surface water leaves the Black Sea with a salinity of 17 practical salinity units (PSU) and reaches the Mediterranean with a salinity of 34 PSU. Likewise, an inflow of the Mediterranean with salinity 38.5 PSU experiences a decrease to about 34 PSU.[48]

Mean surface circulation is cyclonic; waters around the perimeter of the Black Sea circulate in a basin-wide shelfbreak gyre known as the Rim Current. The Rim Current has a maximum velocity of about 50–100 cm/s (20–39 in/s). Within this feature, two smaller cyclonic gyres operate, occupying the eastern and western sectors of the basin.[48] The Eastern and Western Gyres are well-organized systems in the winter but dissipate into a series of interconnected eddies in the summer and autumn. Mesoscale activity in the peripheral flow becomes more pronounced during these warmer seasons and is subject to interannual variability.

Outside of the Rim Current, numerous quasi-permanent coastal eddies are formed as a result of upwelling around the coastal apron and "wind curl" mechanisms. The intra-annual strength of these features is controlled by seasonal atmospheric and fluvial variations. During the spring, the Batumi eddy forms in the southeastern corner of the sea.[49]

Beneath the surface waters—from about 50 to 100 metres (160 to 330 ft)—there exists a halocline that stops at the Cold Intermediate Layer (CIL). This layer is composed of cool, salty surface waters, which are the result of localized atmospheric cooling and decreased fluvial input during the winter months. It is the remnant of the winter surface mixed layer.[48] The base of the CIL is marked by a major pycnocline at about 100–200 metres (330–660 ft), and this density disparity is the major mechanism for isolation of the deep water.

 
Black Sea coast in Ordu, Turkey

Below the pycnocline is the Deep Water mass, where salinity increases to 22.3 PSU and temperatures rise to around 8.9 °C (48.0 °F).[48] The hydrochemical environment shifts from oxygenated to anoxic, as bacterial decomposition of sunken biomass utilizes all of the free oxygen. Weak geothermal heating and long residence time create a very thick convective bottom layer.[49]

The Black Sea undersea river is a current of particularly saline water flowing through the Bosporus Strait and along the seabed of the Black Sea. The discovery of the river, announced on August 1, 2010, was made by scientists at the University of Leeds and is the first of its kind to be identified.[50] The undersea river stems from salty water spilling through the Bosporus Strait from the Mediterranean Sea into the Black Sea, where the water has a lower salt content.[50]

Hydrochemistry edit

Because of the anoxic water at depth, organic matter, including anthropogenic artifacts such as boat hulls, are well preserved. During periods of high surface productivity, short-lived algal blooms form organic rich layers known as sapropels. Scientists have reported an annual phytoplankton bloom that can be seen in many NASA images of the region.[51] As a result of these characteristics the Black Sea has gained interest from the field of marine archaeology, as ancient shipwrecks in excellent states of preservation have been discovered, such as the Byzantine wreck Sinop D, located in the anoxic layer off the coast of Sinop, Turkey.

Modelling shows that, in the event of an asteroid impact on the Black Sea, the release of hydrogen sulfide clouds would pose a threat to health—and perhaps even life—for people living on the Black Sea coast.[52]

There have been isolated reports of flares on the Black Sea occurring during thunderstorms, possibly caused by lightning igniting combustible gas seeping up from the sea depths.[53]

Ecology edit

Marine edit

See also: List of fish of the Black Sea
 
The port of Poti, Georgia

The Black Sea supports an active and dynamic marine ecosystem, dominated by species suited to the brackish, nutrient-rich, conditions. As with all marine food webs, the Black Sea features a range of trophic groups, with autotrophic algae, including diatoms and dinoflagellates, acting as primary producers. The fluvial systems draining Eurasia and central Europe introduce large volumes of sediment and dissolved nutrients into the Black Sea, but the distribution of these nutrients is controlled by the degree of physiochemical stratification, which is, in turn, dictated by seasonal physiographic development.[54]

During winter, strong wind promotes convective overturning and upwelling of nutrients, while high summer temperatures result in a marked vertical stratification and a warm, shallow mixed layer.[55] Day length and insolation intensity also control the extent of the photic zone. Subsurface productivity is limited by nutrient availability, as the anoxic bottom waters act as a sink for reduced nitrate, in the form of ammonia. The benthic zone also plays an important role in Black Sea nutrient cycling, as chemosynthetic organisms and anoxic geochemical pathways recycle nutrients which can be upwelled to the photic zone, enhancing productivity.[56]

In total, the Black Sea's biodiversity contains around one-third of the Mediterranean's and is experiencing natural and artificial invasions or "Mediterranizations".[57][58]

Phytoplankton edit

 
Phytoplankton blooms and plumes of sediment form the bright blue swirls that ring the Black Sea in this 2004 image.

The main phytoplankton groups present in the Black Sea are dinoflagellates, diatoms, coccolithophores and cyanobacteria. Generally, the annual cycle of phytoplankton development comprises significant diatom and dinoflagellate-dominated spring production, followed by a weaker mixed assemblage of community development below the seasonal thermocline during summer months, and surface-intensified autumn production.[55][59] This pattern of productivity is augmented by an Emiliania huxleyi bloom during the late spring and summer months.

Annual dinoflagellate distribution is defined by an extended bloom period in subsurface waters during the late spring and summer. In November, subsurface plankton production is combined with surface production, due to vertical mixing of water masses and nutrients such as nitrite.[54] The major bloom-forming dinoflagellate species in the Black Sea is Gymnodinium sp.[60] Estimates of dinoflagellate diversity in the Black Sea range from 193[61] to 267 species.[62] This level of species richness is relatively low in comparison to the Mediterranean Sea, which is attributable to the brackish conditions, low water transparency and presence of anoxic bottom waters. It is also possible that the low winter temperatures below 4 °C (39 °F) of the Black Sea prevent thermophilous species from becoming established. The relatively high organic matter content of Black Sea surface water favor the development of heterotrophic (an organism that uses organic carbon for growth) and mixotrophic dinoflagellates species (able to exploit different trophic pathways), relative to autotrophs. Despite its unique hydrographic setting, there are no confirmed endemic dinoflagellate species in the Black Sea.[62]
The Black Sea is populated by many species of the marine diatom, which commonly exist as colonies of unicellular, non-motile auto- and heterotrophic algae. The life-cycle of most diatoms can be described as 'boom and bust' and the Black Sea is no exception, with diatom blooms occurring in surface waters throughout the year, most reliably during March.[54] In simple terms, the phase of rapid population growth in diatoms is caused by the in-wash of silicon-bearing terrestrial sediments, and when the supply of silicon is exhausted, the diatoms begin to sink out of the photic zone and produce resting cysts. Additional factors such as predation by zooplankton and ammonium-based regenerated production also have a role to play in the annual diatom cycle.[54][55] Typically, Proboscia alata blooms during spring and Pseudosolenia calcar-avis blooms during the autumn.[60]
Coccolithophores are a type of motile, autotrophic phytoplankton that produce CaCO3 plates, known as coccoliths, as part of their life cycle. In the Black Sea, the main period of coccolithophore growth occurs after the bulk of the dinoflagellate growth has taken place. In May, the dinoflagellates move below the seasonal thermocline into deeper waters, where more nutrients are available. This permits coccolithophores to utilize the nutrients in the upper waters, and by the end of May, with favorable light and temperature conditions, growth rates reach their highest. The major bloom-forming species is Emiliania huxleyi, which is also responsible for the release of dimethyl sulfide into the atmosphere. Overall, coccolithophore diversity is low in the Black Sea, and although recent sediments are dominated by E. huxleyi and Braarudosphaera bigelowii, Holocene sediments have been shown to also contain Helicopondosphaera and Discolithina species.
Cyanobacteria are a phylum of picoplanktonic (plankton ranging in size from 0.2 to 2.0 µm) bacteria that obtain their energy via photosynthesis, and are present throughout the world's oceans. They exhibit a range of morphologies, including filamentous colonies and biofilms. In the Black Sea, several species are present, and as an example, Synechococcus spp. can be found throughout the photic zone, although concentration decreases with increasing depth. Other factors which exert an influence on distribution include nutrient availability, predation, and salinity.[63]

Animal species edit

The Black Sea along with the Caspian Sea is part of the zebra mussel's native range. The mussel has been accidentally introduced around the world and become an invasive species where it has been introduced.
The common carp's native range extends to the Black Sea along with the Caspian Sea and Aral Sea. Like the zebra mussel, the common carp is an invasive species when introduced to other habitats.
Another native fish that is also found in the Caspian Sea. It preys upon zebra mussels. Like the mussels and common carp, it has become invasive when introduced to other environments, like the Great Lakes in North America.
Marine mammals present within the basin include two species of dolphin (common[64] and bottlenose[65]) and the harbour porpoise,[66] although all of these are endangered due to pressures and impacts by human activities. All three species have been classified as distinct subspecies from those in the Mediterranean and the Atlantic and are endemic to the Black and Azov seas, and are more active during nights in the Turkish Straits.[67] However, construction of the Crimean Bridge has caused increases in nutrients and planktons in the waters, attracting large numbers of fish and more than 1,000 bottlenose dolphins.[68] However, others claim that construction may cause devastating damages on the ecosystem, including dolphins.[69]
Mediterranean monk seals, now critically endangered, were historically abundant in the Black Sea, and are regarded to have become extinct from the basin in 1997.[70] Monk seals were present at Snake Island, near the Danube Delta, until the 1950s, and several locations such as the Danube Plavni Nature Reserve [ru] and Doğankent were the last of the seals' hauling-out sites post-1990.[71] Very few animals still thrive in the Sea of Marmara.[72]
Ongoing Mediterranizations may or may not boost cetacean diversity in the Turkish Straits[67] and hence in the Black and Azov basins.
Various species of pinnipeds, sea otter, and beluga whale[73][74] were introduced into the Black Sea by mankind and later escaped either by accidental or purported causes. Of these, grey seals[75] and beluga whales[73] have been recorded with successful, long-term occurrences.
Great white sharks are known to reach into the Sea of Marmara and Bosporus Strait and basking sharks into the Dardanelles, although it is unclear whether or not these sharks may reach into the Black and Azov basins.[76][77]

Ecological effects of pollution edit

Since the 1960s, rapid industrial expansion along the Black Sea coastline and the construction of a major dam has significantly increased annual variability in the N:P:Si ratio in the basin. In coastal areas, the biological effect of these changes has been an increase in the frequency of monospecific phytoplankton blooms, with diatom bloom frequency increasing by a factor of 2.5 and non-diatom bloom frequency increasing by a factor of 6. The non-diatoms, such as the prymnesiophytes Emiliania huxleyi (coccolithophore), Chromulina sp., and the Euglenophyte Eutreptia lanowii, are able to out-compete diatom species because of the limited availability of silicon, a necessary constituent of diatom frustules.[78] As a consequence of these blooms, benthic macrophyte populations were deprived of light, while anoxia caused mass mortality in marine animals.[79][80]

The decline in macrophytes was further compounded by overfishing during the 1970s, while the invasive ctenophore Mnemiopsis reduced the biomass of copepods and other zooplankton in the late 1980s. Additionally, an alien species—the warty comb jelly (Mnemiopsis leidyi)—was able to establish itself in the basin, exploding from a few individuals to an estimated biomass of one billion metric tons.[81] The change in species composition in Black Sea waters also has consequences for hydrochemistry, as calcium-producing coccolithophores influence salinity and pH, although these ramifications have yet to be fully quantified. In central Black Sea waters, silicon levels were also significantly reduced, due to a decrease in the flux of silicon associated with advection across isopycnal surfaces. This phenomenon demonstrates the potential for localized alterations in Black Sea nutrient input to have basin-wide effects.

Pollution reduction and regulation efforts have led to a partial recovery of the Black Sea ecosystem during the 1990s, and an EU monitoring exercise, 'EROS21', revealed decreased nitrogen and phosphorus values, relative to the 1989 peak.[82] Recently, scientists have noted signs of ecological recovery, in part due to the construction of new sewage treatment plants in Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria in connection with membership in the European Union. Mnemiopsis leidyi populations have been checked with the arrival of another alien species which feeds on them.[83]

History edit

Mediterranean connection during the Holocene edit

 
The Bosporus, taken from the International Space Station
 
Map of the Dardanelles

The Black Sea is connected to the World Ocean by a chain of two shallow straits, the Dardanelles and the Bosporus. The Dardanelles is 55 m (180 ft) deep, and the Bosporus is as shallow as 36 m (118 ft). By comparison, at the height of the last ice age, sea levels were more than 100 m (330 ft) lower than they are now.

There is evidence that water levels in the Black Sea were considerably lower at some point during the post-glacial period. Some researchers theorize that the Black Sea had been a landlocked freshwater lake (at least in upper layers) during the last glaciation and for some time after.

In the aftermath of the last glacial period, water levels in the Black Sea and the Aegean Sea rose independently until they were high enough to exchange water. The exact timeline of this development is still subject to debate. One possibility is that the Black Sea filled first, with excess freshwater flowing over the Bosporus sill and eventually into the Mediterranean Sea. There are also catastrophic scenarios, such as the "Black Sea deluge hypothesis" put forward by William Ryan, Walter Pitman and Petko Dimitrov.

Deluge hypothesis edit

Main article: Black Sea deluge hypothesis

The Black Sea deluge is a hypothesized catastrophic rise in the level of the Black Sea c. 5600 BC due to waters from the Mediterranean Sea breaching a sill in the Bosporus Strait. The hypothesis was headlined when The New York Times published it in December 1996, shortly before it was published in an academic journal.[84] While it is agreed that the sequence of events described did occur, there is debate over the suddenness, dating, and magnitude of the events. Relevant to the hypothesis is that its description has led some to connect this catastrophe with prehistoric flood myths.[85][86]

Archaeology edit

 
Ivan Aivazovsky. Black Sea Fleet in the Bay of Theodosia, just before the Crimean War

The Black Sea was sailed by Hittites, Carians, Colchians, Thracians, Greeks, Persians, Cimmerians, Scythians, Romans, Byzantines, Goths, Huns, Avars, Slavs, Varangians, Crusaders, Venetians, Genoese, Georgians, Bulgarians, Tatars and Ottomans.

The concentration of historical powers, combined with the preservative qualities of the deep anoxic waters of the Black Sea, has attracted increased interest from marine archaeologists who have begun to discover a large number of ancient ships and organic remains in a high state of preservation.

Recorded history edit

 
A 16th-century map of the Black Sea by Diogo Homem
 
Greek colonies (8th–3rd century BCE) of the Black Sea (Euxine, or "hospitable" sea)

The Black Sea was a busy waterway on the crossroads of the ancient world: the Balkans to the west, the Eurasian steppes to the north, the Caucasus and Central Asia to the east, Asia Minor and Mesopotamia to the south, and Greece to the southwest.

The land at the eastern end of the Black Sea, Colchis (in present-day Georgia), marked for the ancient Greeks the edge of the known world.

The Pontic–Caspian steppe to the north of the Black Sea is seen by several researchers as the pre-historic original homeland (Urheimat) of the speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE).[87][88][89][90]

Greek presence in the Black Sea began at least as early as the 9th century BC with colonies scattered along the Black Sea's southern coast, attracting traders and colonists due to the grain grown in the Black Sea hinterland.[91][need quotation to verify][92] By 500 BC, permanent Greek communities existed all around the Black Sea, and a lucrative trade-network connected the entirety of the Black Sea to the wider Mediterranean. While Greek colonies generally maintained very close cultural ties to their founding polis, Greek colonies in the Black Sea began to develop their own Black Sea Greek culture, known today as Pontic. The coastal communities of Black Sea Greeks remained a prominent part of the Greek world for centuries,[93][page needed] and the realms of Mithridates of Pontus, Rome and Constantinople spanned the Black Sea to include Crimean territories.

The Black Sea became a virtual Ottoman Navy lake within five years of the Republic of Genoa losing control of the Crimean Peninsula in 1479, after which the only Western merchant vessels to sail its waters were those of Venice's old rival Ragusa. The Black Sea became a trade route of slaves between Crimea and Ottoman Anatolia via the Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe.[94]

 
The destruction of the Ottoman fleet in Battle of Sinop

Imperial Russia became a significant Black Sea power in the late-18th century,[95] occupying the littoral of Novorossiya in 1764 and of Crimea in 1783. Ottoman restrictions on Black Sea navigation were challenged by the Black Sea Fleet (founded in 1783) of the Imperial Russian Navy, and the Ottomans relaxed export controls after the outbreak in 1789 of the French Revolution.[96][97][need quotation to verify][98][99]

Modern history edit

The Crimean War, fought between 1853 and 1856, saw naval engagements between the French and British allies and the forces of Nicholas I of Russia. On the 2 March 1855 death of Nicholas I, Alexander II became Tsar. On 15 January 1856, the new tsar took Russia out of the war on the very unfavourable terms of the Treaty of Paris (1856), which included the loss of a naval fleet on the Black Sea, and the provision that the Black Sea was to be a demilitarized zone similar to a contemporaneous region of the Baltic Sea.

World Wars edit

The Black Sea was a significant naval theatre of World War I (1914–1918) and saw both naval and land battles between 1941 and 1945 during World War II. For example, Sevastopol was obliterated by the Nazis, who even brought Schwerer Gustav to the Siege of Sevastopol (1941–1942). The Soviet naval base was one of the strongest fortifications in the world. Its site, on a deeply eroded, bare limestone promontory at the southwestern tip of the Crimea, made an approach by land forces exceedingly difficult. The high-level cliffs overlooking Severnaya Bay protected the anchorage, making an amphibious landing just as dangerous. The Soviet Navy had built upon these natural defenses by modernizing the port and installing heavy coastal batteries consisting of 180mm and 305mm re-purposed battleship guns which were capable of firing inland as well as out to sea. The artillery emplacements were protected by reinforced concrete fortifications and 9.8-inch thick armored turrets.

21st century edit

During the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Snake Island was a source of contention. On 24 February 2022, two Russian navy warships attacked and captured Snake Island.[100] It was subsequently bombarded heavily by Ukraine.[101] On 30 June 2022, Ukraine announced that it had driven Russian forces off the island.[102]

On 14 April 2022, the flagship of the Black Sea Fleet, Russian cruiser Moskva was sunk by Ukrainian missiles.[103]

As early as 29 April 2022 submarines of the Black Sea Fleet were used by Russia to bombard Ukrainian cities with Kalibr SLCMs.[104][105] The Kalibr missile was so successful that on 10 March 2023 Defense Minister Sergey Shoigu announced plans to broaden the type of ship which carried it, to include the corvette Steregushchiy and the nuclear-powered cruiser Admiral Nakhimov.[106]

On the morning of 14 March 2023, a Russian Su-27 fighter jet intercepted and damaged an American MQ-9 Reaper drone, causing the latter to crash into the Black Sea. At 13:20 on 5 May 2023 a Russian Su-35 fighter jet intercepted and threatened the safety of a Polish L-140 Turbolet on a "routine Frontex patrol mission.. and performed 'aggressive and dangerous' manoeuvres".[107] The incident, which occurred "in international airspace over the Black Sea about 60km" east of Romanian airspace,[108] "caused the crew of five Polish border guards to lose control of the plane and lose altitude."[109]

Economy and politics edit

 
Yalta, Crimea
 
Amasra, Turkey, is located on a small island in the Black Sea.

The Black Sea plays an integral part in the connection between Asia and Europe.[110] In addition to sea ports and fishing, key activities include hydrocarbons exploration for oil and natural gas, and tourism.

According to NATO, the Black Sea is a strategic corridor that provides smuggling channels for moving legal and illegal goods including drugs, radioactive materials, and counterfeit goods that can be used to finance terrorism.[111]

Navigation edit

According to an International Transport Workers' Federation 2013 study, there were at least 30 operating merchant seaports in the Black Sea (including at least 12 in Ukraine).[112] There were also around 2,400 commercial vessels operating in the Black Sea.[112]

Fishing edit

See also: Fishing in Turkey

The Turkish commercial fishing fleet catches around 300,000 tons of anchovies per year. The fishery is carried out mainly in winter, and the highest portion of the stock is caught between November and December.[113]

Hydrocarbon exploration edit

See also: Blue Stream, South Stream, and TurkStream

In the 1980s, the Soviet Union started offshore drilling for petroleum in the sea's western portion (adjoining Ukraine's coast). Independent Ukraine continued and intensified that effort within its exclusive economic zone, inviting major international oil companies for exploration. Discovery of the new, massive oilfields in the area stimulated an influx of foreign investments. It also provoked a short-term peaceful territorial dispute with Romania which was resolved in 2011 by an international court redefining the exclusive economic zones between the two countries.

The Black Sea contains oil and natural gas resources but exploration in the sea is incomplete. As of 2017, 20 wells are in place. Throughout much of its existence, the Black Sea has had significant oil and gas-forming potential because of significant inflows of sediment and nutrient-rich waters. However, this varies geographically. For example, prospects are poorer off the coast of Bulgaria because of the large influx of sediment from the Danube which obscured sunlight and diluted organic-rich sediments. Many of the discoveries to date have taken place offshore of Romania in the Western Black Sea and only a few discoveries have been made in the Eastern Black Sea.

During the Eocene, the Paratethys Sea was partially isolated and sea levels fell. During this time sand shed off the rising Balkanide, Pontide and Caucasus mountains trapped organic material in the Maykop Suite of rocks through the Oligocene and early Miocene. Natural gas appears in rocks deposited in the Miocene and Pliocene by the paleo-Dnieper and paleo-Dniester rivers, or in deep-water Oligocene-age rocks. Serious exploration began in 1999 with two deep-water wells, Limanköy-1 and Limanköy-2, drilled in Turkish waters. Next, the HPX (Hopa)-1 deepwater well targeted late Miocene sandstone units in Achara-Trialet fold belt (also known as the Gurian fold belt) along the Georgia-Turkey maritime border. Although geologists inferred that these rocks might have hydrocarbons that migrated from the Maykop Suite, the well was unsuccessful. No more drilling happened for five years after the HPX-1 well. In 2010, Sinop-1 targeted carbonate reservoirs potentially charged from the nearby Maykop Suite on the Andrusov Ridge, but the well-struck only Cretaceous volcanic rocks. Yassihöyük-1 encountered similar problems.

Other Turkish wells, Sürmene-1 and Sile-1 drilled in the Eastern Black Sea in 2011 and 2015 respectively tested four-way closures above Cretaceous volcanoes, with no results in either case. A different Turkish well, Kastamonu-1 drilled in 2011 did successfully find thermogenic gas in Pliocene and Miocene shale-cored anticlines in the Western Black Sea. A year later in 2012, Romania drilled Domino-1 which struck gas prompting the drilling of other wells in the Neptun Deep. In 2016, the Bulgarian well Polshkov-1 targeted Maykop Suite sandstones in the Polshkov High and Russia is in the process of drilling Jurassic carbonates on the Shatsky Ridge as of 2018.[114]

In August 2020, Turkey found 320 billion cubic metres (11 trillion cubic feet) of natural gas in the biggest ever discovery in the Black Sea, and hoped to begin production in the Sakarya Gas Field by 2023. The sector is near where Romania has also found gas reserves.[115]

Trans-sea cooperation edit

Main articles: Black Sea Euroregion, Superior Prut and Lower Danube, Black Sea Games, and Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation

Urban areas edit

Most populous urban areas along the Black Sea
City Image Country Region/county Population (urban)
Odesa     Ukraine Odesa 1,003,705
Samsun     Turkey Samsun 639,930[116]
Varna     Bulgaria Varna 500,076
Constanța     Romania Constanța 491,498[117]
Sevastopol   disputed:
  Russia (de facto) /
  Ukraine (de jure)		 Federal city /
City with special status		 379,200
Sochi     Russia Krasnodar Krai 343,334
Trabzon     Turkey Trabzon 293,661[116]
Novorossiysk     Russia Krasnodar Krai 241,952
Burgas     Bulgaria Burgas 223,902
Batumi     Georgia Adjara 204,156[118]
Ordu     Turkey Ordu 190,425[116]

Tourism edit

See also: Romanian Black Sea resorts; Caucasian Riviera; Bulgarian Black Sea Coast; and Black Sea Region, Turkey
 
Black Sea beach in Zatoka, Ukraine

In the years following the end of the Cold War, the popularity of the Black Sea as a tourist destination steadily increased. Tourism at Black Sea resorts became one of the region's growth industries.[119]

The following is a list of notable Black Sea resort towns:

Modern military use edit

 
Soviet frigate Bezzavetny (right) bumping the USS Yorktown during the 1988 Black Sea bumping incident
 
Ukrainian Navy artillery boat U170 in the Bay of Sevastopol

The 1936 Montreux Convention provides for free passage of civilian ships between the international waters of the Black and the Mediterranean seas. However, a single country (Turkey) has complete control over the straits connecting the two seas. Military ships are categorised separately from civilian vessels and can pass through the straits only if the ship belongs to a Black Sea country. Other military ships have the right to pass through the straits if they are not in a war against Turkey and if they stay in the Black Sea basin for a limited time. The 1982 amendments to the Montreux Convention allow Turkey to close the straits at its discretion in both war and peacetime.[121]

The Montreux Convention governs the passage of vessels between the Black, the Mediterranean and Aegean seas and the presence of military vessels belonging to non-littoral states in the Black Sea waters.[122]

The Russian Black Sea Fleet has its official primary headquarters and facilities in the city of Sevastopol (Sevastopol Naval Base).[123]

The Soviet hospital ship Armenia was sunk on 7 November 1941 by German aircraft while evacuating civilians and wounded soldiers from Crimea. It has been estimated that approximately 5,000 to 7,000 people were killed during the sinking, making it one of the deadliest maritime disasters in history. There were only eight survivors.[124]

In December 2018, the Kerch Strait incident occurred, in which the Russian navy and coast guard took control of three Ukrainian vessels as the ships were trying to transit from the Black Sea into the Sea of Azov.[125]

In April 2022, during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the Russian cruiser Moskva was sunk in the western Black Sea by sea-skimming Neptune missiles of the Ukrainian armed forces[126] while the Russians claimed that an onboard fire had caused munitions to explode and damage the ship extensively.[127] She was the largest ship to be lost in naval combat in Europe since World War II.[128]

In late 2023, Russia announced plans to build a naval base on the Black Sea coast of Abkhazia, a Russian-backed breakaway territory of Georgia.[129][130][131]

See also edit

Notes and references edit

Informational notes edit

  1. ^ a b c Abkhazia is a partially-recognized nation, de facto independent since 1993, though still claimed by Georgia as one of its provinces.

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General and cited references edit

  • Ghervas, Stella (2017). "The Black Sea". In Armitage, D.; Bashford, S. (eds.). Oceanic Histories. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 234–266. doi:10.1017/9781108399722.010. ISBN 978-1-1083-9972-2.
  • Stella Ghervas, "Odessa et les confins de l'Europe: un éclairage historique", in Stella Ghervas et François Rosset (ed), Lieux d'Europe. Mythes et limites (Paris: Editions de la Maison des sciences de l'homme, 2008), pp. 107–124. ISBN 978-2-7351-1182-4
  • Charles King, The Black Sea: A History, 2004, ISBN 0-19-924161-9
  • William Ryan and Walter Pitman, Noah's Flood, 1999, ISBN 0-684-85920-3
  • Neal Ascherson, Black Sea (Vintage 1996), ISBN 0-09-959371-8
  • Schmitt, Rüdiger (1989). "BLACK SEA". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica, Volume IV/3: Bibliographies II–Bolbol I. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 310–313. ISBN 978-0-71009-126-0.
  • Rüdiger Schmitt, "Considerations on the Name of the Black Sea", in: Hellas und der griechische Osten (Saarbrücken 1996), pp. 219–224
  • West, Stephanie (2003). 'The Most Marvellous of All Seas': the Greek Encounter with the Euxine. Vol. 50. Greece & Rome. pp. 151–167.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Petko Dimitrov; Dimitar Dimitrov (2004). The Black Sea, the Flood and the Ancient Myths. Varna. p. 91. ISBN 978-954-579-335-6.
  • Dimitrov, D. 2010. Geology and Non-traditional resources of the Black Sea February 9, 2022, at the Wayback Machine. LAP Lambert Academic Publishing. ISBN 978-3-8383-8639-3. 244p.

External links edit

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Black Sea.
 
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Black Sea.

April 07, 2024
black, this, article, about, large, body, water, other, uses, disambiguation, euxine, redirects, here, town, ancient, caria, euxine, caria, marginal, mediterranean, lying, between, europe, asia, east, balkans, south, east, european, plain, west, caucasus, nort. This article is about the large body of water For other uses see Black Sea disambiguation Euxine redirects here For the town of ancient Caria see Euxine Caria The Black Sea is a marginal mediterranean sea lying between Europe and Asia east of the Balkans south of the East European Plain west of the Caucasus and north of Anatolia It is bounded by Bulgaria Georgia Romania Russia Turkey and Ukraine The Black Sea is supplied by major rivers principally the Danube Dnieper and Dniester Consequently while six countries have a coastline on the sea its drainage basin includes parts of 24 countries in Europe 2 Black SeaKaradeniz Turkish Chyornoe more Russian შავი ზღვა Georgian Ey3einos Pontos Greek Cherno more Bulgarian Marea Neagră Romanian Chorne more Ukrainian The location of the Black SeaMap of the Black Sea with bathymetry and surrounding reliefLocationEastern Europe and West AsiaCoordinates44 N 35 E 44 N 35 E 44 35TypeSeaPrimary inflowsDanube Dnieper Don Dniester Kuban Black Sea undersea riverPrimary outflowsBosporusBasin countries Bulgaria Georgia Romania Russia Turkey UkraineA large number of countries included in drainage basins for inflow riversMax length1 175 km 730 mi Surface area436 402 km2 168 500 sq mi 1 Average depth1 253 m 4 111 ft Max depth2 212 m 7 257 ft Water volume547 000 km3 131 200 cu mi Islands10 The estuary of the Veleka in the Black Sea Longshore drift has deposited sediment along the shoreline which has led to the formation of a spit Sinemorets Bulgaria Black Sea coast of western Georgia with the skyline of Batumi on the horizonSwallow s Nest in CrimeaCoastline of Samsun in TurkeyA sanatorium in Sochi RussiaThe Black Sea covers 436 400 km2 168 500 sq mi not including the Sea of Azov 3 has a maximum depth of 2 212 m 7 257 ft 4 and a volume of 547 000 km3 131 000 cu mi 5 Most of its coasts ascend rapidly These rises are the Pontic Mountains to the south bar the southwest facing peninsulas the Caucasus Mountains to the east and the Crimean Mountains to the mid north In the west the coast is generally small floodplains below foothills such as the Strandzha Cape Emine a dwindling of the east end of the Balkan Mountains and the Dobruja Plateau considerably farther north The longest east west extent is about 1 175 km 730 mi 6 Important cities along the coast include clockwise from the Bosporus Burgas Varna Constanța Odesa Sevastopol Novorossiysk Sochi Batumi Trabzon and Samsun The Black Sea has a positive water balance with an annual net outflow of 300 km3 72 cu mi per year through the Bosporus and the Dardanelles into the Aegean Sea 7 While the net flow of water through the Bosporus and Dardanelles known collectively as the Turkish Straits is out of the Black Sea water generally flows in both directions simultaneously Denser more saline water from the Aegean flows into the Black Sea underneath the less dense fresher water that flows out of the Black Sea This creates a significant and permanent layer of deep water that does not drain or mix and is therefore anoxic This anoxic layer is responsible for the preservation of ancient shipwrecks which have been found in the Black Sea which ultimately drains into the Mediterranean Sea via the Turkish Straits and the Aegean Sea The Bosporus strait connects it to the small Sea of Marmara which in turn is connected to the Aegean Sea via the strait of the Dardanelles To the north the Black Sea is connected to the Sea of Azov by the Kerch Strait citation needed The water level has varied significantly over geological time Due to these variations in the water level in the basin the surrounding shelf and associated aprons have sometimes been dry land At certain critical water levels connections with surrounding water bodies can become established It is through the most active of these connective routes the Turkish Straits that the Black Sea joins the World Ocean During geological periods when this hydrological link was not present the Black Sea was an endorheic basin operating independently of the global ocean system similar to the Caspian Sea today Currently the Black Sea water level is relatively high thus water is being exchanged with the Mediterranean The Black Sea undersea river is a current of particularly saline water flowing through the Bosporus Strait and along the seabed of the Black Sea the first of its kind discovered citation needed Contents 1 Name 1 1 Modern names 1 2 Historical names and etymology 2 Geography 2 1 Coastline and exclusive economic zones 2 2 Drainage basin 2 3 Islands 2 4 Climate 3 Geology and bathymetry 3 1 Chronostratigraphy 4 Hydrology 5 Hydrochemistry 6 Ecology 6 1 Marine 6 1 1 Phytoplankton 6 1 2 Animal species 6 1 3 Ecological effects of pollution 7 History 7 1 Mediterranean connection during the Holocene 7 1 1 Deluge hypothesis 7 2 Archaeology 7 3 Recorded history 7 4 Modern history 7 4 1 World Wars 7 4 2 21st century 8 Economy and politics 8 1 Navigation 8 2 Fishing 8 3 Hydrocarbon exploration 8 4 Trans sea cooperation 8 5 Urban areas 8 6 Tourism 8 7 Modern military use 9 See also 10 Notes and references 10 1 Informational notes 10 2 Citations 10 3 General and cited references 11 External linksName edit nbsp Coast of the Black Sea at Ordu nbsp Kapchik Cape in Crimea nbsp The Black Sea near Constanța Romania nbsp Coast of the Black Sea at BurgasModern names edit Current names of the sea are usually equivalents of the English name Black Sea including these given in the countries bordering the sea 8 Adyghe Hy Shӏucӏe romanized Xe Sʷʼucʼɛ IPA xɘ ʃʷʼtsʼɜ Armenian Սեւ ծով romanized Sev cov IPA sɛv t sɔv Azerbaijani Qara deniz IPA kaˈɾa deniz Bulgarian Cherno more romanized Cerno more IPA ˈt ʃɛrno moˈrɛ Crimean Tatar Kara deniz romanized Qara deniz IPA qɑrɑ deŋiz Georgian შავი ზღვა romanized shavi zghva IPA ʃavi zʁʷa Laz and Mingrelian უჩა ზუღა romanized Ucha Zugha IPA ˈutʃa ˈzuɣa or simply ზუღა IPA ˈzuɣa Sea Romanian Marea Neagră pronounced ˈmare a ˈne aɡre Russian Chyornoe mo re romanized Cornoje more IPA ˈt ɕɵrneje ˈmorʲe Turkish Karadeniz IPA kaˈɾadeniz Ukrainian Cho rne mo re romanized Corne more IPA ˈt ʃɔrne ˈmɔre Such names have not yet been shown conclusively to predate the 13th century 9 In Greece the historical name Euxine Sea which holds a different literal meaning see below is still widely used Greek Ey3einos Pontos romanized Efxinos Pondos lit Hospitable Sea ˈefksinos ˈpondos the name Mayrh 8alassa Mavri Thalassa Black Sea ˈmavɾi ˈ8alasa is used but is much less common citation needed Historical names and etymology edit The earliest known name of the Black Sea is the Sea of Zalpa so called by both the Hattians 10 and their conquerors the Hittites The Hattic city of Zalpa was situated probably at or near the estuary of the Marrassantiya River the modern Kizil Irmak on the Black Sea coast 11 The principal Greek name Pontos Axeinos is generally accepted to be a rendering of the Iranian word axsaina dark colored 9 Ancient Greek voyagers adopted the name as A xe i nos identified with the Greek word axeinos inhospitable 9 The name Pontos Ἄ3einos Pontos Axeinos Inhospitable Sea first attested in Pindar c 475 BC was considered an ill omen and was euphemized to its opposite Eὔ3einos Pontos Euxeinos Pontos Hospitable Sea also first attested in Pindar This became the commonly used designation in Greek although in mythological contexts the true name Pontos Axeinos remained favoured 9 Strabo s Geographica 1 2 10 reports that in antiquity the Black Sea was often simply called the Sea ὁ pontos ho Pontos 12 He thought that the sea was called the Inhospitable Sea Pontos Ἄ3einos Pontos Axeinos by the inhabitants of the Pontus region of the southern shoreline before Greek colonisation due to its difficult navigation and hostile barbarian natives 7 3 6 and that the name was changed to hospitable after the Milesians colonised the region bringing it into the Greek world 13 Popular supposition derives Black Sea from the dark color of the water or climatic conditions Some scholars understand the name to be derived from a system of colour symbolism representing the cardinal directions with black or dark for north red for south white for west and green or light blue for east 9 Hence Black Sea meant Northern Sea According to this scheme the name could only have originated with a people living between the northern black and southern red seas this points to the Achaemenids 550 330 BC 9 In the Greater Bundahishn a Middle Persian Zoroastrian scripture the Black Sea is called Siyabun 14 In the tenth century Persian geography book Hudud al Alam the Black Sea is called Georgian Sea darya yi Gurz 15 The Georgian Chronicles use the name zgua sperisa ზღუა სპერისა Sea of Speri after the Kartvelian tribe of Speris or Saspers 16 Other modern names such as Chyornoye more and Karadeniz both meaning Black Sea originated during the 13th century 9 A 1570 map Asiae Nova Descriptio from Abraham Ortelius s Theatrum Orbis Terrarum labels the sea Mar Maggior Great Sea compare Latin Mare major 17 English writers of the 18th century often used Euxine Sea ˈ j uː k s ɪ n or ˈ j uː k ˌ s aɪ n 18 During the Ottoman Empire it was called either Bahr e Siyah Perso Arabic or Karadeniz Ottoman Turkish both meaning Black Sea citation needed Geography editThe International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Black Sea as follows 19 On the Southwest The Northeastern limit of the Sea of Marmara A line joining Cape Rumili with Cape Anatoli 41 13 N In the Kertch Strait A line joining Cape Takil and Cape Panaghia 45 02 N The area surrounding the Black Sea is commonly referred to as the Black Sea Region Its northern part lies within the Chernozem belt black soil belt which goes from eastern Croatia Slavonia along the Danube northern Serbia northern Bulgaria Danubian Plain and southern Romania Wallachian Plain to northeast Ukraine and further across the Central Black Earth Region and southern Russia into Siberia 20 The littoral zone of the Black Sea is often referred to as the Pontic littoral or Pontic zone 21 The largest bays of the Black Sea are Karkinit Bay in Ukraine the Gulf of Burgas in Bulgaria Dnieprovski Bay and Dniestrovski Bay both in Ukraine and Sinop Bay and Samsun Bay both in Turkey 1 Coastline and exclusive economic zones edit Coastline length and area of exclusive economic zones Country Coastline length km 1 Exclusive economic zones area km2 22 nbsp Turkey 1 329 172 484 nbsp Ukraine 2 782 132 414 nbsp Russia 800 67 351 nbsp Bulgaria 354 35 132 nbsp Georgia 310 22 947 nbsp Romania 225 29 756Total 5 800 460 084Drainage basin edit Main article Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation The largest rivers flowing into the Black Sea are 1 Danube Dnieper Don Dniester Kizilirmak Kuban Sakarya Southern Bug Coruh Chorokhi Yesilirmak Rioni Yeya Mius Kamchiya Enguri Kalmius Molochna Tylihul Velykyi Kuialnyk Veleka Rezovo Kodori Bzyb Bzipi Supsa Mzymta These rivers and their tributaries comprise a 2 million km2 0 77 million sq mi Black Sea drainage basin that covers wholly or partially 24 countries 23 24 25 26 27 nbsp Albania nbsp Austria nbsp Belarus nbsp Bosnia and Herzegovina nbsp Bulgaria nbsp Croatia nbsp Czech Republic nbsp Georgia nbsp Germany nbsp Greece nbsp Hungary nbsp Italy nbsp Montenegro nbsp Moldova nbsp North Macedonia nbsp Poland nbsp Romania nbsp Russia nbsp Serbia nbsp Slovakia nbsp Slovenia nbsp Switzerland nbsp Turkey nbsp Ukraine Islands edit Main article List of islands in the Black SeaSome islands in the Black Sea belong to Bulgaria Romania Turkey and Ukraine St Thomas Island Bulgaria St Anastasia Island Bulgaria St Cyricus Island Bulgaria St Ivan Island Bulgaria St Peter Island Bulgaria Sacalinu Mare Island Romania Sacalinu Mic Island Romania K Island Romania and Ukraine Utrish Island Krupinin Island Sudiuk Island Kefken Island Oreke Island Giresun Island Turkey Dzharylhach Island Ukraine Zmiinyi Snake Island Ukraine Climate edit nbsp Ice on the Gulf of OdesaShort term climatic variation in the Black Sea region is significantly influenced by the operation of the North Atlantic oscillation the climatic mechanisms resulting from the interaction between the north Atlantic and mid latitude air masses 28 While the exact mechanisms causing the North Atlantic Oscillation remain unclear 29 it is thought the climate conditions established in western Europe mediate the heat and precipitation fluxes reaching Central Europe and Eurasia regulating the formation of winter cyclones which are largely responsible for regional precipitation inputs 30 and influence Mediterranean sea surface temperatures SSTs 31 The relative strength of these systems also limits the amount of cold air arriving from northern regions during winter 32 Other influencing factors include the regional topography as depressions and storm systems arriving from the Mediterranean are funneled through the low land around the Bosporus with the Pontic and Caucasus mountain ranges acting as waveguides limiting the speed and paths of cyclones passing through the region 33 Geology and bathymetry edit nbsp The bay of Sudak CrimeaThe Black Sea is divided into two depositional basins the Western Black Sea and Eastern Black Sea separated by the Mid Black Sea High which includes the Andrusov Ridge Tetyaev High and Archangelsky High extending south from the Crimean Peninsula The basin includes two distinct relict back arc basins which were initiated by the splitting of an Albian volcanic arc and the subduction of both the Paleo and Neo Tethys oceans but the timings of these events remain uncertain Arc volcanism and extension occurred as the Neo Tethys Ocean subducted under the southern margin of Laurasia during the Mesozoic Uplift and compressional deformation took place as the Neotethys continued to close Seismic surveys indicate that rifting began in the Western Black Sea in the Barremian and Aptian followed by the formation of oceanic crust 20 million years later in the Santonian 34 35 36 Since its initiation compressional tectonic environments led to subsidence in the basin interspersed with extensional phases resulting in large scale volcanism and numerous orogenies causing the uplift of the Greater Caucasus Pontides southern Crimean Peninsula and Balkanides mountain ranges 37 nbsp The Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge in Istanbul Turkey crosses the Bosporus strait near its entrance to the Black Sea Connecting Europe and Asia it is one of the tallest suspension bridges in the world During the Messinian salinity crisis in the neighboring Mediterranean Sea water levels fell but without drying up the sea 38 The collision between the Eurasian and African plates and the westward escape of the Anatolian block along the North Anatolian and East Anatolian faults dictates the current tectonic regime 37 which features enhanced subsidence in the Black Sea basin and significant volcanic activity in the Anatolian region 39 These geological mechanisms in the long term have caused the periodic isolations of the Black Sea from the rest of the global ocean system The large shelf to the north of the basin is up to 190 km 120 mi wide and features a shallow apron with gradients between 1 40 and 1 1000 The southern edge around Turkey and the eastern edge around Georgia however are typified by a narrow shelf that rarely exceeds 20 km 12 mi in width and a steep apron that is typically 1 40 gradient with numerous submarine canyons and channel extensions The Euxine abyssal plain in the centre of the Black Sea reaches a maximum depth of 2 212 metres 7 257 22 feet just south of Yalta on the Crimean Peninsula 40 Chronostratigraphy edit The Paleo Euxinian is described by the accumulation of eolian silt deposits related to the Riss glaciation and the lowering of sea levels MIS 6 8 and 10 The Karangat marine transgression occurred during the Eemian Interglacial MIS 5e This may have been the highest sea levels reached in the late Pleistocene Based on this some scholars have suggested that the Crimean Peninsula was isolated from the mainland by a shallow strait during the Eemian Interglacial 41 The Neoeuxinian transgression began with an inflow of waters from the Caspian Sea Neoeuxinian deposits are found in the Black Sea below 20 m 66 ft water depth in three layers The upper layers correspond with the peak of the Khvalinian transgression on the shelf shallow water sands and coquina mixed with silty sands and brackish water fauna and inside the Black Sea Depression hydrotroilite silts The middle layers on the shelf are sands with brackish water mollusc shells Of continental origin the lower level on the shelf is mostly alluvial sands with pebbles mixed with less common lacustrine silts and freshwater mollusc shells Inside the Black Sea Depression they are terrigenous non carbonate silts and at the foot of the continental slope turbidite sediments 42 Hydrology edit nbsp This SeaWiFS view reveals the colorful interplay of currents on the sea s surface The Black Sea is the world s largest body of water with a meromictic basin 43 The deep waters do not mix with the upper layers of water that receive oxygen from the atmosphere As a result over 90 of the deeper Black Sea volume is anoxic water 44 The Black Sea s circulation patterns are primarily controlled by basin topography and fluvial inputs which result in a strongly stratified vertical structure Because of the extreme stratification it is classified as a salt wedge estuary The Black Sea experiences water transfer only with the Mediterranean Sea clarification needed so all inflow and outflow occurs through the Bosporus and Dardanelles Inflow from the Mediterranean has a higher salinity and density than the outflow creating the classic estuarine circulation This means that the inflow of dense water from the Mediterranean occurs at the bottom of the basin while the outflow of fresher Black Sea surface water into the Sea of Marmara occurs near the surface According to Gregg 2002 the outflow is 16 000 cubic metres per second 570 000 cubic feet per second or around 500 cubic kilometres per year 120 cubic miles per year and the inflow is 11 000 m3 s 390 000 cu ft s or around 350 km3 a 84 cu mi a 45 The following water budget can be estimated when Water in 900 km3 a 220 cu mi a Total river discharge 370 km3 a 90 cu mi a 46 Precipitation 180 km3 a 40 cu mi a 47 Inflow via Bosporus 350 km3 a 80 cu mi a 45 Water out 900 km3 a 220 cu mi a Evaporation 400 km3 a 100 cu mi a reduced greatly since the 1970s 47 Outflow via Bosporus 500 km3 a 120 cu mi a 45 The southern sill of the Bosporus is located at 36 5 m 120 ft below present sea level deepest spot of the shallowest cross section in the Bosporus located in front of Dolmabahce Palace and has a wet section of around 38 000 m2 410 000 sq ft 45 Inflow and outflow current speeds are averaged around 0 3 to 0 4 m s 1 0 to 1 3 ft s but much higher speeds are found locally inducing significant turbulence and vertical shear This allows for turbulent mixing of the two layers 48 Surface water leaves the Black Sea with a salinity of 17 practical salinity units PSU and reaches the Mediterranean with a salinity of 34 PSU Likewise an inflow of the Mediterranean with salinity 38 5 PSU experiences a decrease to about 34 PSU 48 Mean surface circulation is cyclonic waters around the perimeter of the Black Sea circulate in a basin wide shelfbreak gyre known as the Rim Current The Rim Current has a maximum velocity of about 50 100 cm s 20 39 in s Within this feature two smaller cyclonic gyres operate occupying the eastern and western sectors of the basin 48 The Eastern and Western Gyres are well organized systems in the winter but dissipate into a series of interconnected eddies in the summer and autumn Mesoscale activity in the peripheral flow becomes more pronounced during these warmer seasons and is subject to interannual variability Outside of the Rim Current numerous quasi permanent coastal eddies are formed as a result of upwelling around the coastal apron and wind curl mechanisms The intra annual strength of these features is controlled by seasonal atmospheric and fluvial variations During the spring the Batumi eddy forms in the southeastern corner of the sea 49 Beneath the surface waters from about 50 to 100 metres 160 to 330 ft there exists a halocline that stops at the Cold Intermediate Layer CIL This layer is composed of cool salty surface waters which are the result of localized atmospheric cooling and decreased fluvial input during the winter months It is the remnant of the winter surface mixed layer 48 The base of the CIL is marked by a major pycnocline at about 100 200 metres 330 660 ft and this density disparity is the major mechanism for isolation of the deep water nbsp Black Sea coast in Ordu TurkeyBelow the pycnocline is the Deep Water mass where salinity increases to 22 3 PSU and temperatures rise to around 8 9 C 48 0 F 48 The hydrochemical environment shifts from oxygenated to anoxic as bacterial decomposition of sunken biomass utilizes all of the free oxygen Weak geothermal heating and long residence time create a very thick convective bottom layer 49 The Black Sea undersea river is a current of particularly saline water flowing through the Bosporus Strait and along the seabed of the Black Sea The discovery of the river announced on August 1 2010 was made by scientists at the University of Leeds and is the first of its kind to be identified 50 The undersea river stems from salty water spilling through the Bosporus Strait from the Mediterranean Sea into the Black Sea where the water has a lower salt content 50 Hydrochemistry editBecause of the anoxic water at depth organic matter including anthropogenic artifacts such as boat hulls are well preserved During periods of high surface productivity short lived algal blooms form organic rich layers known as sapropels Scientists have reported an annual phytoplankton bloom that can be seen in many NASA images of the region 51 As a result of these characteristics the Black Sea has gained interest from the field of marine archaeology as ancient shipwrecks in excellent states of preservation have been discovered such as the Byzantine wreck Sinop D located in the anoxic layer off the coast of Sinop Turkey Modelling shows that in the event of an asteroid impact on the Black Sea the release of hydrogen sulfide clouds would pose a threat to health and perhaps even life for people living on the Black Sea coast 52 There have been isolated reports of flares on the Black Sea occurring during thunderstorms possibly caused by lightning igniting combustible gas seeping up from the sea depths 53 Ecology editMarine edit See also List of fish of the Black Sea nbsp The port of Poti GeorgiaThe Black Sea supports an active and dynamic marine ecosystem dominated by species suited to the brackish nutrient rich conditions As with all marine food webs the Black Sea features a range of trophic groups with autotrophic algae including diatoms and dinoflagellates acting as primary producers The fluvial systems draining Eurasia and central Europe introduce large volumes of sediment and dissolved nutrients into the Black Sea but the distribution of these nutrients is controlled by the degree of physiochemical stratification which is in turn dictated by seasonal physiographic development 54 During winter strong wind promotes convective overturning and upwelling of nutrients while high summer temperatures result in a marked vertical stratification and a warm shallow mixed layer 55 Day length and insolation intensity also control the extent of the photic zone Subsurface productivity is limited by nutrient availability as the anoxic bottom waters act as a sink for reduced nitrate in the form of ammonia The benthic zone also plays an important role in Black Sea nutrient cycling as chemosynthetic organisms and anoxic geochemical pathways recycle nutrients which can be upwelled to the photic zone enhancing productivity 56 In total the Black Sea s biodiversity contains around one third of the Mediterranean s and is experiencing natural and artificial invasions or Mediterranizations 57 58 Phytoplankton edit nbsp Phytoplankton blooms and plumes of sediment form the bright blue swirls that ring the Black Sea in this 2004 image The main phytoplankton groups present in the Black Sea are dinoflagellates diatoms coccolithophores and cyanobacteria Generally the annual cycle of phytoplankton development comprises significant diatom and dinoflagellate dominated spring production followed by a weaker mixed assemblage of community development below the seasonal thermocline during summer months and surface intensified autumn production 55 59 This pattern of productivity is augmented by an Emiliania huxleyi bloom during the late spring and summer months DinoflagellatesAnnual dinoflagellate distribution is defined by an extended bloom period in subsurface waters during the late spring and summer In November subsurface plankton production is combined with surface production due to vertical mixing of water masses and nutrients such as nitrite 54 The major bloom forming dinoflagellate species in the Black Sea is Gymnodinium sp 60 Estimates of dinoflagellate diversity in the Black Sea range from 193 61 to 267 species 62 This level of species richness is relatively low in comparison to the Mediterranean Sea which is attributable to the brackish conditions low water transparency and presence of anoxic bottom waters It is also possible that the low winter temperatures below 4 C 39 F of the Black Sea prevent thermophilous species from becoming established The relatively high organic matter content of Black Sea surface water favor the development of heterotrophic an organism that uses organic carbon for growth and mixotrophic dinoflagellates species able to exploit different trophic pathways relative to autotrophs Despite its unique hydrographic setting there are no confirmed endemic dinoflagellate species in the Black Sea 62 DiatomsThe Black Sea is populated by many species of the marine diatom which commonly exist as colonies of unicellular non motile auto and heterotrophic algae The life cycle of most diatoms can be described as boom and bust and the Black Sea is no exception with diatom blooms occurring in surface waters throughout the year most reliably during March 54 In simple terms the phase of rapid population growth in diatoms is caused by the in wash of silicon bearing terrestrial sediments and when the supply of silicon is exhausted the diatoms begin to sink out of the photic zone and produce resting cysts Additional factors such as predation by zooplankton and ammonium based regenerated production also have a role to play in the annual diatom cycle 54 55 Typically Proboscia alata blooms during spring and Pseudosolenia calcar avis blooms during the autumn 60 CoccolithophoresCoccolithophores are a type of motile autotrophic phytoplankton that produce CaCO3 plates known as coccoliths as part of their life cycle In the Black Sea the main period of coccolithophore growth occurs after the bulk of the dinoflagellate growth has taken place In May the dinoflagellates move below the seasonal thermocline into deeper waters where more nutrients are available This permits coccolithophores to utilize the nutrients in the upper waters and by the end of May with favorable light and temperature conditions growth rates reach their highest The major bloom forming species is Emiliania huxleyi which is also responsible for the release of dimethyl sulfide into the atmosphere Overall coccolithophore diversity is low in the Black Sea and although recent sediments are dominated by E huxleyi and Braarudosphaera bigelowii Holocene sediments have been shown to also contain Helicopondosphaera and Discolithina species CyanobacteriaCyanobacteria are a phylum of picoplanktonic plankton ranging in size from 0 2 to 2 0 µm bacteria that obtain their energy via photosynthesis and are present throughout the world s oceans They exhibit a range of morphologies including filamentous colonies and biofilms In the Black Sea several species are present and as an example Synechococcus spp can be found throughout the photic zone although concentration decreases with increasing depth Other factors which exert an influence on distribution include nutrient availability predation and salinity 63 Animal species edit Zebra musselThe Black Sea along with the Caspian Sea is part of the zebra mussel s native range The mussel has been accidentally introduced around the world and become an invasive species where it has been introduced Common carpThe common carp s native range extends to the Black Sea along with the Caspian Sea and Aral Sea Like the zebra mussel the common carp is an invasive species when introduced to other habitats Round gobyAnother native fish that is also found in the Caspian Sea It preys upon zebra mussels Like the mussels and common carp it has become invasive when introduced to other environments like the Great Lakes in North America nbsp Common dolphins porpoising with a ferry at Batumi portMarine mammals and marine megafaunaMarine mammals present within the basin include two species of dolphin common 64 and bottlenose 65 and the harbour porpoise 66 although all of these are endangered due to pressures and impacts by human activities All three species have been classified as distinct subspecies from those in the Mediterranean and the Atlantic and are endemic to the Black and Azov seas and are more active during nights in the Turkish Straits 67 However construction of the Crimean Bridge has caused increases in nutrients and planktons in the waters attracting large numbers of fish and more than 1 000 bottlenose dolphins 68 However others claim that construction may cause devastating damages on the ecosystem including dolphins 69 Mediterranean monk seals now critically endangered were historically abundant in the Black Sea and are regarded to have become extinct from the basin in 1997 70 Monk seals were present at Snake Island near the Danube Delta until the 1950s and several locations such as the Danube Plavni Nature Reserve ru and Dogankent were the last of the seals hauling out sites post 1990 71 Very few animals still thrive in the Sea of Marmara 72 Ongoing Mediterranizations may or may not boost cetacean diversity in the Turkish Straits 67 and hence in the Black and Azov basins Various species of pinnipeds sea otter and beluga whale 73 74 were introduced into the Black Sea by mankind and later escaped either by accidental or purported causes Of these grey seals 75 and beluga whales 73 have been recorded with successful long term occurrences Great white sharks are known to reach into the Sea of Marmara and Bosporus Strait and basking sharks into the Dardanelles although it is unclear whether or not these sharks may reach into the Black and Azov basins 76 77 Ecological effects of pollution edit Since the 1960s rapid industrial expansion along the Black Sea coastline and the construction of a major dam has significantly increased annual variability in the N P Si ratio in the basin In coastal areas the biological effect of these changes has been an increase in the frequency of monospecific phytoplankton blooms with diatom bloom frequency increasing by a factor of 2 5 and non diatom bloom frequency increasing by a factor of 6 The non diatoms such as the prymnesiophytes Emiliania huxleyi coccolithophore Chromulina sp and the Euglenophyte Eutreptia lanowii are able to out compete diatom species because of the limited availability of silicon a necessary constituent of diatom frustules 78 As a consequence of these blooms benthic macrophyte populations were deprived of light while anoxia caused mass mortality in marine animals 79 80 The decline in macrophytes was further compounded by overfishing during the 1970s while the invasive ctenophore Mnemiopsis reduced the biomass of copepods and other zooplankton in the late 1980s Additionally an alien species the warty comb jelly Mnemiopsis leidyi was able to establish itself in the basin exploding from a few individuals to an estimated biomass of one billion metric tons 81 The change in species composition in Black Sea waters also has consequences for hydrochemistry as calcium producing coccolithophores influence salinity and pH although these ramifications have yet to be fully quantified In central Black Sea waters silicon levels were also significantly reduced due to a decrease in the flux of silicon associated with advection across isopycnal surfaces This phenomenon demonstrates the potential for localized alterations in Black Sea nutrient input to have basin wide effects Pollution reduction and regulation efforts have led to a partial recovery of the Black Sea ecosystem during the 1990s and an EU monitoring exercise EROS21 revealed decreased nitrogen and phosphorus values relative to the 1989 peak 82 Recently scientists have noted signs of ecological recovery in part due to the construction of new sewage treatment plants in Slovakia Hungary Romania and Bulgaria in connection with membership in the European Union Mnemiopsis leidyi populations have been checked with the arrival of another alien species which feeds on them 83 nbsp Jellyfish nbsp Actinia nbsp Actinia nbsp Goby nbsp Stingray nbsp Goat fish nbsp Hermit crab Diogenes pugilator nbsp Blue sponge nbsp Spiny dogfish nbsp Seahorse nbsp Black Sea common dolphins with a kite surfer off SochiHistory editMediterranean connection during the Holocene edit nbsp The Bosporus taken from the International Space Station nbsp Map of the DardanellesThe Black Sea is connected to the World Ocean by a chain of two shallow straits the Dardanelles and the Bosporus The Dardanelles is 55 m 180 ft deep and the Bosporus is as shallow as 36 m 118 ft By comparison at the height of the last ice age sea levels were more than 100 m 330 ft lower than they are now There is evidence that water levels in the Black Sea were considerably lower at some point during the post glacial period Some researchers theorize that the Black Sea had been a landlocked freshwater lake at least in upper layers during the last glaciation and for some time after In the aftermath of the last glacial period water levels in the Black Sea and the Aegean Sea rose independently until they were high enough to exchange water The exact timeline of this development is still subject to debate One possibility is that the Black Sea filled first with excess freshwater flowing over the Bosporus sill and eventually into the Mediterranean Sea There are also catastrophic scenarios such as the Black Sea deluge hypothesis put forward by William Ryan Walter Pitman and Petko Dimitrov Deluge hypothesis edit Main article Black Sea deluge hypothesis The Black Sea deluge is a hypothesized catastrophic rise in the level of the Black Sea c 5600 BC due to waters from the Mediterranean Sea breaching a sill in the Bosporus Strait The hypothesis was headlined when The New York Times published it in December 1996 shortly before it was published in an academic journal 84 While it is agreed that the sequence of events described did occur there is debate over the suddenness dating and magnitude of the events Relevant to the hypothesis is that its description has led some to connect this catastrophe with prehistoric flood myths 85 86 Archaeology edit nbsp Ivan Aivazovsky Black Sea Fleet in the Bay of Theodosia just before the Crimean WarThe Black Sea was sailed by Hittites Carians Colchians Thracians Greeks Persians Cimmerians Scythians Romans Byzantines Goths Huns Avars Slavs Varangians Crusaders Venetians Genoese Georgians Bulgarians Tatars and Ottomans The concentration of historical powers combined with the preservative qualities of the deep anoxic waters of the Black Sea has attracted increased interest from marine archaeologists who have begun to discover a large number of ancient ships and organic remains in a high state of preservation Recorded history edit nbsp A 16th century map of the Black Sea by Diogo Homem nbsp Greek colonies 8th 3rd century BCE of the Black Sea Euxine or hospitable sea The Black Sea was a busy waterway on the crossroads of the ancient world the Balkans to the west the Eurasian steppes to the north the Caucasus and Central Asia to the east Asia Minor and Mesopotamia to the south and Greece to the southwest The land at the eastern end of the Black Sea Colchis in present day Georgia marked for the ancient Greeks the edge of the known world The Pontic Caspian steppe to the north of the Black Sea is seen by several researchers as the pre historic original homeland Urheimat of the speakers of the Proto Indo European language PIE 87 88 89 90 Greek presence in the Black Sea began at least as early as the 9th century BC with colonies scattered along the Black Sea s southern coast attracting traders and colonists due to the grain grown in the Black Sea hinterland 91 need quotation to verify 92 By 500 BC permanent Greek communities existed all around the Black Sea and a lucrative trade network connected the entirety of the Black Sea to the wider Mediterranean While Greek colonies generally maintained very close cultural ties to their founding polis Greek colonies in the Black Sea began to develop their own Black Sea Greek culture known today as Pontic The coastal communities of Black Sea Greeks remained a prominent part of the Greek world for centuries 93 page needed and the realms of Mithridates of Pontus Rome and Constantinople spanned the Black Sea to include Crimean territories The Black Sea became a virtual Ottoman Navy lake within five years of the Republic of Genoa losing control of the Crimean Peninsula in 1479 after which the only Western merchant vessels to sail its waters were those of Venice s old rival Ragusa The Black Sea became a trade route of slaves between Crimea and Ottoman Anatolia via the Crimean Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe 94 nbsp The destruction of the Ottoman fleet in Battle of SinopImperial Russia became a significant Black Sea power in the late 18th century 95 occupying the littoral of Novorossiya in 1764 and of Crimea in 1783 Ottoman restrictions on Black Sea navigation were challenged by the Black Sea Fleet founded in 1783 of the Imperial Russian Navy and the Ottomans relaxed export controls after the outbreak in 1789 of the French Revolution 96 97 need quotation to verify 98 99 Modern history edit The Crimean War fought between 1853 and 1856 saw naval engagements between the French and British allies and the forces of Nicholas I of Russia On the 2 March 1855 death of Nicholas I Alexander II became Tsar On 15 January 1856 the new tsar took Russia out of the war on the very unfavourable terms of the Treaty of Paris 1856 which included the loss of a naval fleet on the Black Sea and the provision that the Black Sea was to be a demilitarized zone similar to a contemporaneous region of the Baltic Sea World Wars edit The Black Sea was a significant naval theatre of World War I 1914 1918 and saw both naval and land battles between 1941 and 1945 during World War II For example Sevastopol was obliterated by the Nazis who even brought Schwerer Gustav to the Siege of Sevastopol 1941 1942 The Soviet naval base was one of the strongest fortifications in the world Its site on a deeply eroded bare limestone promontory at the southwestern tip of the Crimea made an approach by land forces exceedingly difficult The high level cliffs overlooking Severnaya Bay protected the anchorage making an amphibious landing just as dangerous The Soviet Navy had built upon these natural defenses by modernizing the port and installing heavy coastal batteries consisting of 180mm and 305mm re purposed battleship guns which were capable of firing inland as well as out to sea The artillery emplacements were protected by reinforced concrete fortifications and 9 8 inch thick armored turrets 21st century edit During the Russian invasion of Ukraine Snake Island was a source of contention On 24 February 2022 two Russian navy warships attacked and captured Snake Island 100 It was subsequently bombarded heavily by Ukraine 101 On 30 June 2022 Ukraine announced that it had driven Russian forces off the island 102 On 14 April 2022 the flagship of the Black Sea Fleet Russian cruiser Moskva was sunk by Ukrainian missiles 103 As early as 29 April 2022 submarines of the Black Sea Fleet were used by Russia to bombard Ukrainian cities with Kalibr SLCMs 104 105 The Kalibr missile was so successful that on 10 March 2023 Defense Minister Sergey Shoigu announced plans to broaden the type of ship which carried it to include the corvette Steregushchiy and the nuclear powered cruiser Admiral Nakhimov 106 On the morning of 14 March 2023 a Russian Su 27 fighter jet intercepted and damaged an American MQ 9 Reaper drone causing the latter to crash into the Black Sea At 13 20 on 5 May 2023 a Russian Su 35 fighter jet intercepted and threatened the safety of a Polish L 140 Turbolet on a routine Frontex patrol mission and performed aggressive and dangerous manoeuvres 107 The incident which occurred in international airspace over the Black Sea about 60km east of Romanian airspace 108 caused the crew of five Polish border guards to lose control of the plane and lose altitude 109 Economy and politics editThis section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Black Sea news newspapers books scholar JSTOR February 2024 Learn how and when to remove this template message nbsp Yalta Crimea nbsp Amasra Turkey is located on a small island in the Black Sea The Black Sea plays an integral part in the connection between Asia and Europe 110 In addition to sea ports and fishing key activities include hydrocarbons exploration for oil and natural gas and tourism According to NATO the Black Sea is a strategic corridor that provides smuggling channels for moving legal and illegal goods including drugs radioactive materials and counterfeit goods that can be used to finance terrorism 111 Navigation edit According to an International Transport Workers Federation 2013 study there were at least 30 operating merchant seaports in the Black Sea including at least 12 in Ukraine 112 There were also around 2 400 commercial vessels operating in the Black Sea 112 Fishing edit See also Fishing in Turkey The Turkish commercial fishing fleet catches around 300 000 tons of anchovies per year The fishery is carried out mainly in winter and the highest portion of the stock is caught between November and December 113 Hydrocarbon exploration edit See also Blue Stream South Stream and TurkStream In the 1980s the Soviet Union started offshore drilling for petroleum in the sea s western portion adjoining Ukraine s coast Independent Ukraine continued and intensified that effort within its exclusive economic zone inviting major international oil companies for exploration Discovery of the new massive oilfields in the area stimulated an influx of foreign investments It also provoked a short term peaceful territorial dispute with Romania which was resolved in 2011 by an international court redefining the exclusive economic zones between the two countries The Black Sea contains oil and natural gas resources but exploration in the sea is incomplete As of 2017 update 20 wells are in place Throughout much of its existence the Black Sea has had significant oil and gas forming potential because of significant inflows of sediment and nutrient rich waters However this varies geographically For example prospects are poorer off the coast of Bulgaria because of the large influx of sediment from the Danube which obscured sunlight and diluted organic rich sediments Many of the discoveries to date have taken place offshore of Romania in the Western Black Sea and only a few discoveries have been made in the Eastern Black Sea During the Eocene the Paratethys Sea was partially isolated and sea levels fell During this time sand shed off the rising Balkanide Pontide and Caucasus mountains trapped organic material in the Maykop Suite of rocks through the Oligocene and early Miocene Natural gas appears in rocks deposited in the Miocene and Pliocene by the paleo Dnieper and paleo Dniester rivers or in deep water Oligocene age rocks Serious exploration began in 1999 with two deep water wells Limankoy 1 and Limankoy 2 drilled in Turkish waters Next the HPX Hopa 1 deepwater well targeted late Miocene sandstone units in Achara Trialet fold belt also known as the Gurian fold belt along the Georgia Turkey maritime border Although geologists inferred that these rocks might have hydrocarbons that migrated from the Maykop Suite the well was unsuccessful No more drilling happened for five years after the HPX 1 well In 2010 Sinop 1 targeted carbonate reservoirs potentially charged from the nearby Maykop Suite on the Andrusov Ridge but the well struck only Cretaceous volcanic rocks Yassihoyuk 1 encountered similar problems Other Turkish wells Surmene 1 and Sile 1 drilled in the Eastern Black Sea in 2011 and 2015 respectively tested four way closures above Cretaceous volcanoes with no results in either case A different Turkish well Kastamonu 1 drilled in 2011 did successfully find thermogenic gas in Pliocene and Miocene shale cored anticlines in the Western Black Sea A year later in 2012 Romania drilled Domino 1 which struck gas prompting the drilling of other wells in the Neptun Deep In 2016 the Bulgarian well Polshkov 1 targeted Maykop Suite sandstones in the Polshkov High and Russia is in the process of drilling Jurassic carbonates on the Shatsky Ridge as of 2018 114 In August 2020 Turkey found 320 billion cubic metres 11 trillion cubic feet of natural gas in the biggest ever discovery in the Black Sea and hoped to begin production in the Sakarya Gas Field by 2023 The sector is near where Romania has also found gas reserves 115 Trans sea cooperation edit Main articles Black Sea Euroregion Superior Prut and Lower Danube Black Sea Games and Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation Urban areas edit Most populous urban areas along the Black Sea City Image Country Region county Population urban Odesa nbsp nbsp Ukraine Odesa 1 003 705Samsun nbsp nbsp Turkey Samsun 639 930 116 Varna nbsp nbsp Bulgaria Varna 500 076Constanța nbsp nbsp Romania Constanța 491 498 117 Sevastopol nbsp disputed nbsp Russia de facto nbsp Ukraine de jure Federal city City with special status 379 200Sochi nbsp nbsp Russia Krasnodar Krai 343 334Trabzon nbsp nbsp Turkey Trabzon 293 661 116 Novorossiysk nbsp nbsp Russia Krasnodar Krai 241 952Burgas nbsp nbsp Bulgaria Burgas 223 902Batumi nbsp nbsp Georgia Adjara 204 156 118 Ordu nbsp nbsp Turkey Ordu 190 425 116 Tourism edit See also Romanian Black Sea resorts Caucasian Riviera Bulgarian Black Sea Coast and Black Sea Region Turkey nbsp Black Sea beach in Zatoka UkraineIn the years following the end of the Cold War the popularity of the Black Sea as a tourist destination steadily increased Tourism at Black Sea resorts became one of the region s growth industries 119 The following is a list of notable Black Sea resort towns 2 Mai Romania Agigea Romania Ahtopol Bulgaria Amasra Turkey Anaklia Georgia Anapa Russia Albena Bulgaria Alupka Crimea Ukraine Russia disputed Alushta Crimea Ukraine Russia disputed Balchik Bulgaria Batumi Georgia 120 Burgas Bulgaria Byala Bulgaria Cap Aurora Romania Chakvi Georgia Constanța Romania Constantine and Helena Bulgaria Corbu Romania Costinești Romania Eforie Romania Emona Bulgaria Feodosia Crimea Ukraine Russia disputed Foros Crimea Ukraine Russia disputed Gagra Abkhazia Georgia a Gelendzhik Russia Giresun Turkey Golden Sands Bulgaria Gonio Georgia Gudauta Abkhazia Georgia a and subsequently the Gudauta Bay Gurzuf Crimea Ukraine Russia disputed Hopa Artvin Turkey Jupiter Romania Kamchia Bulgaria Kavarna Bulgaria Kiten Bulgaria Kobuleti Georgia Koktebel Crimea Ukraine Russia disputed Lozenetz Bulgaria Mamaia Romania Mangalia Romania Năvodari Romania Neptun Romania Nesebar Bulgaria Novorossiysk Russia Obzor Bulgaria Odesa Ukraine Olimp Romania Ordu Turkey Pitsunda Abkhazia Georgia a Pomorie Bulgaria Primorsko Bulgaria Rize Turkey Rusalka Bulgaria Samsun Turkey Saturn Romania Sile Turkey Sinop Turkey Skadovsk Ukraine Sochi Russia Sozopol Bulgaria Sudak Crimea Ukraine Russia disputed Sulina Romania Sunny Beach Bulgaria Sveti Vlas Bulgaria Trabzon Turkey Tsikhisdziri Georgia Tuapse Russia Ureki Georgia Vama Veche Romania Varna Bulgaria Venus Romania Yalta Crimea Ukraine Russia disputed Yevpatoria Crimea Ukraine Russia disputed Zonguldak Turkey Modern military use edit nbsp Soviet frigate Bezzavetny right bumping the USS Yorktown during the 1988 Black Sea bumping incident nbsp Ukrainian Navy artillery boat U170 in the Bay of SevastopolThe 1936 Montreux Convention provides for free passage of civilian ships between the international waters of the Black and the Mediterranean seas However a single country Turkey has complete control over the straits connecting the two seas Military ships are categorised separately from civilian vessels and can pass through the straits only if the ship belongs to a Black Sea country Other military ships have the right to pass through the straits if they are not in a war against Turkey and if they stay in the Black Sea basin for a limited time The 1982 amendments to the Montreux Convention allow Turkey to close the straits at its discretion in both war and peacetime 121 The Montreux Convention governs the passage of vessels between the Black the Mediterranean and Aegean seas and the presence of military vessels belonging to non littoral states in the Black Sea waters 122 The Russian Black Sea Fleet has its official primary headquarters and facilities in the city of Sevastopol Sevastopol Naval Base 123 The Soviet hospital ship Armenia was sunk on 7 November 1941 by German aircraft while evacuating civilians and wounded soldiers from Crimea It has been estimated that approximately 5 000 to 7 000 people were killed during the sinking making it one of the deadliest maritime disasters in history There were only eight survivors 124 In December 2018 the Kerch Strait incident occurred in which the Russian navy and coast guard took control of three Ukrainian vessels as the ships were trying to transit from the Black Sea into the Sea of Azov 125 In April 2022 during the Russian invasion of Ukraine the Russian cruiser Moskva was sunk in the western Black Sea by sea skimming Neptune missiles of the Ukrainian armed forces 126 while the Russians claimed that an onboard fire had caused munitions to explode and damage the ship extensively 127 She was the largest ship to be lost in naval combat in Europe since World War II 128 In late 2023 Russia announced plans to build a naval base on the Black Sea coast of Abkhazia a Russian backed breakaway territory of Georgia 129 130 131 See also edit nbsp Water portal1927 Crimean earthquakes Kerch Strait Regions of Europe Sea of AzovNotes and references editInformational notes edit a b c Abkhazia is a partially recognized nation de facto independent since 1993 though still claimed by Georgia as one of its provinces Citations edit a b c d Black Sea NGO Network Our Black Sea www bsnn org Black Sea Geography Oceanography Ecology History Archived from the original on 22 February 2018 Retrieved 18 February 2018 Living Black Sea Surface area Black Sea Geography University of Delaware College of Marine Studies 2003 Retrieved 3 April 2014 Maximum depth Europa Gateway of the European Union website Environment and Enlargement The Black Sea Facts and Figures Archived from the original on 14 November 2008 Murray J W Jannasch H W Honjo S Anderson R F Reeburgh W S Top Z Friederich G E Codispoti L A Izdar E 30 March 1989 Unexpected changes in the oxic anoxic interface in the Black Sea Nature 338 6214 411 413 Bibcode 1989Natur 338 411M doi 10 1038 338411a0 S2CID 4306135 World and Its Peoples Marshall Cavendish 21 July 2010 p 1444 ISBN 978 0 7614 7902 4 via Internet Archive Black Sea 1175 km east west Miladinova S Stips A Garcia Gorriz E Macias Moy D July 2017 Black Sea thermohaline properties Long term trends and variations Journal of Geophysical Research Oceans 122 7 5624 5644 Bibcode 2017JGRC 122 5624M doi 10 1002 2016JC012644 ISSN 2169 9275 PMC 5606501 PMID 28989833 Ozhan Ozturk 2005 Karadeniz Ansiklopedik Sozluk Istanbul Heyamola Yayinlari pp 617 620 Archived from the original on 15 October 2012 a b c d e f g Schmitt 1989 pp 310 313 The Journal of Indo European Studies p 79 United States n p 1985 Google Books Burney Charles Historical Dictionary of the Hittites p 333 United States Rowman amp Littlefield Publishers 2018 Google Books Accessed 26 February 2024 Jones Horace Leonard ed 1917 Strabo Geography Volume I Books 1 2 Cambridge MA Harvard University Press Retrieved 26 November 2021 Jones Horace Leonard ed 1924 Strabo Geography Volume III Books 6 7 Cambridge MA Harvard University Press Retrieved 26 November 2021 Peterson Joseph H Greater Bundahishn www avesta org Retrieved 1 July 2017 42 Discourse on the Country of Rum its Provinces and Towns Archived February 25 2021 at the Wayback Machine Hudud al Alam Part II Archived June 28 2020 at the Wayback Machine Georgian Chronicles Line of ed 14 Central Asia and Dravidan Connection Revealed Part 6 Retrieved 15 June 2020 Gibbon Edward 1993 1910 The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Everyman s Library ISBN 0 679 42308 7 Limits of Oceans and Seas 3rd edition PDF International Hydrographic Organization 1953 Archived from the original PDF on 8 October 2011 Retrieved 28 December 2020 Agriculture in the Black Sea Region Bs agro com Archived from the original on 31 October 2013 Retrieved 14 January 2014 Prothero G W 1920 Anatolia London H M Stationery Office Sea Around Us Fisheries Ecosystems and Biodiversity University of British Columbia Marine Litter Report www blacksea commission org Aydin Mustafa 2005 Europe s new region The Black Sea in the wider Europe neighbourhood Southeast European and Black Sea Studies 5 2 257 283 doi 10 1080 14683850500122943 S2CID 154395443 Black Sea Archived from the original on 7 September 2020 Retrieved 7 September 2020 UN Atlas of the Oceans Subtopic www oceansatlas org The Black Sea Basin Hurrell J W 1995 Decadal Trends in the North Atlantic Oscillation Regional Temperatures and Precipitation Science 269 5224 676 679 Bibcode 1995Sci 269 676H doi 10 1126 science 269 5224 676 PMID 17758812 S2CID 23769140 Lamy F Arz H W Bond G C Barh A Patzold J 2006 Multicentennial scale hydrological changes in the Black Sea and northern Red Sea during the Holocene and the Arctic North Atlantic Oscillation Paleoceanography 21 1 n a Bibcode 2006PalOc 21 1008L doi 10 1029 2005PA001184 Turkes Murat 1996 Spatial and temporal analysis of annual rainfall variations in Turkey International Journal of Climatology 16 9 1057 1076 Bibcode 1996IJCli 16 1057T doi 10 1002 SICI 1097 0088 199609 16 9 lt 1057 AID JOC75 gt 3 3 CO 2 4 Cullen H M A Kaplan et al 2002 Impact of the North Atlantic Oscillation on Middle Eastern climate and streamflow PDF Climatic Change 55 3 315 338 doi 10 1023 A 1020518305517 S2CID 13472363 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Ozsoy E amp U Unluata 1997 Oceanography of the Black Sea A review of some recent results Earth Science Reviews 42 4 231 272 Bibcode 1997ESRv 42 231O doi 10 1016 S0012 8252 97 81859 4 Brody L R Nestor M J R 1980 Regional Forecasting Aids for the Mediterranean Basin Archived November 26 2011 at the Wayback Machine Handbook for Forecasters in the Mediterranean Naval Research Laboratory Part 2 Simmons M D Tari G C Okay A I eds 2018 Petroleum Geology of the Black Sea The Geological Society of London p 2 ISBN 978 1 78620 358 8 McKenzie DP 1970 Plate tectonics of the Mediterranean region Nature 226 5242 239 43 Bibcode 1970Natur 226 239M doi 10 1038 226239a0 PMID 16057188 S2CID 2991363 McClusky S S Balassanian et al 2000 Global Positioning System constraints on plate kinematics and dynamics in the eastern Mediterranean and Caucasus PDF Journal of Geophysical Research Solid Earth 105 B3 5695 5719 Bibcode 2000JGR 105 5695M doi 10 1029 1999JB900351 Archived PDF from the original on 8 March 2012 a b Shillington Donna J White Nicky Minshull Timothy A Edwards Glyn R H Jones Stephen M Edwards Rosemary A Scott Caroline L 2008 Cenozoic evolution of the eastern Black Sea A test of depth dependent stretching models PDF Earth and Planetary Science Letters 265 3 4 360 378 Bibcode 2008E amp PSL 265 360S doi 10 1016 j epsl 2007 10 033 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Simmons Tari amp Okay 2018 p 11 Nikishin A 2003 The Black Sea basin tectonic history and Neogene Quaternary rapid subsidence modelling Sedimentary Geology 156 1 4 149 168 Bibcode 2003SedG 156 149N doi 10 1016 S0037 0738 02 00286 5 Barale Vittorio Gade Martin 2008 Remote Sensing of the European Seas Springer p 17 ISBN 978 1 4020 6771 6 Geology and Geoarchaeology of the Black Sea Region Beyond the Flood Hypothesis Geological Society of America January 2011 ISBN 978 0 8137 2473 7 Svitoch Alexander A 2010 The Neueuxinian basin of the Black Sea and Khvalinian transgression Quaternary International 225 230 234 doi 10 1016 j quaint 2009 03 005 Meromictic Merriam Webster Retrieved 14 January 2014 Exploring Ancient Mysteries A Black Sea Journey University of Delaware Archived from the original on 16 June 2013 Retrieved 14 January 2014 a b c d Gregg M C and E Ozsoy 2002 Flow water mass changes and hydraulics in the Bosporus Journal of Geophysical Research 107 C3 3016 doi 10 1029 2000JC000485 Black Sea Commission State of Environment Report 2001 2006 7 Chap 1B Archived from the original on 29 January 2020 Retrieved 29 January 2020 a b Black Sea Commission State of Environment Report 2001 2006 7 Chap 1A Archived from the original on 29 January 2020 Retrieved 29 January 2020 a b c d e Descriptive Physical Oceanography Talley Pickard Emery Swift a b Korotaev G 2003 Seasonal interannual and mesoscale variability of the Black Sea upper layer circulation derived from altimeter data Journal of Geophysical Research 108 C4 3122 Bibcode 2003JGRC 108 3122K doi 10 1029 2002JC001508 a b Gray Richard 1 August 2010 Undersea river discovered flowing on sea bed The Daily Telegraph Archived from the original on 2 August 2010 Retrieved 2 August 2010 Black Sea Becomes Turquoise Archived October 28 2008 at the Wayback Machine earthobservatory nasa gov Retrieved December 2 2006 Schuiling Roelof Dirk Cathcart Richard B Badescu Viorel Isvoranu Dragos Pelinovsky Efim 2006 Asteroid impact in the Black Sea Death by drowning or asphyxiation Natural Hazards 40 2 327 338 doi 10 1007 s11069 006 0017 7 S2CID 129038790 Asteroid 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of investigations and species diversity Algologiya 4 99 107 a b Gomez F amp L Briceno 2004 An annotated checklist of dinoflagellates in the Black Sea PDF Hydrobiologia 517 1 43 59 doi 10 1023 B HYDR 0000027336 05452 07 S2CID 30559038 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Uysal Z 2006 Vertical distribution of marine cyanobacteria Synechococcus spp in the Black Marmara Aegean and eastern Mediterranean seas Deep Sea Research Part II 53 17 19 1976 1987 Bibcode 2006DSRII 53 1976U doi 10 1016 j dsr2 2006 03 016 Birkun A A Jr 30 June 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species Delphinus delphis ssp ponticus IUCN Red List of Threatened Species Birkun Alexei 1 July 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species Tursiops truncatus ssp ponticus IUCN Red List of Threatened Species IUCN Red List of Threatened Species Phocoena phocoena ssp relicta IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 30 June 2008 a b First stranding record of a Risso s Dolphin Grampus griseus in the Marmara Sea Turkey Archived October 20 2017 at the Wayback Machine pdf Retrieved on September 6 2017 Goldman E 2017 Crimean bridge construction boosts dolphin population in Kerch Strait Archived February 28 2017 at the Wayback Machine Russia Beyond the Headlines Retrieved on March 10 2017 Reznikova E 2017 Krymskie strojki ubivayut vse zhivoe na dne morya Archived September 29 2017 at the Wayback Machine Primechaniya Novosti Sevastopolya i Kryma Retrieved on September 29 2017 Karamanlidis A Dendrinos P 2015 Monachus monachus IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015 e T13653A45227543 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2015 4 RLTS T13653A45227543 en Grinevetsky Sergei R Zonn Igor S Zhiltsov Sergei S Kosarev Aleksey N Kostianoy Andrey G 30 September 2014 The Black Sea Encyclopedia Springer ISBN 978 3 642 55227 4 Emek Inanmaz Ozgur Degirmenci Ozgur Gucu Ali Cemal 2014 A new sighting of the Mediterranean Monk Seal Monachus monachus Hermann 1779 in the Marmara Sea Turkey Zoology in the Middle East 60 3 278 280 doi 10 1080 09397140 2014 944438 S2CID 83515152 a b Frantzis A Alexiadou P Paximadis G Politi E Gannier A Corsini Foka M 2023 Current knowledge of the cetacean fauna of the Greek Seas PDF Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 5 3 219 232 doi 10 47536 jcrm v5i3 801 S2CID 56221055 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Retrieved 21 April 2016 Anderson R 1992 Black Sea Whale Aided By Activists Archived May 6 2016 at the Wayback Machine Chicago Tribune Retrieved on April 21 2016 Gladilina E V Kovtun Oleg Kondakov Andrey Syomik A M Pronin K K Gol din Pavel 1 January 2013 Grey seal Halichoerus grypus in the Black Sea The first case of long term survival of an exotic pinniped Marine Biodiversity Records 6 doi 10 1017 S1755267213000018 via ResearchGate Kabasakal Hakan 2014 The status of the great white shark Carcharodon carcharias in Turkey s waters PDF Marine Biodiversity Records 7 doi 10 1017 S1755267214000980 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Cuma 2009 Canakkale de 10 metrelik kopekbaligi Archived September 4 2017 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on September 4 2017 Humborg Christoph Ittekkot Venugopalan Cociasu Adriana Bodungen Bodo v 1997 Effect of Danube River dam on Black Sea biogeochemistry and ecosystem structure Nature 386 6623 385 388 Bibcode 1997Natur 386 385H doi 10 1038 386385a0 S2CID 4347576 Sburlea A L Boicenco et al 2006 Aspects of Eutrophication as a Chemical Pollution with Implications on Marine Biota at the Romanian Black Sea Shore Chemicals as Intentional and Accidental Global Environmental Threats NATO Security through Science Series pp 357 360 doi 10 1007 978 1 4020 5098 5 28 ISBN 978 1 4020 5096 1 Gregoire M C Raick et al 2008 Numerical modeling of the central Black Sea ecosystem functioning during the eutrophication phase Progress in Oceanography 76 3 286 333 Bibcode 2008PrOce 76 286G doi 10 1016 j pocean 2008 01 002 Colin Woodard 11 February 2001 Ocean s end travels through endangered seas Basic Books pp 1 28 ISBN 978 0 465 01571 9 Archived from the original on 16 June 2013 Retrieved 1 August 2011 Lancelot C 2002 Modelling the Danube influenced North western Continental Shelf of the Black Sea II Ecosystem Response to Changes in Nutrient Delivery by the Danube River after its Damming in 1972 PDF Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 54 3 473 499 Bibcode 2002ECSS 54 473L doi 10 1006 ecss 2000 0659 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Woodard Colin Archived May 12 2013 at the Wayback Machine The Black Sea s Cautionary Tale Archived February 7 2009 at the Wayback Machine Congressional Quarterly Global Researcher October 2007 pp 244 245 Wilford John Noble 17 December 1996 Geologists Link Black Sea Deluge to Farming s Rise The New York Times Retrieved 17 June 2013 William Ryan amp Walter Pitman 1998 Noah s Flood The New Scientific Discoveries About the Event That Changed History New York Simon amp Schuster Paperbacks ISBN 0 684 85920 3 Dimitrov P D Dimitrov 2004 The Black Sea The Flood and the ancient myths Archived May 15 2021 at the Wayback Machine Slavena Varna ISBN 954 579 335 X 91 p DOI 10 13140 RG 2 2 18954 16327 David W Anthony 2010 The Horse the Wheel and Language How Bronze Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 14818 2 I believe with many others that the proto Indo European homeland was located in the steppes north of the Black and Caspian Seas in what is today southern Ukraine and Russia Haak Wolfgang Lazaridis Iosif Patterson Nick Rohland Nadin Mallick Swapan Llamas Bastien Brandt Guido Nordenfelt Susanne Harney Eadaoin Stewardson Kristin Fu Qiaomei Mittnik Alissa Banffy Eszter Economou Christos Francken Michael Friederich Susanne Pena Rafael Garrido Hallgren Fredrik Khartanovich Valery Khokhlov Aleksandr Kunst Michael Kuznetsov Pavel Meller Harald Mochalov Oleg Moiseyev Vayacheslav Nicklisch Nicole Pichler Sandra L Risch Roberto Guerra Manuel A Rojo Roth Christina Szecsenyi Nagy Anna Wahl Joachim Meyer Matthias Krause Johannes Brown Dorcas Anthony David Cooper Alan Alt Kurt Werner Reich David 10 February 2015 Massive migration from the steppe is a source for Indo European languages in Europe bioRxiv 522 7555 207 211 arXiv 1502 02783 Bibcode 2015Natur 522 207H bioRxiv 10 1101 013433 doi 10 1038 NATURE14317 PMC 5048219 PMID 25731166 Retrieved 5 April 2023 This steppe ancestry persisted in all sampled central Europeans until at least 3 000 years ago and is ubiquitous in present day Europeans These results provide support for the theory of a steppe origin of at least some of the Indo European languages of Europe Allentoft Morten E Sikora Martin Sjogren Karl Goran Rasmussen Simon Rasmussen Morten Stenderup Jesper Damgaard Peter B Schroeder Hannes Ahlstrom Torbjorn Vinner Lasse Malaspinas Anna Sapfo Margaryan Ashot Higham Tom Chivall David Lynnerup Niels Harvig Lise Baron Justyna Della Casa Philippe Dabrowski Pawel Duffy Paul R Ebel Alexander V Epimakhov Andrey Frei Karin Furmanek Miroslaw Gralak Tomasz Gromov Andrey Gronkiewicz Stanislaw Grupe Gisela Hajdu Tamas Jarysz Radoslaw 2015 Population genomics of Bronze Age Eurasia Nature 522 7555 167 172 Bibcode 2015Natur 522 167A doi 10 1038 nature14507 PMID 26062507 S2CID 4399103 Our genomic evidence for the spread of Yamnaya people from the Pontic Caspian steppe to both northern Europe and Central Asia during the Early Bronze Age corresponds well with the hypothesized expansion of the Indo European languages Mathieson Iain Lazaridis Iosif Rohland Nadin Mallick Swapan Llamas Bastien Pickrell Joseph Meller Harald Guerra Manuel A Rojo Krause Johannes Anthony David Brown Dorcas Fox Carles Lalueza Cooper Alan Alt Kurt W Haak Wolfgang Patterson Nick Reich David 14 March 2015 Eight thousand years of natural selection in Europe bioRxiv 016477 doi 10 1101 016477 Retrieved 5 April 2023 via biorxiv org Most present day Europeans can be modeled as a mixture of three ancient populations related to Mesolithic hunter gatherers WHG early farmers EEF and steppe pastoralists Yamnaya Asimov Isaac 1970 Constantinople The Forgotten Empire Houghton Mifflin p 3 Braun Thomas 6 December 2012 1991 Ancient Mediterranean Food In Spiller Gene A ed The Mediterranean Diets in Health and Disease reprint ed New York Springer published 2012 p 29 ISBN 978 1 4684 6497 9 Retrieved 2 April 2022 The wheat trade was the reason for Greek colonization of Olbia and other Black Sea ports from c 615 B C on The Ukraine was the chief source of wheat imports to classical Athens the sea route from the Crimea through the Bosporus and Dardanelles to the Aegean was Athens lifeline King Charles 18 March 2004 Pontus Euxinus 700BC AD500 The Black Sea Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 0199241619 001 0001 ISBN 978 0 19 924161 3 Paul Robert Magocsi 2010 A History of Ukraine The Land and Its Peoples Second Edition University of Toronto Press pp 184 185 ISBN 978 1442698796 Birsay Cem 2007 The Integration of Regional Efforts for Strengthening Stability Initiatives in the Wider Black Sea Area and Turkey s Position In Volten Peter M E Tashev Blagovest eds Establishing Security and Stability in the Wider Black Sea Area International Politics and the New and Emerging Democracies Volume 26 of NATO science for peace and security series Human and societal dynamics ISSN 1874 6276 Amsterdam IOS Press p 91 ISBN 978 1 58603 765 9 Retrieved 12 April 2023 from the 18th century onwards Russian ambitions fueled Turkish Russian power conflict over the control of the Turkish Straits and the Black Sea McGowan Bruce William 1981 Chiftlik agriculture western Macedonia 1620 1830 The economic role of the district Economic Life in Ottoman Europe Taxation Trade and the Struggle for Land 1600 1800 Studies in Modern Capitalism ISSN 0144 2333 Cambridge Cambridge University Press p 134 ISBN 978 0 521 24208 0 Retrieved 5 April 2023 A virtual cotton boom began with the onset of the American Revolutionary War in 1776 followed by a wheat boom beginning with the relaxation of Ottoman export controls following the French Revolution in 1789 Nicolle David 23 March 1989 The Venetian Empire 1200 1670 Bloomsbury USA ISBN 978 0 85045 899 2 Retrieved 12 April 2023 Bruce McGowan 4 March 2010 Economic Life in Ottoman Europe Taxation Trade and the Struggle for Land 1600 1800 Studies in Modern Capitalism Cambridge University Press p 134 ISBN 978 0 521 13536 8 Compare Bruce William McGowan 1981 Economic Life in Ottoman Europe Taxation Trade and the Struggle for Land 1600 1800 Studies in Modern Capitalism ISSN 0144 2333 Cambridge Cambridge University Press p 23 ISBN 978 0 521 24208 0 Retrieved 2 April 2022 a new group of sea going merchants Greek and Albanian subjects of the Porte flew the Russian flag after 1783 making up the bulk of the first foreign flag commercial flotilla on the Black Sea since the departure of the Italians in the fifteenth century taking up the slack after the collapse of French trade after 1789 Lamothe Dan 26 February 2022 Ukrainian border guards may have survived reported last stand on Snake Island The Washington Post Archived from the original on 27 February 2022 Retrieved 27 February 2022 Ukraine war Snake Island and battle for control in Black Sea BBC News 11 May 2022 Retrieved 27 May 2022 Koshiw Isobel 30 June 2022 Ukraine says it has pushed Russian forces from Snake Island The Guardian Russia says flagship missile cruiser has sunk after explosion off coast of Ukraine The Washington Post 14 April 2022 Russian submarine strikes Ukraine with cruise missiles defence ministry says Reuters 29 April 2022 Russia says it fires cruise missiles from submarine warns again on NATO arms shipments Reuters 4 May 2022 Starchak Maxim 10 March 2023 Russian Navy to upgrade vessels with Kalibr cruise missiles Defense News Mihai Catalina 8 May 2023 Russian fighter plane intercepts Polish aircraft over Black Sea Romania confirms EURACTIV Russian Jet Intercepts Polish Plane Over Black Sea Romania The Defense Post AFP 7 May 2023 Poland Border Guard says patrol intercepted by Russian jet Deutsche Welle AFP dpa 7 May 2023 Witzenrath Christoph ed 9 March 2016 Eurasian Slavery Ransom and Abolition in World History 1200 1860 Routledge doi 10 4324 9781315580777 ISBN 978 1 317 14002 3 Houston Fiona Duncan Wood W Robinson Derek M 2010 Black Sea Security NATO Advanced Research Workshop NATO ISBN 978 1 60750 636 2 Retrieved 31 December 2010 a b Chernoe more priznano odnim iz samyh neblagopriyatnyh mest dlya moryakov International Transport Workers Federation BlackSeaNews 27 May 2013 Retrieved 20 September 2013 Turkish Black Sea Acoustic Surveys Winter distribution of anchovy along the Turkish coast Serdar Sakinan Middle East Technical University Institute of Marine Sciences Archived August 7 2019 at the Wayback Machine Simmons Tari amp Okay 2018 p 10 12 Selcan Hacaoglu Vanessa Dezem Cagan Koc 21 August 2020 Erdogan Unveils Biggest Ever Black Sea Natural Gas Discovery Bloomberg News Retrieved 22 August 2020 a b c Turkey Provinces and Major Cities City Population 13 February 2023 Retrieved 23 January 2024 Cat a crescut populația in principalele zone metropolitane ale țării in ultimele două decenii www analizeeconomice ro Batumi City Hall website Archived from the original on 21 August 2015 Retrieved 10 August 2017 Bulgarian Sea Resorts Archived from the original on 27 April 2020 Retrieved 2 February 2007 Postcard from the Silk Road Batumi 1 Archived June 4 2020 at the Wayback Machine Montreaux and the Bosporus Problem in Turkish Archived from the original on 12 December 2013 Montreaux Convention and Turkey pdf PDF Archived from the original PDF on 19 March 2013 HMS Defender What will be the fallout from Black Sea incident BBC News 23 June 2021 MV Armenia Armeniya 1941 Wrecksite eu 27 October 2014 Ukraine s ports partially unblocked by Russia says Kiev The Guardian Associated Press 4 December 2018 Prized Russian Ship Was Hit by Missiles U S Officials Say The New York Times New York Times 15 April 2022 Ukraine claims it hit a Russian warship with a missile strike Russia says otherwise CNN 14 April 2022 Russian warship Moskva sinks in Black Sea BBC News 15 April 2022 Retrieved 15 June 2022 Russia plans naval base in Abkhazia triggering criticism from Georgia October 5 2023 Reuters retrieved January 12 2024 Russia to build naval base in breakaway Georgia region October 5 2023 Politico Politico eu retrieved January 12 2024 Russia s new Black Sea naval base alarms Georgia December 12 2023 BBC News retrieved January 12 2024 General and cited references edit Ghervas Stella 2017 The Black Sea In Armitage D Bashford S eds Oceanic Histories Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 234 266 doi 10 1017 9781108399722 010 ISBN 978 1 1083 9972 2 Stella Ghervas Odessa et les confins de l Europe un eclairage historique in Stella Ghervas et Francois Rosset ed Lieux d Europe Mythes et limites Paris Editions de la Maison des sciences de l homme 2008 pp 107 124 ISBN 978 2 7351 1182 4 Charles King The Black Sea A History 2004 ISBN 0 19 924161 9 William Ryan and Walter Pitman Noah s Flood 1999 ISBN 0 684 85920 3 Neal Ascherson Black Sea Vintage 1996 ISBN 0 09 959371 8 Schmitt Rudiger 1989 BLACK SEA In Yarshater Ehsan ed Encyclopaedia Iranica Volume IV 3 Bibliographies II Bolbol I London and New York Routledge amp Kegan Paul pp 310 313 ISBN 978 0 71009 126 0 Rudiger Schmitt Considerations on the Name of the Black Sea in Hellas und der griechische Osten Saarbrucken 1996 pp 219 224 West Stephanie 2003 The Most Marvellous of All Seas the Greek Encounter with the Euxine Vol 50 Greece amp Rome pp 151 167 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Petko Dimitrov Dimitar Dimitrov 2004 The Black Sea the Flood and the Ancient Myths Varna p 91 ISBN 978 954 579 335 6 Dimitrov D 2010 Geology and Non traditional resources of the Black Sea Archived February 9 2022 at the Wayback Machine LAP Lambert Academic Publishing ISBN 978 3 8383 8639 3 244p External links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Black Sea nbsp Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Black Sea Space Monitoring of the Black Sea Coastline and Waters Pictures of the Black sea coast all along the Crimean peninsula Black Sea Environmental Internet Node Black Sea Mediterranean Corridor during the last 30 ky UNESCO IGCP 521 WG12 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Black Sea amp oldid 1217187920, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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